Chapter 4

4-3 Determine the instability strain in terms of n for a material loaded in tension
while subjected to a hydrostatic pressure P. Assume =K n.
Solution: Hydrostatic stress has no effect on yielding so = n.

4-4 A thin-wall tube with closed ends is pressurized internally. Assume that
= 150 0.25(M P a).
a) At what value of effective strain will instability occur with respect to pressure.
b)Find the pressure at instability if the tube had an initial diameter of 10 mm, and a 4-
1 If =K n, the onset of tensile instability occurs when n = u. Determine the
instability strain as a function of n if
a) = A (B + )n
b) =A en where e is the engineering strain.
Solution: a) At instability, = d/d; A(B+)n = nAB(B+)n-1; = n(1+B)
b) =A en, d/d = , but (d/d) = (d/de)(d/de). Since e =
ln(1+), (d/de) = 1/(1+) and d/de = (d/de).
d/de = nAen. nAen-I = Aen(1+e), e/(1+e) = n, e = n/(1-n)

4-2 Consider a balloon made of a material that shows linear elastic behavior to
fracture and has a Poissons ratio of . If the initial diameter is do, find the diameter,
d, at the highest pressure.
Solution: P = 4t/d; dP = 0 = 4[(/d)dt + (t/d)d (t/d2)dd];
d/ = -dr/r dt = (3/2)d; d/d = (3/2); Substituting d/d = E,
E = (3/2)E; = 2/3. ln(d/do) = /2 = 1/3, so d = doexp(1/3) = 1.40do
b) wall thickness of 0.5 mm.
Solution: a) P = (2t/d) = (2to/do){[exp(-)]/[exp()]}k(4/3)nn = (2to/do)k(4/3)n)
{[exp(-2)]n.
dP = 0 = (2to/do)k((4/3)n)[nexp(-2)n-1+2nexp(-2)], = n/2
b) P = (2to/do)k(4/3)n){[exp(-2)]n =
(40)(150)(4/3)0.25/2[0.25exp(-0.5)(0.25)0.125 + 2(0.125).25exp(-.25)] = 49 MPa

4-5 Figure 4.10 shows an aluminum tube fitted over a steel rod. The steel may be
considered rigid and the friction between the aluminum and the steel may be
neglected. If =1 600.25(MPa)for the tube and it is loaded as indicated, Calculate
the force, F, at instability.
1 mm F

10 cm

steel aluminum
Figure 4.10 Sketch for Problem 4-5.

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Solution: This is a plane-strain situation. = F/(dt), Substituting t = toexp(-) and d
= do, and = (3/4) , F = (3/4)n/2n/[dotoexp(-)] = [(3/4)n/2/(doto)][nexp()].
dF = 0; nexp() + nnexp() = 0; = n.
F = {(3/4)0.125/[(0.01)(0.001)]}(0.125)0.25exp(0.125) = 20.7 kN

4.6 A thin-wall tube with closed ends is subjected to an ever-increasing internal

pressure. Find the dimensions r and t in terms of the original dimensions ro and to at
maximum pressure. Assume = 50 00.20MPa..
Solution: This is a plane-strain situation, P = 2t/d; Substituting = (3/4) =
500(4/3)0.200.20, t = toexp(-) and d = doexp(),
P = 500(4/3)0.200.20(to/do)exp(-2) = [500(4/3)0.20(to/do][0.20exp(-2)]
dP = 0 = [500(4/3)0.20(to/do][0.2-0.80exp(-2) -20.20exp(-2)]; = 0.2/2 = 0.10
P = [500(4/3)0.20(to/do][(0.10)0.20exp(-0.2)] =

4.7 Consider the internal pressurization of a thin-wall sphere by an ideal gas for
which PV = constant. One may envision an instability condition for which the
decrease of pressure with volume, (-dP/dV)gas, due to gas expansion is less than the
rate of decrease in pressure that the sphere can withstand, (-dP/dV)sph. For such a
condition, catastrophic expansion would occur. If =K n, find as a function of n.
Solution: Assume a fixed amount of gas and neglect any temperature
changes. PV = constant, so d(PV) = 0 = PdV + vdP or dP = -PdV/V.
V = (4/3)r3, so dV = 4r2dr and dV/V = 3dr/r = 3dr. Now, dr =
d = -dr/2, so
d = [(2/3)(dr2 + d2 + dt2)]1/2= 2dr or dV/V = (3/2) d ,
then dP = -P(3/2) d (1)
For the sphere, where = K and P = 2rt/r and r = , t = 0,
n

dP = (2r/r)dt + (2t/r)dr - (2stt/r)(dt/t + dr/r - dr/r) (2)

Here = r = K , so d / = n d / ,
n

dr = dr/r = d , det = dt/t =-2dr = -2d (3)

Using (3) in (1)
dP = (2rt/r)[ddt + n d / -dr], but d = 2dr and d = -dt
so dP = P[-d + nd / - d /2] = P(n/ - 3/2)d (4)
Equating (1) and (4), -P(3/2)d = P(n/ - 3/2)d or
n/ = 0 so = and instability is not predicted.

4.8 For rubber stretched under biaxial tension x = y = , the stress is given by
= NkT(2 -1/4) where is the stretch ratio, Lx/Lxo = Ly/Lyo. Consider what this
equation predicts about how the pressure in a spherical rubber balloon varies during
the inflation. For to = ro , plot P vs. and determine the strain, , at which the
pressure is a maximum

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Solution: Plotting
0.6 .6

0.4 .4
P/(2to/ro)

0.2.2

0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

lambda
P = (2t/r) = (2to/ro)(1/ -1/7) dP/d = (2to/ro)(--2 +7-8)= 0, -2 =7-8 .
6 = 7, = 71/6 =1.38

4.9 For a material that has a stress-strain relationship of the form, =A B exp
(C
)
where A, B and C are constants, find the true strain at the onset of necking and
express the tensile strength, Su in terms of the constants.
Solution: d/d = ; BCexp(-C) = A-Bexp(-C); A = exp(-C)B(C+1);
exp(-C)= A/[B)C+1)]; = -ln{A/[B(C+1)]}/C
Su - = maxexp() = A-{A/[B(C+1)]}C+1 ????

4-10 A tensile bar was machined with a stepped gage section. The two diameters
were 2.0 and 1.9 cm. After some stretching the diameters were found to be 1.893 and
1.698 cm. Find n in the expression =K n, find as a function of n.
Solution:
f = (0.0297/0.0303) = 0.9802, b = 0.2, a = n
Substituting into fanexp(-a) = bnexp(-b)
0.9802nnexp(-n) = 0.2nexp(-0.2); 0.9802nnexp(-n/.2) - 0819 = 0
by trial and error, n = 0.301

4-11 In a rolled sheet, it is not uncommon to find variations of thickness of 1%

from one place to another. Consider a sheet nominally 0.8 mm thick with a 1%
variation of thickness. (Some places are 0.808 mm and others are 0.792 mm thick.)
How high would n have to be to insure that in a tensile specimen every point was
strained to at least = 0.20 before the thinner section necked?
Solution:
Let the region with the smaller diameter be designated a and the region with the
larger diameter be b. Using a force balance, fanexp(-a) = fbnexp(-b) ; a =
ln(1.9/1.698) = 0.2248,
b = 2ln(2/1.893) = 0.1100, f = (1.9/2)2 = 0.9025.
0.9025(0.2248)ln(0.799) = (0.110)ln(0.896)
(.2248/.110)n = 1.243; n = ln1.243/ln2.0455 = 0.304

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 4-12 A material undergoes linear strain hardening so that = Y + 1.35Y, is
stretched in tension.
a) At what strain will necking begin?
b) A stepped tensile specimen was made from this material with the diameter of
region A being 0.990 times the diameter of region B. What would be the strain in
region B when region a reached a strain of 0.20?
Solution: a) d/d = 1.35Y = = Y(1+1.35); = 0.35/1.35 = 0.26
b) F = AAA = BAB = Y(1 + 1.35A)AAoexp(-A) = Y(1 + 1.35x0.20)ABo exp(-0.20)
(1 + 1.35A)exp(-A) = (1 + 1.35x0.20)(1/0.99)exp(-0.20) = 1.050
Region A will not have yielded

Chapter 5

5.1 Low-carbon steel is being replaced by HSLA steels in automobiles to save

weight because the higher strengths of HSLA steels permit use of thinner gauges. In
laboratory tests at a strain rate of about 10-3 s-1, one grade of HSLA steel has a yield
strength of 420 MPa with a0 strain-rate exponent of m = 0.005 while for a low-carbon
steel, Y = 240 MPa and m = 0.015. Calculate the percent weight saving possible for
the same panel strength assuming
a. a strain rate of 10-3 s-1,
b. crash conditions with a strain rate of 10+4 s-.
Solution: Assume the thickness are chosen so both materials can sustain the same force at
yielding. Then t2Y2 = t1Y1, or t2/t1 = Y1/Y2. Since both steels have the same density,
W2/W1 = t2/t1 = Y1/Y2 = 35/60 = 0.583.
% weight reduction = (W1-W2)/W1 = 1- W2/W1 = 1 - 0.583 = 41.7%
b) Now W2/W1 = [Y2(104/10-3).03]/[Y1(104/10-3).01] = (Y1/Y2)(107).03-.01 =
1.380(Y1/Y2) = 1.380.0.583 = 0.805
% weight reduction = 1 - 0.805 = 19.5%
c.

5.2 The thickness of a sheet varies from 8.00 mm to 8.10 mm depending on

location so tensile specimens cut from a sheet have different thicknesses.
a. For a material with n = 0.15 and m = 0, what will be the strain in the
thicker region when the thinner region necks?
b. If n = 0 and m = 0.05, find the strain in the thicker region then the strain in
the thinner region is 0.5 and .
Solution: a) Substituting n = 0.15, f = 8/.810 = 0.9877 and a = n = 0.15 into fanexp(-a) =
bnexp(-b), 0.9877(0.15)0.15exp(-0.15) = b0.15exp(-e); b0.15exp(-b) = 0.6395
Solving by trial and error, b = 0.096 [This agrees with fig. 4-8]
b) Substituting m = 0.15 and a = 0.50 into eq. (5-11)

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exp(-b/m)-1 = f1/m [exp(-a/m) -1], and solving, b* = 0.327.
For a = , eb* = -mln(1-f1/m) = -0.15ln(1- 0.98761/.15) = 0.379

5.3 a) Find the % elongation in the diagonal ligaments in Figure 5.6, assuming
that the ligaments make an angle of 75 with the horizontal.
b) Assuming that f = 0.98 and n = 0, what value of m is required for the variation of
thickness along the ligaments be held to 20%? (The thickness of the thinnest region
is 0.80 times the thickness of the thickest region.)
Solution: a) L/Lo = 1/cos75 = 3.864. elongation = L/Lo - 1 = 2.864 = 286 %
b) The average strain = 3.864 = 1.352. First assume that this is the largest strain, so a
= 1.352. tb/ta = 1.20 = [tboexp(-b)]/[taoexp(-a)] = (1/f)exp(-b)/exp(-a)
exp(-b) = 1.2(0.98)exp(-1.352) = 0.3043, eb = 1.897
Now substituting into exp(-a/m) - 1 = f1/m[exp(-b/m) - 1] exp(-1.352/m) - 1 =
(0.98)1/m[exp(-1.897/m) - 1]. Solving by trial and error, m = 0.577
The other extreme assumption is that eb = 1.352. Then following the same procedure,
exp(-1.897/m) - 1 = (0.98)1/m[exp(- 1.352/m) - 1]. Solving by trial and error, m = 0.66. The
correct answer must be between 0.577 and 0.66. A reasonable estimate is m = 0.62

5.4 Find the value of m in equation 5.10 that best fits the data in Figure 5.28.

Figure 5.28 Effect of

stress level on the strain-
rate sensitivity of steel.
Adapted from A. Saxena
and D. A. Chatfield, SAE
Paper 760209 (1976)

Solution: m' = d/dln( ), d = m' dln( ) = m'(d / )

also = C`m so d = mC m-1d`.
Equating m'(d / ) = mC m-1d , m' = mC m = m
Using points from Fig 5-28, m = 0.05 at s = 30 ksi,
m' = 30(0.05) = 1.5 ksi
Also for m = 0.022, = 60 ksi so m' = 60(0.022) = 1.32 ksi
and for m = 0.012, = 100 ksi so m' = 100(0.012) = 1.20 ksi
These average to m' = 1.3 ksi

5.5 From the data in Figure 5.23, estimate Q in equation 5.12 and m in equation
5.1 for aluminum at 400C.

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Solution: = Aexp[-Q/(RT)] so 2/ 1 =exp[-(Q/R)(1/T2-1/T1)] and Q = Rln( 2/ 1)/
(1/T1-1/T2) = Rln /(1/T)
The slope of the 2500 psi line at 400C is ln /D(1/T) = ln100/0.22x10-3 = 20,900C
So Q = 8.31x20,900 = 174x103 J/mole or 174 kJ/mole
b) For = C m, m = ln(2/1)/ln 2/ 1 ). At 400C, = 4000 psi gives = 4/min. and
= 1500 psi gives = 0.25/min. Substituting,
m = ln(4000/1500)/ln(4/0.25 ) = 0.354

5.6 Estimate the total elongation in a tensile bar if

a. f = 0.98, m = 0.5 and n = 0
b. f = 0.75, m = 0.8 and n = 0.
Solution: a)Substituting f = 0.98 and m = 0.5 into b* = -mln(1-f1/m),
eb* = -0.5ln(1-0.982) =1.1615, l/lo = exp(eb) = exp(1.1615) = 5.02 (502 %)
b) With f = 0.75 and m = 0.8 , b* = -0.8ln(1-0.751/.8) = 0.958
l/lo = exp(b) = exp(0.958) = 2.06 (206 %)

5.7 Estimate the shear strain necessary in the shear bands of Figure 5.27 necessary
to explain the formation of untempered martensite if the tensile strength level was
1.75 GPa, n = 0 and adiabatic conditions prevailed.
Solution: T = /(C) so = CT/ a. Untempered martensite can only be formed
from austenite, so austenite must have formed in the shear bands. Thus the temperature must
have risen to at least 750C. Assuming an initial temperature of 20C, T = 730C. Substituting
= 7.87Mg/m3,
C = 0.46 kJ/kg.C and = 1, = 1.53. Assuming pure shear, = 2 = 3.06.

5.8 During superplastic forming it is often necessary to maintain a constant the

strain rate.
a. Describe qualitatively how the gas pressure should be varied to form a
hemispherical dome by bulging a sheet clamped over a circular hole with gas
pressure.
b. Compare the gas pressure required to form a hemispherical dome of 5
cm diameter with the pressure for a 0.5 m diameter dome.
Solution: a) For a constant , must be constant (i.e. = C m) but = P/(2t) (Equation. 3-
19). Although t decreases as the bulge is formed, its change is small compared with the change
of r which decreases from at the start to the radius of the dome. Therefore P must increase
gradually from 0 at the start to a maximum at the hemispherical shape, roughly in proportion to
1/r.
b) For a 20 in. dia. dome, the pressure is 1/10 that for a 2 in. dome since P is roughly
proportional to 1/.

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5.9 During a creep experiment under constant stress, the strain rate was found to
double when the temperature was suddenly increases from 290C to 300. What is the
apparent activation energy for creep?
b. The stress level in a tension test increased by 1.8% when the strain rate was
increased by a factor of 8. Find the value of m.
Solution: a) Since = Aexp[-Q/(RT)], 2/ 1 =exp[-(Q/R)(1/T2-1/T1)] and
Q = Rln( 2/ 1)/(1/T1-1/T2) = 8.32ln2/(1/563-1/573) =186x103 J/mole or 186 kJ/mole
b) m = ln(2/1)/ln( 2/ 1) = ln(1.018)/ln8 = 0.0086

5-10 Figure 5.29 gives data for high-temperature creep of -zirconium. In this
range of temperatures, the strain rate is independent of strain.
a. Determine the value of m that best describes the data at 780C
b. Determine the activation energy, Q, in the temperature range 700C to 810C
at about 14 MPa.

Figure 5.29 Strain-rate

vs. stress for -
zirconium at several
temperatures.

Solution: a) m = ln(2/1)/ln( 2/ 1) = ln(20/10)/ln(2.6x10-3/3.2x10-5) = 0.104.

b) Q = Rln( 2/ 1)/(1/T1-1/T2) = 8.ln(8x10-4/4.5x10-5) /(1/073-1/1093) = 212 kJ/mole

5.10 Tension tests were made in two different labs on two different materials. In
both the strain hardening exponent was found to be 0.20, but the post-uniform
elongations were quite different. Offer two plausible explanations.
Solution: One possibility is that the two materials had different values of m. Another
is that the two labs used specimens with different ratios of gauge length-to-diameter.

Chapter 6

6.1 The diameter, D0, of a round rod can be reduced to D1 either by a tensile force
of F1 or by drawing through a die with a force, Fd. as sketched in Figure 6.9.

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Assuming ideal work in drawing, compare F1 and Fd (or 1 and d) to achieve the
same reduction.

Figure 6.9 Sketch for Problem 6-1

Solution: In drawing, the homogeneous work per volume wa = the drawing stress, d, so d =
d= Kn+1/(n+1) assuming = 1. The tensile stress required to induce a strain 1 is 1 =
K1n. Comparing, d/1 = 1/(n+1). The maximum uniform strain in tension is n, so the ratio
d/1 < 1.

6-2 Calculate the maximum possible reduction, r, in wire drawing for a material
whose stress strain curve is approximated by = 2 000.18MPa. Assume an efficiency
of 65%.
Solution: * = n(1+) = 0.18(1.5) = 0.27. = ln[1/(1-r)], r = 1 exp(-) = 23.7%

6-3 An aluminum alloy billet is being hot extruded from 20 cm diameter to 5 cm

diameter as sketched in Figure 6.10. If the flow stress at the extrusion temperature is
40 MPa. Assume = 0.5.
a) What extrusion pressure is required?
b) Calculate the lateral pressure on the die walls.
die

Pext billet 5 cm
20 cm

die

Figure 6.10 Aluminum billet being extruded.

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 Solution: a)Pext = (1/)wi = /. Substituting = 10 ksi,
= ln(Ao/Af) = 2ln(Do/Df) = 2ln4, and = 0.5.
Pext = (1/0.5).10ksi.2ln4 = 55.5 ksi (103psi)
(b) Assuming Mises (or Tresca), for axisymetric flow
(2 = 3 = -(1/2)1, so 2 = 3, and 1 2 = . Therefore
2 = 1 - = 10 - 55.5 = -45.5 ksi. Plat = 45.5 ksi.
(c) Using the thin-wall approximation,
2twall = dP, or t = dP/(2wall). Taking P = 45.5 ksi, swall = 100, ksi and d = 4 in., t = 4x45.5/
(2x100) = 0.91 in.
Note: This is not really a thin wall tube, so the answer is not exact.

6-4 An unsupported extrusion process (Figure 6.11) has been proposed to reduce
the diameter of a bar from D0 to D1. The material does not strain harden. What is the
largest reduction, D/D0, that can be made without the material yielding before it
enters the die? Neglect the possibility of buckling and assume = 60%.

Figure 6.11 Unsupported extrusion.

Solution: To avoid yielding in the bar, P < Y, and P = (1/h) d = (1/)Y.

At the limit (1/)Y = Y, so max = . = 2ln(Do/D1), D1/Do = exp(-/2), D/Do = 1-
D1/Do = 1 - exp(-/2) = 1 -exp(-/2) = 1 - exp(-0.30) = 0.259 (26%)

6-5 A sheet, 1 m wide and 8 mm thick, is to be rolled to a thickness of 6 mm in a

single pass. The strain-hardening expression for the material is =20 00.18MPa. A
deformation efficiency of 80% can be assumed The von Mises yield criterion is
applicable. The exit speed from the rolls is 5 m/s. Calculate the power required.
Solution: Since w = 0, this is plane-strain deformation.
= -t = ln(8/6) = 0.288. = (2/3)(0.288) = 0.258
wa = (1/) d = (1/0.8)(200,000)(0.258)1.18/1.18 = 4283J/m3

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The rate of work is wa.velocity.cross-sectional area = 4283J/m3.(5m/s)(1x0.006m2) = 128 J/s.

6-6 The strains in a material for which = 3

500.20MPa are 1 = 0.200 and
2 = -0.125. Calculate the work per volume assuming = 1.
Solution: 3 = -1 + 3 = -.200 + .125 = -.075
= [(2/3))0.22 + 0.1252 + 0.0752)1/2 = 0.202
[Check: 0.2 < 0.202 < 1.15x0.2]
w = K n+1/(n+1) = 350x0.2021.2/1.2 = 678MJ/m3

6-7 You are asked to plan a wire-drawing schedule to reduce copper wire from 1
mm to 0.4 mm diameter. How many wire drawing passes would be required if to be
sure of no failures, the drawing stress never exceeds 80% of the flow stress and the
efficiency is assumed to be 60%?
Solution: The maximum strain per pass = = 0.6 . The total strain must be ln(1/0.4) =
1.22. Note that 1.22/0.6 = 2.033. Three passes are required (not 2).

6.8 Derive an expression for * at the initiation of drawing when the outlet
diameter is produced by machining.
Solution: In this case, the maximum drawing stress is .
d(max) = Su = K(n/e)n so (n/e)n = (1/)*n+1/(n+1), where e = the base of natural logarithms
* = [(n+1)(n/e)n]1/(n+1)

6.9 For a material with a stress-strain relation, = A + B, find the maximum strain
per wire drawing pass if = 0.75.
Solution: d = d = (A + B)d = A + (/2)2. The drawing limit corresponds
to
= d or A + B = A + (/2)2. (/2)2 +() - A = 0. Using the
quadratic formula, = {-(A-B)[(A-B)2+ 4AB/2]}/B = {-(A-B)[(A2+B2]}/B

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