Machining Processes

IME 240
 Material Removal Processes
Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of
material from a workpiece
Includes Cutting, Abrasive Processes (grinding),
Advanced Machining Processes (electrical, chemical,
thermal, hydrodynamic, lasers)
Automation began when lathes were introduced in 1700s
Now have computer numerical control (CNC) machines
Machining operations are a system consisting of:
Workpiece material, properties, design, temperature
Cutting tool shape, material, coatings, condition Independent
variables
Machine tool design, stiffness & damping, structure
Fixture workpiece holding devices
Cutting parameters speed, feed, depth of cut
 Range of Material Removal Processes
Energy Transfer Energy Transfer
source medium Process source medium Process

fluid
tool
shield
Rigid Chemical Liquid

Machining Chemical machining

vibrations electrolyte
Mechanical Electrical
Granular abrasive and Liquid tool
Ultrasonic Chemical
ECM
machining

gas
Liquid/
high pressure jet torch
Gaseous Thermal Gaseous
(granular) Flame cutting
Jet cutting Plasma cutting

tool Gaseous Laser beam machining

Electrical Liquid Energy or Electron beam machining
beam Vacuum Ion beam machining
EDM
 Material Removal Processes
Material removal processes are often required after
casting or forming to:
Improve dimensional accuracy
Produce external and internal geometric features, sharp corners, or
flatness not possible with forming or shaping
Obtain final dimensions and surfaces with finishing operations
Obtain special surface characteristics or textures
Provide the most economical means of producing a particular part
Limitations, because material removal processes:
Inevitably waste material
Generally require more energy, capital, and labor than forming or
shaping operations
Can have adverse effects on the surface quality and properties,
unless carried out properly,
Generally take longer than shaping a product with other processes
 Types of Machining Process

Single Cutting Edge (Point) Processes

Multi-Cutting Edge (Point) Processes
Random Point Cutting Processes
Abrasive Machining
Within each category the basic motions
(kinematics) differentiate one process from
another
 Machine Tool Motions

Primary motion that

causes cutting to take
place.
Feed motion that
causes more of the
part surface to be
machined
Rotations and/or
translations of the
workpiece or cutting
tool
Single Point Machining Operations
 Planing Machine

Primary motion is
translation of the
workpiece
Feed motion is
translation of the tool
incrementally between
cuts
 Shaping Machine

Primary motion is
translation of the tool
Feed motion is
translation of the
workpiece between
cuts
Turning Operations

Primary motion is rotation of the

workpiece
Feed motion is translation of the cutting
tool continuous driven by spindle
rotation
Turning

Turning is
the
process
for
machining
round
work-
pieces on
a lathe
Workpieces Made by Turning
Lathe Components
or, guideways
or slideways
 CNC
Lathe
with
Turrets

(a) (b)

Figure 22.11 (a) A turret with six

different tools for inside-diameter
and outside-diameter cutting and
threading operations. (b) A turret
with eight different cutting tools.
Source: Monarch Machine Tool
Company.
 Workholding Devices

3-jaw and 4-jaw Chucks

Mandrels
Workholding Devices Collets and Face Plates
 Turning Formulae

Material removal rate (MRR) is the volume of material

removed per unit time (mm3/min or in3/min)

Do D f l Cutting time (t)

MRR Davg dfN dfN t not including
2 fN tool approach
and retraction.

Cutting speed, V = D0N

 Power for Machining

Power required at
cutting tool = MRR
* Specific cutting
power
Power at motor =
power at cutting
tool/ mechanical
efficiency of drive
system
 Turning Parameters
TABLE 22.3
N = Rotational speed of the workpiece, rpm
f = Feed, mm/rev or in/rev
v = Feed rate, or linear speed of the tool along workpiece length, mm/min or in/min
=fN
V = Surface speed of workpiece, m/min or ft/min
= o N (for maximum speed)
D

= Davg N (for average speed)

l = Length of cut, mm or in.
Do = Original diameter of workpiece, mm or in.
Df = Final diameter of workpiece, mm or in.
Davg = Average diameter of workpiece, mm or in.
= (Do +Df ) /2
d = Depth of cut, mm or in.
= ( Do - Df ) /2
t = Cutting time, s or min
=l/f N
3 3
MRR = mm /min or in /min
= Davg d fN
Torque = Nm or lb ft
= ( Fc )( Davg /2 )
Power = kW or hp
= (Torque) ( , where =2 radians/min
)

Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must be
used and checked in the formulas.
 Turning Considerations
Design parts for ease of fixturing and clamping (avoid thin, slender
parts)
Specify wide tolerances and surface finishes if possible
Avoid sharp corners, tapers, and major dimensional variations
Use near-net-shape forming to reduce machining cycle times
Design features that only need standard cutting tools, inserts, and
toolholders
Select materials with good machinability
Provide good support and stiffness in the turning operation
Adjust parameters if chatter occurs
TABLE 22.9
Problem Probable causes
Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; machine tool lacks stiffness; worn bearings and
machine components; cutting parameters too high.
Excessive tool wear Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; ineffective cutting fluid; improper tool angles.
Rough surface finish Built-up edge on tool; feed too high; tool too sharp, chipped or worn; vibration and chatter.
Dimensional variability Lack of stiffness; excessive temperature rise; tool wear.
Tool chatter Lack of stiffness; workpiece not supported rigidly; excessive tool overhang.
 Boring

Machining operation performed on the inside of a hollow

workpiece of in a hole made previously by drilling or other
processes
Deflection of the boring bar can cause dimensional
inaccuracy
High stiffness of the boring bar minimizes deflection,
vibration, and chatter (such as tungsten carbide material
or built-in damping devices)
Design considerations:
Use through holes instead of blind holes if possible
The greater the length-to-bore diameter ratio, the more difficult it is to
hold dimensions because of deflections of the boring bar due to
cutting forces
Interrupted internal surfaces should be avoided
 Boring
Machines

Figure 22.20 (a) Schematic illustration of a

steel boring bar with a carbide insert. Note
the passageway in the bar for cutting fluid
application. (b) Schematic illustration of a
boring bar with tungsten-alloy inertia disks
sealed in the bar to counteract vibration and
chatter during boring. This system is
effective for boring bar length-to-diameter
ratios of up to 6. (c) Schematic illustration of
the components of a vertical boring mill.
Source: Kennametal Inc.

Figure 22.21 Horizontal boring mill.

Source: Giddings and Lewis, Inc.
Multi-Point Machining Operations
 Broaching
In broaching, multiple teeth machine
internal or external surfaces such as holes,
keyways, gear teeth, or flat surfaces
Total depth of cut per stroke is the sum of
the per tooth depths, up to 38 mm (1.5 in)
Expensive, but good productivity, surface
finish, and dimensional accuracy
Broach tool is pushed or pulled (preferred) through the workpiece

(a) Typical parts made by internal broaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching. Heavy
lines indicate broached surfaces. Source: General Broach and Engineering Company.
 Sawing
The width of
cut, or kerf, in
sawing is
narrow so
less material
is wasted
At least 2 or 3
teeth should
always be
engaged in
the workpiece
to avoid
snagging
Hacksaws,
Circular
saws, Band Examples of various sawing operations. Source: DoALL Co.
saws, etc.
 Drill Presses and Drill Bits

(a)

Figure
22.2
Various
types of
drills
 Drilling

Creating a hole in a workpiece by mounting a drill bit on the tailstock

The most accurate holes are produced by centering, drilling, boring,
and them reaming, as well as possibly honing or grinding to improve
internal surface and deburring the tool exit surface of through holes
Holemaking is a major cost of components such as engines
Gang drilling produces multiple holes at once
 Drilling Parameters

Drills can have high length-to-diameter ratios allowing them to drill

deep holes
Holes drilled on a lathe are not always concentric due to drift
Long drill bits can deflect or break due to excessive thrust forces
Chips must be removed from within the hole being drilled, and
coolant may need to be delivered into the hole

D 2
MRR fN Power MRR * SpecificEn ergy
4
Max. cutting speed = DN
Power
Torque
Rotational Speed Cutting Time = hole depth/ fN
 Drilling Considerations
Designs should allow holes to be drilled on flat surfaces
perpendicular to the drill motion to avoid deflection
Avoid interrupted hole surfaces
Use standard drill-point angles for hole bottoms if possible
Through holes are preferred over blind holes
If holes are large, workpiece should have a preexisting hole from
forming or casting
Design parts to minimize fixturing and repositioning
It may be difficult to ream blind or intersecting holes due to the
possibility of tool breakage so provide extra depth.
Blind holes should be drilled deeper than subsequent reaming or
tapping operations
 Troubleshooting Drilling Processes
TABLE 22.12 General Troubleshooting Guide for Drilling Operations
Problem Probable causes
Drill breakage Dull drill; drill seizing in hole because of chips clogging flutes; feed too high; lip
relief angle too small.
Excessive drill wear Cutting speed too high; ineffective cutting fluid; rake angle too high; drill burned
and strength lost when sharpened.
Tapered hole Drill misaligned or bent; lips not equal; web not central.
Oversize hole Same as above; machine spindle loose; chisel edge not central; side pressure on
workpiece.
Poor hole surface finish Dull drill; ineffective cutting fluid; welding of workpiece material on drill margin;
improperly ground drill; improper alignment.

Figure 22.27 The determination of drill

life by monitoring the rise in force or
torque as a function of the number of holes
drilled. This test is also used for
determining tap life.
Reamers
 Trepanning
Trepanning produces a hole without reducing all of the removed
material into chips
Trepanning can produce disks up to 150 mm (6 inches) diameter from
flat sheet or plates
Trepanning can also be used to produce grooves for O-rings
 Cutting Screw Threads
Threads may be right-handed or left-handed, straight or tapered
Threads can be produced by forming (most), casting (with
dimensional inaccuracy), or machining (thread cutting)
Standard Nomenclature is in Figures 22.16 and 22.17
 Screw Thread Considerations
Designs should allow for termination of thread before they reach a
shoulder or the bottom of a blind hole
Eliminate shallow, blind tapped holes
Use chamfers to minimize finlike threads with burrs
Do not interrupt threads with slots, holes, or other discontinuities
Use standard thread tooling and inserts when possible
Thin-walled parts should have sufficient thickness and strength to
resist clamping and cutting forces. A good rule of thumb is that the
minimum engagement length of a fastener should be 1.5 times the
diameter
Design parts so that all cutting operations can be completed in one
setup
 Tapping
Produces internal screw threads in previously drilled or reamed holes
A tap has two (most commonly), three, or four cutting teeth (flutes)
Taps are usually made of carbon steel (light duty) or high-speed steels
(heavy production)
30-40% of machining operations in automotive manufacturing involves
tapping holes
Chip removal and coolant delivery are important issues
Drilling and tapping with a single specialized tool is called drapping
 Milling

A rotating, multi-tooth cutter removes

material and produces multiple chips in
a single revolution
CNC machining centers can perform
multiple operations in a single setup
 Milling Machines
Figure 23.15 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-
spindle column-and-knee type milling machine. Source:
G. Boothroyd.

Workholding is accomplished with

fixtures, vises, or clamps, which
may also be flexible

Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle

column-and-knee type milling machine (also called a knee
miller). Source: G. Boothroyd.
 Horizontal Milling Machines

Primary motion is rotation of the cutting tool

Feed motion is translation of the workpiece
 Slab Milling
In slab, or peripheral, milling the axis of cutter rotation in parallel to the
workpiece surface being machined
Cutters may have straight or helical teeth, resulting in orthogonal or oblique
cutting action, respectively (helical teeth lower tooth load, tool forces, chatter)
In conventional (up milling) the maximum chip thickness is at the end of the
cut, so tooth engagement does not depend upon workpiece surface quality or
scaling, but clamping forces must be higher and chatter is harder to avoid
In climb (down milling) the cut starts with the maximum chip thickness but
high impact forces can be a problem
Horizontal Milling Tools
 Milling Parameters
TABLE 23.1
N = Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm
f = Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth
D = Cutter diameter, mm or in. Undeformed chip
n = Number of teeth on cutter thickness for
v = Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./min straight-tooth
V = Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min cutter
=D N 2 fd
tc
f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth D
=v /N n
l = Length of cut, mm or in.
t = Cutting time, s or min
=( l+lc ) v , where lc =extent of the cutters first contact with workpiece
MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min
=w d v , where w is the width of cut
Torque = N-m or lb-ft
( Fc ) (D/2)
Power = kW or hp
= (Torque) ( ), where = 2 N radians/min
Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must
be used in the formulas.
End and Face
Milling
Face Milling Cutters
 Face Milling
In face milling the axis
of cutter rotation is
perpendicular to the
workpiece surface

Cutter
diameter
to width of
cut ratio
D:w < 3:2

A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts.

Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Co.

Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb milling;
(c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling. The width of cut, w, is not
necessarily the same as the cutter radius. Source: Ingersoll Cutting Tool Co.
 Face Milling Feed Marks and Chatter
Face milling leaves feed marks on the surface of the workpiece
Feed marks can lead to chatter in subsequent cuts
Chatter is self-excited vibration
Due to surface variations, cutting forces vary and
the tool vibrates in a regenerative manner

Figure 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface: (a) small
corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of a small radius followed by a large radius which
leaves smoother feed marks. Source: Kennametal Inc. (d) Feed marks due to various insert shapes.
 Milling Considerations
Use standard milling cutters
Use chamfers instead of radii
Avoid internal cavities and pockets because cutters have a finite edge
radius
Stiff workpieces minimize deflections from clamping or cutting forces
Mount cutters as close to the spindle base as possible to reduce tool
deflections and avoid chatter and vibration
Use rigid tool holders and fixturing
In case of chatter, change tool shape and process conditions, or use
cutters with fewer teeth or random spacing
 Troubleshooting Milling Operations

TABLE 23.5
Problem Probable causes
Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cutting
parameters too high.
Tool wear excessive Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool
angles; improper cutting fluid.
Rough surface finish Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool
chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter.
Tolerances too broad Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips
clogging cutter.
Workpiece surface Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small.
burnished
Back striking Dull cutting tools; cutter spindle tilt; negative tool angles.
Chatter marks Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and
width of cut too large.
Burr formation Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or
exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry.
Breakout Lead angle too low; incorrect cutting edge geometry; incorrect angle
of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.
 Gear Manufacturing
Gears can be manufactured by casting, forging, extrusion, drawing,
thread rolling, and powder metallurgy
Blanking sheet metal can be used to make thin gears for watches or
clocks
Plastic gears
can be made
by injection
molding or
casting
Machining
gears is
accomplished
by gear
generating or
form cutting

Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.

 Gear Form Cutting and Generating
Form cutting is accomplished with a shaped milling cutter or broach
Generating is done with a hob, or pinion- or rack-shaped cutters

(a) Producing
gear teeth on a
blank by form
cutting. (b)
Schematic
illustration of
gear generating
with a pinion-
shaped gear
cutter. (c)
Schematic
illustration of
gear generating
in a gear shaper
using a pinion-
shaped cutter.
Note that the
cutter
reciprocates
vertically. (d)
Gear generating
with rack-
shaped cutter.