PC2130 Quantum Mechanics I

Lecture Notes (Semester 1, 2011/2012)

Wenhui Li
Department of Physics
National University of Singapore
3 Description of Quantum Systems
To study a physical system of your interest:

1. Perform measurements on the system;

2. Describe the state of the system;

3. Figure out the evolution (or transformation) of the system;

4. Predict the state of the system in the future (or under certain action), verify it by
measurements.

For a classical system, measurements do not disturb the system (the system is unaf-
fected), the outcomes of measurements, or the measured values, can be used to describe the
state of the system,
|x(t = 0), v(t = 0)i |x(t), v(t)i . (3.0.1)
For a quantum system, measurements destroy the system (most of the time), measured values
can not directly define the system being measured. Then how do we find out the state and
the evolution of a system by doing measurements?

3.1 States and Measurements: Hilbert space H and Borns rule

3.1.1 A quantum system is described in a Hilbert space H

1. Which particular Hilbert space to be used usually depends on what is under study.

measurements physical observables Hermitian operators

Hermitian operators:

(a) Their eigenvalues are real.

(b) Their eigenvectors form an orthonormal basis. Hilbert space

The physical system is described by a state vector in such a space. Suppose an operator
A has eigenvectors (eigenstates) {|1 i , |2 i , ..., |n i} and all the eigenvectors form an
orthonormal basis of an n-dimensional Hilbert space H , where A |i i = ai |i i. So, in
this orthonormal basis, we have

a1 0 . . . 0
0 a2 .

0 . .
A= .
. (3.1.1)
. .

. . .
0 . . . an

2
 For convenience, we can label an eigenstate (eigenvector) by its eigenvalue, i.e., |i i
|ai i. Recall identity operator I, in this n-dimensional orthonormal basis as

1 0 . . . 0
0 1 .

X 0 . .
I= | ai ihai |=
.
. (3.1.2)
. .
i
. . .
0 . . . 1
P
Hence we reach A = i ai | ai ihai | .

Example: Stern-Gerlach experiment (measure spin states)

If the apparatus is along z axis, use SZ as the operator for this observable. There are
two possible outputs.

(a) eigenstates for atoms moving up, |+Zi, SZ |+Zi = S+ |+Zi

(b) eigenstates for atoms moving down, |Zi, SZ |Zi = S |Zi

Hence, we have our SZ operator as

 
S+ 0
SZ = (3.1.3)
0 S

Thus, we are working in 2-dimensional H space.

2. An arbitrary vector in this Hilbert space corresponds to a possible state of the physical
system.

(a) Generally, only normalized vectors are used to describe the quantum system, i.e.,
|V | = 1.

|V i = C |V i for any complex number C

Thus, all states correspond to a unit sphere in a Hilbert space.

(b) Superposition principle: if |Xi and |W i are possible states in a Hilbert space
H , so is the state a |Xi + b |W i.
Note that |X| = 1 and |W | = 1, and |V i need to normalized so that |V | = 1 (if
hX|W i = 0, the normalization condition for |V i is |a|2 + |b|2 = 1.)
In most of cases, a possible state |V i is written as a superposition of a set of basis
vectors: n
X
|V i = i |ai i (3.1.4)
i=1

with normalization condition:

n
X n
X
2
|i | = i i = 1 . (3.1.5)
i=1 i=1

3
 (c) Digression: global phase vs. relative phase

|V i = ei |V i (3.1.6)
i
|W i + |V i =
6 |W i + e |V i (3.1.7)
i
|W i + |V i = e (|W i + |V i) (3.1.8)

3.1.2 Borns rule

Borns rule: If the state of the system is |i, the probability of finding the system in
state |i is
P (|) = | h|i |2 , (0 < P < 1). (3.1.9)

Borns rule is one of the key principles of quantum mechanics, and is particularly relev-
ant to physical interpretation of measurements in quantum mechanics.

1. Measurements of a system

If a system is in a state |i, a measurement of physical observable A (being Hermitian,

A = A) will yield one of the eigenvalues, ai , with the probability P (ai ) = | hai |i |2 ,
and the state of the system will change from |i to the corresponding eigenstate |ai i
as a result of the measurement.

Recall X
A= ai | ai ihai | . (3.1.10)
i

Suppose the state of the system before measurement is |i, the state after measurement
is NO LONGER |i, NOR
X
| 0 i = A |i = ai | ai ihai | i, (3.1.11)
i

but one of the eigenstates. Measurement is not a smooth evolution of the system, but
quantum jump!!!

2. Expectation value (average value) of a physical observable

If we repeat the experiment M times, and we get ni times for each result ai , that is

4
 Pn
i=1 ni = M , we find that
M n
1 X X ni
a|i = a(k) = ( )ai . (3.1.12)
M k=1 i=1
M

In the limit, one finds

ni
Prob(ai |) = | hai |i |2 (3.1.13)
M M
So,
n
X
a|i = | hai |i |2 ai
i=1
n
X
= h|ai i hai |i ai
i=1
X
= h| ( ai | ai ihai |) |i
i
= h| A |i (3.1.14)

In summary, if A is a physical observable, the average value (expectation value) of A

when measuring state |i is

hAi = h| A |i (3.1.15)

a1 0 . . . 0 ha1 |i
0 a2 . ha2 |i

0 . . .
= (h|a1 i h|a2 i ... h|an i) . .
(3.1.16)

. . .
. . . .
0 . . . an han |i

It is very important not to confuse expectation values with eigenvalues. For example,
the expectation value of Sz in Stern-Gerlach experiment can be any real value between
~/2 and ~/2, but the eigenvalue of Sz can only have two values, ~/2 and ~/2.

3.2 Stern-Gerlach Experiments Revisited

Here we once again study Stern-Gerlach experiments in a much more detailed and quant-
itative way. We will see how one can, from the results of Stern-Gerlach experiments and
with the postulates of quantum mechanics discussed in the previous section, determine the
eigenstates, the operators, and arbitrary states in general.
Stern-Gerlach experiment: to measure magnetic dipole moment or equivalently spin S. ~
~
If it is a classical object, S = Sx x + Sy y + Sz z, the way how the classical measurements are

5
done is shown in the following figure. From the measured values, one can easily figure out
the amplitude and the orientation of the spin, that is, the state of the spin.

~ is represented by a state vector |i in a Hil-

Quantum-mechanically, the state of spin S
bert space. The task is to find out what this state is by a series of measurements. Once
the state is known, consequently the amplitude and the orientation of the spin this state
represents will become known.

1. Measure along z direction

No matter what the input state is, there are only two measured values, S+ and

S . And more quantitatively, S+ = S , |S+ | = |S | = S > 0. So S+ = S as

well as S = S where S = ~/2 and ~ = h/2, where h is the Planck constant
(h = 6.63 1034 Js). Moreover, after each measurement, the output state will be
either in |+Zi if measured value is +S, or in |Zi if measured value is S.

Operator SZ = S | +Zih+Z | +(S) | ZihZ |

 
1 0
=S in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis. (3.2.1)
0 1

If either |+Zi or |Zi state is input into SGZ device, the outcomes are:

Lets investigate for an arbitrary state |i through SGz, we have the following scenario,

|i = a |+Zi + b |Zi
 
a
= in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis. (3.2.2)
b

6

aa + bb = 1 a = cos ei 0
2
i
b = sin e 0 , 2
2

cos2 = | h+Z|i |2 (3.2.3)
2

sin2 = | hZ|i |2 (3.2.4)
2
can be measured by measuring probability after SGZ . However, it is not enough to
determine and , additional measurements along x and y directions are needed.

|i = cos ei |+Zi + sin ei |Zi
2 2

= ei (cos |+Zi + sin ei() |Zi) Let =
2 2

= e (cos |+Zi + sin ei |Zi)
i
2 2
cos 2

= in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis, (3.2.5)
sin 2 ei

where ei (global phase) is neglected!

2. Measure along x direction and along y direction

Operator SX = S | +Xih+X | +(S) | XihX |

 
1 0
=S in {|+Xi , |Xi} basis. (3.2.6)
0 1

Before we continue on about the measurements of state |i, we need to know a few
additional things. First of all, how does SX look like in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis?
 
h+Z| SX |+Zi h+Z| SX |Zi
SX = in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis. (3.2.7)
hZ| SX |+Zi hZ| SX |Zi

Need to know h+Z|+Xi, h+Z|Xi, hZ|+Xi and hZ|Xi. |+Xi and |Xi can be

7
written as superpositions of |+Zi and |Zi as in the general formula shown previously:

+ +
|+Xi = cos |+Zi + sin ei+ |Zi ; |Xi = cos |+Zi + sin ei |Zi .
2 2 2 2
(3.2.8)

From measurements shown in the figure, we know that + = = 2 , so

1 1
|+Xi = (|+Zi + ei+ |Zi), |Xi = (|+Zi + ei |Zi). (3.2.9)
2 2
And moreover, since |+Xi and |Xi are two eigenstates of operator SX ,
1
hX|+Xi = 0 = (h+Z| + ei hZ|)(|+Zi + ei+ |Zi)
2
1
= (h+Z|+Zi + ei hZ|+Zi +ei+ h+Z|Zi +ei(+ ) hZ|Zi).
2 | {z } | {z }
0 0
(3.2.10)

We have ei(+ ) = 1 + = .

We also need to know about operator SY and its eigenstates. Similar to the case of
SX ,

Operator SY = S | +Y ih+Y | +(S) | Y ihY |

 
1 0
=S in {|+Y i , |Y i} basis. (3.2.11)
0 1

In {|+Zi , |Zi} basis, operator SY is

 
h+Z| SY |+Zi h+Z| SY |Zi
SY = , (3.2.12)
hZ| SY |+Zi hZ| SY |Zi

where
1 1
|+Y i = (|+Zi + ei+ |Zi), |Y i = (|+Zi + ei |Zi). (3.2.13)
2 2

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Here, + = . To further fix + , , + and . We need to know | h+Y |+Xi |2 .

1
| h+Y |+Xi |2 =
2
1
= (1 + ei(+ + ) )(1 + ei(+ + ) )
4
1
= (1 + cos(+ + )), (3.2.14)
2
noting the followings.

+ =
+ = (3.2.15)

+ + = .
2

By convention, we take + = 0 and + = 2
and we have

ei+ = 1 ei = 1 (3.2.16)
i+ i
e =i e = i (3.2.17)

To summarize, we have
 
1 1 1
|+Xi = (|+Zi + |Zi) = (3.2.18)
2 2 1
 
1 1 1
|Xi = (|+Zi |Zi) = (3.2.19)
2 2 1
 
1 1 1
|+Y i = (|+Zi + i |Zi) = (3.2.20)
2 2 i
 
1 1 1
|Y i = (|+Zi i |Zi) = . (3.2.21)
2 2 i
where the matrices are expressed in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis. Moreover, the operators SX
SY in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis are
 
0 1
SX = S , (3.2.22)
1 0
 
0 i
SY = S . (3.2.23)
i 0

Now back to our original task, how do we figure out an arbitrary state |i (Recall
from Eq(3.2.5)) by measurements? After performing a series measurements shown in
the following figure, we could get the following probabilities:

9
 1
| h+Z|i |2 = cos2 ( ) = (1 + cos ); (3.2.24)
2 2
1
| hZ|i |2 = sin2 ( ) = (1 cos ); (3.2.25)
2 2
1
| h+X|i |2 = (1 + sin cos ); (3.2.26)
2
1
| hX|i |2 = (1 sin cos ); (3.2.27)
2
1
| h+Y |i |2 = (1 + sin sin ); (3.2.28)
2
1
| hY |i |2 = (1 sin sin ); (3.2.29)
2

From these equations, one can figure out the value of and , therefore state |i. Now
cos 2

let us look at a few special cases for |i = , = {0, } and = {0, 2}.
sin 2 ei
(Note: all the matrix representations given below are in {|+Zi , |Zi} basis.)

(a) When S ~ is along +z ( = 0), that is, S~ = +S z (S

~ = +~/2z), the quantum state
~
of the spin is |+Zi; and when S is along z ( = ), that is, S ~ = S z, the
quantum state of the spin is |Zi,
   
1 0
|+Zi = , |Zi = . (3.2.30)
0 1

Note: the quantum states are in Hilbert space, which is different from real 3-
dimensional space where the spin directions are in. For example:

(+z) (z) = 1; (3.2.31)

But,
h+Z|Zi = 0. (3.2.32)

(b) When S ~ is along +x ( = /2 and = 0), that is, S

~ = +S x, the quantum state
of the spin is |+Xi; and when S~ is along x ( = /2 and = ), the quantum

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 state of the spin is |Xi, we have
 
1 1 1
|+Xi = (|+Zi + |Zi) = (3.2.33)
2 2 1
 
1 1 1
|Xi = (|+Zi |Zi) = (3.2.34)
2 2 1
(3.2.35)

Note: Again, the quantum states are in Hilbert space, which is different from real
3-dimensional space where the spin directions are in. For example:

(+z) (+x) = 0; (3.2.36)

But,
1
h+Z|+Xi = . (3.2.37)
2
(c) When S ~ is along +y ( = /2 and = /2), that is, S ~ = +S y, the quantum
~ is along y ( = /2 and = 3/2), the
state of the spin is |+Y i; and when S
quantum state of the spin is |Y i, we have
 
1 1 1
|+Y i = (|+Zi + i |Zi) = (3.2.38)
2 2 i
 
1 1 1
|Y i = (|+Zi i |Zi) = . (3.2.39)
2 2 i

~ is in x y plane, then = /2 and = {0, 2}. When S

(d) S ~ is along +nxy , the
quantum state is |+nxy i; and whenS ~ is along nxy , the quantum state is |nxy i,
we have

cos 4
   
i 1 1
|+nxy i = cos |+Zi + sin e |Zi = i = i (3.2.40)
4 4 sin 4 e 2 e
sin 4
   
i(+) 1 1
|nxy i = sin |+Zi + cos e |Zi = = i(+) .
4 4 cos 4 ei(+) 2 e
(3.2.41)

(e) For the most general case, S ~ is along +n = sin cos x + sin sin y + cos z
~ = +S n), the quantum state is |+ni; and S
(S ~ is along n = sin cos x
sin sin y cos z (S~ = S n), the quantum state is |ni, where = {0, } and
= {0, 2}, we have

cos 2
 
i
|+ni = cos |+Zi + sin e |Zi = , (3.2.42)
2 2 sin 2 ei
sin 2
 
i(+)
|ni = sin |+Zi + cos e |Zi = . (3.2.43)
2 2 cos 2 ei(+)

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 Operator A ai |ai i |ai i in {|ai i} |ai i in Z basis basis-independent A A in eigenbasis
  A in Z
 basis 
 
1 1
 
1 1 0 0 1
SX S |+Xi 0 1 SX = S |+Xi h+X| + (S) |Xi hX| SX = S SX = S
 
2
  0 1 1 0
-S |Xi 0 1 1
1 2 1
   
 
1 1
 
1 1 0 0 i
SY S |+Y i 0 i SY = S |+Y i h+Y | + (S) |Y i hY | SY = S SY = S
 
2
  0 1 i 0
-S |Y i 0 1 1
1 2 i
   
 
1
 
1 1 0 1 0
SZ S |+Zi 0 0 SZ = S |+Zi h+Z| + (S) |Zi hZ| SZ = S SZ = S
    0 1 0 1
-S |Zi 0 0
1 1

Note:
1. S = ~/2.
2. Z basis is {|+Zi,|Zi} basis.
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3.3 Eigenvalue Problems

Now let us look at things from a different angle, that is, if we know the observable in the
matrix representation, how do we find out eigenvalues and eigenstates. This is to solve
eigenvalue problem.  
0 1
Solve eigenvalues of SX = S and find out eigenvectors SX |i = |i.
1 0
       
0 S a a S a
= =0
S 0 b b S b

 
 S 
det   = 2 S 2 = 0
S 

Thus, = S .

For = +S,
    
0 S a a
=S
S 0 b b

Sb = Sa a=b
|a|2 + |b|2 = 2|a|2 = 1
Sa = Sb
|a| = 12 a = 12 = b
 
1
1
|+Si = |+Xi = .
2 1
For = S,
    
0 S a a
= S
S 0 b b

Sb = Sa a = b
|a|2 + |b|2 = 2|a|2 = 1
Sa = Sb
|a| = 12 a = 12 = b
 
1
1
|Si = |Xi = .
2 1

For a Stern-Gerlach apparatus aligned along +n = sin cos x + sin sin y + cos z,
the operator of the observable is Sn = S |+ni h+n| + (S) |ni hn|. Please work out the
following exercise: (1) find out the matrix representation of Sn in Z basis; (2) verify that
Sn does have eigenvalues +S and S, by solving eigenvalue problem as shown here. (If you
are realy ambitious, work out the eigenstates this way, and compare with equations ( 3.2.42)
and ( 3.2.43)).

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3.4 Compatible and incompatible observables

commutator: [A, B] = AB BA (3.4.1)

[B, A] = [A, B] (3.4.2)

If [A, B] = 0, A and B commute. Then, A and B are called compatible observables (quant-
ities). It means that the system can be in a state that is both an eigenstate of A and an
eigenstate of B. The common eigenstate can be labelled as |ai , bj i where {ai }, {bj } are the
eigenvalues for A and B respectively.
If [A, B] 6= 0, A and B are called incompatible observables.
Example:
 
0 1 ~
SX = S S=
1 0 2
 
1 0
SZ = S
0 1
[SZ , SX ] = SZ SX SX SZ
     
2 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
=S
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
   
0 1 0 1
= S2
1 0 1 0
 
~ 0 2
= ( )2 = i~SY (3.4.3)
2 2 0

[SZ , SX ] = i~SY [Z , X ] = 2iY (3.4.4)

[SX , SY ] = i~SZ [X , Y ] = 2iZ (3.4.5)
[SY , SZ ] = i~SX [Y , Z ] = 2iX (3.4.6)
(3.4.7)

SG experiment

Another way of saying that two observables are incompatible is to phrase it as the famous
Heisenberg uncertainty relations.

14
 Variance of measured quantity: Suppose quantum system is in state |i.

A :a(1) a(2) ...a(i) ...a(M ) (3.4.8)

M
1 X
A= a(i) hAi = h| A |i (3.4.9)
M i
M
1 X
(a(i) )2 A2 = h| A2 |i


A2 = (3.4.10)
M i

Variance (uncertainty):

A)2
P
2 i (a(i)
(A) =
M
P 2 2
i (a(i) ) 2a(i) A + A
=
M
2 2
=A A
(A )2 = A2 hAi2


(3.4.11)

Note: If A = 0,
all the measurements give the same result, |i is an eigenstate of A.

The uncertainty relations read:

1
A B | h[A, B]i |, (3.4.12)
2
where h[A, B]i is the average value of [A, B] on state |i.

Example:

1.

[X, PX ] = i~ (3.4.13)
~
X PX (3.4.14)
2

2.
~
[SZ , SX ] = i~SY , SZ SX | hSY i | (3.4.15)
2

If |i = |+Y i
 
1 1
|+Y i = in Z basis.
2 i
hSZ i+Y = h+Y | SZ |+Y i
  
1 1 0 1
= (1, i)
2 0 1 i
 
1 1
= (1, i) =0 (3.4.16)
2 i

15
 hSX i = h+Y | SX |+Y i = 0 (3.4.17)

2 +Y
SZ +Y = h+Y | SZ2 |+Y i
~2 1 ~2
  
1 0 1
= (1, i) = (3.4.18)
4 2 0 1 i 4

2  ~2
SX = (3.4.19)
4

~
SZ2 = SZ2 hSZ i2


SZ =
2
~2
=
4
~
2 2
hSX i2


SX = SX SX =
2
~2
=
4
~
hSY i+Y = h+Y | SY |+Y i =
2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
SZ SX = , | hSY i | = (3.4.20)
2 2 2 2 2

3. Energy-time uncertainty
E t h, (3.4.21)
where t is not an operator. A state that only exists for a short time cannot have
definite energy.

3.5 Expectation values vs. classical measurement

16
 hSZ i+n = h+n| SZ |+ni
cos 2
     
i ~ 1 0
= cos sin e
2 2 2 0 1 sin 2 ei
~ ~
= (cos2 sin2 ) = cos (3.5.1)
2 2 2 2

hSX i+n = h+n| SX |+ni

cos 2
     
i ~ 0 1
= cos sin e
2 2 2 1 0 sin 2 ei
 
~
= cos sin ei + cos sin ei
2 2 2 2 2
i i
~ e +e
= (2 cos sin )
2 2 2 2
~
= sin cos . (3.5.2)
2

hSY i+n = h+n| SY |+ni

cos 2
     
i ~ 0 i
= cos sin e
2 2 2 i 0 sin ei
  2
~
= i cos sin ei + i cos sin ei
2 2 2 2 2
i i
~ e e
= (2 cos sin )
2 2 2 2i
~
= sin sin . (3.5.3)
2
Average value, or expectation value of quantum measurements does agree with what we
expect from classical measurements.

17