Temper Embrittlement

Abstract:
Temper embrittlement is inherent in many steels and can be characterized by reduced impact
toughness. The state of temper embrittlement has practically no effect on other mechanical
properties at room temperature. Many alloy steels have two temperature intervals of temper
embrittlement. For instance, irreversible temper brittleness may appear within the interval of 250-
400C and reversible temper brittleness, within 450-650C.

Temper embrittlement is inherent in many steels and can be characterized by reduced impact toughness. The state of temper
embrittlement has practically no effect on other mechanical properties at room temperature.

Figure 1 shows schematically the effect of temperature on impact toughness of alloy steel which is strongly liable to temper
embrittlement. Many alloy steels have two temperature intervals of temper embrittlement. For instance, irreversible temper
brittleness may appear within the interval of 250-400C and reversible temper brittleness, within 450-650C.

The impact toughness of quenched steel after tempering at 250-400C is lower than that obtained on tempering at temperatures
below 250C. If brittle steel tempered at 250-400C is heated above 400C and transferred into a tough state, a second tempering
at 250-400C cannot return it to the brittle state. The rate of cooling from the tempering temperature within 250-400C has no
effect on impact toughness.

Steel in the state of irreversible temper embrittlement has a bright intercrystalline fracture at boundaries of former austenitic
grains. This type of brittleness is inherent to some extent to all steels, including carbon grades. For that reason medium-
temperature tempering is, as a rule not employed in practice, though it can ensure a high yield limit.
Irreversible temper embrittlement is thought to be due to the formation of carbides on decomposition of martensite, in particular,
precipitation of carbides in the form of films at grain boundaries. At higher temperatures of tempering, this film disappears and
cannot be restored on repeated heating at 250-400C. Silicon in low-alloy steels can prevent irreversible temper embrittlement
by retarding the decomposition of martensite.

The embrittlement on high-temperature tempering may manifest itself in two different ways:

as a result of heating at 450-600C (irrespective of the rate of subsequent cooling) and effect of temperature, and
as a result of tempering at temperatures above 600C with subsequent slow cooling within the range of 600-450C.

A high-rate cooling from a tempering temperature above 600C, for instance, water-cooling, can prevent the appearance of
temper embrittlement. On the other hand, a quick cooling on tempering at 450-600C cannot prevent temper embrittlement.
Thus, entering the dangerous temperature interval from either "below" (on heating and holding at that temperature) or from
"above" (on slow cooling) can produce the same result.

The most important feature of embrittlement on high-temperature tempering is that the process is reversible. If a steel embrittled
through tempering at a temperature above 600C with subsequent slow cooling or through tempering at 450-600C (with any
rate of cooling) is again heated above 600C and cooled quickly, its impact toughness will restore to the initial value. If the steel
then again enters the dangerous interval of tempering temperatures, it is again embrittled. A new heating at a temperature above
600C, followed with quick cooling, can eliminate the embrittling effect, and so on. This is why the phenomenon discussed is
called reversible embrittlement.

Carbon steels with less than 0.5% Mn are not prone to reversible temper embrittlement. The phenomenon can only appear in
alloy steels. Alloying elements may have different effects on steel after tempering at the steel proneness to temper
embrittlement. Unfortunately, the most widely used alloying elements, such as chromium, nickel, and manganese, promote
temper embrittlement. When taken separately, they produce a weaker effect than in the case of combined alloying. The highest
embrittling effect is observed in Cr-Ni and Cr-Mn steels. Small additions of molybdenum (0.2-0.3%) can diminish temper
embrittlement, while greater additions enhance the effect.

A fundamental fact is that alloy steels of very high purity are utterly unsusceptible to temper embrittlement which is caused by
the presence of various impurities, in the first place of phosphorus, tin, antimony and arsenic, in commercial steels.

The rate and degree of development of temper embrittlement depend on the temperature and time of holding steel within the
dangerous temperature interval (450-600C). With a certain temperature of tempering within this interval, the initial stages of
embrittlement appear appreciably sooner than at a higher or a lower temperature.

Many scientists adhered for a long time to the "solution precipitation" hypothesis, according to which the loss in impact
toughness was caused by precipitation of some phases, such as phosphides, at grain boundaries. These phases were thought to
pass into the -solution on heating up to approximately 650C and to precipitate from the solution and embrittle the steel on slow
cooling; quick cooling should prevent the precipitation of embrittling phases. As has been found by electron-microscopic
analysis, however, there are no special precipitates at grain boundaries in embrittled steel, so that the "solution precipitation"
hypothesis turned to be inconsistent.

Another hypothesis explained temper embrittlement by an increased concentration of impurities in boundary layers of the solid
solution. This was proved by an increased etchability of grain boundaries in embrittled steel by picric acid. The hypothesis on
the leading role of impurity segregates has been fully confirmed in the recent years by a brilliant series of research work using
Auger spectroscopy, a method enabling determination of concentrations of elements in monatomic surface layers. Using this
method makes it possible to detect segregations of phosphorus and other impurity elements at the fracture surface in embrittled
steel and measure their concentrations (as also the concentrations of alloying elements) at the fracture surface. It has also been
shown that the development of temper embrittlement is directly linked with the rise of impurity concentration near the prior
austenite boundaries.

Owing to equilibrium segregation, the concentration of harmful impurities at the surface of a fracture may exceed tens or
hundreds times their average concentration in the steel. The concentration of impurities in commercial purity steels is usually a
few thousandths or hundredths of a percent, but amounts to a few percent at the surface of fracture.

As the temperature increases, the diffusion process of grain boundary segregation is accelerated, with the absolute value of
equilibrium segregation being simultaneously decreased owing to thermal motion. At temperatures above 600-650C, the
segregation of impurities either disappears fully (Sb) or drops to a very low level (P). On subsequent cooling of the steel in
water, the segregates have no time to restore.

The role of alloying elements in the development of temper embrittlement is not less than that of impurities. The segregation of
harmful impurities in iron-carbon alloys is so small that causes no temper embrittlement. In the presence of alloying elements
(Ni, Cr or Mn), the segregation of impurities increases appreciably. In this process, the alloying elements themselves, which
cause no equilibrium segregation in high-purity steels, segregate at grain boundaries in the presence of harmful impurities.

Therefore, we can assume that an alloying element and impurity interact with each other in the -solution and thus mutually
promote their segregation. It can be also assumed that if atoms of an impurity and alloying element attract one another stronger
than atoms of that impurity and iron, the segregation of the impurity and alloying element will be mutually enhanced. Namely in
this way behave P and Ni, P and Cr, Sb and Ni, Sb and Mn and other "impurity - alloying element" pairs. A second alloying
element can additionally enhance segregation of an impurity. For instance, nickel and chromium, when present together in steel,
can cause a greater segregation of antimony than might be expected from simple summation of their separate effects.

An increased concentration of harmful impurities in boundary layers of the solid solution, which may be caused by the effect of
alloying additions, weakens the intergranular bondage and is one of the main causes why alloy steels containing Ni, Cr or Mn
are highly susceptible to temper embrittlement. The main measures to prevent temper embrittlement are as follows:

of the content of harmful impurities in steel;

accelerated cooling from the temperature of high-temperature tempering (above 600C);
alloying of steel with small additions of molybdenum (0.2-0.3%); and
subjecting the metal to high-temperature thermo-mechanical treatment.
The Embrittlement Phenomena in Hardened & Tempered Steel

By Daniel H. Herring

While the end-use application of a component dictates its heat treatment, as heat treaters we
know that we must achieve a delicate balance between the properties of strength and ductility.
Nowhere is this fine line more evident than in the tempering process where precise control of
time and temperature are critical to help produce a part with optimized microstructure and
mechanical properties.

Essentially, tempering is the modification of this newly formed microstructure toward

equilibrium. Almost all steels that are subjected to any type of hardening process are tempered.
A temper is a subcritical heat treatment that alters the microstructure and properties. In general,
tempering lowers strength and hardness while improving ductility and toughness of the as-
quenched martensite. However, this is not always the case. Lets learn more.

What is Temper Embrittlement?

In general, embrittlement is a reduction in the normal toughness of steel due to a microstructural

change and chemical effects. Temper embrittlement is a phenomenon inherent in many steels,
characterized by reduced impact toughness. It occurs in certain quenched and tempered steels
and even in ductile irons with susceptible compositions. This form of embrittlement does not
affect room-temperature tensile properties but causes significant reductions in impact toughness
and fatigue performance. Although normally associated with tempered martensite, temper
embrittlement can also occur if the matrix is tempered to the fully
ferritic condition.

Types of Temper Embrittlement

When tempering steel, several types of embrittlement must be

avoided. The first type, tempered martensite embrittlement (TME), is
an irreversible phenomenon that occurs in the range of
approximately 250400C (480F750F) and is often referred to as
blue brittleness or 350C (500F) embrittlement. The second
type, temper embrittlement (TE), is a reversible phenomenon Fig. 1. Effect of
occurring when steels are heated in or slow cooled through the temperature on impact
temperature range of 375575C (705F 1070F). toughness[5]

Recently it has been reported that a transition from ductile to

intergranular fracture in steel having greater than 0.5% C has been observed in martensitic steels
tempered at low temperatures. Under tensile or bending stress, these higher-carbon steels are
highly susceptible to intergranular fracture in both the as-quenched condition and after tempering
at low temperatures generally considered to be safe from these embrittlement phenomena. In
view of the fact that tempering is not required to render the microstructure susceptible to
intergranular fracture, this type of embrittlement phenomenon is referred to as quench
embrittlement. [2]
Why does it happen?

Tempered martensite embrittlement and temper embrittlement are examples of intergranular

embrittlement. A common factor in such failures is the presence of elements that segregate to the
grain boundaries. The chemical reaction rate or kinetics of segregation are such that they exhibit
C curve behavior in the 350C 550C (660F 1020F) range. In other words, segregation
does not occur uniformly. Both types of embrittlement are in part related to grain-boundary
segregation of impurity elements (e.g. arsenic, antimony, phosphorus, and tin). Usually indicated
by an upward shift in ductile-to-brittle transition temperature, both types of embrittlement
develop during thermal processing after austenitizing and quenching to martensite.

Tempered martensite embrittlement is thought to result from the combined effects of cementite
precipitation on prior-austenite grain boundaries or interlath boundaries and the segregation of
impurities at prior-austenite grain boundaries.

Temper embrittlement that occurs in the range of 375575C (7051070F) is believed to be due
to segregation of impurity elements (P, Sn, As, Sb) to prior austenite grain boundaries. This
causes decohesion of the boundaries, resulting in the tendency for low-energy intergranular
fracture under certain loading conditions.

Which steels are affected?

All steels are susceptible, so the real question becomes how susceptible
and what factors affect that susceptibility. For example, while plain-
carbon steels may contain some of the impurity elements that will
cause the embrittlement phenomenon to occur, the segregation of these
elements is often enhanced by or caused by the presence of other
alloying elements in substantial quantities. As a result, alloy steels
generally have more susceptibility than carbon steels. SEM photo of
intergranular temper
It is important to understand that the degree of embrittlement is
affected by the prior austenite grain size and hardness. So, if we are embrittlement (Courtesy
dealing with a fine-grained plain-carbon steel of low hardness, it may
of Matco Associates Inc.)
not experience embrittlement symptoms despite its phosphorous
content whereas a more highly alloyed Cr-Ni steel used at higher
hardness is more susceptible to impurity content.

Widely used alloying elements such as chromium, nickel and manganese tend to promote temper
embrittlement with the highest embrittlement effect observed in Cr-Ni and Cr-Mo steels. Small
additions of molybdenum in Cr-Ni steels (0.2-0.3% in solution) can diminish temper
embrittlement being caused by phosphorus. Temper embrittlement can be diminished by keeping
silicon and phosphorus levels as low as possible, adding up to 0.15% molybdenum and avoiding
the embrittlement heat-treating conditions.

Susceptibility also depends on impurity control, and here is where the steelmaking process is
critical. For example, in plain carbon and Cr-Mo steels (those with no Ni) where phosphorous is
the most important embrittlement element, the percentage can be controlled by the steelmaking
process. In steels that contain significant amounts of nickel, antimony and tin are more potent
embrittlement elements. Phosphorous has an effect, but not as large as it has in plain carbon and
Cr-Mo steels. It should be noted, however, that antimony and tin in plain-carbon steels could
cause other hot-working issues.

How can we correct it?

Tempered martensite embrittlement (TME) is irreversible and its effects are permanent. By
contrast, the effects of temper embrittlement (TE) can be reversed. This is done by re-tempering
above the critical temperature of 575C (1070F), then cooling rapidly, or by re-austenitizing and
cooling rapidly. Impact toughness can be restored. If necessary, this process can be repeated.

A Simple Example

Alloy steel, which is susceptible to temper embrittlement, will exhibit a relationship such as
shown below (Fig. 1). The lower-temperature energy trough, 250400C (480F750F), is
indicative of tempered martensite embrittlement while the trough at the higher temperature, 450-
650C (8401200F), represents temper embrittlement.

Summing Up

The susceptibility of a given steel to temper embrittlement depends on a number of factors

including grain size, hardness, steel grade and the impurity control in the steelmaking process
itself. Not all steels and not all steelmaking processes are equal.

Finally, as heat treaters we must avoid the temptation to temper to a given hardness value
without understanding the consequences of our actions. Since we do not have a simple
embrittlement test that can be used on the shop floor, we must understand the phenomenon and
question specifications that put us into temper-embrittlement ranges.

Daniel H. Herring - Tel: (630) 834-3017)

[email protected]
www.heat-treat-doctor.com

References

1. The Timken Company, Mr. Craig Darragh, Mr. John Murza and Dr. David Milam, private
correspondence.
2. Reguly, A., Strohaecker, T. R., Krauss, G., and Matlock, D. K., Quench Embrittlement of
Hardened 5160 Steel as a Function of Austeni-tizing Temperature, Metallurgical & Materials
Transactions A, Volume 35A, 2004, pg 153.
3. Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia
4. Krauss, G., +ASM International, 1990.
5. Key to Steel.
Embrittlement of Steels

This issue of Nuts and Bolts is a wakeup call for our clients that make parts out of hardened
steels. Through-out this issue I am referring to only hardened steels. Don't read into this
discussion anything about the behavior of any ductile metals.

New steels are becoming available that can enhance the performance of critical parts such as
bearings, gear teeth, parts subjected to high and low cycle fatigue, and large parts including
turbines and paper mill rolls.

The changeover to the new steels has taken place in steam turbine forgings. My crystal ball says
that rolling contact bearings are the next candidates and there are murmurings that some bearings
are now being produced from the new steels.

These new steels take advantage of finer grain sizes than ever achieved before in mill quantities
and/or lower impurity levels than we could have ever imagined. It has been found that the
impurity atoms tend to migrate to the grain boundaries. The finer the grain size the greater the
total grain boundary surface and the more "dilute" are the impurity atoms. It is also well
established that the higher the strength and hardness, the greater the detrimental effects of the
impurity atoms.

Why is embrittlement important?

Perhaps most crucial are its effects on damage tolerance and working stress through decreased
impact strength, decreased low cycle fatigue strength, and the rather different phenomena of high
cycle fatigue fracture initiation and fatigue fracture propagation. With the new steels we can
operate at significantly higher levels of service stress, stress intensity and impact strength.

The performance level of any hardened steel is determined by the stress levels at which cracking
commences in the grain boundaries. The cracking starts as either decohesion of the grain
boundaries or cracking across or around hard particles in the grain boundaries. More often than
not the hard particles are carbides.

How do we describe embrittlement?

One way is via the Izod and Charpy tests that measure the energy to break a notched bar 1 cm
square by 10 cm long at a strain rate in the ballpark of 1000 strain units per sec. Higher strain
rates interest the military. Higher strain rates also occur during impacts such as railroad wheels
impacting across a gap in the track at a switch or crossing. High strain rates include a cam being
slammed by a cam follower. Low strain rates include the tensile tests, tests of stress rupture and
hardness tests.

It is very important to note that the low strain rates of a hardness test will not detect
embrittlement.
What are Temper Embrittlement and Tempered

Martensite Embrittlement? They are the embrittlement that is seen after tempering or slowly
cooling hardened steels or using them too long within a critical temperature range. The low
temperature phenomenon is called "tempered embrittlement" and it is irreversible except by
reaustenitizing and repeating the entire heat treating cycle. In a higher temperature band it is
called "tempered martensite embrittlement". Depending on the steel chemistry there can by one
embrittling band or two.

Examples

Consider the "tempered martensite embrittlement" of 4140, figure 2. Because of this

embrittlement 4140 cannot be tempered or used in the range 180-500C (350-930F).

Now consider the same pair of curves for 4340, figures 3 and 4. As before, "tempered martensite
embrittlement" occurs in a low temperature range while this time we add "temper embrittlement"
in a high temperature range. The high temperature "temper embrittlement" is reversible through
appropriate retempering that either redissolves the harmful grain boundary precipitates or
disperses the solute atoms that have migrated to the grain boundaries. "Tempered martensite
embrittlement" is not reversible.

(Figure 1. The hardness of 4140 steel following tempering. With the low strain rates of a hardness test the curve
drops smoothly with increasing tempering temperature.
Ref Metals Handbook, ASM, 9th ed, vol. 1, p469)

As shown in figures 1 and 3, hardness varies smoothly through the tempering range however at
the higher strain rates of the impact tests there is the unacceptable embrittlement, figures 2 and 4.
That's why we have to stay away from tempering in those ranges, and that's why the bands of
hardness values and strengths we would expect following tempering in those ranges are,
practically speaking, unavailable to the engineer.
(Figure 2. The notch toughness of 4140 steel following tempering. We see the dramatic loss in toughness
accompanying tempering in the range spanning 180- 500C.
Ref Metals Handbook, ASM, 9th ed, vol. 1, p469)

Or suppose your bearing or hardened part is subject to soak-back heating to near 375C after
normal shut down of a gas turbine or emergency shutdown of high temperature processing
equipment. Well, these hardened steels can't be used. Too bad because the alternative steels tend
to be expensive.

The Trace Elements

The irreversible, low temperature embrittlement is attributable to fracture in the prior austenite
grain boundaries. These fractures initiate at grain boundary carbide particles. With these particles
present phosphorous, manganese and silicon correlate with increased embrittlement.

Sulfur and phosphorous are the principal contributors to reversible temper embrittlement. Neither
can be adequately refined out of the steel so control is through pure melting stock, often made
via chemical processes rather than traditional steel making. Sulfur levels of 0.002% are available.

Tin and antimony contribute to embrittlement. They operate through co-segregation with nickel
so that low nickel steels are sometimes preferred.

Besides being one of the least expensive contributors to hardenability, manganese contributes to
embrittlement. When the sulfur is extremely low there is no longer a necessity for the
manganese. However we must look to other alloying elements to enhance hardenability.

Carbon that preferentially diffuses to grain boundaries makes important contributions to grain
boundary strength. We must be watchful lest elements such as chromium precipitate carbides in
the prior austenite grain bound- aries, thereby reducing the amount of available carbon and
thereby denying us the beneficial effects of carbon on grain boundary strength.
Molybdenum and vanadium tend to be beneficial to grain boundary strength, apparently by not
localizing the carbon atoms the way that chromium does. Additionally molybdenum is
principally responsible for the secondary hardening that we exploit in the tool steels and
numerous other high temperature applications for hardened steels.

(Figure 3. The hardness of 4340 varies smoothly with tempering temperature."

Ref Metals Handbook, ASM, 9th ed, vol. 1, p425)

Dissolved hydrogen in hardened steel migrates in response to stress, either applied or residual.
Hydrogen works together with the other embrittling elements to cause grain boundary fracture.
Low temperature sensitivity to hydrogen is therefore reduced when the other elements are kept at
low levels.

(Figure 4. Toughness v Tempering Temperature for 4340 showing the pair of embrittlement ranges as well as the
dramatic improvement that comes with 50 ppm phosphorous.
Ref. J. P. Materkowski and G. Krauss, Metallurgical Tr. v10A, 1979, p1643)
Looking Forward

Keep your eyes and ears open! Just as low phosphorous enhanced the 4340 in figure 4 expect
that many more enhancements in the hardened steels will be coming along.

Areas of embrittlement of hardened steels that I will save for another day's discussion include
quench embrittlement, liquid metal embrittlement, low temperature embrittlement, weld cracking
and more about hydrogen. Also available if there is a ground swell of requests would be a Nuts
and Bolts discussing damage tolerance.

For an excellent overview see C. J. McMahon, Jr., Brittle Fracture of Grain Boundaries, Interface
Science 12, 141- 146, 2004.

For a review of the metallurgy of steels see G. Kraus, Steels, ASM International, 2005
What is temper embrittlement, and how can
it be controlled?
TWI Frequently asked questions

Temper embrittlement refers to the decrease in notch toughness of alloy steels when heated in, or
cooled slowly through, a temperature range of 400C to 600C. Temper embrittlement can also
occur as a result of isothermalexposure to this temperature range. The occurrence of temper
embrittlement can be determined by measurement of the change in transition temperature with a
notched bar impact test, before and after heat treatment. In most cases, thehardness and tensile
properties of the material will not show any change as a result of embrittlement, but the
transition temperature can be raised by as much as 100C for embrittling heat treatments.

Temper embrittlement is caused by the presence of specific impurities in the steel, which
segregate to prior austenite grain boundaries during heat treatment. The main embrittling
elements (in order of importance) are antimony,phosphorous, tin and arsenic. The fracture
surface of a material embrittled by these elements has an intergranular appearance.

Plain carbon steels with less than 0.5% Mn are not susceptible to temper embrittlement.
However, additions of Ni, Cr and Mn will cause greater susceptibility to temper embrittlement.
Small additions of W and Mo can inhibit temperembrittlement, but this inhibition is reduced with
greater additions.

The original toughness of a steel which has suffered temper embrittlement can be restored by
heating to above 600C, and then cooling rapidly to below 300C. However, the best method of
avoidance is to reduce theembrittling impurities through control of raw materials and steel
production.

In order to assess susceptibility to temper embrittlement in Cr-Mo steels, two compositional

parameters are commonly employed, the Watanabe J factor (1) and the Bruscato X factor (2).

J=(Mn + Si)(P + Sn) x104 (in wt %), has been applied to parent steels and weld metals.

X=(10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As)/100 (in ppm), is applied to weld metals.

If J is less than or equal to 180, or if X is less than 20, the risk of temper embrittlement is
considered to be low. A limit in this form can be specified for procurement, where concerns over
temper embrittlement exist. A moregeneral expression for embrittlement in weld metals was
given by Sugiyama et al(3):

P E = C + Mn + Mo + Cr/3 + Si/4 + 3.5 (10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As)

The maximum value for this expression to avoid serious embrittlement depends on the welding
process, but is given as 2.8-3.0 where coarse grained weld metal exists.
Step cooling can reveal the susceptibility of a steel to temper embrittlement. The Charpy impact
energy and transition temperature for steel after an embrittling heat treatment involving step
cooling have been related to give amathematical expression that when fulfilled ensures that the
material will not suffer an unacceptable degree of temper embrittlement in service (4).

AF + 2.5(SC - AF) < 38C

where
AF=As formed Charpy 54J temperature
SC=Step cooled Charpy 54J temperature

This expression is used in the construction of pressure vessels that may operate in the embrittling
temperature range, or that may pass slowly through that temperature range upon startup or
shutdown.

One step cooling method with hold times and temperatures is given in ASTM A387,
supplementary requirements[5] although this gives a more stringent requirement for the
acceptable degree oftemper embrittlement.

Temper embrittlement has been also related to reheat cracking and low-ductility creep fractures,
and a number of types and mechanisms have been proposed, considering carbide precipitation as
well as grain boundary embrittlingelements.

References

1. Ishiguo, T; Murakami, Y; Ohnishi, K and Watanabe, J: "2.25%Cr-1%Mo pressure vessel steels

with improved creep rupture strength"; Proceedings of the symposium on Applications of
2.25%Cr-1%Mo steel for thick-wall pressure vessels, ASTM STP 755, 1980, pp. 129-147.

2. Bruscato, R. M: "Embrittlement factors for estimating temper embrittlement in 2.25Cr:1Mo,

3.5Ni-1.75Cr-0.5Mo-0.1V and 3.5Ni steels"; ASTM conference, Miami, Florida, 1987.

3. Sugiyama, T; Hatori, N; Yamamoto, S; Yoshino, F and Kiuchi, A: "Temper embrittlement of Cr-Mo

weld metals"; IIW Doc. XII-E-6-81, IIW, 1981.

4. Erwin, W.E. and Kerr, J.G: "The use of Quenched and Tempered 2Cr-1Mo Steel for Thick Wall
Reactor Vessels in Petroleum Refinery Processes: An Interpretive review of 25 Years of Research
and Application"; WRC Bulletin 275, February 1982.

5. ASTM A387: "Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, Alloy steel, Chromium-
molybdenum"