CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (1/31)

Lecture 5. Concrete

Prepared by:
Fahim Al-Neshawy, D.Sc. (Tech.)
Aalto University School of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
A: P.O.Box 12100, FIN-00076 Aalto, Finland
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (2/31)

Table of Contents
Lecture 5. Concrete.................................................................................................................................... 1
5.1 Basic ingredients of concrete .......................................................................................................... 3
5.1.1 Cement...................................................................................................................................... 3
5.1.2 Aggregate .................................................................................................................................. 3
5.1.3 Water ........................................................................................................................................ 5
5.1.4 Concrete admixtures................................................................................................................ 5
5.2 Concrete mix design procedure (Nyknen method) ..................................................................... 7
5.2.1 Specified concrete properties ................................................................................................. 7
5.2.2 Procedure for concrete mix design ......................................................................................... 9
5.3 Batching and mixing of concrete .................................................................................................. 15
5.3.1 Batching of concrete ingredients .......................................................................................... 15
5.3.2 Concrete mixers ..................................................................................................................... 15
5.3.3 Mixing of concrete ................................................................................................................. 16
5.3.4 Ready-Mixed Concrete (RMC) ............................................................................................... 17
5.4 Properties of fresh concrete ......................................................................................................... 19
5.4.1 Workability ............................................................................................................................. 19
5.4.2 Setting time of concrete ........................................................................................................ 24
5.4.3 Air content .............................................................................................................................. 25
5.5 Properties of hardened concrete.................................................................................................. 26
5.5.1 Strength of concrete .............................................................................................................. 26
5.5.2 Creep of concrete ................................................................................................................... 27
5.5.3 Durability of concrete ............................................................................................................ 28
5.5.4 Shrinkage in Concrete ............................................................................................................ 28
5.5.5 Modulus of Elasticity .............................................................................................................. 29
5.5.6 Water tightness (impermeability) of concrete..................................................................... 29
5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete .............................................................. 30
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5.1 Basic ingredients of concrete

Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel or
crushed rocks) in which the cement and water have hardened by a chemical reaction hydration to
bind the nearly (non - reacting) aggregate.

Figure 1.Basic ingredients of concrete

The importance of the ingredients should be known before there are used in cement concrete.

5.1.1 Cement

Cement is binding material in the cement concrete. This concrete is used for different engineering
works where strength and durability are of prime importance.
Functions of cement:

It fills up voids existing in the fine aggregate and makes the concrete impermeable.
It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
It binds the aggregate into a solid mass by virtue of its setting and hardening properties when
mixed with water.

5.1.2 Aggregate

Aggregates are used in two size groups to provide good quality of concrete:

Fine aggregate (sand) particle size less than 4.75mm

Coarse aggregate Particle size more than 4.75mm
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Fine aggregate (sand):

Sand consists of small angular or rounded grains of silica. Sand is commonly used as the fine
aggregate in cement concrete. Both natural and artificial sands are used for this purpose.
Functions of sand:
1. It fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate.
2. It reduces shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
3. By varying the proportion of sand concrete can be prepared economically for any
required strength
4. It helps in hardening of cement by allowing the water through its voids.
5. To form hard mass of silicates as it is believed that some chemical reaction takes place
between silica of sand and constituents of cement.
Requirements:
1. Fine aggregate should consist of coarse angular sharp and hard grains.
2. It must be free from coatings of clay and silt.
3. It should not contain any organic matter.
4. It should be free from hygroscopic salt.
5. It should be strong and durable and chemical inert.
6. The size of sand grains should pass through 4.75mm sieve and should be entirely
retained on 75 micron sieve.
Coarse aggregate:
Functions of coarse aggregates:
1. Coarse aggregate makes solid and hard mass of concrete with cement and sand.
2. It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
3. It reduces the cost of concrete, since it occupies major volume.
Requirements:
1. Coarse aggregate used may be crushed stone, gravel and broken bricks.
2. Crushed stone: It is an excellent coarse aggregate provided. It is obtained by crushing
granite, sandstone and close grained limestone.
3. Crushed granite chips are commonly and advantageously used in reinforced cement
concrete.
4. Broken bricks well burnt and over burnt bricks are broken into suitable size and used as
aggregate. It should be well watered before its use. Broken bricks are used as
aggregate for concrete in foundations and under floors.
5. But generally crushed stone is only used as coarse aggregate.
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5.1.3 Water

The water is used in concrete plays an important part in the mixing, laying compaction setting and
hardening of concrete. The strength of concrete directly depends on the quantity and quality of water
is used in the mix.
Functions of water:
1. Water is only the ingredient that reacts chemically with cement and thus setting and
hardening takes place.
2. Water acts as a lubricant for the aggregate and makes the concrete workable.
3. It facilitates the spreading of cement over the fine aggregate.

5.1.4 Concrete admixtures

Concrete admixtures are added to change the properties of concrete to make it function as required.
Admixtures are used to modify properties of both fresh and hardened concrete as discussed below:

Functions of admixtures to modify fresh concrete properties:

a) To increase workability without increasing water content or to decrease the water content at
the same workability.
b) To retard or accelerate both initial and final setting times.
c) To reduce or prevent settlement.
d) To create slight expansion in concrete and mortar.
e) To modify the rate or capacity for bleeding or both.
f) To reduce segregation of concrete, mortars and grouts.
g) To improve penetration and or pumpability of concrete, mortars and grouts.
h) To reduce rate of slump loss.
Functions of admixtures to modify hardened concrete properties:
a) To retard or reduce heat generation during early hardening.
b) To accelerate the rate of strength development.
c) To increase the strength of concrete or mortar (Compressive, tensile or flexural).
d) To increase the durability or resistance to severe conditions of exposure including the
application de-icing salts.
e) To decrease the capillary flow of water.
f) To decrease the permeability to liquids.
g) To control the expansion caused by the reaction of alkalis with certain aggregate constituents.
h) To produce cellular concrete.
i) To increase the bond of concrete to steel reinforcement.
j) To increase the bond between old and new concrete.
k) To improve impact resistance and abrasion resistance.
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l) To inhibit the corrosion of embedded metal.

m) To produce coloured concrete or mortar.
The classification of concrete admixtures is presented as follow:
1. Set-Retarding:
Set retarding concrete admixtures are used to delay the chemical reaction that takes place when the
concrete starts the setting process.
2. Air-Entrainment:
Air entrained concrete can increase the freeze-thaw durability of concrete. Other benefits from this
admixture are:
High resistance to cycles of wetting and drying
High degree of workability
High degree of durability
The entrained air bubbles act as a physical buffer against the cracking caused by the stresses due to
water volume augmentation in freezing temperatures. Air entrainers are compatible with almost all
the concrete admixtures. Typically for every 1% of entrained air, compressive strength will be reduced
by about 5%.
3. Water-Reducing:
Water-reducing admixtures are chemical products that when added to concrete can create a desired
slump at a lower water cement ration than what is normally designed. Water-reducing admixtures are
used to obtain specific concrete strength using lower cement content.
4. Accelerating:
Accelerating concrete admixtures are used to increase the rate of concrete strength development, or
to reduce concrete setting time. Calcium chloride could be names as the most common accelerator
component; however, it could promote corrosion activity of steel reinforcement. Accelerating
admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.
5. Shrinkage Reducing:
Shrinkage reducing concrete admixtures are added to concrete during initial mixing. This type of
admixture could reduce early and long term drying shrinkage.
6. Super plasticizers:
The main purpose of using super plasticizers is to produce flowing concrete with very high slump in
the range of 200 - 250 mm to be used in heavily reinforced structures and in placements where
adequate consolidation by vibration cannot be readily achieved. The other major application is the
production of high-strength concrete at w/c's ranging from 0.3 to 0.4. High workability concrete
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (7/31)

containing super plasticizer can be made with a high freeze-thaw resistance, but air content must be
increased relative to concrete without super plasticizer.
7. Corrosion-Inhibiting:
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to slow
corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can significantly reduce maintenance
costs of reinforced concrete structures throughout a typical service life of 30 40 years.

5.2 Concrete mix design procedure (Nyknen method)

Mix design is the process of selecting the proportions of cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates
and, if they are to be used, additions and admixtures to produce an economical concrete mix with the
required fresh and hardened properties.
Nyknen method (1):

Developed by professor Arvo Nyknen (1912 1990)

1st version of the proportion method was developed in 1945 and the publications about the
method during the years 1947 and 1948
The new version of the methods established in 1955 because of the changes in the code of
practices and the development of concrete technology

5.2.1 Specified concrete properties

A properly proportioned concrete mix should possess the following qualities:

i. Acceptable workability of the freshly mixed concrete
ii. Durability, strength, and uniform appearance of the hardened concrete result from the
structural design process
iii. Economy.
The requirement (input) for the Nyknen method are:
The 28 days compressive strength of the concrete (nominal strength)
The slump of the fresh concrete mass (workability), shown in Table 1.
The 28 days compressive strength of the cement used
The air-content of concrete (generally assumed 2% for normal concrete)
The grading and the moisture content of the aggregates
The amount of absorbing water in the aggregates (generally estimated to be 0.4 %)
Any other information about the concrete structure

1
Arvo Nyknen, talven taitaja ja suhteituksen is. Online at http://www.finnsementti.fi/yritys/historia/arvo-nykanen-
talven-taitaja-ja-suhteituksen-isa
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Table 1. The permissible slump for various types of concrete in relation to their use2
Consistency (Slump), [mm]
Concrete structures
Maximum Minimum
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 125 50
Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls 100 25
Slabs, beams, thin reinforced walls and building columns 150 75
Pavements and floor laid on ground 75 25
Heavy mass construction 75 25

2
ACI 211.1 - 91 (Reapproved 2009), Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavy weight, and Mass
Concrete, specifically Chapter 6, Procedure and Appendix 1, Metric (SI) System Adaptation. Online at:
http://www.cecalc.com/das/concretemixdesign/concrete_mix_design_guide.pdf
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (9/31)

5.2.2 Procedure for concrete mix design

MIX DESIGN EXERCISE:

Proportion a concrete mix with a 28 day compressive strength of 35 MPa and a slump of 90
mm, made with ordinary Portland cement with cement strength of 49,5 MPa. Grading of
the aggregate is presented in Figure 4. All aggregates are dry, absorbing 0.8 %, not crushed
Step 1. Calculating the proportioning strength:
The proportion strength is calculated using the following equation:
42.5 (1)
= = 1.2 35 = 36
49.5
Where:
Ks is proportion strength for the concrete mix
Kt is the target strength factor, kt = 1.2
K is the nominal strength of the concrete (28d compressive strength)
Kcem is the cement strength factor
(kcem =(42.5/N), where N is the 28d cement strength in MPa, according to Nyknen
proportioning formula
Step 2. Choice of the aggregates and calculating of the grading factor (H)
Selecting the maximum coarse aggregate size: The maximum size of coarse aggregate that can be
used in a mix depends on the size, shape, and reinforcing of a concrete member.
Maximum aggregate size (Dmax) should not be larger than:
i) 1/5 the minimum dimension of structural members such as beams
columns, frames etc. (B),
ii) 1/3 the thickness of a concrete slab, or
iii) 3/4 the clearance between reinforcing rods (S)
iv) 3/4 the concrete cover depth (C) the clearance between
reinforcing steel and the concreting forms (molds).
These restrictions limit maximum aggregate size to 32 mm, except in mass applications. In many
areas, the largest available sizes are 16 mm. to 32 mm(3). For the laboratory concrete mix design, the
maximum aggregate size is the sieve size that passes 95% of the combined aggregate.
Specify the guideline passing values for sieve #0,125 mm and sieve #4 mm aggregates from the mix
design form based on (1) the proportion strength Ks and (2) the maximum aggregate (see Figure 4).

3
ACI 211.1: Maximum Aggregate Size For Concrete Mix Design. Online at:
http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1112/notes/project_2/beam/ACI_mix_design.pdf
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (10/31)

Figure 2. Selecting of the guideline passing values for #0,125 mm and #4 mm aggregates.

MIX DESIGN EXERCISE:

Based on the values from Figure 2, we generate groups of equations (based on the number of
aggregate fractions) in order to solve the %-values for the aggregates. In this example we consider
only three fractions, shown in Figure 4, to be solved manually using (iteration method in Excel for
example).

< # 0.125 mm a12 + b3 + c0 4%

< # 4 mm a100 + b30 + c5 37%
Combined a + b + c 100%
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Figure 3. Example of the fractions values calculation from BY 201 Betonitekniikan oppikirja. Notice
that the numbers in the figure are not valid for the example.

After a few iteration steps for the first and second equation, we got the following values: (a = 27%, b =
25% and c = 48%). Notice that you cant find the exact values for a, b and c, but make them close
enough.
The steps for the choice of the aggregates as follow (example using Excel sheet is shown in Figure 4):
1) Using the aggregate grading available
2) Calculate the passing percentages for each aggregate fraction based on (i) the cumulative
passing through 0.125 and 4 mm and (ii) fitting the aggregate limits curve
3) Calculate the granulometric value of the grading factor (H) using (2).

(%)
= (%) (2)
100
.
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Figure 4. Example of aggregate combination procedure and calculating the grading factor (H).

Step 3. Specifying the amounts of water, cement and aggregates

Using the mix design form shown in Figure 5 to specify

the amounts of water, cement and aggregates is
following the next procedure:
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Figure 5. Concrete mix design - Specifying the amounts of water, cement and aggregates
1) Using the grading factor (H) value, point (1)
2) Move vertically to the value of the concrete slump (input workability), point (2)
3) Move horizontally (consider the amount of crushed aggregates, which was 0% in the
example case) to point (3)
4) Move parallel with the same slope as the proportional strength Ks line until the meet the Ks
value, point (4)
5) Move horizontally (consider the air content, which was 2% in the example case) to point
(5). Notice: if the air content is more than 2%, 1st you move horizontally, then parallel to
the air content lines to point (5)
6) Connect point (5) with point (6), which is the value of the proportional strength K s using
straight line
7) Point (7) is the amount of water + air (dm/m-concrete). Because you know already the air
content (A), you be able to calculate the amount of water (W)
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8) Point (8) is the amount of aggregates (kg/m) or (dm/m). Remember to take into account
the effective amount of water (effective amount of water = total water absorbed water)
when calculating the final aggregate mix.
9) Point (9) is the amount of cement (kg/m) or (dm/m)

MIX DESIGN EXERCISE:

Water + Air = 188 dm/m point (7)
Air = 20 dm
Water = 188 20 =168 dm = 168 kg/m- concrete (density of water 1 kg/dm)
Aggregates = 1860 kg/m- concrete point (8)
Cement = 310 kg/m - concrete point (9)
All aggregates are dry (i.e moisture content 0%), absorbed water 0.8 %, not crushed

Step 4. Adjustments for aggregate moisture and final proportion

Aggregate weights:
Aggregate volumes are calculated based on oven dry unit weights, but aggregate is typically batched
based on actual weight. Therefore, any moisture in the aggregate will increase its weight and
stockpiled aggregates almost always contain some moisture. Without correcting for this, the batched
aggregate volumes will be incorrect.
Amount of mixing water:
If the batched aggregate is anything but saturated surface dry it will absorb water (if oven dry or air
dry) or give up water (if wet) to the cement paste. This causes a net change in the amount of water
available in the mix and must be compensated for by adjusting the amount of mixing water added.
Example of the aggregates and mixing water adjustments is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Concrete mix proportion with adjustment.
Water content of aggregates
Fraction Adjusted
Concrete Aggregate Mix Total Free Free BATCH
portion (kg/m)
(3)
Amount, kg/m Absorbed mix
fraction
(1) (2)
ingredient moisture water water _ _ _ _m
(%) water (%) (kg/m)
content (%) (%) (kg/m)
Cement 310 310 310

Sand 27 502 0 0.8 -0.8 -4.0 498

Aggregates 1860 Gravel 25 465 0 0.8 -0.8 -3.7 461

Rough
48 893 0 0.8 -0.8 -7.1 886
gravel
Water 168 168 183
(4)
Air content [20] [20]

(1) Free water = (total - absorbed) (%)

(2) Free water (kg/m) = (Free water (%) * amount of aggregate fraction (kg/m)) / 100
(3) Adjusted aggregate fraction value = value of aggregate fraction (kg/m) + Free water (kg/m)
Adjusted water value = Water content (kg/m) - total amount of free water (kg/m)
(4) The target volume of the air in the concrete mix (dm/m)
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5.3 Batching and mixing of concrete

The proper batching, mixing, and handling of fresh concrete are important prerequisites for strong
and durable concrete structures. There are several steps and precautions that must be followed in
mixing and handling fresh concrete in order to ensure a quality material with the desired
characteristics.

5.3.1 Batching of concrete ingredients

Batching is measuring and introducing the concrete ingredients into the mixer:

Batching by volume:
o This method is generally adopted for small jobs.
o Gauge boxes are used for measuring the fine and coarse aggregate.
Batching by Weight:
o Batching by weight is more preferable to volume batching, as it is more accurate and
leads to more uniform proportioning.
o It does not have uncertainities associated with bulking.
o Batching by weight equipment falls into 3 general categories:
1) Manual: batching of concrete are done manually and it is used for small jobs.
2) Semi-automatic: the aggregate bin gates are opened by manually operated
switches and are closed automatically when the material has been delivered.
This system also contains interlock which prevents charging and discharging.
3) Fully automatic: the materials are weighted automatically Ready mixed
plants.

5.3.2 Concrete mixers

Concrete should be mixed thoroughly, either in a mixer or by hand, until it becomes uniform in
appearance.

Hand mixing is usually limited to small jobs or situations in which mechanical mixers are not
available.
Mechanical mixers include on-site mixers and central mixers in ready-mix plants.
The capacity of these mixers varies from 1.5 m3 to 9 m3.
Most of the mixers are batch mixers, although some mixers are continuous.
Batch mixers are pan mixers and drum mixers
Drum mixers vary in type, such as tilting, non-tilting, and reversing-type mixers.
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (16/31)

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Figure 6. Concrete mixtures. A) pan type mixer and drum type concrete mixers: (B) non-tilting mixer,
(C) tilting drum mixer, and (D) reversing mixers.

5.3.3 Mixing of concrete

Mixing time and number of revolutions vary with the size and type of the mixer.
Specifications usually require a minimum of 1 minute of mixing for stationary mixers of up to
0.75 m3 of capacity, with an increase of 15 seconds for each additional 0.75 m 3 of capacity.
Mixers are usually charged with 10% of the water, followed by uniform additions of solids and
80% of the water. Finally, the remainder of the water is added to the mixer.
The loading method includes the order of loading the constituents into the mixer and also the
duration of the loading period. The duration of this period depends on how long the constituents are
mixed dry before the addition of water and how fast the constituents are loaded. The loading period
is extended from the time when the first constituent is introduced in the mixer to when all the
constituents are in the mixer. The loading period is divided into two parts:
1) dry mixing:
occurs during loading but before water is introduced
2) wet mixing
Wet mixing is the mixing after or while water is being introduced, but still during loading.
The mixing period is defined as the time between the loading of all constituents and the beginning of
concrete discharge (see Figure 7).
The discharge from the mixer should be arranged so that it increases productivity (fast discharge),
and it does not modify (slow discharge) the homogeneity of the concrete.
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Figure 7. Mixing schedule.

5.3.4 Ready-Mixed Concrete (RMC)

Ready-mixed concrete is mixed in a central plant, and delivered to the job site in mixing trucks ready
for placing (Figure 8).

Ready Mix Concrete is a technique of production of concrete in massive quantities away from
the actual site of placing.
It is very useful where demand of concrete is very high and construction sites are in blocked
areas, where mixing on site is not possible due to lake of storage place.
RMC is ready to use material. It is widely adopted throughout the world.
It reduces noise pollution as well as air pollution.
The supervisory and labour costs associated with the production of RMC is less, and the
quality of concrete is high.
It is suitable for huge industrial and residential projects where time plays a vital role.
So ultimately it provides economy in the construction and better finish to the structure.

Three mixing methods can be used for ready-mixed concrete:

1. Central-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a stationary mixer and delivered in an agitator
truck (2 rpm to 6 rpm).
2. Shrink-mixed concrete is partially mixed in a stationary mixer and completed in a mixer truck
(4 rpm to 16 rpm).
3. Truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a mixer truck (4 rpm to 16 rpm).
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Figure 8. Schematic view of a ready mix plant

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5.4 Properties of fresh concrete (4)

There are two sets of criteria that we must consider when making concrete:
1. Short-term requirements, like workability
2. Long-term requirements of hardened concrete, such as, strength, durability, and volume
stability

5.4.1 Workability

ACI (American Concrete Institute) defines the concrete workability as that property of freshly mixed
concrete or mortar which determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,
consolidated and finished.
A concrete is said to be workable if:

It can be handled without segregation

It can be placed without loss of homogeneity
It can be compacted with specified effort
It can be finished easily
Depending upon the water cement ratio in the concrete mix, the workability may be determined by
the following three methods: (i) Slump Test, (ii) Compaction Factor Test, (iii) Vee-bee Consistometer
test. The workability is a composite property, with at least two main components:
a. Consistency: which is described as the ease of flow of the concrete, and
b. Cohesiveness: which he describes as the tendency not to bleed or segregate
This lecture will cover the slump test. For more reading about the other test see for example the
following link: http://civilblog.org/2015/10/29/3-methods-of-determining-workability-of-concrete/
5.4.1.1 Factor affecting the workability
The factors which affect workability of concrete are:

Cement content of concrete: More the quantity of cement, the more will be the paste
available to coat the surface of aggregates and fill the voids between them will help to
reduce the friction between aggregates and smooth movement of aggregates during mixing,
transporting, placing and compacting of concrete
Water content of concrete: Generally, a water cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.6 is used for good
workable concrete without the use of any admixture.
Mix proportions of concrete: the low cement - aggregate ratio of concrete will make the less
paste available for aggregates and mobility of aggregates is restrained.

4
http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/everything_about_concrete/08_fresh.html
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Size of aggregates: Lower sizes of aggregates with same water content are less workable than
the large size aggregates
Shape of aggregates: rounded aggregates will be easy to mix than elongated, angular and
flaky aggregates due to less frictional resistance.
Use of admixtures in concrete: workability enhancer admixtures such as plasticizers and super
plasticizers which increases the workability of concrete even with low water/cement ratio
5.4.1.2 Consistency (Slump) test
Workability (Consistency) of concrete mixture is measured by slump test, EN 12350-2 - Testing fresh
concrete. Slump test (5). Slump test, shown in Figure 9, is carried out with a mould called slump cone
whose top diameter is 10cm, bottom diameter is 20 cm and height is 30 cm. the test may be
performed in the following steps:
1. Place the slump mould on a smooth flat and non-absorbent surface.
2. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about one-fourth of its height.
3. Compact the concrete 25 times with the help of a tamping rod uniformly all over the area.
4. Place the concrete in the mould about half of its height and compact it again.
5. Place the concrete up to its three fourth height and then up to its top. Compact each layer 25
times with the help of tamping rod uniformly. For the second subsequent layers, the tamping
rod should penetrate into underlying layers.
6. Strike off the top surface of mould with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is filled to
its top.
7. Remove the mould immediately, ensuring its movement in vertical direction.
8. When the settlement of concrete stops, measure the subsidence of the concrete in millimetres
which is the required slump of the concrete.

Figure 9. Measurement of the concrete slump (Slump Test)

5
http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/workability-site-test-recommended-values/5150/
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (21/31)

The standards for slump defines three conditions where the slump test should not be used, see .
1) Non-plastic concrete (Zero Slump): When slump is less than 15 mm, concrete may not be
adequately plastic for the slump test. The slump test is not effective in distinguishing these
concrete mixtures: two concretes with a zero slump can have drastically different workability,
especially in their response to vibration.
2) Non-cohesive concrete (Collapsed slump): When slump is greater than 230 mm, concrete may
not be adequately cohesive for the slump test. Non-cohesive concrete is highly susceptible to
segregation and should be redesigned, such as by adding a viscosity modifying admixture or
adjusting aggregate grading. Not all concrete with slump greater than 230 mm is non-
cohesive. For example, self-consolidating concrete can flow under its own mass with adequate
cohesion to resist segregation.
3) Shear slump concrete: If during the slump test, a portion of the concrete shears from the rest
of the concrete, the slump cannot be evaluated.

Figure 10. Concrete slump conditions.

Applications of slump test

The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under
field conditions and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.
This test is very useful on site as a check on the day-to-day or hour- to-hour variation in the
materials being fed into the mixer. An increase in slump may mean, for instance, that the
moisture content of aggregate has unexpectedly increases.
Other cause would be a change in the grading of the aggregate, such as a deficiency of sand.
Too high or too low a slump gives immediate warning and enables the mixer operator to
remedy the situation.
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Table 3. Concrete slump for various uses.

Slump Method of
Consistency Use
[mm] compaction
High Constructions with narrow passages and/or complex shapes. Heavily
100 - 150 Manual
workability reinforced concrete.
Medium
50 - 100 All normal uses. Non-reinforced and normally reinforced concrete. Manual
workability
Open structures with fairly open reinforcement, which are heavily
Manual or
Plastic 25 - 50 worked manually for compaction like floors and pavings. Mass
Mechanical
concrete.
Non-reinforced or sparsely reinforced open structures like floors and
Stiff 0 - 25 pavings which are mechanically vibrated. Factory pre-fabrication of Mechanical
concrete goods. Concrete blocks.
Mechanical or
Damp 0 Factory prefabrication of the concrete goods.
Pressure

5.4.1.3 Segregation and Bleeding

Figure 11. Segregation of concrete.

Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh concrete, resulting in a non-uniform

mix. This can be seen as a separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar, caused from either the
settling of heavy aggregate to the bottom or the separation of the aggregate from the mix due to
improper placement.
Some factors that increase segregation are:

Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and proportion of the larger particles.
High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
Particle shape and texture.
Water/cement ratio.

Good handling and placement techniques are most important in prevention of segregation.
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Figure 12. Bleeding of concrete.

Bleeding is defined as the appearance of water on the surface of concrete after it has consolidated
but before it is set. Since mixing water is the lightest component of the concrete, this is a special form
of segregation. Bleeding is generally the result of aggregates settling into the mix and releasing their
mixing water. Some bleeding is normal for good concrete.
However, if bleeding becomes too localized, channels will form resulting in "craters". The upper layers
will become too rich in cement with a high w/c ratio causing a weak, porous structure. Salt may
crystalize on the surface which will affect bonding with additional lifts of concrete. This formation
should always be removed by brushing and washing the surface. Also, water pockets may form under
large aggregates and reinforcing bars reducing the bond.
Bleeding may be reduced by:

Increasing cement fineness.

Increasing the rate of hydration.
Using air-entraining admixtures.
Reducing the water content.
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5.4.2 Setting time of concrete

Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh

concrete. Hardening is the development of useable
and measurable strength; setting precedes hardening.
Both are gradual changes controlled by hydration.
Fresh concrete will lose measurable slump before
initial set and measurable strength will be achieved
after final set.
Setting is controlled by the hydration of C3S. The
period of good workability is during the dormant
period, (stage 2). Initial set corresponds to the
beginning of stage 3, a period of rapid hydration. Final
set is the midpoint of this acceleration phase. A rapid
increase in temperature is associated with stage 3
hydration, with a maximum rate at final set.
If large amounts of ettringite rapidly form from C3A hydration, the setting times will be reduced.
Cements with high percentages of C3A, such as expansive or set-regulated cements, are entirely
controlled by ettringite formation.

Figure 13. Stages in the hydration of cement.

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The concrete setting time at various temperatures is given at Table 4 below:

Table 4. Setting time of concrete at various temperature.
Temperature Approximate Setting Time
[C] [hours]
38 0.66 to 1
32 0.66 to 2
27 4
21 6
16 8
10 11
4 14
-1 19
-7 Set will not occur

5.4.3 Air content

The main reason for entraining air in concrete is to control damage from freeze thaw cycles. Air tests
determine the total content of entrained and entrapped air in concrete. During batching and mixing
tiny air bubbles are created in the concrete mix. If the concrete contains an air-entraining admixture,
these bubbles remain stabilized in the mix due to the electrostatic binding of air, water and cement.
In concrete without air entrainment, all but about 2% of the air content escapes or dissolves after
consolidation because the bubbles are not bonded to the water and cement. The remaining air is
called entrapped air. Entrapped air will not aid in preventing freeze thaw damage.
The methods for measuring total air content (entrapped and entrained) of concrete are:

Pressure Method
Volumetric Method
Gravimetric Method
Chase Air Indicator
The pressure method is used for mixes containing normal to heavy-weight aggregate.
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The pressure method test procedure:

1. the test should begin within 15 minutes after
obtaining the composite sample.
2. Start by filling the 8 liter base of the air-content
test device in three equal layers, and rod each
layer 25 times. After rodding, strike the outside of
the base with a mallet 12 to 15 times to close any
air voids.
3. After completing the three equal layers, strike off
the bowl flush at the top to completely fill the 8
liter volume.
4. At this point, it can be weighed as part of the
calculation to determine the fresh concrete unit
weight (density of fresh concrete).
5. Next, latch the top of the air-content test device
over the base and fill the air gap between the top
of the struck-off concrete and the underside of the Figure 14. Fresh concrete testing - Air
top of air meter with water. entrainment meter (6)

6. The meter top is then pressurized with the built-in hand pump until zeroed out.
7. After a stabilization period, release the pressure in the top and read the air-void content on
the dial on the top of the meter.
8. Subtract the aggregate correction factor from the dial reading and report the final value.
Testing tip: Aggregate correction factor = reading on gage - % of air removed. The % of air
removed is the amount of water removed from meter into the calibration vessel.

5.5 Properties of hardened concrete

Fully cured, hardened concrete must be strong enough to withstand the structural and service loads
which will be applied to it and must be durable enough to withstand the environmental exposure for
which it is designed. If concrete is made with high-quality materials and is properly proportioned,
mixed, handled, placed and finished, it will be the strongest and durable building material. The
properties of hardened concrete are: Strength, Creep, Durability, Shrinkage, Modulus of Elasticity and
Water tightness (impermeability).

5.5.1 Strength of concrete

When we refer to concrete strength, we generally talk about compressive strength of concrete.
Because, concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension and bending. Concrete
compressive strength is measured in (MPa). Compressive strength mostly depends upon amount and
type of cement used in concrete mix. It is also affected by the water-cement ratio, mixing method,

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placing and curing. Concrete tensile strength ranges from 7% to 12% of compressive strength. Both
tensile strength and bending strength can be increased by adding reinforcement.

Figure 15. Strength gaining of concrete with age (7).

5.5.2 Creep of concrete

Creep of concrete is the continued deformation with time under applied load. The rate of creep
decrease with time and the creep strains at five years are taken as terminal values. Creep increases
rapidly with the stress, loading at an early age of concrete, broken ballast, soft and porous aggregate,
poorly graded and improperly compacted concrete. The deformation of hardened concrete is shown
in Figure 16. The Causes of Creep are.

Closer of internal voids of concrete

Viscous flow of the cement paste inside concrete
Flow of water out of the cement gel inside concrete.

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Figure 16. Deformation of hardened concrete

5.5.3 Durability of concrete

Durability might be defined as the ability to maintain satisfactory performance over and extended
service life. The design service life of most buildings is often 30 years, although buildings often last 50
to 100 years. Most concrete buildings are demolished due to obsolescence rather than deterioration.
Different concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment
and properties desired. Appropriate concrete ingredients, mix proportions, finishes and curing
practices can be adjusted on the basis of required durability of concrete.

5.5.4 Shrinkage in Concrete

Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one of
the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term strength and durability. To
the practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is important from the point of view
that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete. Shrinkage can be classified in the following way:
a) Plastic Shrinkage: Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete or by the
absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic shrinkage.
b) Drying Shrinkage
c) Autogeneous Shrinkage: In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or
from the paste is permitted, when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The
shrinkage of such a conservative system is known as autogeneous shrinkage. Autogeneous
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shrinkage is of minor importance and is not applicable in practice to many situations except
that of mass of concrete in the interior of a concrete dam
d) Carbonation Shrinkage: Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in weight of the concrete
and by shrinkage.

5.5.5 Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends on the Modulus of Elasticity 0f the concrete ingredients
and their mix proportions. The value of the concrete could be predicted based on the compressive
strength of concrete. The values modulus of elasticity are derived from the following equation.

= + 0.2 , (1)
where:
Ec28 = static modulus of elasticity at 28 days, GPa
cu, 28 = characteristic cube strength, MPa
Ko = a constant closely related to the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate (taken as 20
kN/mm2 for normal-density concrete)

5.5.6 Water tightness (impermeability) of concrete

If concrete is impermeable, corrosive agents cannot penetrate and attack it. Concrete basically has
two types of pores, which determine permeability. These are capillary pores (with a diameter varying
between 0.01 to 10 micron) in the cement, paste which coats the aggregates and larger micro voids,
between 1 mm to 10 mm, which are caused by faulty compaction of fresh concrete.

When voids are interconnected because of their larger number and size a continuous link is formed,
which makes the concrete permeable.
There are three major factors which determine the permeability in concrete.
a. Water cement ration,
b. Compaction and
c. Curing.
Each factor is equally important, if one of these factors is not controlled, the result will be increase, in
permeability of the concrete. It can be shown that permeability increases as water cement ratio
increase. Typically, at a water cement ratio of around 0.4, permeability is practically zero.
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Figure 17. Factors controlling impermeability of concrete.

5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is a combination of traditional cement concrete with reinforcements (steel bar).
This combination is made to utilize the compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel
simultancely. In reinforced concrete, the components works together to resist many types of loading.
Concrete resists compression and steel reinforcement resists tension forces. Reinforced concrete, as
an economic building material, is very popular now-a-days. It is widely used in many types building
around the world. Along with many advantages reinforced concrete also poses some disadvantages
also.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building materials.
Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good amount
tensile stress.
Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.
Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material in the beginning, can be economically moulded into a
nearly limitless range of shapes.
The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
In structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material.
It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
As reinforced concrete can be moulded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labour for
the erection of structure.
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Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All of this affect
the final strength.
The cost of the forms used for casting reinforced concrete is relatively higher.
For multi-storied building the reinforced concrete column section for is larger than steel
section as the compressive strength is lower in the case of reinforced concrete.
Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.