British Journal of Anaesthesia 95 (1): 5968 (2005)

doi:10.1093/bja/aei065 Advance Access publication January 21, 2005

Postoperative analgesia in infants and children

P.-A. Lonnqvist1{ and N. S. Morton2*{
1
Astrid Lindgrens Childrens Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden. 2University of
Glasgow, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Br J Anaesth 2005; 95: 5968

Keywords: analgesia, paediatric; analgesics; pain, acute; pain, postoperative

Over 20 yr ago, a survey reported that 40% of paediatric techniques of concurrent or co-analgesia based on four
surgical patients experienced moderate or severe postoperat- classes of analgesics, namely local anaesthetics, opioids,
ive pain and that 75% had insufficient analgesia.106 Since non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and acet-
then, a range of safe and effective techniques have been aminophen (paracetamol).61 72 74 97 98 117 119 135 In particular,
developed. a local/regional analgesic technique should be used in all
cases unless there is a specific reason not to and the opioid-
Neonatal pain perception sparing effects of local anaesthetics, NSAIDs, and acetami-
nophen (paracetamol) are useful. Indeed, for many day-case
The structural components necessary to perceive pain are procedures, opioids may be omitted because combinations
already present at about 25 weeks gestation whereas the
of the other three classes provide good pain control in most
endogenous descending inhibitory pathways are not fully
cases.88 125 Regional anaesthesia is nearly always conducted
developed until mid-infancy.2 4 164 Opioid and other recep-
in anaesthetized children, but some high risk neonates have
tors are much more widely distributed in fetuses and neo-
lower perioperative morbidity after inguinal surgery when
nates.52 53 62 66 127 Fetuses subjected to intrauterine exchange
awake spinal anaesthesia is used.91 161
transfusion with needle transhepatic access will show both
An individualized pain management plan72 can be made
behavioural signs of pain as well as a hormonal stress for each child based on a cycle of assessment and docu-
response.64 Significant pain stimulation without proper mentation of the childs pain using appropriate tools and
analgesia, for example circumcision, will not only cause
self-reporting, with interventions linked to the assess-
unacceptable pain at the time of the intervention but will
ments.30 60 63 A safety net is needed for rapid control of
produce a pain memory as illustrated by an exaggerated
breakthrough pain, to monitor the efficacy of analgesia, to
pain response to vaccination as long as 6 months following
identify and treat adverse effects, and to ensure equipment
the circumcision.148150 Both neonates and infants are able
is functioning correctly.116
to mount a graded hormonal stress response to surgical
In paediatric hospitals or other centres with significant
interventions and adequate intra- and postoperative analge- numbers of paediatric surgical interventions, the establish-
sia will not only modify the stress response but has also been ment of a dedicated paediatric pain service is the standard of
shown to reduce morbidity and mortality.1 3 5 6 16 17 163 167
care. Where this is not possible, adult pain services often
manage children with specific paediatric medical and nur-
Successful postoperative pain management sing advice and expertise. In other settings substantial
in infants and children improvement is possible by the establishment of clinical
A pragmatic, practical approach to paediatric postoperative routines and protocols for the assessment and treatment
pain management has been developed and used in recent of paediatric postoperative pain. A network of nurses
years in most paediatric centres. Realistic aims are to recog- with a special interest in paediatric pain management can
nize pain in children, to minimize moderate and severe pain form the basis for continuous education. A well-structured
safely in all children, to prevent pain where it is predictable, protocol for postoperative analgesia with clear instructions
to bring pain rapidly under control and to continue pain for parents is essential following paediatric day-case
control after discharge from hospital.108 109 117 119 125 surgery.118 124 125 165
Prevention of pain whenever possible, using multi-modal {
Declaration of interest. Drs Lonnqvist and Mortons departments have
analgesia, has been shown to work well for nearly all cases received financial support from AstraZeneca and Abbott. Dr Morton
and can be adapted for day cases, major cases, the critically has acted as a Consultant for AstraZeneca and Smith and Nephew
ill child, or the very young. Many acute pain services use Pharmaceuticals.

# The Board of Management and Trustees of the British Journal of Anaesthesia 2005. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: [email protected]
 Lonnqvist and Morton

Local and regional anaesthesia segments, P=0.014) (but not twice as great) with fewer
skipped segments and greater density of dye.158
Benefits associated with the use of paediatric
regional anaesthesia Confirming the tip position of catheters threaded
from the sacral hiatus
Regional anaesthesia produces excellent postoperative The technique of threading catheters from the sacral hiatus
analgesia and attenuation of the stress response in infants to position the tip at thoracic or lumbar level24 reported
and children.22 43 48 139 166 167 Epidural anaesthesia can success rates of 8596%, particularly in small children.
decrease the need for postoperative ventilation after tracheo- A retrospective review of radiographs in babies younger
esophageal fistula repair,26 and reduce the complications and than 6 months of age156 found that only 58 catheter tips were
costs following open fundoplication.110 162 considered optimal (67%); 10 were too high (12%); and 17
were coiled at the lumbosacral level (20%). Some units use
Safety aspects of paediatric regional anaesthesia radiological screening routinely but for many others this is
A large prospective 1-yr survey of more than 24 000 not feasible. An alternative approach using electrocardi-
paediatric regional anaesthetic blocks found an overall ography has been described.153 A specially devised catheter
incidence of complications of 0.9 in 1000 blocks, with no enables display of the electrocardiograph (ECG) signal from
complications of peripheral techniques.65 Complications the tip and this is compared with the ECG from a surface
were transient and half were judged to have been caused electrode positioned at the target segmental level. When
by the use of inappropriate equipment. The commonest prob- the ECG traces are identical, the tip of the catheter is at
lems with paediatric regional anaesthesia are technical: the target level. In a descriptive study of 20 children aged
either failure to establish a block or failure of maintenance 036 months, the authors were able to position all the tips to
of the block. Infection, pressure area problems, peripheral within two vertebral spaces of the target levels (either T4,
nerve injury, local anaesthetic toxicity, and serious adverse T7, or T10). In contrast to their previous method of using
effects of opioids are much rarer.42 A large 5-yr prospective stimulating epidural catheters and evaluating muscle con-
audit of 10 000 paediatric epidural catheter techniques tractions,154 the technique can be used after administration
is currently taking place in the UK to try to establish the of neuromuscular blocking agents or epidural local anaes-
relative risk of these problems in modern practice. thetics. However, neither of the two techniques described by
Tsui153 154 will exclude a catheter lying at the appropriate
Some simple local anaesthetic techniques for segmental level but in the subarachnoid space or intra-
postoperative analgesia vascularly.
Local anaesthetic gel topically applied to the site of circum-
cision, and instilled onto or infiltrated into small open Ultrasonography-guided regional anaesthetic techniques
wounds are simple, safe, and effective techniques.7 56 135 Ultrasonography allows real-time visualization of anatomi-
Wound perfusion can also be particularly useful for iliac cal structures, guides the blocking procedure itself, and
crest bone graft donor sites (used for alveolar bone grafting shows the spread of the local anaesthetic solution injected.
in some techniques of cleft palate repair).119 Dressing perfu- A more rapid onset of block using less local anaesthetic
sion by applying dilute local anaesthetic onto a foam layer solution is particularly attractive for paediatrics where
applied to skin graft donor sites is also simple, very effective most blocks are sited in anaesthetized patients. Ultrasound
and safe provided the maximum dosage limits are strictly guidance can also be helpful for caudal and epidural blocks
adhered to. These sites can otherwise be extremely distress- in infants and children as the sacrum and vertebrae are not
ing to the child for a period up to 48 h.119 fully ossified.33 103 Ultrasound-guided techniques have been
described for infraclavicular brachial plexus blockade,86 and
Recent developments in regional analgesia lumbar plexus block in children.103
Descriptions of the technical aspects of regional anaesthesia Surface mapping of peripheral nerves with
and management of the child with regional block are readily a nerve stimulator
available.35 41 119 121 124 130 Pharmacokinetics of local anaes- Nerve mapping using a nerve stimulator is helpful for teach-
thetics in infants and children have been comprehensively ing peripheral nerve and plexus blocks in the upper and
reviewed recently.107 lower limbs, and in patients where the surface landmarks
are obscure or distorted.27
Spread of epidural dye
Radiological assessment of contrast injected through epi- Use of continuous peripheral nerve blocks
dural catheters in babies (1.84.5 kg) after major surgery Continuous catheter techniques are becoming popular in
found that both the quality and extent of spread were dif- children for femoral, brachial plexus, fascia iliaca, lumbar
ferent for every baby. Filling defects and skipped segments plexus, and sciatic blockade.37 39 40 82 Disposable infusion
were common. Spread was more extensive after 1 ml kg 1 devices can be used as an alternative to standard infusion
compared with 0.5 ml kg 1 (mean 11.5 [3.03] vs 9.3 [3.68] equipment.38

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 Postoperative analgesia in infants and children

Table 1 Suggested maximum dosages of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and epinephrine.104 The main action of adjunct ketamine is
ropivacaine in neonates and children. The same dose is recommended for most likely mediated by actions on spinal N-methyl D-aspar-
each drug
tate (NMDA)-receptors, as the same dose given systemically
Single bolus injection Maximum dosage produces a much shorter duration of analgesia.105 When
Neonates 2 mg kg 1
Children 2.5 mg kg 1
used for single injection, S(+)-ketamine has been found to
be more effective in prolonging postoperative pain relief
Continuous postoperative infusion Maximum infusion rate
Neonates 0.2 mg kg 1 h 1 than clonidine.50 The combination of S(+)-ketamine
Children 0.4 mg kg 1 h 1 1 mg kg 1 and clonidine 1 mg kg 1 without the concomitant
use of local anaesthetics for caudal blockade produced
approximately 24 h of adequate postoperative analgesia
Choice of local anaesthetic solution compared with only 12 h for plain S(+)-ketamine.68 Adjunct
A large safety study has established safe-dosing guidelines clonidine in the dose range of 12 mg kg 1 for single injec-
for racemic bupivacaine in children (Table 1) and this has tion caudal blockade will typically double the duration of
greatly reduced the incidence of systemic toxicity.19 169 analgesia compared with plain local anaesthetics,83 94 and
Racemic bupivacaine is gradually being replaced by addition of approximately 0.1 mg kg 1 h 1 will enhance the
ropivacaine or levobupivacaine. This change is driven effect of continuous epidural blockade.51 Recent data sug-
by the reduced potential for systemic toxicity and the gest that the systemic effect of clonidine might be more
lower risk of unwanted motor blockade. There are now important than the local action.69 The routine use of opioids
sufficient paediatric data to recommend either of the as additives for postoperative analgesia has recently been
new agents.25 31 44 78 79 80 81 82 95 120 133 151 170 Bosenberg has critically challenged.100 Although there is a risk of respira-
reported non-toxic plasma concentrations of ropivacaine tory depression, less dramatic side-effects such as itching,
following a dose of up to 3 mg kg 1 for ilioinguinal block- nausea and vomiting, urinary retention, and decrease gastro-
ade,23 28 but 3.5 mg kg 1 for fascia iliaca compartment intestinal motility are more troublesome.47 98 A recent com-
blockade has been reported to cause potentially toxic plasma parison of plain levobupivacaine with levobupivacaine
concentrations, namely 45 mg ml 1.129 Thus, the reduced combined with fentanyl for postoperative epidural analgesia
risk of systemic toxicity should not persuade anaesthetists to in children, failed to show any major benefit of adjunct
exceed the previous dosing guidelines for racemic bupiva- fentanyl.95 Neuraxial administration of opioids still has a
caine. For continuous epidural levobupivacaine, the use of a place where extensive analgesia is needed, for example after
0.0625% solution appears optimal for lower abdominal or spinal surgery or liver transplantation,85 152 or when ade-
urological surgery.95 For single injection caudal blockade, quate spread of local anaesthetic blockade cannot be
ropivacaine and levobupivacaine provide similar postopera- achieved within dosage limits.18
tive analgesia compared to racemic bupivacaine with
Neuraxial blockade for paediatric cardiac surgery
slightly less early postoperative motor blockade,36 49 80
The potential benefits and risks of regional anaesthesia for
and with no discernible differences between ropivacaine
paediatric cardiac surgery have recently been investigated
and levobupivacaine.49 79 80 The esterase systems in tissues,
and reviewed.21 57 75 76 Single doses of intrathecal opioids
plasma, and red blood cells are mature in early life, and
with or without local anaesthetic, or continuous spinal
ester local anaesthetics such as amethocaine (tetracaine)
anaesthesia using a microcatheter technique appear particu-
and 2-chloroprocaine are particularly applicable in
larly promising for open heart surgery, while epidural or
neonates.18 93 99 160
paravertebral techniques seem to offer benefit for closed
procedures. The main concern is that of local bleeding at
Adjuncts to local anaesthetics
the site of subarachnoid or epidural puncture in a hepari-
A recent systematic review of paediatric caudal adjuncts has
nized child.21
been published.13 Caution is required in neonates as sedation
and apnoea have been noted. In a survey of the UK members
of the Association of Paediatric Anaesthesia, 58% of Systemic analgesia
respondents stated that they used adjuvants with local anaes- The ranking of systemic analgesics in adults by efficacy
thetics for caudal epidural blockade in children to prolong when administered alone or in combination probably applies
the duration of analgesia without increasing side-effects also to infants and children.112 However, the pharmacoki-
such as motor blockade. The commonest were ketamine netics and pharmacodynamics of these agents change during
32%, clonidine 26%, fentanyl 21%, and diamorphine early life and recent evidence has produced more logical
13%.140 Although preservative-free racemic ketamine is a dosing guidelines for opioids, NSAIDs, and acetaminophen
very effective agent,34 126 preservative-free S(+)-ketamine is (paracetamol) (Tables 26).8 9 11 15 54 67 70 96 101 114 122 136
more potent and may reduce neuro-psychiatric effects.87 Appropriate child-friendly formulations help compliance
Caudally administered S(+)-ketamine (1 mg kg 1) as the and are now available as syrups, oral or sublingual wafers,
sole agent has even been reported to produce similar soluble effervescent tablets, and eye drops. Metabolic path-
postoperative analgesia to bupivacaine 0.25% with ways for many drugs are maturing in early life and indeed

61
 Lonnqvist and Morton

Table 2 Morphine dosing guidelines (an appropriate monitoring protocol should Opioid techniques in children
be used)
Morphine infusions of between 10 and 30 mg kg 1 h 1
Titrated loading dose of i.v. morphine provide adequate analgesia with an acceptable level of
50 mg kg 1 increments, repeated up to 4 side-effects when administered with the appropriate level
I.V. or s.c. morphine infusion of monitoring.119 Morphine clearance in term infants greater
1040 mg kg 1 h 1
than 1 month old is comparable with children from 1 to 17 yr
PCA with morphine old. In neonates aged 17 days, the clearance of morphine
Bolus dose 20 mg kg 1
Lockout interval 5 min
is one-third that of older infants and elimination half-life
Background infusion 4 mg kg 1
h 1
(especially first 24 h) approximately 1.7 times longer.12 20 In appropriately
Nurse controlled analgesia (NCA) with morphine selected cases, the s.c. route of administration is a useful
Bolus dose 20 mg kg 1 alternative to the i.v. route.111 143 The s.c. route is contra-
Lockout interval 30 min indicated when the child is hypovolaemic or has significant
Background infusion 20 mg kg 1 h 1
ongoing fluid compartment shifts.168 Patient-controlled
analgesia (PCA) is now widely used in children as young
as 5 yr and compares favourably with continuous morphine
Table 3 Opioids: relative potency and dosing. Appropriate monitoring and infusion in the older child.29 A low dose background infu-
ventilatory support must be used sion is useful in the first 24 h of PCA in children, and has
been shown to improve sleep pattern without increasing the
Drug Potency Single dose Continuous infusion
relative adverse effects seen with higher background infusions in
to morphine children and in adults.55 Making the hand set part of a
squeezable toy is highly popular with younger children.
Tramadol 0.1 12 mg kg 1
Morphine 1 0.050.2 mg kg 1 1040 mg kg 1 PCA opioid administration is applicable after most major
Hydromorphone 5 0.010.03 mg kg 1 surgical procedures, in sickle cell disease, in management of
Alfentanil 10 510 mg kg 1 14 mg kg 1 min 1 or pain because of mucositis, and in the management of some
use TCI system
Fentanyl 50100 0.51 mg kg 1
0.10.2 mg kg 1 min 1 children with chronic pain. The range of patients receiving
Remifentanil 50100 0.11 mg kg 1
0.054 mg kg 1 min 1 opioids in an individually controlled manner can be
or use TCI system increased if a nurse or parent is allowed to press the demand
1
Sufentanil 5001000 0.0250.05 mg kg Use TCI system
button within strictly set guidelines. Monitoring for such
patients has to be at least as intensive as that for conventional
PCA. Most regimens for nurse or parent controlled analgesia
Table 4 Context sensitive half times of opioids in children use a higher level of background infusion with a longer
lockout time of around 30 min.72 97 98 109 117 119 This tech-
Infusion duration (min) 10 100 200 300 600
nology can also be used in neonates where a bolus dose
Remifentanil 36 36 36 36 36 without a background infusion allows the nurse to titrate
Alfentanil 10 45 55 58 60 the child to analgesia or to anticipate painful episodes
Sufentanil 20 25 35 60 while allowing a prolonged effect from the slower clearance
Fentanyl 12 30 100 200
of morphine (Table 2).

Other methods of opioid delivery

Oral, sublingual, transdermal, intranasal, and rectal routes
the proportions of drugs following different routes of meta- have been described and have a role in specific cases.73 101
bolism change markedly during this time.17 141 For example
for morphine or acetaminophen (paracetamol), sulphation Other opioids
is efficient and effective in the early neonatal period with Tramadol, oxycodone, hydromorphone, and buprenorphine
glucuronidation maturing some weeks later. Pharmacoge- may have applicability as alternatives to morphine in the
netics is increasingly recognized as important.77 For exam- postoperative period.59 101 171 Pethidine (meperidine) is not
ple, up to 40% of children do not have the enzyme to recommended in children because of the adverse effects of
metabolize codeine to morphine.127 Controversy still exists its main metabolite, norpethidine. Fentanyl, sufentanil,
about the safety of NSAIDs for tonsillectomy; whether alfentanil, and remifentanil may have a role after major
NSAIDs significantly impede bone healing; and the correct surgery and in intensive care practice. Remifentanil is
doses of systemic analgesics in less healthy children and very titratable and has a context-insensitive half time with
in neonates and infants. New agents such as COX-2 extremely rapid recovery because of esterase clearance, but
inhibitors, new formulations such as i.v. acetaminophen transition to the postoperative phase is difficult to manage
(paracetamol), and properly conducted paediatric pharma- and may be complicated by acute tolerance. It may have a
cokinetic and pharmacogenetic studies may help solve these particular role in intraoperative stress control and in neonatal
problems. anaesthesia.45 46 102 132 138 Sufentanil and fentanyl have long

62
 Postoperative analgesia in infants and children

Table 5 Acetaminophen (paracetamol) dosing guide

Age Oral Rectal Maximum daily Duration at

dose oral or rectal maximum dose
Loading dose Maintenance dose Loading dose Maintenance dose

1 1 1 1 1 1
Pre-term 2832 weeks 20 mg kg 15 mg kg up to 12 hourly 20 mg kg 15 mg kg up to 12 hourly 35 mg kg day 48 h
1 1 1 1 1 1
Pre-term 3238 weeks 20 mg kg 20 mg kg up to 8 hourly 30 mg kg 20 mg kg up to 12 hourly 60 mg kg day 48 h
1 1 1 1 1
03 months 20 mg kg 20 mg kg up to 8 hourly 30 mg kg 20 mg kg up to 12 hourly 60 mg kg day 48 h
1 1 1 1 1
>3 months 20 mg kg 15 mg kg up to 4 hourly 40 mg kg 20 mg kg up to 6 hourly 90 mg kg day 72 h

Table 6 I.V. acetaminophen (PerfalganTM) (10 mg ml 1) as slow i.v. infusion including oedema, bone marrow suppression, and Stevens
over 15 min Johnson syndrome.89 134 136
Weight (kg) Dose Maximum daily dose Dose interval
NSAIDs and tonsillectomy
1032 15 mg kg 1
60 mg kg 1 day 1
max total 2 g 46 h Two recent meta-analyses have considered the role of
1
3350 15 mg kg 60 mg kg 1 day 1
max total 3 g 46 h NSAIDs in post-tonsillectomy haemorrhage.92 113 One
>50 1g Max total 4 g 46 h
included studies of aspirin, which is not recommended in
children.92 The other showed a small increased risk of
re-operation for bleeding in patients receiving NSAIDs.113
context sensitive half times but give a smoother transition However, the authors discuss why clear recommendations
to maintenance analgesia. Alfentanil has a rapid onset, is cannot be drawn from the evidence as the patients receiving
titratable, and is relatively context insensitive after 90 min, NSAIDs benefited from good pain control and reduced
with a relatively smooth transition in the postoperative PONV.113 Thus, for every 100 patients, two more will
phase. The potent opioids may be best delivered by target- require re-operation if they receive a NSAID than if they
controlled infusion devices and paediatric pharmacokinetic do not, but 11 will not have PONV who otherwise would.113
programmes have now been developed (Tables 3 and 4). These meta-analyses did not include studies of COX-2
inhibitors.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) NSAIDs and asthma

Provocation of bronchospasm by NSAIDs is thought to be a
NSAIDs are important in the treatment and prevention of
result of a relative excess of leukotriene production. Aspirin
mild or moderate pain in children.89 NSAIDs are highly
sensitivity is present in about 2% of children with asthma
effective in combination with a local or regional nerve
and around 5% of these patients are cross-sensitive to other
block, particularly in day-case surgery.89 118 NSAIDs are
NSAIDs.89 Caution is required in those with severe eczema
often used in combination with opioids and the opioid
or multiple allergies and in those with nasal polyps. It is
sparing effect of NSAIDs is 3040%, as reported for
important to check for past exposure to NSAIDs as many
adults.10 123 This produces a reduction in opioid-related
asthmatic children take these agents with no adverse
adverse effects, especially ileus, bladder spasms and skeletal
effects.134 A recent study found no change in lung function
muscle spasms, and facilitates more rapid weaning from
in a group of known asthmatic children given a single dose
opioid infusions or PCA.72 74 119 128 159 NSAIDs in combina-
of diclofenac under controlled conditions.145
tion with acetaminophen (paracetamol) produce better
analgesia than either alone.10 71 89 Novel formulations of NSAIDs and bone healing
NSAIDs as eye drops have found application after strabis- Concerns have been raised by animal studies showing
mus correction or laser surgery to the eye.122 Pharmacoki- impaired bone healing in the presence of NSAIDs.89 For
netic studies of NSAIDs have revealed a higher than most orthopaedic surgery in children, the benefits of
expected dose requirement if scaled by body weight from short-term perioperative use of NSAIDs outweigh the
adult doses.54 137 NSAIDs should be avoided in infants less risks but limitation of use is recommended in fusion opera-
than 6 months of age,89 115 children with aspirin or NSAID tions, limb lengthening procedures, and where bone healing
allergy, those with dehydration or hypovolaemia, children has previously been difficult.89
with renal or hepatic failure, or those with coagulation dis-
orders, peptic ulcer disease or where there is a significant COX-2 inhibitors in paediatrics
risk of haemorrhage. Concurrent administration of NSAIDs Several COX-2 inhibitors have recently been evaluated in
with anticoagulants, steroids, and nephrotoxic agents is not paediatrics, although the situation has been complicated by
recommended. The most commonly reported adverse effects the withdrawal of rofecoxib from worldwide markets.155
of NSAIDs are bleeding, followed by gastrointestinal, skin, Some early studies used too low a dose,131 and pharmaco-
central nervous system, pulmonary, hepatic, and renal toxic kinetic studies are now informing dosing schedules
effects. Other serious side-effects have been reported, and intervals in children.58 146 147 The studies show equal

63
 Lonnqvist and Morton

efficacy to other analgesic interventions with non-selective Conclusions

NSAIDs or acetaminophen (paracetamol) and a morphine- Moderate and severe postoperative pain can and should be
sparing effect, but trials have not been large enough to prevented or controlled safely and effectively in all children
confirm reduced adverse effects such as bleeding.84 144 157 whatever their age, severity of illness, or surgical procedure.
Continuing pain control at home after day-case surgery is
Acetaminophen (paracetamol) essential. The safety of analgesic therapy has improved with
the development of new drugs and fuller understanding of
Acetaminophen inhibits prostaglandin synthesis in the
their pharmacokinetics and dynamics in neonates, infants
hypothalamus probably via inhibition of cycloxygenase-
and children, and in disease states. These developments have
3.32 142 This central action produces both antipyretic and
been aided by technical improvements allowing more
analgesic effects. Acetaminophen also reduces hyperalgesia
accurate delivery of analgesia. Where complex analgesia is
mediated by substance P, and reduces nitric oxide generation
needed, management by a multidisciplinary acute pain team
involved in spinal hyperalgesia induced by substance P or
with paediatric expertise is the most effective approach.
NMDA.
The analgesic potency of acetaminophen is relatively low
and its actions are dose-related; a ceiling effect is seen with References
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