A.C.

Generator or Dynamo
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into the electrical
energy using the principle of electromagnetic induction.

 The electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon according

to which an induced current is produced in a coil by the
change of magnetic field linked with it. The current will be
induced in the coil when there is relative motion between
the coil and the magnetic field.

Construction:

The main parts of an A.C. Generator are:

i. The field magnet;

ii. The armature coil;

iii. The slip rings;

iv. The brushes;

Brush
es

Armatur
e

Coil
SS

N
N

Field

Magnet
s
N
SS

Slip
Rings
Armatur Bul
e b

The schematic representation of an A.C.

Field magnets are the two strong permanent bar magnets. An
electromagnet run by a D.C. source can also be used as a field magnet.

Armature coil is a soft iron core on which a coil having a large number of
turns of insulated copper wire is wound. The armature coil is rotated
rapidly in the magnetic field of the field magnet by the axle fixed to the
armature.

Slip rings are the two coaxial metallic rings. They rotate along the
armature coil. The ends of the armature coil are connected to the end of
slip rings.

Brushes are made of Carbon, which press lightly along the slip rings. The
other ends of brushes are connected the external circuit or the load (e.g. A
Bulb). The brushes do not rotate along with the coil.

Working:

When the armature coil is rotated, the phenomenon of electromagnetic

induction occurs and electric current is produced. When the armature
rotates, there is a relative emotion between the armature coil and the
magnetic field connected to it. Therefore the current produced from it
flows from the

Armature Coil Slip Rings Brushes External circuit.

This principle is used in:

• Hydroelectric power station: The force of water is used to turn

the armature coil of the A.C. Generator.

• Wind mill: The blowing wind turns the armature coil of the A.C.
Generator.

• Cycle dynamos: The rotating tyre turns the armature of the

dynamo.
generator

NRC image of Modern Steam Turbine Generator.

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that

converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The reverse
conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done
by a motor; motors and generators have many similarities. A
generator forces electrons in the windings to flow through the
external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water
pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the
water inside. The source of mechanical energy may be a
reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a
turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind
turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of
mechanical energy.

Early 20th century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the

power generating hall of a hydroelectric station

Generator in Zwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium

•

Historical developments

Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was

discovered, electrostatic generators were invented that used
electrostatic principles. These generated very high voltages and
low currents. They operated by using moving electrically
charged belts, plates and disks to carry charge to a high potential
electrode. The charge was generated using either of two
mechanisms:

• Electrostatic induction
• The triboelectric effect, where the contact between two
insulators leaves them charged.

Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating

machines producing very high voltages, electrostatic generators
had low power ratings and were never used for generation of
commercially-significant quantities of electric power. The
Wimshurst machine and Van de Graaff generator are examples
of these machines that have survived.

Jedlik's dynamo

Main article: Jedlik's dynamo

In 1827, Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with

electromagnetic rotating devices which he called
electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole
electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the
stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He
formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years before
Siemens and Wheatstone but didn't patent it as he thought he
wasn't the first to realize this. In essence the concept is that
instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets opposite to
each other induce the magnetic field around the rotor. It was
also the discovery of the principle of self-excitation Jedlik's
invention was decades ahead of its time.

Faraday's disk

Faraday disk

In the years of 1831-1832 Michael Faraday discovered the

operating principle of electromagnetic generators. The principle,
later called Faraday's law, is that a potential difference is
generated between the ends of an electrical conductor that
moves perpendicular to a magnetic field. He also built the first
electromagnetic generator, called the 'Faraday disk', a type of
homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the
poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.

This design was inefficient due to self-cancelling counterflows

of current in regions not under the influence of the magnetic
field. While current flow was induced directly underneath the
magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions
outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow
limits the power output to the pickup wires, and induces waste
heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would
solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged
around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one
current-flow direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low,
due to the single current path through the magnetic flux.
Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil
could produce higher more useful voltages. Since the output
voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could
be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the
number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all
subsequent generator designs.

However, recent advances (rare earth magnets) have made

possible homo-polar motors with the magnets on the rotor,
which should offer many advantages to older designs.

Dynamo

Main article: Dynamo

Dynamos are no longer used for power generation due to the
size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power
applications. This large belt-driven high-current dynamo
produced 310 amperes at 7 volts, or 2,170 watts, when spinning
at 1400 RPM.
Dynamo Electric Machine [End View, Partly Section] (U.S.
Patent 284,110)

The Dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of

delivering power for industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic
principles to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct
electric current through the use of a commutator. The first
dynamo was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.

Through a series of accidental discoveries, the dynamo became

the source of many later inventions, including the DC electric
motor, the AC alternator, the AC synchronous motor, and the
rotary converter.
A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, which
provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating
windings which turn within that field. On small machines the
constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more
permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic
field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually
called field coils.

Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the
now nearly universal use of alternating current for power
distribution and solid state electronic AC to DC power
conversion. But before the principles of AC were discovered,
very large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power
generation and distribution. Now power generation dynamos are
mostly a curiosity.

Other rotating electromagnetic generators

Without a commutator, the dynamo is an example of an

alternator, which is a synchronous singly-fed generator. With an
electromechanical commutator, the dynamo is a classical direct
current (DC) generator. The alternator must always operate at a
constant speed that is precisely synchronized to the electrical
frequency of the power grid for non-destructive operation. The
DC generator can operate at any speed within mechanical limits
but always outputs a direct current waveform.
Other types of generators, such as the asynchronous or induction
singly-fed generator, the doubly-fed generator, or the brushless
wound-rotor doubly-fed generator, do not incorporate
permanent magnets or field windings (i.e, electromagnets) that
establish a constant magnetic field, and as a result, are seeing
success in variable speed constant frequency applications, such
as wind turbines or other renewable energy technologies.

The full output performance of any generator can be optimized

with electronic control but only the doubly-fed generators or the
brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed generator incorporate
electronic control with power ratings that are substantially less
than the power output of the generator under control, which by
itself offer cost, reliability and efficiency benefits.

MHD generator

A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric

power from moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without
the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators
were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD
generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam
power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25,
developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded substantial
development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in
1987. In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the
MHD plant U 25 was in regular commercial operation on the
Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest
MHD plant rating in the world at that time. MHD generators
operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient
than combined-cycle gas turbines.

Terminology

Rotor from generator at Hoover Dam, United States

The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described in

either mechanical or electrical terms:

Mechanical:

• Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine

• Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine

Electrical:

• Armature: The power-producing component of an

electrical machine. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo
 the armature windings generate the electrical current. The
armature can be on either the rotor or the stator.
• Field: The magnetic field component of an electrical
machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator
can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent
magnets mounted on either the rotor or the stator.

Because power transferred into the field circuit is much less than
in the armature circuit, AC generators nearly always have the
field winding on the rotor and the stator as the armature
winding. Only a small amount of field current must be
transferred to the moving rotor, using slip rings. Direct current
machines necessarily have the commutator on the rotating shaft,
so the armature winding is on the rotor of the machine.

Excitation

A small early 1900s 75 KVA direct-driven power station AC

alternator, with a separate belt-driven exciter generator.
Main article: Excitation (magnetic)
An electric generator or electric motor that uses field coils rather
than permanent magnets will require a current flow to be present
in the field coils for the device to be able to work. If the field
coils are not powered, the rotor in a generator can spin without
producing any usable electrical energy, while the rotor of a
motor may not spin at all. Very large power station generators
often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils
of the larger.

In the event of a severe widespread power outage where

islanding of power stations has occurred, the stations may need
to perform a black start to excite the fields of their largest
generators, in order to restore customer power service.

DC Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of generator and load.

G = generator
VG=generator open-circuit voltage
RG=generator internal resistance
VL=generator on-load voltage
RL=load resistance

The equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the

diagram to the right. The generator's VG and RG parameters can
be determined by measuring the winding resistance (corrected to
operating temperature), and measuring the open-circuit and
loaded voltage for a defined current load.

Vehicle-mounted generators

Early motor vehicles until about the 1960s tended to use DC

generators with electromechanical regulators. These have now
been replaced by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits,
which are less costly and lighter for equivalent output.
Automotive alternators power the electrical systems on the
vehicle and recharge the battery after starting. Rated output will
typically be in the range 50-100 A at 12 V, depending on the
designed electrical load within the vehicle. Some cars now have
electrically-powered steering assistance and air conditioning,
which places a high load on the electrical system. Large
commercial vehicles are more likely to use 24 V to give
sufficient power at the starter motor to turn over a large diesel
engine. Vehicle alternators do not use permanent magnets and
are typically only 50-60% efficient over a wide speed range
Motorcycle alternators often use permanent magnet stators made
with rare earth magnets, since they can be made smaller and
lighter than other types. See also hybrid vehicle.

Some of the smallest generators commonly found power bicycle

lights. These tend to be 0.5 ampere, permanent-magnet
alternators supplying 3-6 W at 6 V or 12 V. Being powered by
the rider, efficiency is at a premium, so these may incorporate
rare-earth magnets and are designed and manufactured with
great precision. Nevertheless, the maximum efficiency is only
around 80% for the best of these generators—60% is more
typical—due in part to the rolling friction at the tire-generator
interface from poor alignment, the small size of the generator,
bearing losses and cheap design. The use of permanent magnets
means that efficiency falls even further at high speeds because
the magnetic field strength cannot be controlled in any way.
Hub generators remedy many of these flaws: internal to the
bicycle hub, they are well manufactured and don't require an
interface between the generator and tire. Until recently, these
generators have been expensive and hard to find. Major bicycle
component manufacturers like Shimano and SRAM have only
just entered this market. However, expect significant gains in
future as bicycling becomes more mainstream transportation and
LED technology allows brighter lighting at the reduced current
these generators are capable of providing.

Sailing yachts may use a water or wind powered generator to

trickle-charge the batteries. A small propeller, wind turbine or
impeller is connected to a low-power alternator and rectifier to
supply currents of up to 12 A at typical cruising speeds.

Engine-generator

Main article: Engine-generator

An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical
generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to
form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines
used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be
used. Many different versions are available - ranging from very
small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations.

Human powered electrical generators

Main article: Self-powered equipment

A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for

instance, in field radio station equipment).

Human powered direct current generators are commercially

available, and have been the project of some DIY enthusiasts.
Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted
bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be
practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases are
designed with an integral inverter. The average adult could
generate about 125-200 watts on a pedal powered generator.
Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery
purchase requirements, see clockwork radio.

inear electric generator

In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding

magnet moves back and forth through a solenoid - a spool of
copper wire. An alternating current is induced in the loops of
wire by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides
through. This type of generator is used in the Faraday flashlight.
Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave power
schemes.

Tachogenerator

Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to

measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the
equipment they power. Generators generate voltage roughly
proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and
design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages
for certain ranges of shaft speeds

Faraday's law of induction

Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of

electromagnetism relating to the operating principles of
transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical
motors and generators.[1] The law states that:

The induced electromotive force or EMF in any closed

circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic
flux through the circuit.

Or alternatively:
The EMF generated is proportional to the rate at which
flux is changed.

History

Electromagnetic induction was discovered independently

by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831; however,
Faraday was the first to publish the results of his
experiments.

Faraday's disk

In Faraday's first experimental demonstration of

electromagnetic induction (August 1831), he wrapped
two wires around opposite sides of an iron torus (an
arrangement similar to a modern transformer). Based on
his assessment of recently-discovered properties of
electromagnets, he expected that when current started to
flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the
ring and cause some electrical effect on the opposite side.
He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it
as he connected the other wire to a battery. Indeed, he
saw a transient current (which he called a "wave of
electricity") when he connected the wire to the battery,
and another when he disconnected it.[4] Within two
months, Faraday had found several other manifestations
of electromagnetic induction. For example, he saw
transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in
and out of a coil of wires, and he generated a steady
(DC) current by rotating a copper disk near a bar magnet
with a sliding electrical lead ("Faraday's disk").

Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a

concept he called lines of force. However, scientists at
the time widely rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly
because they were not formulated mathematically. An
exception was Maxwell, who used Faraday's ideas as the
basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory. In
Maxwell's papers, Faraday's law of induction was
expressed as a calculus equation, in a form recognizable
today.
Lenz's law, formulated by Heinrich Lenz in 1834,
describes "flux through the circuit", and gives the
direction of the induced electromotive force and current
resulting from electromagnetic induction (elaborated
upon in the examples below).

Faraday's experiment showing induction between coils of

wire: The liquid battery (right) provides a current which
flows through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic
field. When the coils are stationary, no current is
induced. But when the small coil is moved in or out of
the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large
coil changes, inducing a current which is detected by the
galvanometer (G).[

Faraday's law as two different phenomena

Some physicists have remarked that Faraday's law is a

single equation describing two different phenomena: The
motional EMF generated by a magnetic force on a
moving wire, and the transformer EMF generated by an
electric force due to a changing magnetic field. James
Clerk Maxwell drew attention to this fact in his 1861
paper On Physical Lines of Force. In the latter half of
part II of that paper, Maxwell gives a separate physical
explanation for each of the two phenomena. A reference
to these two aspects of electromagnetic induction is made
in some modern textbooks.[10] As Richard Feynman
states:[11]

So the "flux rule" that the emf in a circuit is equal to the

rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit
applies whether the flux changes because the field
changes or because the circuit moves (or both).... Yet in
our explanation of the rule we have used two completely
distinct laws for the two    – cases  for "circuit moves"
and   for "field changes". 
We know of no other place in physics where such a
simple and accurate general principle requires for its real
understanding an analysis in terms of two different
phenomena.

– Richard P. Feynman , The Feynman Lectures on

Physics

Reflection on this apparent dichotomy was one of the

principal paths that led Einstein to develop special
relativity:
It is known that Maxwell’s electrodynamics—as usually
understood at the present time—when applied to moving
bodies, leads to asymmetries which do not appear to be
inherent in the phenomena. Take, for example, the
reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet and a
conductor. The observable phenomenon here depends
only on the relative motion of the conductor and the
magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp
distinction between the two cases in which either the one
or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the
magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there
arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric
field with a certain definite energy, producing a current
at the places where parts of the conductor are situated.
But if the magnet is stationary and the conductor in
motion, no electric field arises in the neighbourhood of
the magnet. In the conductor, however, we find an
electromotive force, to which in itself there is no
corresponding energy, but which gives rise—assuming
equality of relative motion in the two cases discussed—
to electric currents of the same path and intensity as
those produced by the electric forces in the former case.
– Albert Einstein, On the Electrodynamics of Moving
Bodies[12]

Flux through a surface and EMF around a loop

The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the

surface Σ into small surface elements. Each element is
associated with a vector dA of magnitude equal to the
area of the element and with direction normal to the
element and pointing outward.
A vector field F(r, t) defined throughout space, and a
surface Σ bounded by curve ∂Σ moving with velocity v
over which the field is integrated.

Faraday's law of induction makes use of the magnetic

flux ΦB through a surface Σ, defined by an integral over a
surface:

where dA is an element of surface area of the moving

surface Σ(t), B is the magnetic field, and B·dA is a vector
dot product. The surface is considered to have a "mouth"
outlined by a closed curve denoted ∂Σ(t). When the flux
changes, Faraday's law of induction says that the work
done (per unit charge) moving a test charge around the
closed curve ∂Σ(t), called the electromotive force (EMF),
is given by:

where is the magnitude of the electromotive force (EMF)

in volts and ΦB is the magnetic flux in webers. The
direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's
law.

For a tightly-wound coil of wire, composed of N

identical loops, each with the same ΦB, Faraday's law of
induction states that

where N is the number of turns of wire and ΦB is the

magnetic flux in webers through a single loop.

In choosing a path ∂Σ(t) to find EMF, the path must

satisfy the basic requirements that (i) it is a closed path,
and (ii) the path must capture the relative motion of the
parts of the circuit (the origin of the t-dependence in
∂Σ(t) ). It is not a requirement that the path follow a line
of current flow, but of course the EMF that is found
using the flux law will be the EMF around the chosen
path. If a current path is not followed, the EMF might not
be the EMF driving the current.
Example: Spatially varying B-field

Figure 3: Closed rectangular wire loop moving along x-

axis at velocity v in magnetic field B that varies with
position x.

Consider the case in Figure 3 of a closed rectangular loop

of wire in the xy-plane translated in the x-direction at
velocity v. Thus, the center of the loop at xC satisfies v =
dxC / dt. The loop has length ℓ in the y-direction and
width w in the x-direction. A time-independent but
spatially varying magnetic field B(x) points in the z-
direction. The magnetic field on the left side is B( xC − w
/ 2), and on the right side is B( xC + w / 2). The
electromotive force is to be found by using either the
Lorentz force law or equivalently by using Faraday's
induction law above.

Lorentz force law method

A charge q in the wire on the left side of the loop

experiences a Lorentz force q v × B k = −q v B(xC − w /
2) j   ( j, k unit vectors in the y- and z-directions; see
vector cross product), leading to an EMF (work per unit
charge) of v ℓ B(xC − w / 2) along the length of the left
side of the loop. On the right side of the loop the same
argument shows the EMF to be v ℓ B(xC + w / 2). The
two EMF's oppose each other, both pushing positive
charge toward the bottom of the loop. In the case where
the B-field increases with increase in x, the force on the
right side is largest, and the current will be clockwise:
using the right-hand rule, the B-field generated by the
current opposes the impressed field. The EMF driving
the current must increase as we move counterclockwise
(opposite to the current). Adding the EMF's in a
counterclockwise tour of the loop we find

Faraday's law method

At any position of the loop the magnetic flux through the

loop is

The sign choice is decided by whether the normal to the

surface points in the same direction as B, or in the
opposite direction. If we take the normal to the surface as
pointing in the same direction as the B-field of the
induced current, this sign is negative. The time derivative
of the flux is then (using the chain rule of differentiation
or the general form of Leibniz rule for differentiation of
an integral):

(where v = dxC / dt is the rate of motion of the loop in the

x-direction ) leading to:

as before.

The equivalence of these two approaches is general and,

depending on the example, one or the other method may
prove more practical.

Example: Moving loop in uniform B-field

Figure 4: Rectangular wire loop rotating at angular

velocity ω in radially outward pointing magnetic field B
of fixed magnitude. Current is collected by brushes
attached to top and bottom discs, which have conducting
rims.

Figure 4 shows a spindle formed of two discs with

conducting rims and a conducting loop attached
vertically between these rims. The entire assembly spins
in a magnetic field that points radially outward, but is the
same magnitude regardless of its direction. A radially
oriented collecting return loop picks up current from the
conducting rims. At the location of the collecting return
loop, the radial B-field lies in the plane of the collecting
loop, so the collecting loop contributes no flux to the
circuit. The electromotive force is to be found directly
and by using Faraday's law above.

Lorentz force law method

In this case the Lorentz force drives the current in the

two vertical arms of the moving loop downward, so
current flows from the top disc to the bottom disc. In the
conducting rims of the discs, the Lorentz force is
perpendicular to the rim, so no EMF is generated in the
rims, nor in the horizontal portions of the moving loop.
Current is transmitted from the bottom rim to the top rim
through the external return loop, which is oriented so the
B-field is in its plane. Thus, the Lorentz force in the
return loop is perpendicular to the loop, and no EMF is
generated in this return loop. Traversing the current path
in the direction opposite to the current flow, work is done
against the Lorentz force only in the vertical arms of the
moving loop, where

Consequently, the EMF is

where l is the vertical length of the loop, and the velocity
is related to the angular rate of rotation by v = r ω, with r
= radius of cylinder. Notice that the same work is done
on any path that rotates with the loop and connects the
upper and lower rim.

Faraday's law method

See also: Faraday paradox

An intuitively appealing but mistaken approach to using

the flux rule would say the flux through the circuit was
just ΦB = B w ℓ, where w = width of the moving loop.
This number is time-independent, so the approach
predicts incorrectly that no EMF is generated. The flaw
in this argument is that it fails to consider the entire
current path, which is a closed loop.

To use the flux rule, we have to look at the entire current

path, which includes the path through the rims in the top
and bottom discs. We can choose an arbitrary closed path
through the rims and the rotating loop, and the flux law
will find the EMF around the chosen path. Any path that
has a segment attached to the rotating loop captures the
relative motion of the parts of the circuit.

As an example path, let's traverse the circuit in the

direction of rotation in the top disc, and in the direction
opposite to the direction of rotation in the bottom disc
(shown by arrows in Figure 4). In this case, for the
moving loop at an angle θ from the collecting loop, a
portion of the cylinder of area A = r ℓ θ is part of the
circuit. This area is perpendicular to the B-field, and so
contributes to the flux an amount:

where the sign is negative because the right-hand rule

suggests the B-field generated by the current loop is
opposite in direction to the applied B field. As this is the
only time-dependent portion of the flux, the flux law
predicts an EMF of

in agreement with the Lorentz force law calculation.

Now let's try a different path. Follow a path traversing

the rims via the opposite choice of segments. Then the
coupled flux would decrease as θ increased, but the
right-hand rule would suggest the current loop added to
the applied B-field, so the EMF around this path is the
same as for the first path. Any mixture of return paths
leads to the same result for EMF, so it is actually
immaterial which path is followed.

Direct evaluation of the change in flux

Figure 5: A simplified version of Figure 4. The loop

slides with velocity v in a stationary, homogeneous B-
field.

The use of a closed path to find EMF as done above

appears to depend upon details of the path geometry. In
contrast, the Lorentz-law approach is independent of
such restrictions. The following discussion is intended to
provide a better understanding of the equivalence of
paths and escape the particulars of path selection when
using the flux law.

Figure 5 is an idealization of Figure 4 with the cylinder

unwrapped onto a plane. The same path-related analysis
works, but a simplification is suggested. The time-
independent aspects of the circuit cannot affect the time-
rate-of-change of flux. For example, at a constant
velocity of sliding the loop, the details of current flow
through the loop are not time dependent. Instead of
concern over details of the closed loop selected to find
the EMF, one can focus on the area of B-field swept out
by the moving loop. This suggestion amounts to finding
the rate at which flux is cut by the circuit.[14] That notion
provides direct evaluation of the rate of change of flux,
without concern over the time-independent details of
various path choices around the circuit. Just as with the
Lorentz law approach, it is clear that any two paths
attached to the sliding loop, but differing in how they
cross the loop, produce the same rate-of-change of flux.

In Figure 5 the area swept out in unit time is simply dA /

dt = v ℓ, regardless of the details of the selected closed
path, so Faraday's law of induction provides the EMF as:[

This path independence of EMF shows that if the sliding

loop is replaced by a solid conducting plate, or even
some complex warped surface, the analysis is the same:
find the flux in the area swept out by the moving portion
of the circuit. In a similar way, if the sliding loop in the
drum generator of Figure 4 is replaced by a 360° solid
conducting cylinder, the swept area calculation is exactly
the same as for the case with only a loop. That is, the
EMF predicted by Faraday's law is exactly the same for
the case with a cylinder with solid conducting walls or,
for that matter, a cylinder with a cheese grater for walls.
Notice, though, that the current that flows as a result of
this EMF will not be the same because the resistance of
the circuit determines the current.

The Maxwell-Faraday equation

Figure 6: An illustration of Kelvin-Stokes theorem with

surface Σ its boundary ∂Σ and orientation n set by the
right-hand rule.

A changing magnetic field creates an electric field; this

phenomenon is described by the Maxwell-Faraday
equation:[16]

where:

denotes curl
E is the electric field
B is the magnetic field

This equation appears in modern sets of Maxwell's

equations and is often referred to as Faraday's law.
However, because it contains only partial time
derivatives, its application is restricted to situations
where the test charge is stationary in a time varying
magnetic field. It does not account for electromagnetic
induction in situations where a charged particle is
moving in a magnetic field.

It also can be written in an integral form by the Kelvin-

Stokes theorem:[17]

where the movement of the derivative before the

integration requires a time-independent surface Σ
(considered in this context to be part of the interpretation
of the partial derivative), and as indicated in Figure 6:

Σ is a surface bounded by the closed contour ∂Σ;

both Σ and ∂Σ are fixed, independent of time
E is the electric field,
dℓ is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour
∂Σ,
B is the magnetic field.
dA is an infinitesimal vector element of surface Σ ,
whose magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal
patch of surface, and whose direction is orthogonal
to that surface patch.
Both dℓ and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct
sign, the right-hand rule is used, as explained in the
article Kelvin-Stokes theorem. For a planar surface Σ, a
positive path element dℓ of curve ∂Σ is defined by the
right-hand rule as one that points with the fingers of the
right hand when the thumb points in the direction of the
normal n to the surface Σ.

The integral around ∂Σ is called a path integral or line

integral. The surface integral at the right-hand side of the
Maxwell-Faraday equation is the explicit expression for
the magnetic flux ΦB through Σ. Notice that a nonzero
path integral for E is different from the behavior of the
electric field generated by charges. A charge-generated
E-field can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field
that is a solution to Poisson's equation, and has a zero
path integral. See gradient theorem.

The integral equation is true for any path ∂Σ through

space, and any surface Σ for which that path is a
boundary. Note, however, that ∂Σ and Σ are understood
not to vary in time in this formula. This integral form
cannot treat motional EMF because Σ is time-
independent. Notice as well that this equation makes no
reference to EMF ,  and indeed cannot do so without
introduction of the Lorentz force law to enable a
calculation of work.

Figure 7: Area swept out by vector element dℓ of curve

∂Σ in time dt when moving with velocity v.

Using the complete Lorentz force to calculate the EMF,

a statement of Faraday's law of induction more general

than the integral form of the Maxwell-Faraday equation
is (see Lorentz force):

where ∂Σ(t) is the moving closed path bounding the

moving surface Σ(t), and v is the velocity of movement.
See Figure 2. Notice that the ordinary time derivative is
used, not a partial time derivative, implying the time
variation of Σ(t) must be included in the differentiation.
In the integrand the element of the curve dℓ moves with
velocity v.

Figure 7 provides an interpretation of the magnetic force

contribution to the EMF on the left side of the above
equation. The area swept out by segment dℓ of curve ∂Σ
in time dt when moving with velocity v is (see geometric
meaning of cross-product):

so the change in magnetic flux ΔΦB through the portion

of the surface enclosed by ∂Σ in time dt is:

and if we add these ΔΦB-contributions around the loop

for all segments dℓ, we obtain the magnetic force
contribution to Faraday's law. That is, this term is related
to motional EMF.

Example: viewpoint of a moving observer

See also: Moving magnet and conductor problem

Revisiting the example of Figure 3 in a moving frame of

reference brings out the close connection between E- and
B-fields, and between motional and induced EMF's.
[
Imagine an observer of the loop moving with the loop.
The observer calculates the EMF around the loop using
both the Lorentz force law and Faraday's law of
induction. Because this observer moves with the loop,
the observer sees no movement of the loop, and zero v ×
B. However, because the B-field varies with position x,
the moving observer sees a time-varying magnetic field,
namely:

where k is a unit vector pointing in the z-direction.

Lorentz force law version

The Maxwell-Faraday equation says the moving observer

sees an electric field Ey in the y-direction given by:

Here the chain rule is used:

Solving for Ey, to within a constant that contributes

nothing to an integral around the loop,

Using the Lorentz force law, which has only an electric

field component, the observer finds the EMF around the
loop at a time t to be:

which is exactly the same result found by the stationary

observer, who sees the centroid xC has advanced to a
position xC + v t. However, the moving observer obtained
the result under the impression that the Lorentz force had
only an electric component, while the stationary observer
thought the force had only a magnetic component.

Faraday's law of induction

Using Faraday's law of induction, the observer moving
with xC sees a changing magnetic flux, but the loop does
not appear to move: the center of the loop xC is fixed
because the moving observer is moving with the loop.
The flux is then:

where the minus sign comes from the normal to the

surface pointing oppositely to the applied B-field. The
EMF from Faraday's law of induction is now:

the same result. The time derivative passes through the

integration because the limits of integration have no time
dependence. Again, the chain rule was used to convert
the time derivative to an x-derivative.

The stationary observer thought the EMF was a motional

EMF, while the moving observer thought it was an
induced EMF

Electrical generator

Figure 8: Faraday's disc electric generator. The disc

rotates with angular rate ω, sweeping the conducting
radius circularly in the static magnetic field B. The
magnetic Lorentz force v × B drives the current along the
conducting radius to the conducting rim, and from there
the circuit completes through the lower brush and the
axle supporting the disc. Thus, current is generated from
mechanical motion.
Main article: electrical generator

The EMF generated by Faraday's law of induction due to

relative movement of a circuit and a magnetic field is the
phenomenon underlying electrical generators. When a
permanent magnet is moved relative to a conductor, or
vice versa, an electromotive force is created. If the wire
is connected through an electrical load, current will flow,
and thus electrical energy is generated, converting the
mechanical energy of motion to electrical energy. For
example, the drum generator is based upon Figure 4. A
different implementation of this idea is the Faraday's
disc, shown in simplified form in Figure 8. Note that
either the analysis of Figure 5, or direct application of the
Lorentz force law, shows that a solid conducting disc
works the same way.

In the Faraday's disc example, the disc is rotated in a

uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the disc, causing
a current to flow in the radial arm due to the Lorentz
force. It is interesting to understand how it arises that
mechanical work is necessary to drive this current. When
the generated current flows through the conducting rim, a
magnetic field is generated by this current through
Ampere's circuital law (labeled "induced B" in Figure 8).
The rim thus becomes an electromagnet that resists
rotation of the disc (an example of Lenz's law). On the
far side of the figure, the return current flows from the
rotating arm through the far side of the rim to the bottom
brush. The B-field induced by this return current opposes
the applied B-field, tending to decrease the flux through
that side of the circuit, opposing the increase in flux due
to rotation. On the near side of the figure, the return
current flows from the rotating arm through the near side
of the rim to the bottom brush. The induced B-field
increases the flux on this side of the circuit, opposing the
decrease in flux due to rotation. Thus, both sides of the
circuit generate an emf opposing the rotation. The energy
required to keep the disc moving, despite this reactive
force, is exactly equal to the electrical energy generated
(plus energy wasted due to friction, Joule heating, and
other inefficiencies). This behavior is common to all
generators converting mechanical energy to electrical
energy.

Although Faraday's law always describes the working of

electrical generators, the detailed mechanism can differ
in different cases. When the magnet is rotated around a
stationary conductor, the changing magnetic field creates
an electric field, as described by the Maxwell-Faraday
equation, and that electric field pushes the charges
through the wire. This case is called an induced EMF.
On the other hand, when the magnet is stationary and the
conductor is rotated, the moving charges experience a
magnetic force (as described by the Lorentz force law),
and this magnetic force pushes the charges through the
wire. This case is called motional EMF. (For more
information on motional EMF, induced EMF, Faraday's
law, and the Lorentz force, see above example, and see
Griffiths.)

Electrical motor

Main article: electrical motor

An electrical generator can be run "backwards" to
become a motor. For example, with the Faraday disc,
suppose a DC current is driven through the conducting
radial arm by a voltage. Then by the Lorentz force law,
this traveling charge experiences a force in the magnetic
field B that will turn the disc in a direction given by
Fleming's left hand rule. In the absence of irreversible
effects, like friction or Joule heating, the disc turns at the
rate necessary to make d ΦB / dt equal to the voltage
driving the current.

Electrical transformer

Main article: transformer

The EMF predicted by Faraday's law is also responsible

for electrical transformers. When the electric current in a
loop of wire changes, the changing current creates a
changing magnetic field. A second wire in reach of this
magnetic field will experience this change in magnetic
field as a change in its coupled magnetic flux, a d ΦB / d
t. Therefore, an electromotive force is set up in the
second loop called the induced EMF or transformer
EMF. If the two ends of this loop are connected through
an electrical load, current will flow.

Magnetic flow meter

Main article: magnetic flow meter

Faraday's law is used for measuring the flow of

electrically conductive liquids and slurries. Such
instruments are called magnetic flow meters. The
induced voltage ε generated in the magnetic field B due
to a conductive liquid moving at velocity v is thus given
by:

where ℓ is the distance between electrodes in the

magnetic flow meter.

Parasitic induction and waste heating

All metal objects moving in relation to a static magnetic

field will experience inductive power flow, as do all
stationary metal objects in relation to a moving magnetic
field. These power flows are occasionally undesirable,
resulting in flowing electric current at very low voltage
and heating of the metal.

There are a number of methods employed to control

these undesirable inductive effects.

• Electromagnets in electric motors, generators, and

transformers do not use solid metal, but instead use
thin sheets of metal plate, called laminations. These
thin plates reduce the parasitic eddy currents, as
described below.
• Inductive coils in electronics typically use magnetic
cores to minimize parasitic current flow. They are a
mixture of metal powder plus a resin binder that can
hold any shape. The binder prevents parasitic
current flow through the powdered metal.

Electromagnet laminations
Eddy currents occur when a solid metallic mass is rotated
in a magnetic field, because the outer portion of the
metal cuts more lines of force than the inner portion,
hence the induced electromotive force not being uniform,
tends to set up currents between the points of greatest
and least potential. Eddy currents consume a
considerable amount of energy and often cause a harmful
rise in temperature.

Only five laminations or plates are shown in this

example, so as to show the subdivision of the eddy
currents. In practical use, the number of laminations or
punchings ranges from 40 to 66 per inch, and brings the
eddy current loss down to about one percent. While the
plates can be separated by insulation, the voltage is so
low that the natural rust/oxide coating of the plates is
enough to prevent current flow across the laminations.
This is a rotor approximately 20mm in diameter from a
DC motor used in a CD player. Note the laminations of
the electromagnet pole pieces, used to limit parasitic
inductive losses.

Parasitic induction within inductors

In this illustration, a solid copper bar inductor on a

rotating armature is just passing under the tip of the pole
piece N of the field magnet. Note the uneven distribution
of the lines of force across the bar inductor. The
magnetic field is more concentrated and thus stronger on
the left edge of the copper bar (a,b) while the field is
weaker on the right edge (c,d). Since the two edges of the
bar move with the same velocity, this difference in field
strength across the bar creates whirls or current eddies
within the copper bar
This is one of the reasons why high voltage devices tend
to be more efficient than low voltage devices. High
voltage devices use many turns of small-gauge wire in
motors, generators, and transformers. These many small
turns of inductor wire in the electromagnet break up the
eddy flows that can form within the large, thick inductors
of low voltage, high current devices