Introduction Vulgar Latin
Introduction Vulgar Latin
Introduction Vulgar Latin
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AN INTRODUCTION
TO
VULGAR LATIN
^
C. H.
BY
GRANDGENT
Pkofessor of Romance Languages in Harvard University
Copyright, 1907,
213
Printed in U. S. A.
;
PREFACE.
/? C. H. Grandgent.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Pages
MAPS x,xi
The Roman Empire x
The Neo-Latin Territory in Europe ....... xi
INTRODUCTION 1-5
VOCABULARY 6-29
Words and Their Meanings 6-12
Words used alike in Classic and in Vulgar Latin ... 6
Words used differently in Classic and in Vulgar Latin . . 7-8
Sense Restricted 7
Sense Extended 7-8
Words used in Classic but not in Vulgar Latin .... 8-9
Synonyms 9
Substitutes 9-10
Particles 10
Words used in Vulgar but not in Classic Latin .... IO-I2
Native Words 11-12
Foreign Words 12
Derivation . 13-29
Post-Verbal Nouns 13
Prefixes , 13-16
Prefixes used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns . 13-14
Prefixes used with Verbs 14-16
Suffixes 16-28
Suffixes for Verbs 16-17
Suffixes for Nouns 18-23
Suffixes for Adjectives 2 3 _2 5
Pages
S 83-84
* 84
t 84
r 84-85
o 85-S6
8 86
a 86-87
u 87
Diphthongs 88-90
<B 88-89
au 89-90
eu 90
ce 90
ui 90
Influence of Labials 91
Clerical Latin 91
Unaccented Vowels 91104
Unaccented Vowels in Hiatus 93-96
Initial Syllable . . . , 96-98
Intertonic Syllable 98-99
Penult 99-102
Final Syllable 102-104
Consonants 104-143
Latin Consonants 106 137
Aspirate 106-107
Gutturals 107-114
C and G before Front Vowels 1 091 1
C and G before Back Vowels 112
C and G Final and before Consonants 11 2-1 14
Palatals 114-118
Dentals 118-121
Liquids 121-124
L 121-123
R t 123-124
Sibilants 124-126
Nasals 127-132
Labials 132-137
p
i3 2 " I 33
viii Table of Contents.
Pages
& 133-135
P 135
v 135-137
U 137
Greek Consonants 1 37-141
b, r,A 138
k, n, t 138
e,*,x 138-139
Liquids, Nasals, and Sibilants 140
Z 140-141
Germanic Consonants 1 41-143
MORPHOLOGY . . 144-187
Nouns and Adjectives 144-161
Gender 144-147
Masculine and Feminine 144
Masculine and Neuter 145-146
Feminine and Neuter 146-147
Declension of Nouns 147-156
First Declension 149-151
Second Declension 151-152
Third Declension 152-156
Loss of Declension 156
Declension of Adjectives 1 57-1 58
Comparison 158-159
Numerals 1 59-161
INDEX 189^-219
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WITH ABBREVIATIONS.
App. Pr. Die Appendix Prodi, ed. W. Heraeus, 1899. A Latin list of
:
Jerome, 1884.
Gl. Cassel : Kasseler Glossen in Altfranzosisches Uebungsbuch, W. Foerster
and E. Koschwitz, 2d ed., 1902. Made, probably in France, in the eighth
or ninth century. Cf. Zs. XXVI, 521 if.
1894.
Substrate : G. Grober, Vulgarlateinische Substrate romanischer Wdrter, in
Archiv 204, 539; II, 100, 276,424; III, 138, 264, 507; IV, 116, 422;
I,
Works to which only occasional reference is made are cited in full in the
text.
PHONETIC ALPHABET
AND OTHER SYMBOLS.
/ (an acute accent) after a consonant letter shows that the consonant is
palatal.
* (an asterisk) before a word shows that the form is conjectural, not
attested.
> indicates derivation, the source standing at the open end of the figure,
whichever way it be turned.
small capitals mean that the forms so printed occur in inscriptions
(but this indication is used only when for some special reason it
seems desirable).
xv in
AN INTRODUCTION TO VULGAR LATIN.
1
See Chronologie 133 and 116-120. Oscan forms are ligud for lege,pru for pro,
ni for ne, etc.
2
The S. Italian nn for nd, z'for e, and u for may be Oscan. Pomex, elex for
p-umex, ilex are perhaps Umbrian Lat. Spr. 445, 464. The Italian word zavorra
:
2
in the last few centuries of this epoch.
4. If we compare
Classic and Vulgar Latin, we shall see
that the was always tending to become more flexible
latter
and more explicit. We note an enormous development of
modifying and determining words, such as articles and prepo-
sitions, and an abundant use of prefixes and suffixes. We
find also a great simplification of inflections, due partly to
phonetic but mainly to syntactic causes. Furthermore, we
observe certain changes in pronunciation, some of which can
be ascribed to an inclination to discard those parts of words
that are not necessary for their identification (as when viridis,
and the establishment of unattested Vulgar Latin words, see G. Grober, in Archiv I,
204 ff., and VII, 25 ff. Something can be learned from the charters and laws of the
barbarians cf. F. Schramm, Sprachliches zur Lex Salica, 191 1.
:
B See Bibliography Bechtel and Per.; note E. Wolfhin, Ueber die Latinitdt der
:
(damnum dui), 276 ff. (eber fiticum), 424 {flagrare gutta)\ III, 13S ff.
ff.
(Juedus
ilicem), 264 ff. {tile lamma), 507 ff. (lacusta
mille); IV, 1 16 ff. (mina-
cice
mttrire), 422 ff. (obedire /utidus); V, 125 ff. (quadraginta
rasculare),
234 ff. (reburrus runcare), 453 ff. (sabanum suus) ; VI, 117 ff. (tabanus
zirulare), 377 ff. (supplement.)
6
lo] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 7
Hoppe 48, hcBC cestimare 11011 capit, 11011 capit utique videri Dens.
Most of the examples can be classified under the heads of
restriction or extension of meaning.
a. SENSE RESTRICTED.
9. This happens frequently, a word assuming a more defi-
b. SENSE EXTENDED. 1
10. The general use of a word in an extended sense is not
common, but there are some examples fortis = 'strong' in all :
1
reply', Dubois, 204; res is used of persons, Waters Ch. 58
{bella res); satis = 'much', Bayard 83, Per. 38,25, etc.; umis^
'a', Bechtel 144; virtutes 'miracles' (in imitation of the
Greek), Bayard 94.
So various prepositions and conjunctions {as ad, apud, cum,
de,per, and quasi, quia, quod, quomodo) assumed new functions.
Unde came to mean 'and so', Bon. 328.
a. SYNONYMS.
12. When Latin had two words nearly synonymous, one
often crowded out the other: atrium gave way to cors; cur to
quare; equus to caballus, R. 472; ferre to p ortare, Dubois 220;
ludus to jocus; magnus to grandis ; os to bucca, R. 47 2 ; parentes
to genitores, Olcott XXV ; senex to vetulus.
Sometimes the survivor was far from a synonym in Classic
Latin: discere was displaced by apprendere; domus by casa,
ma?isio, hospitale 1 ; emere
by comparare ; humerus by spatula,
R. 324; by focus, R. 313; nunc by hora; omnes by toti,
ignis
R. 338, Zs. XXXIII, 143 quot, tot'by quanti, tanti, R. 336, 337 ;
;
b. SUBSTITUTES.
13. Sometimes a term was replaced by ?. word not found in
Classic Latin at all : anser was driven out by *auca {<*avica,
diminutive of avis) ; neverca by *matraster; privignus by *filias-
1
According to Olcott XVIII, casa occurs only in Italian inscriptions, mansio ( =r
'dwelling') only in Roman. For mansio, cf. R. 472, Dubois 212. Among the Ro-
mance languages, Rumanian, Rsetian, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese prefer casa, French
and Provengal mansio and hospitale. Cf. Zauner 41-42.
2 Caput (or rather * cap urn) is preserved
by Rumanian, Rastian, Italian, Provencal,
French; testa by Italian, Provencal, French; * capitia (< caput) by Spanish and
Portuguese. Cf. Zauner 41-42.
io An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 15
c. PARTICLES.
14. Many prepositions, conjunctions, and adverbs were lost
by subsitution.
Ab was made unnecessary by de and per; apudwas partially
supplanted by ad; cum, in Gaul, yielded to apud; ex gave way
to de, R. 395-396; ob to pro and per. Pro, doubtless under
the influence of per, became *por, which replaced per and pro
in Spain and to a considerable extent in northern Gaul;
southern Gaul, Italy, and Dacia preferred per. Cis, erga, prce,
484; *gentis, adj. (Fr., Pr. gent, It. gente), apparently a cross
between genitus and gentllis; prode, then m. and f. *prodis,
adj., detached from prodest (cf. potis est = potest, Neue II,
b. FOREIGN WORDS.
19. A few Celtic terms were adopted, such as alauda,
vertragus. More Germanic words (cf. Gram., Introduction)
found their way into Latin: bannus, Bon. 226; hapja; hariber-
gum, Gl. Reich, (cf. alberca, Pirson 236); haunjan; watan;
werra.
We find a large number of Greek words, a few of them
apparently borrowed by popular speech: amygdalum; cata, a
distributive preposition, verging on the sense of 'every', R.
B. DERIVATION.
20. Vulgar Latin is very rich in derivatives and com-
pounds ; it has many affectionate diminutives, some of them
made with new suffixes (as icca, -itta). 1 Petronius shows a
fondness for long derivatives, such as gaudimonium (Waters
Ch. 61). Late writings almost all abound in abstract nouns
(Cooper 1-2). In strictly Classic texts there seem to be few
really living suffixes 2 but the facility of word formation, which
;
1. POST-VERBAL NOUNS.
21. After the model of cantus cantare, s alius saltare,
2. PREFIXES. 5
a. PREFIXES USED WITH NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND PRONOUNS.
22. Bis- or bi- was used with some adjectives and appar-
ently with a few nouns: bimaritus, G. 130 ; bisacutus, G. 170 ;
bisaccium, Petronius.
1
See Gram. II, 430-693 ; Densusianu 156-173. 2
Cooper XXXIV.
8 Cooper XXX ff. * Cooper XXXVI, XLVI, 246-247.
5
Cooper 246-297.
i4 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 2 6
23. Ad-, con-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, re- and some others were
occasionally used to form adjectives: *adaptus ; commixtius,
G. 160 \defamatus; *disfactus; exsucus; inanimatus ; *replenus.
Cf. G. 160 ff.
26. Ab-, contra-, per-, sub-, super supra-, tra trans- were
3i]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 15
3. SUFFIXES,
a. SUFFIXES FOR VERBS. 1
33. Verbs from nouns' generally end in -are; occasionally
2,
a
Cf. Cooper 205-245, Dubois 151-162, Quillacq 41-46, Bonnet 471-474.
a
Cf. R.i 54-162.
3 6]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 17
36. Greek verbs in -av, -uv, etc., when taken into Latin, reg-
ularly end in -are: Kvf3epvav>gubemare ; (3\ao-<}>r)iAeiv > blas-
phemare. Claussen 795.
Cf. But \pa\\uv>psallere, perhaps
through the analogy oifallere: Claussen 796.
Germanic verbs in -an or -on regularly passed into the first
Those in -jan went into the fourth : hatjan > hatire, Gl.
Reich. ; warnjan > It. guarnire.
;8 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 37
suffixe -arius, Rom. XXXI, 481 ; and Nouveaux essais de philologie /ran-
faise no.
-eum : see -turn.
-eus: see Adjectives.
-ia, unaccented, used to form abstract nouns (as victoria), wai
extended: *fortia (cf. fortia n. pi. = 'mighty deeds of God', Koff.
mane 76).
-ia, unaccented, used to form feminines (as avus, avid): neptia, Pir-
son 123 (cf. Zs. XXXII, 640).
-ia, from Greek -La through Christian writers and speakers monar- :
-issa, from the Greek -i<r<ra (as /Scto-fXuro-a, so pythonissd), was used for
some new formations: *dukissa; Germanissa, Pirson 228; prophetissa,
R. 251. Cf. Cooper 251.
-itas : see -tas.
-ttia, -zties, used to form nouns from adjectives (as munditia -ies), were
much extended, -ities especially in the south ; both are rare in Rumanian
(Cooper XLV): *altitia; *granditia. Cf. Olcott 78-80.
-ittus first appears during the Empire in inscriptions in Italy and
Dacia, sometimes in Spain and Gaul, as a suffix for proper names:
feminine Attitta, Bonitta, Caritta, Julitta, Livitta, Suavitta, etc. ; masculine
Muritta, Nebitta, Sagitta, etc. Cf. Pirson 226: Julianeta, Nonnita, Nonni-
tus. Its origin is unknown; it may have arisen from a childish pronun-
ciation of -iclus -a: cf. -Tcca. Meyer-Lubke, Einf. 172, conjectures that
it may have come from the Germanic ending that now appears as z in
such names as Heinz. A. Zimmermann, Zs. XXVIII, 343, regards -attus,
-ittus, -ottus as alternative forms of -dtus, -ztus, -otus, like littera beside
litera, etc. It came to be very widely used as a diminutive suffix for
nouns, and also for adjectives, the * being short in Gaul, Rastia, and cen-
tral and northern Italy, generally long in the Spanish peninsula and in
Sardinia: nouns, Fr. amourette, It. fioretto, Sp. bacito ; adjectives, Fr.
doucet, It. grassetto, Sp. bonito.
-itudo : see -tiido.
-ium, -eum (as capitium, calcaneurri): see G. 56-59.
-ivum,-i~va: see Olcott 224-226.
-men, -mentum, used to form nouns from verbs (as certdmen, vestimen-
turn), were extended,] especially -mentum : *gubernamentum. Cf. Olcott
123-131, R. 22-25.
-monium, -monia: see Olcott 81-82.
-0 {-onem), originally used to indicate a characteristic (as Mbd), was
37] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 21
There are a few exceptions for special reasons (Claussen 795) '4\aioi>, in- :
> lampa.
-77s, -T7)s became -a, -ta or -us, -tus (Claussen 798): rpdfKTrjs > tructa
(luiXtTTjs > boletus.
-1 in popular words either fell or became -a, -e, -is, or -i (Claussen 799) :
dceits -actus, Iceus -Tcius, used to make from nouns adjectives denot-
ing material (as arenaceus, pelliceus), were extended (especially in rustic
speech: Cooper in), -aceus being employed later as an augmentative
and pejorative suffix for adjectives and finally for nouns: chartaceus;
formaceus ; mixticius, G. 143; * setaceus ; It. tempaccio, etc. Cf. Olcott
215-220. See E. Wolfflin, Die Adjectiva auf -icius in Archiv V, 415.
-dlis, -ilis, used to make from nouns adjectives of appurtenance (as
regalis, gentilis), were extended: *cortilis; * ducalis ; episcopalis. Cf.
Olcott 226-238, G. 144.
-aneus -dnius, -oneus -onius (as extraneus, erroneus) were slightly ex-
tended: *caroneus; spontaneus.
-ans, -ens (-antem, -entem), present participles (as amans, potens),
were used freely to make adjectives and nouns from verbs: credens
* currens ; *passans,
-anus, denoting appurtenance (as paganus, Romanus), was used to
form adjectives of place (occasionally time) and nouns of office: biduanus,
Eechtel 83; medianus, Bechtel 83; * Sicilianus ; Tuscanus capitanus
decanus.
-artcius, a. combination of -arius and -tcius (as sigillaricius), became
popular in Gaul : see A. Thomas, Nouveaux essais de philologie frangaise
62 (Hacherece, etc.).
deria < glandarius H ia (6th century) and sorcerus <* sortiarius (8th
century) ; the earliest forms in French and Provencal are -ers, -er, then
-iers, -ier. On the other hand, Spanish -ero and Italian -aio are perfectly
regular, Italian -aro is easily explained by the analogy of the plural -ari y
-icus (as medicus) was used especially in words from the Greek: cleri-
cus. Cf. Olcott 220-223.
-idus (as rapidus) was slightly extended: exsiicidus, G. 155 (Tertullian)
*rfpidus; sapidus.
-tits: see -alts.
-inus : see Nouns.
-inus (as fraxinus) was used for a few adjectives: quercinus.
-tscus, probably a fusion of Greek -ktkos (Sj/riscus) and Germanic
-isk (Thiudiscus), was used for -Zeus in some late words: * Angliscus
*Frankiscus.
-tttus: see Nouns.
ius : see eus.
-ivus (as nativus) occurs in a few new formations : *restivus. Cf. Olcott
224-226.
oneus : see dneus.
-orius: see -tortus.
-osus, also -idsus : Rom. XXXIX, 217.
sorius : see -tor ius.
-tortus, -sorius, made up of -t-or, -s-or -J ius (as noscere notor notorius,
some new formations defensorius
censere censor censorius), were used for :
Tiktin 597.
-iilus, diminutive (as albulus), was a favorite with Christian writers;
cites eight examples of dune, one of them from Gaul. Cf. donique in
Substrate II, 103-106. Possibly *anc is derived from an in the same
way: cf. Archiv I, 241; Gram. Ill, 552.
-e is very common in St. Jerome: G. 193-197 {angelice, etc.). It was
1
Cf. Cooper 196-204, Dubois 163-171, Bon. 467-470.
26 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 41
preserved in popular speech in bene, longe, male, pure, tarde, and occurs
also in Romanice, whence such formations as Briltanice, Normannice,
etc.
Some adverbial phrases on the model ad . . . -ones (in Italy also with-
out the preposition) came into use: It. a ginocchioni, bocconi; Fr. a recu-
lons. Cf. Gram. II, 689; Rom. XXXIII, 230; Zs. XXIX, 245, XXX,
337, 339-
e. CHANGE OP SUFFIX.
42. The popular language sometimes substitutes one suffix
for another, as manaplus for manipulas. The principal types
are:
(1) Subsitution of a new or common suffix for an old or
rare one :
-alius > -cellus see : -ilius.
4. COMPOUNDS,
a. NOUNS.
43. Acer arbor (> Fr. erable); alba spina; avis struthius;
bene placitum, G. 131; bis coctum; in odio; medio die; medio
loco.
b. ADJECTIVES.
d. VERBS.
460 Calce pistare; crucifigere, G. 191; /oris mittere; genu-
Jlectere,G. 191; inde fugere (> Fr. enfuir}; mtra videre; manu
tenere; mente habere (> Pr. mentaver) ; minus pretiare. So
antemittere, etc., in Gl. Reich. In church writers there are
many verbs in -Jicare, as mortificare : G. 190.
e. ADVERBS.
47. There were many compounds made up of a preposition
and an adverb: ab ante, R. 234; ab
R. 231, Bon. 483:
intus,
f. PREPOSITIONS.
48. Some of these adverbial compounds, and some others
similar to them, were used as prepositions: ab ante, Lexique
40; de ante, Bechtel 102; de inter, Bechtel 102, Haag 75; de
intus; de retro; in a?ite; in contra. Cf. E. Wolfflin, Abante, in
Archiv I, 437. Slightly different is intus in, Bechtel 102.
A compound made up of preposition + noun is found in:
in giro (followed by the ablative or the accusative), Bechtel
102; in medio, Bechtel 102; per girum and per giro = circa,
Bechtel 102.
Some compounds consist of two prepositions: * de ad (>It.
1
da) ; de post, R. 23S; de sub, R. 235; de super, Bon. 484.
g. CONJUNCTIONS.
49. At ubi and ad ubi, Bon. 484-486 (cf. Per. 74,28, 85,15,
etc.); et at ubi, Per. 72,19, 75, 3.
1
Romance da, dad may be the result of a fusion rather than a combination of de
and ad. In any case it is probably a late product. Some have thought it came from
de-hab. Mohl, Lexique 38-47, says da is found from the 7th century on he would ;
derive It. and Old Sp. da, Sardinian dave, das, Raetian dad from the Oscan da, dat
and from a southern Latin * dabi, * dabe.
II. SYNTAX. 1
A. ORDER OF WORDS. 2
lateinischen, 1903, from which work most of the matter of this chapter was taken.
52] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 31
51. The modern order was not abruptly substituted for the
old. On to be found in Latin, with generally
the contrary, it is
B. USE OF WORDS.
54.There were great changes in the functions of pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions, and adverbs. Many uses of prepo-
sitions are connected with the loss of inflections: these will be
discussed under the Use of Inflections. A definite and an
indefinite article developed out of tile and unus.
bonis bonis, fortis for/is, ma/us ma/us, etc., R. 280. Cf. 40.
57]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 33
a. COMPARISON.
56. Little bythe old comparative and superlative lost
little
b. NUMERALS. 1
57. Unus was used as an indefinite article, occasionally in
Classic Latin, frequently in late and popular writers : lepida
1
For the forms of numerals, see Morphology.
34 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 62
. una
. . mulier, Plautus, Pseud. 948
. . . unus servus, Petronius, ;
Waters Ch. 26; accessit ad eum una sorella, R. 425 cf. Per. 48, ;
25, etc.
century.
2. PRONOUNS.
59. Pronouns were much more used than in Classic Latin :
G. 408-409.
b. DEMONSTRATIVES.
Idem went out of popular
61. use, being replaced by ille
:
that,' as id ipsum sapite, R. 424 (cf. R. 424-425, G. 407,
iste hie, hie ipse. The last three have left no trace.
until the end of the Vulgar Latin period, is the fusion of the
two parts into one word.
Atque, too, was perhaps used as a prefix (Gram. II, 646):
Plautus, atque ipse (Epidicus 91), atque is est (Stichus
illic est
1
Cf. Plautus, Mil. Glor. I, 25 :
" Ubi tu's ? Eccum."
36 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 69
When iste and Me lost their distinctive force, people said for
' this ' eccHste or eccuHste, for ' that ' eccHlle or eccuHlle. These
compounds developed into * ecceste, * acceste, * ceste, *eccueste,
* accueste, * cueste and * eccelle, * accelle, * celle, *eccuelle,
* accuelle, * cue lie.
68. Ille, hie, ipse, is were used also as definite articles. Jlle
in this function is very common: R. 419-420 (eito\ proferte
mihi stolam Mam primam). Examples of the others are by no
means infrequent: hie, R. 427 {yirum hu7ic cujus est zona hcecy %
quam), Haag Bon. 390-391, 394 {qui f. sg. and f. pi., quern
51,
f.), Archiv I, qua in 528 a. d.). Quid, moreover,
53 {qui for
gradually encroached on quod: Bon. 393.
d. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
71. Some Classic Latin pronouns fell into disuse, and some
new compounds were made. The principal indefinite pronouns
and adjectives used in late popular speech are as follows :
aliquanti took the place of aliqui and aliquot: aliquanta oppida cepit,
G.415.
altquis flourished especially in the west: Sp. alguien, Pg. alguem. The
neuter aliquid was more extended Pr. alques.
:
paucus.
persona.
plus and magis were confused: G. 427, Regnier 108-109 (ouanto plus
ienetur tanto plus timetur, 109).
qualis.
quantus, tantus replaced quot, tot. There are examples as early as
Propertius: Densusianu 179. Cf. Drager 104, 53, R. 336-337, G.
413-415 (St. Jerome, quanti justi esuriunt, 414; Claudian, tantis lacri-
^,415).
qui.
quique.
quis.
qutsque, quisquis. Quisque was much extended (G. 409-411), being
used for quisquis and quicumque (Bayard 135).
res and res nata = 'anyone', 'anything': R. 345.
talis.
times used iox omnis : Plautus, totis horis, Mil. Glor. 212. This use was
common in late Latin: Densusianu 178, Bechtel 143, R. 338, G. 402-403
(tola tormenta diaboli in me veniant, 403). Cf. 163, 204, (2).
3. VERBS.
Frequent in late Latin
72. is a pleonastic use of debeo,
Bon. 691-693: commonens ut . . . custodire debeant, 692. Cf.
1 1 7. Compare the old Italian use of dovere.
There is also a common pleonastic use of cozpi with the in-
4. ADVERBS.
73. The words referring to the "place in which" and the
"place into which" were confused, ubi being used for quo, ibi
far eo: Lat. Spr. 488. Unde was employed in the sense of
78] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 39
Alius ex alio angulo Non, sed \ ecce hie est, Regnier 111.
5. PREPOSITIONS.
76. The functions of prepositions were very much extended
(Bayard 137-158): see Use of Inflections, Cases.
79. Pro often had the sense of 'for,' and replaced ob and
propter : fides pro una muliere perfida, G. 343 volo pro legentis ;
pro memoria illius, Bechtel 106. Pro itself was partially re-
placed by per (cf. 14), but was substituted for per in other
regions (Urbat 34~35)-
Hoppe 41.
1
Mohl would derive the Old It. appo, not from apud, but from * ad post (p. 71);
Fr. avec, not from apud -f- hoc, but from ad hoc (pp. 7576). Pr. ab he takes from
apud, but Pr. am from Italic amb, am.
84] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 41
6. CONJUNCTIONS.
82. Quod, quia, quoniam (and after jubere, ut : R. 427-428)
are used very often by late writers instead of the accusative
in), and was often used for ne and num (G. 430): videte si
potest did, Regnier in. Ac si frequently did service for
quasi: Per. 39, 13, and many other places; Bon. 323.
C. USE OF INFLECTIONS.
i. CASES. 1
85. In popular speech prepositions were more used, from
the beginning, than in the literary language ;
prepositional
constructions, as time went on, increasingly took the place of
pure case distinctions, and the use of cases became more and
more restricted. Hence arises in late writers a great irregu-
larity in the employment of cases 2 : G. 302-326, Quillacq 96-
103 ; for African Latin, Archiv VIII, 174-176 ; for confusion
after verbs and adjectives, R. 412-415.
a. LOCATIVE.
86. The locative, rare in Classic Latin, remained eventually
only in names of places. There are, however, several examples
in the Peregrinatio : Bechtel no, et sic fit missa Anastasi, ut
fit missa ecclesice, etc. We findremnants of the locative geni-
tive in Agrigenti> Girgenti, Ariminl> Rimini, Clusii> Chiusi,
Florentice^ Firenze, Palestine (G. 322), etc.; of the locative
ablative singular in Tiburi> Tivoli ; of the locative ablative
plural in Andecdvis > Angers, Aquis > Acqui Aix, Astzs > As ft,
Flnibus> Fimes, Parisiis> Parigi Paris, etc. Cf. B. Bianchi
in Archivio glottologico italiano IX, 378. With other words,
and very often with place names also, the locative was replaced
by in with the ablative (Hoppe 32 in Alexandria) or by ad :
1
Cf. Pirson 169-202.
2
There is confusion even in Petronius, who occasionally uses the accusative for
the dative and the ablative.
89] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 43
b. VOCATIVE.
87. The vocative the nominative in most words in
is like
53; cf. Bon. 61 off. For the partitive genitive we find: nil
gustabit de meo, Plautus, cited by Draeger I, 628; aliquid de
lumine, Hoppe 38; neminem de prcesentibus, Hoppe 38; de
pomis l
some apples,' Per. 40,10; de spiritu Moysi, Bechtel
104; de animalibus, de oleo, etc., R. 396; aliquid habet de vere-
cundia discipuli, R. 342 numquid Zacchceus de bono habebat,
;
Zs.fr. Spr. XXV, ii, 135; matre mece, alta node silentia, etc.,
Bon. 341342; in fu n do ilia villa, etc., D'Arbois 13; in honore
alme Maria, etc, D'Arbois 91-93.
The genitive was retained, however, in some pronouns, in a
good many set phrases, in certain words that belonged es-
pecially to clerical Latin, and probably in some proper names:
cujus, illujus, illdrum, etc. ; luncz dies, est ministeril, de noctis
tempore > It. di notte tempore (later di notte tempo), etc. ; ange-
lorum, paganorum, etc.; It. Paoli, Fieri, etc.
d. DATIVE.
90. The dative was more stable than the genitive: Lat
Spr. 487. We find, however, as early as Plautus, a tendency
to replace by the accusative with ad: ad carnuficem dabo,
it
ad Dei officio paratus, Pirson 194. Cf. Lat. Spr. 488, Oliver
9 2]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 45
e. ABLATIVE.
92. The analytical tendency of speech, reinforced by the
analogy of prepositional substitutes for the genitive and dative,
favored the use of prepositions with the ablative, to distinguish
its various functions. For de 'than,' see Zs. XXX, 641.
Ab is common : ab omni specie idololatrice intactum, Hoppe,
36; ab sceleribus parce, G. 335; a came superatur, G. 337 ab ;
footnote 5.
f. ACCUSATIVE.
98. After verbs of motion ad was often used, sometimes in9
instead of the simple accusative: eamus in forum, Waters Ch.
58; fui ad ecclesiam, Bechtel 103; ad Babyloniam duxit, G.
327; consules ad Africam profecti sunt, G. 328; ad istam
regionem venit, Regnier 52. Cf. Regnier 51-52.
g. FALL OF DECLENSION.
100. By the end of the Vulgar Latin period there probably
remained in really popular use (aside from pronouns and a
number of set formulas) in Dacia only three cases, in the rest
of the Empire only two
a nominative and an accusative-
ablative. Clerics, however, naturally tried to write in ac-
cordance with their idea of correct Latin.
2. VERB-FORMS.
101. Many parts of the verb went out of popular use, and
were replaced by other locutions; these obsolete parts were
employed by writers with more or less inaccuracy. In the
parts that remained many new tendencies manifested them-
selves.
a. IMPERSONAL PARTS.
102. Only the present active infinitive and the present and
perfect participles were left intact.
(1) Supine.
103. The supine disappeared from general use, being re-
(2) Gerund.
104. With the exception gerund
of the ablative form, the
came by the
to be replaced sometimes with a prep-
infinitive,
osition: dat manducare, Lat. Spr. 490; quomodo potest hie
nobis carnem dare ad manducare, R. 430; potestatem curare,
necessitas tacere, etc., G. 363.
The ablative form of the gerund became more and more a
substitute for the present participle: ita miserrimus fui fugi-
ta?ido, Terence, Ewi. V, 2, 8; Draeger II, 847-849, cites Livy,
conciendo ad se multitudinem, and Tacitus, assurge?is et popu-
lando; hanc Marcion captavit sic legendo, Hoppe 57 multa vidi ;
(7) Infinitive.
109. The perfect and passive infinitive forms eventually
disappeared: see Voice and Tense below. In late writers,
however, the perfect instead of the present infinitive is very
common: R. 431432 (malunt credidisse, etc.).
Hoppe 42; ipsum vivere accedere est, Regnier 106; per malum
velle perdidit bonum posse, Regnier 106.
It replaced the subjunctive with ut and similar construe-
tions: vadent orare, Bechtel 117; revertitur omnis populus
resumere Bechtel 117: valeamus assumi, G. 363; quce legi
se,
digfia sunt, G. 366; timuisti ... facere, G. 368; non venit justos
c. MOOD.
(1) Imperative.
115. The imperative came to be restricted to the second
person singular and plural of the present, the subjunctive
being used for the third person, and also for the first. Dubois
275 notes that the forms in -0 are very rare in Ennodius, who
lived in southern Gaul in the fifth century.
Cf. in.
In conditions not contrary to fact, in indirect discourse and
indirect questions, in dependent clauses that are not adversa-
tive nor dubitative, the indicative was often substituted for
the subjunctive: R. 428-430, G. 355-357, Regnier 68-71.
On the other hand, late writers often put the subjunctive
where Classic authors would have put the indicative: G.
357-3 62 -
Gregory the Great (Sepulcri 226) and others, and with per-
fect infinitives like tacuisse for tacert (Lat. Spr. 489: examples
from the 4th century).
The imperfect subjunctive ultimately went out of use, ex-
cept in Sardinia. Writers of the third and fourth centuries
show uncertainty in the use of it; R. 431 cites many exam-
ples, as timui ne inter nos bella fuissent orta.
In Rumanian the pluperfect subjunctive has assumed the
function of a pluperfect indicative: cantase, etc.
Part. perf. 372 ff". Even in Classic Latin, however, the mean-
ing of this locution began to shift to the perfect, or something
akin to it: Cato the elder, quid Athenis exquisitum habeam,
Part. perf. 516; Plautus, ilia omnia missa habeo, omnis res re-
lictas habeo, Part. perf. 535 ; in legal phraseology, factum habeo,
Part. perf. 537538; Sallust, compertum ego habeo, Draeger I,
Cf. 72.
The old pluperfect indicative became rarer, but still lingered,
sometimes with its original sense, sometimes as a preterit,
sometimes as a conditional. The preterit use occurs in dix-
erat, ortaret, transalaret in the Gl. Reich. ; auret, furet, pouret,
etc., in theOld French Sainte Eulalie; boltier in the Old 1
127. The form that prevailed, however, was habeo with the
infinitive: In Classic Latin habeo dicere habeo quod dicam,
being so used by Cicero and many others; later, as in Sueto-
nius, it means debeo dicere: Futurum 48 ff. Cf. Varro, De Re
Rustica I, 1, ut id tnihi habeam curare; Cicero, Ad Famil. I,
5, tantum habeo tibi polliceri; Lucretius VI, 711, in multis hoc
rebus dicere habemus; Ovid, Trist. I, 1, 123, mandare habe- . . .
habes spectare, Hoppe \y, jilius Dei mori habuit, Hoppe 44;
probare non habent, Hoppe 44 ; hon habent retribuere, R. 447
multa habeo R. 447; unde tnihi dare habes aquam vivam,
dicere,
R. 448 ; exire habebat, R. 449 nee verba nobis ista dici habent,
;
370;
St. Augustine, to Here habet, Densusianu 181 et sic nihil ;
use of the compound: quod lex nova dari haberet, Bayard 256;
manifestari habebat, Bayard 257 Herodes principes sacerdotum
;
B. ACCENT.
134. The Latin accent was probably from the beginning a
stress accent. In the earliest stage of the language it appar-
ently fell regularly on the first syllable: Corssen II, 892-906 ;
puteolis>putjdlis, C. I. L. X,
1889 (pvte6lis); so parities
>parjetes>p aretes? C. I. L. VI, 3714 (paretes). This change
seems to be due to a tendency to shift the stress to the more
sonorous of two contiguous vowels : cf O. Jespersen,
. Lehrbuch
der Phonetik, p. 192. was favored also by the analogy of
It
mulier,puteus, paries, etc., in which the vowel in hiatus is atonic.
b. COMPOUND VERBS.
139. Verbs compounded with prefixes were generally re-
constructed with the accent and the vowel of the simple verb,
provided the composite nature of the formation was understood
and the parts were recognized (cf. 31): deficit >* disfdcit,
displicet> * displdcet, implicate *implicat, reddidit reddedi,
re'quirit >
*requ<zrit, retinet > * retenet, etc. Cf. Gram. II,
668-670. So ca/efacis, S. 56; condedit, perdedit, reddedit, tra-
dedit, S. 54 ; addedi, adsteti, conteneo, crededi, inclausus, presteti,
etc., Sepulcri 213-215. On the same plan new verbs were
formed: * de-minat, re-negat, etc.
*Te regularly became e; but if the preceding consonant was /, it was palatalized
hence paretes, but * mul'eres. Cf. 225.
i4i] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 65
c. ILLAC, ILLIC.
e. NUMERALS.
142. The numbers vigintl, trlginta, quadrdginta, qulnquagznta,
etc., were sometimes accented on the antepenult: Consentius
mentions a faulty pronunciation triginta, Keil V, 392, lines
4-5 quarranta occurs in a late inscription, Vok. II, 461,
;
fourteen, etc.
d. GREEK WORDS.
143. The accentuation of Greek words was varied. Some-
times the Greek stress was preserved, sometimes the word was
made to conform to the Latin principle.
> ec(c)le'sia, la-ropia > his tor ia, a-iqirta > sepia, o-vfx<pwvLa > sym-
phonia. Later a fashionable pronunciation -ia, doubtless
favored by Christian influence, penetrated popular speech
(o-o<ia> sophia, etc.) and produced a new Latin ending -ia y
The endings
-etd, -&ov sometimes became -ea -ia, -eum
sen 809.
148. When the penult was short, the accent remained un-
changed : yeVeo-is > genesis, /caAa/aos > calamus, Ko\.a<po<s > cola-
p/ius, 7rpo-(3vTepov > presbyterum (with a new nominative
presbyter).
litium.
Some words have both pronunciations: tihwXov^idohim
(both in Prudentius: Lat. Spr. 466), f/077/Ao? > eremus eremus
(Prudentius), <riva,in> sinapi sinapi.
UNSTRESSED WORDS.
156. unemphatic words, in Latin as in other lan-
Short,
guages, had no accent, and were attached as additional
syllables to the beginning or end of other words (S. 38-39):
non-amat, dma-me, te-videt, dd-tibi, cave-facias, circum-litora
(Quintilian I, 5). Many words, especially prepositions and
conjunctions, as well as some adverbs and pronouns, were
used only as enclitics or proclitics.
68 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 160
C. QUANTITY.
159. We
must distinguish between the quantity of vowels
and the quantity of syllables. Every Latin vowel was by
nature either long or short; how great the difference was we
do not know, but we may surmise that in common speech it
was more marked in stressed than in unstressed vowels. A
syllable was long if it contained ( 1 ) a long vowel or a diph-
thong or (2) any vowel -+- a following consonant. If, however,
the consonant was final and the next word began with a vowel,
the consonant, in connected speech, was doubtless carried over
to the next syllable and did not make position: see 133.
For the syllabication of mute -+- liquid, see 132, 134.
1. POSITION.
In some of the Romance languages position checked
160.
the development of the preceding vowel, and it is probable that
the beginnings of this differentiation go back to Vulgar Latin
times : pa-rem > Old Fr. per, par-tem > Fr. part. Mute -+- liquid
did not prevent the development: pa-trem>Yx. pere. Neither,
apparently, did a final consonant (cf. 133): sa-l> Fr. sel.
163] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 69
cippus; cupa, cuppa, giving Sp. cuba, Fr. cuve, It. cupola and
Sp. copa, Fr. coupe, It. coppa ; gluto glutto ; hoc erat hocc erat,
* stella (>It. stella; cf. Vok. I, 339, stilla)-, strena (> Old Fr.
estreine) + strhina = * strenna (> It. strenna, Sic. strinna); tota
1 Consentius :
" per adjectionem litterre tottum pro toto." Cf. Gram. 1, 488, 547;
Lexique 98-104. According to Lai. Spr. 485, tottus was used by Pirminius.
2
For *tiittus see 204(2).
i66] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 71
2. VOWEL QUANTITY.
165. Originally, perhaps, long and short vowels were dis^
tinguished only by duration, the vowels having, for instance,
the same sound in latus and latus, in debet and reditu in vinum
and minus, nomen and novus, in ullus and multus. However
in
this may have been, long and short e, i, 0, and u were event-
ually differentiated, the short vowels being open while the
long were close vendo sentio, pinus piper, solus solet, mulus
:
gula. That is, for the vowels of brief duration the tongue
was not lifted quite so high as for those held longer. Later,
in most of the Empire, / and 11 were allowed to drop still lower,
and became e and see 201, 208.
: In the case of a, which
is made with the tongue lying flat in the bottom of the mouth,
a. VOWELS IN HIATUS.
167. Vowels in hiatus with the last syllable offer difficulties.
The Classic rule that a vowel before another vowel is short is
not absolute even for verse, and the practice of poets was not
always in accordance with spoken usage. Dies, puis kept
their originally long vowel, attested by inscriptions (dIes
pIvs piivs, S. 93; cf. Substrate II, 101-102); so cut, proved
by old inscriptions; and, at least in part, fui, found in inscrip^
tions, in Plautus, and in Ennius (S. 93): these preserved their
close vowel in the Romance languages.
Naturally long vowels, then, probably kept their original
quantity in hiatus. Naturally short vowels doubtless had
their regular development also: deus deus, although we do
find the spellings dius and mius (S. 187); duo>duiz=zdui;
via = via. At a later stage, after u had become (see 165,
208), ary before u was apparently differentiated into 0:
dvum> oum (cf. 324) > qum (and also ovum, with a restora-
tion of the v through the plural ova); situs > sous > sous (S.
i 7 o]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 73
216, Pirson 16). There may have been other special varia-
tions in different countries. Cf. 217.
For a different theory, see Gram. I, 246-248. For another
still, see A. Horning in Zs. XXV, 341.
there was a glide from the vowel to the/, which prolonged the
first syllable: not pejor, Troja, but peijor, Troija. We find in
inscriptions such spellings as Aiiax, coiiux, cuiius, eiius,
174. The old quantity itself was lost, for the most part
during the Empire. It seems to have disappeared from un-
stressed syllables by the third or fourth century ; but confusion
set in as early as the second. The nominative singular -is
and the plural es were confounded by 150 a. d. (S. 75), and
ce was often used for e in inscriptions (S. 183-184: bence, etc.).
D. VOWELS.
178. Latin had the vowels a, e,1, 0, u, and in unaccented
eclesia; <rrpria > scepia, but also sepia > It. seppia; aKr)vrj>
sccena scena. Late words often show i: do-K^ri/s > ascitis ; Per.
1 86] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 79
187. Y was
originally pronounced u; later in Attic and
Ionic became u, which subsequently,
it in the 9th or 10th
century, was unrounded into i.
In the older borrowed words, perhaps taken mostly from
Doric (Claussen 865), v regularly was assimilated to Latin u
(S. 219221): fivpora> bursa ; KpvTTT-q> criipta; Kvfxj3r)> cumba;
has "gyrus non girus." Cf. giro, misterii, etc., Bechtel 76-77;
girety Audollent 535; Erigia, etc., Pirson 39. This i, if long,
was usually pronounced i; if short, /, which became e: yvpos
1. ACCENTED VOWELS.
a. SINGLE VOWELS.
N.B. For vowels in hiatus, see 167. For nasal vowels, see 171.
(3)Beside cerdsus (< Kipaaos) there must have been a Latin *ceresus.
So beside * ceraseus; which was used in southern Italy, Rome, and Sar-
dinia, there was a cereseas, which was used elsewhere : Lat. S/>r. 468 ; cf.
Substrate I, 544.
(4) Beside gravis there was a gravis, under the influence of levis:
GREVE, Lat. Spr. 468; cf. Substrate II, 441.
(5) Beside malum (< Doric fidXov) there was a melum (^/i^Xoy), used
by Petronius and others: Lat. Spr. 468.
(6) Beside vacuus there was a vocuus: vocuam, C. L. L. VI, 1527 d 33?
cf. vocatio, C. I. L. I, 198, etc. Cf. S. 171, Olcott 33. The o was probably
198] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 83
ern Gaul, this very high e>ei {verum^> Old Fr. veir)\ Lat.
Spr. 468. It is interesting to note that Celtic e also became i:
Dottin 99.
Lexique 104-105: criscit, riges, tris, vexit, etc. Pirson 2-5:
ficerent, ficit, requiiscit, rictu, rigna, etc. Neumann 10-11:
adoliscens, minses, quiiscit, rigna. Bon. 1 06-1 13: minse, quin-
quaginsima, etc. Haag 8-9: adoliscens, criscens, ingraviscente,
(3) Beside sicula there was a secula (Lexique H9)> It. segolo. Varro
{Lexique 1 19) mentions a rustic speca for spica. It. stegola, Sp. and Port.
esteva postulate *steva for stiva ; cf. C. G. L. IV, 177, 1. 1.
R. 463; accepere, trea, etc., Bon. 11 7-1 23; ce.teneris, trebus, etc.,
etc., Bon. 126-130; cognusco, gluria, nun, punt, etc., Haag 13.
It probably represents a very close sound, which later, in north-
ern Gaul, became ou or u: cortem > Old Fr. court. Cf. 198.
(2) Beside totus and tottus ( 163), some of the Romance forms point to
*tuttus or *tuctus y or at least to a nom. pi. * tutti or *tucti: It. sg. tutto, pi.
tutti; Neapolitan sg. totto, pi. tutte ; old Fr., Pr. sg. tot, pi. tuit. The
Italian tutto may have come through Such a form seems to
the plural.
be attested by the 67. Cassel: " aiatutti. uuela alle," where tutti is defined
as alle. No satisfactory explanation has been proposed; the most plausi-
ble, perhaps, is that of Mohl, Lexique 102-104, namely, the influence of
cuncti on toll. Cf. Zs. XXXIII, 143.
q before n + dental.
U is occasionally used for o in inscriptions: lucus, etc., S.
u
208. pronounced u ( 165), became, probably by
Short u,
(3) In place of niirus we find nortcs (R. 465) and nora (S. 216), due to
the analogy of soror and *novia ("bride," from novus).
(4) Instead of pht ere zx\o\ pluvia people said plovere (used by Petronius
and others) and *ploja: Lat. Spr. 468. Cf. 169, 217.
88 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 210
b. DIPHTHONGS-
ae
(1) The spellings Cladius, Glacus, Scants, etc., with a for an when
there is an u in the next syllable, are pretty common in various countries:
S. 223; Carnoy 86-95. Perhaps they represent a provincial pronuncia-
tion, or possibly they are only orthographic.
(2) Cludo for claudo is common, coming through derivatives, such as
occludo: Vok. II, 304; Carnoy 100 {cludo in two Sp. inscriptions of the
1st and 2d centuries); Bayard 6. Cf. Carnoy 85-86 (clusa, etc.).
212. Umbrian and Faliscan had in place of Latin au:
Hammer 4-5, 8. and
So, in general, the dialects of northern
central Italy: There are some examples
Chrohologie 158-1:64.
in Pompeii, in Oscan territory, where au was normally pre-
served; this pronunciation was used also in the country around
Rome, and in the first and second centuries b.c. crept into
the city, where it was used by the lower classes: Lat. Spr.
465-466. In Umbrian inscriptions we find toru, etc.: Ham-
mer 4. In Latin, Clodius and Plotus are common in first
century inscriptions: Carnoy 85, Pirson 27. Closa, etc., occur
in the second century Carnoy 85. :
OB
c. INFLUENCE OF LABIALS.
217. According to some philologists, a following labial
tends to open a vowel: colubra>* colqbra, fluvium^^flovium,
juvenis >
*jqvenis m obi lis * mqbilis, ovum
i >
* ovum, pliiere > >
plovere, etc. A general influence of this kind can hardly be
regarded as proved for any combination except qu, which
became qu: see 167.
S. Pieri, La vocal tonica alterata dal contatto d'una consonafite
labiate in Archivio glottologico italiano XV, 457, maintains
that z,
f, qf u were lowered one stage to e, e, q, by a pre-
ceding or following labial, even if it was separated from the
vowel by a liquid. Although many examples are cited, the
evidence is not convincing. For a criticism of the theory,
see G. Ascoli, Osservazioni al precedente lavoro, ibid., p. 476.
The discussion is continued by Pieri, La vocal tonica alterata
da una consonante labiate in Zs. XXVII, 579.
d. CLERICAL LATIN.
218. In clerical Latin the vowels were probably pronounced
for the most part as in vulgar speech, until the reforms of
Charlemagne. After that, in general, a a, e=e, z = i, o =q y
2. UNACCENTED VOWELS.
N. B. For secondary stress, see 153-155.
sentit> It. senti, sente; feci, fecit >x. fs, fes. In sibi, tibi
guere . non tingere," Keil VII, 106); torqueo > # torquo >
. .
audii > audi, consilii > consili, ministerii > minister!. Velius
$6 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [229
b. INITIAL SYLLABLE.
228. As
one can judge from spellings and subsequent
far as
developments, a was pronounced a; ce, e, i, ce all came to be
sounded e; 1 remained i; and u were finally all pronounced
o or u; remained 0; au became a if there was an accented
U in the next syllable, but otherwise remained unchanged (cf.
Lat. Spr. 470): rddlcem, valere; cetdtem, debere, tenere, videre,
fozdare; ridemus, avitdtem, hibernus; plordre, frumentum^
subinde; colorem, dolere, movetis; A^u^gustus, A(u)runa\
a(u)scuZto, audere, gaudere, naufragium. For the confusion of
e and i, Carnoy 17-33, Bon. 135-138. Cf.
see Audollent 535,
cecdesia, Bechtel 76 "senatus non sinatus" App. Pr.; golosus
;
S. 171-172, Lat. Spr. 470) Classic/tfz/rt; *jemia > > Sardinian genna.
(2) E, long or short, is very often replaced by in Gallic inscriptions
;'
{Luc. Spr. 470): dwoza, tftimoride, etc.; dilevit, Eon. 109; cf. Vok 1,
230] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 97
422-424. This perhaps indicates a close pronunciation cf. 198. Di- for :
213; cf. Vitruvius, retundatio, Lat. Spr. 470), through the influence of the
prefix re-; also sometimes in serore {Lat. Spr. 470; cf. serori, seroribus,
Carnoy 107).
(7) Au in vulgar speech was often replaced by o (cf. 212, 213):
oricla, App. Fr., Pirson 27; so *ot (for aut: cf. Umbrian ote, Lindsay 40),
which prevailed in Vulgar Latin.
230. *S before a consonant was doubtless long and sharp,
as in modern Italian, so that at the beginning of a word it had
a syllabic effect
This led to the prefixing of a
s-chola.
The es- is- thus produced was confounded with ex-, exs-
,
c. INTERTONIC SYLLABLE.
N. B. By this term is meant the syllable following the secondary and preceding
the primary .vtress.
d. PENULT.
232. The Vulgar Latin rhythmic principle tended to oblit-
erate one of the two post-tonic syllables of proparoxytones.
The penult, being next to the accent, was weaker and more
exposed to syncope. We find in late Latin much confusion
of e and i: anemis, meretis, etc., Neumann 22; dixemus, etc.,
Bon. 118. Likewise and u: ambolare, etc., R. 464; insola,
etc., Bon. 131 135; cf. Sepulcri 201202.
The treatment of this vowel, however, was apparently very
inconsistent Vulgar Latin, and the conditions differed
in
widely in different regions. There was probably a conflict
between cultivated and popular pronunciation, both types
often being preserved in the Romance languages: thus while
the literary and official world said (k)ommes (>It. uomini),
the uneducated pronounced Vw'/z^j- (> Pr. omne); similarly
beside socerum there was socrum.
As far as the general phenomena can be classified, we may
say that in popular words in common speech the vowel of the
penult tended to fall under the following conditions:
(1) Between any Consonant and a Liquid.
233. A
vowel preceded by a consonant and followed by a
liquid weakened and fell in the earlier part of the Vulgar
ioo An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [235
(4) Miscellaneous.
238. In some words the vowel fell under different condi-
tions: digitum > dictum, Franz, p I, 15-16 (cf. 233) ;
frigidus
io2 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 241
e. FINAL SYLLABLE.
240. The vowels regularly remained through the Vulgar
Latin period. Later, about the eighth century, they gener-
ally fell, except a and J, in Celtic, Aquitanian, and Ligurian
territory.
241. In the App. Pr. we find "avus non aus" "flavus non
flaus" "rivus non rius." Aus and fiaus have left no repre-
sentatives, but rius is evidently the ancestor of Italian and
Spanish rio. All three forms are probably examples of a
phonetic reduction that affected certain regions.
Through a large part of the Empire -dvil> -aut: tri-
famulus.
Haag 42.
E. CONSONANTS.
246. The Latin consonant were B, C, D, F, G, H, I,
letters
K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z. /and V were used both
for the vowels i and u and for the consonants/ and v. K, an
old letter equivalent to C, was kept in some formulas; it need
248] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 105
1. LATIN CONSONANTS,
a. ASPIRATE.
249. ZTwas weak and uncertain at all times in Latin, being
doubtless little or nothing more than a breathed on-glide: S.
255-256. Grammarians say that h is not a letter but a mark
of aspiration: S. 262-263. There is no trace of Latin h in
the Romance languages. Cf. G. Paris in Rom. XI, 399.
251. Initial h was surely very feeble and often silent during
the Republic. In Cicero's time and in the early Empire there
was an attempt to revive it in polite society, which led to fre-
quent misuse by the ignorant, very much as happens in Cock
ney English to-day: for the would-be elegant chommoda^
hinsidias, etc., of "Arrius," see S. 264.
Quintilian says the ancients used h but little, and cites
"cedos ircosque": S. 263. Gellius quotes P. Nigidius Figulus
to the effect that "rusticus fit sermo si aspires perperam"; but
speaks of bygone generations i.e., Cicero's contemporaries
as using h very much, in such words as sepulchrum, ho7iera:
S. 263-264. Pompeius notes that h sometimes makes position,
as in terga fatigamus hasta, sometimes does not, as in quisquis
honos tumuli: Keil V, 117. Grammarians felt obliged to dis-
cuss in detail the spelling of words with or without h: S.
264-265.
254] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 107
etc., R. 462-463.
b. GUTTURALS.
253. C and K did not differ in value except that C some-
times did service for G: App. Pr., u digitusnon dicitus";
dicitos digitos, Audollent 536; cf. S. 341-344. There was
some confusion, too, ofQ and C: S. 345.
254. <2^was pronounced kw: S. 340-341, 345-346, 350-
351. Before u and 0, however, the kw was reduced to k by
the first or second century, probably earlier in local or vulgar
dialects: Quintilian VI, iii, records a pun of Cicero on coque
and quoque; co?idam, cot, cottidie, S. 351-352; in quo ante=in-
choante, quooperta coperta, secuntur, Bechtel 78-79. Cf. 226.
Before other vowels the kw was regularly kept in most of
the Empire, unless analogy led to a substitution of k, as in
cod for coqui through cocus : see 226. But in Dacia, south-
eastern Italy, and Sicily subsequent developments point to a
Vulgar Latin reduction of que to ke, qui to ki: Lat. Spr. 473.
-
io8 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 256
g has " its own sound " (i. e., that of English g in gem) before e and z, but is " weak
before other vowels.
26i] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. hi
260. K' as early as the third century must have had nearly
everywhere a front, or praepalatal, articulation: k'entu, duk'ere.
The next step was the development of an audible glide, a
short y, between the k' and the following vowel: k'yentu,
duk'yere. By the fifth century the k' had passed a little
further forward and the k'y had become t'y: t'yentu, dut'yere.
realis in Gl. Reich., see Zs. XXX, 50); so, too, the proclitic
eo for ego, found about the sixth century, Vok. I, 129 (other
examples in manuscripts, Franz, d II, 242-243). But ligare,
negdre, pagdnus.
fac, hoc, sic; cf. Italian dimmi (< die mi), fammi (<fac mi),
siffatto ( < sic factum )
*eysire >
Pr. eissir. Cf. Einf 186, Gram. I, 650. The
resultant phenomena can, however, be explained otherwise:
Suchier 735.
S. 327. Cf. Italian soma; and also salma, which comes from
sauma as calma from ko.v\xxl. Soma occurs in Gl. Reich.
269. Gn was variously treated in different regions, being
preserved in some, assimilated into ri or n in others, and sub-
jected to still further modifications: rcznante, renum, Haag 34.
Cf. Lat. Spr. 476.
In cognosco the g generally disappeared, the word being
decomposed after the fall of initial g in gnosco into co- and
no sco; similarly the g was sometimes lost in cognatus: Vok. I,
c. PALATALS.
271. Latin j was pronounced y, being identical in sound
with the consonant that developed out of e and i ( 224):
Janiy conjux, cujus; eamus, habeam, teneat, /ilia, venio. Instead
of i (==/) the spelling ii was often used: coiiugi, eiius, Neu-
mann, Fortsetzung 7.
whether it means dy y or dz
f f
(cf. 339): ZES =
dies, S. 323;
276. Cy and ty, in the second and third centuries, were very
similar in sound, being respectively k'y and t'y (cf. Fr. Riquier
and pi tie in popular speech), and hence were often confused:
'Apov/aavos = Aruntianus, 131 a.d., Eckinger 99; termina-
ciones (2d century), concupiscencia (an acrostic in Com-
modian), jus ticia (in an edict of Diocletian), many examples
in Gaul in the 5th century, Lat. Spr. 475; defeniciones (222^
235 a. D.), ocio (389 a. d.), staacio (601 a.d.), tercius, S. 323;
oracionem (601 a. d.), tercia, Pirson 71 mendatium, servicium, ;
d. DENTALS.
280. The dentals were pronounced with the middle of the
tongue arched up and the tip touching the gums or teeth, as
in modern French, and not as in English: S. 301302, 307.
(1) Occasionally d> I: old dacruma> lacrima ; App. Pr., " adipes non
alipes." Cf. Liquids. Cf. 289, (3).
appeared. Cf.
358-359. Grammarians warn against the
S.
dicendum," Keil VII, 105, 107; App. Pr., " capitulum non
capicluni" "vetulus non veclus" "vitulus non virtus" For
tulus^rtus, cf. 234.
Between s and / a t developed: Caper, "pessulum non
pestulum" (henc^ Italian pestio, etc.), S. 315. So probably
insula > # is la > * . 'si 1 a > # &1/0 > It. Ischia.
Raetia, and Sardinia kept the / late; but forms without the
consonant (as audivi, posui)
possibly due to Italian stone-
cutters occur in Gallic inscriptions. Fredegarius wrote e for
e. LIQUIDS.
(1) L.
287. L had a convex formation, like ^/and / (cf. 280): S.
306-307, 309.
288. Priscian I, 38 (S. 324) writes: "Z triplicem, ut Plinio
videtur, sonum habet: exilem, quando geminatur secundo loco
122 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 289
see 284.
(1) Metathesis occurs occasionally: Consentius (S. 327) blames " coacla
pro cloaca" " displicina pro disciplina "; ci.fabiila > *flaba > It. fiaba etc.
y
App. Pr., "flagellum non fragellum" " cultellum non cuntellum"'; cf.
tions: S. 330. App. Pr. has pessica; Gl. Reich, has iusic =
deorsum. The was not consistently carried out
assimilation
everywhere, being probably somewhat hindered by school in-
fluence. It took place in the whole territory in deorsum and
siirsum; in most of the Empire in dorsum; in about half the
Empire in persica; locally in aliorsum, retrorsum, reversus,
versus.
After long vowels the ss> s (see 161); so sussum> susum,
while dossum remained unchanged: susum, Waters Ch. 77;
susosusu susum, Bechtel 83 : susum very common, R. 460-461
diosum, R. 460. Cf. Corssen I, 243.
f. SIBILANTS.
297. S
seems to have been dental, with the upper surface
of the tongue convex (cf. 280): S. 302, 304, 307-308.
The old voiced s having become r (S. 314-315), Classic
Latin s was probably always voiceless and remained so in
298] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 125
tion of the prefix prce- (as in prcebitor) for the unusual initial
pres-: hence It. prete, Pr. preveire {<*prcebyterum).
302. For ss>s, see 161. For sy, see 275. For assibila-
tion, see Gutturals and Palatals. For z, see 246 and Greek
Consonants.
305] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 127
g. NASALS.
303. Nf
like d and / ( 280), was dental or gingival, witl
an arched tongue: S. 269-270.
M and n, initial and intervocalic, regularly remained un-
changed: meus, noster, amat, venit. For the reduction of
minus- to mis-, see 245. There was a dissimilation of two
n's in Bononia > It. Bologna.
rigo, etc.), before s it was silent (cosul, etc.: cf. 171, 311).
128 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [307
southern Italy before the Empire was over (Zat. Spr. 476):
Interanniensis, Carnoy 166.
h. LABIALS.
(1) P.
312. P regularly remained unchanged: pater, opus, corpus.
(1) There was some sporadic confusion of p and b: bvblic^e, scripit,
"
S. 299; App. Pr. "plasta non blasta" ziziber non ziziper" cannabis and
f
;
It. canapa.
ently began in the first century, was well along in the second,
and was completed, at least in Italy, in the third: Ovlovul =
Vibia, Rome, Eckinger 95; devere, devitvm, provata, etc.,
S. 240. As v also was pronounced /?, a confusion in spelling
resulted, b and v being used indiscriminately: cvrabit,
ivbentvtis, nobe, etc., S. 240; ivvente -=.jubente^ 2d century,
Einf. 127, 120; cabia cavea, Danuvium, Dibona, iubenis,
vovis, etc., Audollent 536-537; devitum (6th century), lebis,
redivit, vibi, Carnoy 134135; annotavimus, lebat, Bechtel 78;
(2) In App. Pr. we find "sibilus non sifthis" and Priscian (S. 300) men-
tions " sifiluvi pro sibilum" ; cf. French siffler. Perhaps the form withy
comes from some non-Latin Italic dialect : cf. bubulcus =
It. bifolco, and a
(3) F-
320. F was originally bilabial (S. 294-295), but became
dentilabial by the middle of the Empire (S. 295): cf. 305.
It is the old /, apparently, that is described by Quintilian
(S. 296-297); a plain description of the dentilabial/ is given
by Terentianus Maurus and Marius Victorinus- (S. 296).
Varro, Ling. Lat. 5, 97, the /for h was Sabine. This phenomenon can
have no connection with the change of initial/to h in Spanish and Gascon.
(4) v.
INBICTO), S. 240.
136 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 324
corbo corvo, Fr. corbeau; curvus> Old Fr., Pr. corp, Sp. corvo;
S.241; "pavor non paor" App. Pr.; cf. late noembris, /wicius,
Lindsay 52. "Favilla non failla" in App. Pr. seems to be
isolated.
In the above cases the fall apparently was only sporadic.
But before an accented or u, the w or /3 fell regularly in
most of the Empire: aunculus, Vok. II, 471 (cf. auncli, Pir-
son 63); flaonivs, S. 241; *paonem; *paorem.
Furthermore, intervocalic w or (3 regularly disappeared in
popular speech before any u, probably towards the end of the
Republic (when -vos>-vus) : flavs, vlvs, S. 241 {qI. flans in
328]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 137
App. Pr., viiis in Pirson 63); oum, Vok. II, 472 (cf. oum in
Probus, Keil IV, 113) nous, Audollent 539 (cf. noum, Pirson
;
Cf. 167.
(5) u.
326. U in hiatus which
had not already become w ( 223-
224) probably took that sound by the end of the Vulgar Latin
period: eccu* hic> *eccwic, eccu ista > *eccwista, nocui> nqcwi,
y
2. GREEK CONSONANTS.
327. In Greek the surd and the sonant stops must have
been less sharply differentiated than in Latin; the sonants
were perhaps not fully voiced, and the surds doubtless had a
weak, voiced explosion: so they were not always distinguished
by the Latin ear. The Greek liquids, nasals, and sibilants
usually remained unchanged in transmission.
328. Single consonants sometimes became double in Latin,
and Greek double consonants sometimes became single: vo/xos
>nummus; eKKA>/o-ta> ec(c)lesia. Cf. Claussen 847-851.
138 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 332
(1) B, r, A.
329. B, y, B regularly remained b, g, d: /?Aaio-os> blcesus;
ydpov "> garum ; 8eAra> delta. Sometimes, however, they were
unvoiced into/, c, t: 'Ia/<co/3os > *Jdcopus (also */dconius);
yoyypos > conger gonger, o-TnjAvyya > spelunca; K&pos > citrus.
Cf. Claussen 833-838.
Tn>um (cf. 268): o-ay/xa > sagma sauma.
(2) K, n, T.
330. K, 7T, t generally remained c, p, t: KoAa<os> colaphus
irop<pvpa > purpura ; rdXavrov > talentum.
K, however, often became,^/ 7r sometimes became b; of a
change oir to d there is no example, although kcu/Sitos for <:##-
didus ( Eckinger 98 ) seems to point in that direction 'A*/oaya? :
(3) , <E>, X.
332. The 0, x became in Old Latin t, p,
explosives <f>,
c (S.
Claussen 833.
(1) Evidence of a late school pronunciation of 6 as ts is to be found in
Thurot 78, 79 (cf. footnote to 259): " T quoque, si aspiretur, ut c enun-
tiatur, ut cether, nothus, Parthi, cathedra, catholicus, etheus, Matheus". . .
> maurus; vo/jltj > nome. There are, however, some indica-
tions that they were weak before consonants :
fiofxfios > Pr.
bobansa, etc. Cf. Claussen 845.
(5) z-
338.Z doubtless had several pronunciations in Greek. In
early Latin it was represented by ss or s: /xaa> massa, ^vrj
3. GERMANIC CONSONANTS.
340. Most no peculiarities, being
of the consonants offer
treated as in Latin. A
had no Latin equiva-
few, however,
lents: /, /1,
<?, and w. Furthermore, b and k came in after the
corresponding Latin sounds had undergone some modification.
341. B
between vowels, occurring apparently only in words
adopted after Latin intervocalic b had become (3 ( 318), re-
mained a stop: roubon> It. rubare, *striban> Pr. estribar.
G, although it can scarcely have come in time to share
in the early palatalization of Latin g before front vowels
( 258 ff.), seems to have followed a similar course, and to
have participated also in the later Gallic palatalization of g
before a ( 263): gilda>lt. geldra, *giga>?r., It. giga gets la
y
> Pr. giscle; garb a > Fr. gerbe, garto > Old Fr. jart
K resisted front vowels: skeha > Sp. esquena, skernon >
It.schernire; so *rik-ttia > Pr. riqueza, etc. Franko seems to
have been an early acquisition, and its derivatives palatalized
their k before e and i: frank-iscus> It. Francesco, etc. In the
142 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 344
nipa > Fr. honte, pahso > It. tasso, parrjan >
Fr. tarir, prescan
> Pr. trescar. Cf. Kluge 500.
sounded kk in the greater part of the Empire: fehu > Fr., Pr.
feu, lt.fio; skiuha?i>T. esquiver, It. schivare; spehdn>0\&
Fr. espier, Pr. espiar; jehan >
Old Fr. jehir, Pr. gequir. It.
gecchire, Old Sp.jaquzr.
Ifs, ht were generally treated like Latin ss, tt: pahso > It.
tasso;
slah?a> Old Fr. esclate, Pr. esclata, It. schiatta; sleht
> Pr. esclet, It. schietto. But wahta, doubtless adopted at a
different time, became Old Fr. gaite, Pr. gaita; cf. It. guatare.
-us, tergum -us, vadum us; cf. collus um, lectus um.
In popular and late Latin this tendency was strong: ante-
Classic, m.papaver; Plautus, m.guttur, dorsus (Mil. Glor. II, 4,
Draeger I, 4), but also the collective plural for the singular
354]
An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 147
fusa, grada occur in late Latin, Lat. Spr. 482. Cf. Old Fr.
crigne < ? *crinea = crlnes; It. dita, frutta, etc. ; Sardinian,
Apulian, Rumanian frunza < ? *f7'ondia =frondes.
2. DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
354. For the use of cases, see 85-100. By the end of
the Vulgar Latin period the cases were generally reduced,
148 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 35 6
materies -ia. Aria, facia, glacia, scabia are attested later: Den-
susianu 133, Lat. Spr. 482. All passed over in the greater
part of the Empire; but -ies was kept in the Spanish penin-
sula, in southern Italy and Sardinia, and occasionally in
southern Gaul, being assimilated to the third declension: cf.
XXVII, 367. Corpo for corpore occurs in the Per. : Bechtel 86.
Greek nouns of the third declension sometimes passed into
the first: absis> absida, G. 280; lampas > lampada, R. 258-
a. FIRST DECLENSION.
assumes Celtic influence: hic sunt cartas, etc. No foreign influences are
needed to explain the practice, but they may have helped its diffusion.
(2) A. Zimmermann, Zs. XXVIII, 343, shows that there was also an
inflection in -dtis, -etis, and -otis: Aureliati, Agneti, etc. Cf. Eugeneti
from Eugenes, R. 264, Dubois 250; Andreate, Rom. XXXV, 216; also
Joannentis, Rom. XXXV, 250.
b. SECOND DECLENSION.
361. As neuter nouns became masculine, they assumed,
partly in Vulgar Latin but mostly in Romance, the masculine
inflection in those countries where the masculine and neuter
differed: vmus, etc. Cf. 347-349.
The plural in -a, however, was retained to a considerable
extent, especially in southern and central Italy and Dacia.
Some masculines took this -a, by the analogy of bracchia, etc.
*botella *botula i digita, fructa, rama, etc.
i
Cf. 349, 351-352.
c. THIRD DECLENSION.
364. In the ablative there was considerable confusion of -1
and -e in Classic Latin: marl mare, turrl turre, etc. This was
carried further in common speech: cf. Vok. II, 85, 87. The
ablative in -e finally triumphed, but there are some traces
of -l: It. pari, etc.
"fames non famis," Keil VII, 105; App. Pr., "nubes non nu-
bis"; cedis, famis, nubis, etc., R. 263; J'amis, etc., Sepulcri 220.
As and -is came to be pronounced alike before the end
-es
of the Vulgar Latin period (cf. 174, 243), it is futile to
trace the Romance forms phonetically to one source rather
than the other.
Tiktin 566.
Neuters in -r, which apparently became masculine or
37 1] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 155
CHANGE OF STEM.
THINGS. PERSONS.
A
00 Change of Accent.
THINGS. PERSONS.
d. LOSS OF DECLENSION.
372. In Italy and Dacia, through the dropping of final r
and s, declension nearly disappeared before the end of the
Vulgar Latin period: cf. Audollent 545-547, nom. a/umnu,
Glaucu, Romanu, etc. It was probably lost altogether soon
after, although a few double forms still remain: e. g., It. ladro,
ladrone.
It disappeared early in Spain also. In most of Gaul it
373. In Gaul and Spain the forms preserved were the ac-
cusative singular and the accusative plural. In Italy and
Rumania, for phonetic reasons, the surviving cases are the
accusative singular and the nominative plural.
There are, however, not a few examples of the nominative
singular of names of persons.
5 375] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. *57
3. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
374. Adjectives were declined after the same model as
nouns. As neuter nouns assumed masculine endings ( 347),
the neuter adjective forms were less and less used; the neuter
singular, however, was kept to represent a whole idea (cf.
350), and the neuter plural (as omnia) was doubtless em-
ployed from time to time as an indefinite collective.
-er -a -um
Weir) libra libru
libru -0 libra' libru -0
So ager %
cegra, cegrum.
-er -is -e
ace{r) acre{s) acre
acre acre acre
W Two
triste{s)
Genders.
triste
triste triste
triste(s) tristia
158 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 377
meliore(s) meliora
melidre{s) meliora
4. COMPARISON.
377. For the new method of comparison, see 56. The
Romance type, not completely evolved in Vulgar Latin,
was:
(plus '
... (plus
cams < .
L
J- carus tile A . >
L magis J (,
magis J
379] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 159
5. NUME RALS. 1
378. Unus was probably declined like bonus. It was used
also as an indefinite article (57) and an indefinite pronoun
(cf. 71).
Duo came to be replaced by dui, attested in the third cen-
tury: Archiv IX, 558 (cf. II, 107). Its inflection at the end
of the Vulgar Latin period was probably:
dui doi (duo?) due doe duas doas dua doa
duo(s) dua(s) doa(s) dua doa
J
See M. Ihm, Vulgarformen lateinischer Zahlworter auf Inschriften in Archiv
VII, 65.
160 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 381
jpriscian (Keil III, 412) mentions decern et septem. Beside this dece et septe
there was *dece ac septe ; so *dece et (or ac) octo, *dece et (or ac) nove.
380. The tens, beginning with 20, are irregular: cf. 142.
Viginti^ triginta became viinti, triinta ( 259):
regularly
/?vti occurs in a sixth century document of Ravenna, Vok.
II, 461; trienta, Archiv VII, 69. These forms easily con-
tracted into vintiy trinta (vinti, trinta: Archiv VII, 69), which
account in general for the Italian, Provencal, and French
words; Rumanian has new formations. But beside these we
must assume for Spanish something like *viinti, * triinta, with
an opening of the first i and an early shift of accent, probably
anterior to the fall of the g; triginta is, in fact, mentioned as a
faulty pronunciation by Consentius, Keil V, 392. Cf. G. Ryd-
kept, and so was the genitive singular and plural of ille, ipse,
and isle,
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
N. B. For the use of personal pronouns, see 60.
384.As the pronouns came to be expressed more and more,
and also hie, ipse, and is were used to supply the lacking
ille
385. Ego lost its g in all the territory, but probably not
until end of the Vulgar Latin period. According to
the
Meyer-Lubke, Lat. Spr. 484, eo occurs in manuscripts of the
sixth century. 1 See 263.
1
But his reference to Vok. I, 242 is incorrect.
1 62 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 388
nos te vos se se
2. POSSESSIVES,
387. Mens, tuus, suus were declined like bonus; noster, vos-
ter, But ml was used, beside meus mea, as a mas-
like liber. y
3. DEMONSTRATIVES.
N. B. For the use of demonstratives, see 61-68. For their function as definite
articles and personal pronouns, see 60, 67-68, also 392.
however, the special forms ipsus for ipse and ipsud for ipsum,
R. 276; Franz, d II, 274.
Hie, nom. sg. m., was partially replaced, probably in the sec-
ond half of the sixth century, by tilt, framed on the model of
qui: Bon. 114, illi=ille, ipsi=ipse; cf. Franz. 9 II, 246-260.
Through the analogy of ciijus, cuiy the m. illlus gave way to
illujus, and the was replaced
dat. sg. m. tilt in part by illui.
The former, however, subsequently went out of use, and the
latter is not found in Calabria, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Spanish
peninsula. Illlus (ipsiusf istius), having become archaic in
popular speech, sometimes occurred as a dative: Franz. 9 II,
277-279. There was another dative form, illo, used by Apu-
leiusand others (Neue II, 427; R. 275; Quillacq 83); but it
disappeared from late Latin, being confused with the ablative
and the accusative. The Old Latin genitive Mi (ipsi, isti),
was abandoned: cf. Franz. 9 II, 273, 275.
In the dat. sg. f., beside illi, there was illce (or tile), used by
Cato and others (Neue II, 427; R. 275; Audollent 302); and
from that, on the model of illui (and perhaps of quel), was
164 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [ 392
made illm (illei), which was used beside till and Ulce. In the
genitive, on the same pattern (influenced perhaps by quejus),
was constructed illcejus (illejus) which crowded out illius.
t
Illujus, illui, illejus, illei are found from the sixth century
on: Zs. XXVI, 600, 619, C Lat, Spr, 484: illujus, illui,
271-272.
395] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 165
see 69-70.
395. For these, see 71. Alter, nullus, solus, lotus, unus
doubtless developed an inflection like bonus: gen. nulli, etc.,
C. VERBS.
1. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
396. There was some confusion of conjugations; the first
and fourth were least affected. In the Peregrinatio the second
decidedly preponderates over the third (Bechtel 87); in other
texts the third gains at the expense of the second.
The second gained most in Spain, the third in Italy, the
fourth in Gaul. Eventually Spanish and Portuguese discarded
the third, Sicilian and Sardinian the second.
New formations went into the first and fourth.
a. FIRST CONJUGATION.
397. The first conjugation generally held its own, defections
being few and partial.
Beside do, dant and sto, stant there came into use *dao,
* daunt and *stao, *staunt: Rum. daii, stau; Old It. dao; Pr.
dau, daun, estau, estaun; Pg. dou, estou. Mohl, Lexique 47,
would connect these forms with Umbrian stanu but it seems f
b. SECOND CONJUGATION.
399. Even Latin there was some confusion
in Classic
>etween the second conjugation and the third: feruh-e, tergere.
In Vulgar Latin the second lost some verbs to the third in
most of the territory: * ardere, *lucere, lugere (R. 283),
miscere (R. 284), *mordere, *nocere, *ridere, respo?idere (Bech-
tel 88: resp07idu?itur), tondere, * torcere (for torquere). Other
verbs passed over locally or occasionally: seditur, Bechtel 88.
400. Some verbs went into the fourth, probably through the
pronunciation of eo as - to (see 224): * complire, florire (R.
284), * imp lire, * lucire, lugire (R. 284), *putrire. The inchoa-
tive -escere then became iscere: *Jlorisco, /uasco, *putrisco.
Habere, at least in Italy, sometimes became hablre: Vok. I,
c. THIRD CONJUGATION.
402. The third conjugation gave a few verbs to the second,
perhaps beginning with those that had a perfect in -ui, such
as cadere *cadui, capere * caput, sapere sapui: sapere was influ-
*vgle(t) *vqlen(t)
fac (also/tf: Zs. XXV, 735), which must have led to *fate
beside facite. The present indicative certainly had several
sets of forms, one series being on the pattern of the first con-
jugation, but the present subjunctive retained its old inflection
(see Facere 72, 121; Zs. XVIII, 434):
facio *fao *fo fdcimu{s) *fdimzis *farmc(s)
face{s) *fais *fas fdcite{s) *faitis *fate(s)
faceit) *fait *fat faciun{f) *faunt *fant
Vulgate (R. 285), Sepulcri 229, Bon. 427, Haag 60, Gl. Reich.;
morlri, Plautus, and *morire.
Some others went over, at least locally: *fallire; getnire,
Pirson 148; occurire, Pirson 148; * offerire, *sofferire, by the
analogy of aperire (sufferit, R. 286; cf. deferet, offeret, Bechtel
90; offeret, first half of the 7th century, Carnoy 112); *sequzre,
beside *sequere.
DTcere, probably in the Vulgar Latin period (cf. Lexique 62),
developed a form # dire, doubtless suggested by die ( cf fac and .
d. FOURTH CONJUGATION.
407. The fourth its own, and
conjugation usually held
gained some verbs from the others.
For new formations,
such as * abbellire, igriire, see 34.
Germanic verbs in -jan regularly went into the fourth conjuga-
tion in Latin (Kluge 500): furbjan>It. forbire ; marrjan>Yx.
marrir; parrjan > Fr. tarir; warnjan > It. guarnire. Cf. 36.
For the intrusion of the inchoative -sc- into this conjuga-
tion, see 415.
future: *amat 3 -e\b)a, * amar3 -isti, etc.; but *amar3 abut, etc.
In Italian we find, beside -ia from habebam and -dbbi ebbi
from habui, a form in -ei (amere'z), which has prevailed in the
414] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 173
3. INCHOATIVE VERBS.
413. The Latin inchoative ending -sco was preceded by a-,
e-, 1-, or 0-. The types -dsco and -osco were sparingly repre-
sented and were not extended in late and popular Latin ; they
have bequeathed but few verbs such as Pr. irdisser <irdscere,
condisser<co(g)noscere to the Romance languages. The
types -esco and -isco as paresco, dormlsco were extended
in the third century and later, and lost their inchoative sense.
*Jinisce{f) *finiscun{f)
4. PRESENT STEMS.
416. Many verbs in -io dropped the i whenever it was fol-
gin with s. The old esum cited by Varro (Pr. Pers. PI. 128)
went out of use. Italian set and Raetian ses point to a *ses
beside es; Italian siete and Raatian siede, etc., indicate a * setts
for estis, while there is some evidence of an alternative * sutis
on the model of sumus; Old Italian se for e, Provencal ses fox
176 An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. [420
For smt, see sead in Vok. II, 42. Siamus, according to Lat
Spr. 478, occurs in Italian documents of the eighth century.
5. IMPERFECT.
N. B. For the loss of the imperfect subjunctive, see 118.
6. PERFECT.
422. We
must distinguish two types, the weak and the
strong: the weak comprises the v perfects in which the v is
added to a verb-stem (dvi, evi, ivi), the strong includes all
others. Verbs of the first and fourth conjugations generally
had weak perfects, those of the second and third had mostly
strong. Only six verbs
all of the second conjugation and
a. WEAK PERFECTS.
423. A tendency to keep the stress on the characteristic
vowel, and also a general inclination to omit v between two i's
17 (Keil II, 587); perit, petit, redit, Bayard 60; perit, etc.,
Bon. 440.
A contraction without the fall of v, in the third person sing-
ular, gave rise, locally, to an alternative form, *-iut: It.
servio, etc.
-drun(t) irun U)
b. STRONG PERFECTS.
There are three types
427.
those that add u to the root,
those that add s and those that have nothing between the
t
357, included from the start not only perfects of the placui
sort, but also all perfects in -vi not made from the verb-stem
(cf. 422),
such as cognovi, crevi, movi, pavi, this ending
being pronounced wui, but written vi to avoid the doubling of
the v. At any rate, the development of the vi indicates that
it was sounded wui, wwi, or f$wi in Vulgar Latin: cf. It.
conobbi, crebbi, etc.; Pr. moc, etc.
This perfect disappeared from the first and fourth conjuga-
tions: crepui>* crepavi, necui> necavi, etc.; aperui > * aperii
*apersi, salui> salivi salii *sa/si, etc In the second and
s
third conjugations it maintained itself very well : cognovi, crevi,
43] An Introduction to Vulgar Latin. 181
clausi, coxi, divisi, dixi, duxi, excussi, finxi, Jixi, frixi, junxi,
luxi, mansi, mlsi (also * mis si, perhaps on the model of missus,
cf. 163), mulsi, pinxi, planxi, pressi, rasi, rexi, risi, rosi, scripsi,
sparsi, -stinxi, strinxi, struxi, tersi, tinxi, torsi, traxi, unxi, vixi.
Sensi, however, became * sentii.
In Vulgar Latin there were perhaps some thirty or more
new formations: absco{n)si, Keil VII, 94; * acce(n)si;
*apersi; *attinxi; * copersi; * cursi; *defe(n)si; *ersi from
erigo; */ranxi; */usi; *impinxi; *lexi; *morsi; *occisi;
> *fusi, /egi> * lexi, prendi> * pre {n) si, solvi> # so/si, vici>
* vinsi, volvi >
* volsi. There were no additions. Two of
the old perfects maintained themselves intact, and two more
were kept beside new formations feci, fui; veni * venui, vidi :
* vidui.
8. PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
434. Verbs which had no perfect participle were obliged to
form one in order to make their passive and their perfect
tenses: ferio, *feritus.
440. The ending -tus was kept for some twenty verbs, oc-
casionally with a change of stem: cinctus; dictus; ductus; ex-
stinctus; /actus; Jictus /nctus, R. 295; fractus ^/ranctus ; /ric-
tus; lectus; mistus; pictus *pinctus; punctus; rectus; scriptus;
strictus *strinctus; structus; * surtus for surrectus; tactusl
*tanctus}; tinctus; tortus; tractus. There were a few new for-
mations in -tus: offertus, * quastus, * stiffertus, *vlstus; and
perhaps * soltus, *vo/tus (cf. 439).
g. PERSONAL ENDINGS.
442. For the reduction of -to to -0, see 416.
2
443. Meyer-Liibke, Grundriss I , 670, assumes that in Italy
-as and -es became -i. The evidence, historically considered,
does not support this view. Italian lodi and Rumanian lauzi,
from laudas, are correctly explained by Tiktin 565-566 as
analogical formations.
450. In the perfect, the third person plural ending ere was
discarded. The ending -erunt, in Classic Latin, sometimes
had a short e (e is commonin the comic poets, Virgil wrote
tulerunt, etc.); in Vulgar Latin this vowel was apparently al-
ways short: debuerunt, dixerunt, viderunt. Cf. 137.
INDEX
N.B. Arabic numerals refer to Paragraphs. Words printed in Roman type
belong to ancient, words in italics to modern languages.
a 194-5, 228, 229 (1), 231, absida 356 (3) acer arbor 43
240, 243, 244 absolvent 449 -aceus 2,7
accented 39, 194-5 abyssus 149 acia 355 (2)
-arius 39 ac- 24, 65 -acius 2,7
ja-> je- 229 (1) accedere(m) 309 a contra 47
unaccented 228, 229 (1), accensus 441 a(c)qua 164
231, 240, 243, 244 Accent 134-5 8 Acqiti 86
-a 37 primary 135-52 Acragas 330
a 181 Greek words 143-50 ac si 83
ab 14, 77, 92 other foreign words ac sic 24, 47, 84
before j 222 15 1-2 acua = aqua 223
before s -+- cons. 230 shift 136-8, 140 -aculare 35
ab7% ficatum 141 aculionis 367
ab- 26 nouns 367 ad 14, 78, 86, 90, 93, 96, 98
ab-> au-236 numerals 142 ad = at 282
ab ante 47, 48 recomposition 139 ad- 23, 25
abbellire 18, 34 verbs 423-4, 431, adaptus 23
abbio 273 433 447-8, 450 adcap(i)tare 25
abbreviare 25 vowels in hiatus addedi 139
abbreviatio 37 136-8 addormire 25
abeo =habeo 251 secondary 153-5 adferitis (imper.) 412
abias 224 unstressed words 156-8 adgenuculari 25
abiat 224 Accented Vowels see : ad horam 47
abiete 224 Vowels adimplere 30
-abilis39 accepere 201 Adjectives
ab intus 47 acceptabilis 39 comparison 56, 377
abitat 251 accipient 449 declension 374-9
Ablative 92-7, 383 accubitorium 37 numerals 378-82
abl. absolute 97 -accus 37 unus (article) 57
abl.=accus. 94-6 Accusative, 82, 94-6, 98-9, adjutare 34
aboculare 26 373, 3 8 3 ad mane 47
ab olim 47 ace. =abl. 94-6 adnao 397
abs- 28 ace. + infin. 82 adparescere 34
absconsus 439, 441 ace. pi. in -us 244, 355(1) adpetere 32
189
9 Index.
-ex >
-ix 42 facire 404 femp 356 (2)
exaltare 25 facitis 448 femus (3d decl.) 356 (2)
exauguratus 39 factum 266 fenire 229 (4)
excellente (nom.) 367 factus 440 fenum 209
excoriare 25 facul 242 ferbeo 323
excussi 429 faecit209 feritus 434
excussus 441 fsedus 320 (1) ferre 12
exeligere 30, 274 f asmina 209 ferro 160
200 Index.
fieri 112, 409, 419 (2) foces 213 frenum -us 347
fiero 160 focus 8, 12 fricatus 435, 440
fiet419 (2) f odiri406 f ricda =
frigida 238, 259
figel 242 folia 352 frictus 440
fiios = filios 274 follia (noun) 18 frigare 256; cf. 201
filiabus 358 follicare33 frigdaria 219, 231
filias (nom.) 357 (1) fons (fem.) 346 (4) frigdura 37
filiaster 13 fons 356 (2) Frigia 187
filio(s) 298 fonte 205 frig(i)dus 166, 200 (1), 233,
filius 155, 274 ; = filios 244 fonz 356 (2) 238, 259
filix 197 foras 81, 96 frigora 351
fillio247 forbatre 29 frigorem 347
Fimes 86 forbire 407 frixi 429
Final Syllable 240-5 Foreign Words 19; see frondifer 11
finctus 440 Germanic Words and frualitas 263
finis (adj.) 17 Greek Words fructa 351, 361
finiscere 35 foresia 311 fructus (2d decl.) 355 (1)
finxi 429 foris 81 frundes 205
^343 foris- 29 frunza 351
Jiorentino 154 forisfacere 29 frutta 351
fioretto 37 (-ittus) forismittere 46 fugii 430
fiorisce 414 formaceus 39 fugire 406
fir-29 formosus 161 fugitus 439
fircum 320 (1) formunsus 208 fui 431
Fire7ize 86 forsitan 305 ful(i)ca2 3 7
Firmus -onis 362 forte 40 fumat 424
fiscla 234 fortescere 34 fundus (3d decl.) 356 (2)
fistula 234 fortia 37 fundutus 441
fistus 197 fortis 10 funtes 205
fixi429 fortis fortis 55 funus 11
fixus 441 fossato 37 (-ta) fuore 160
Index. 201
quando 14, 82, 281 quinque 172 (1), 200 redft 423
quannu 281 Quintrio = Win- 344 redivit = -bit 318
Quantity 159-77, 22i quippe n refusare 17
Development of New quique 71 re(g)alis 263
Quantity 176-7 quiritare 229 re(g)ina 259
Disappearance of Old quis 69, 71, 350, 393 regis =
-es 244
Quantity 173-5 quisque 71 regnancte 267
Doubtful Quantity 166 quisquis 71 regnum 172 (2)
Length before Conso- quo 73 Relatives : see Pronouns
nants 170-2 quo = quod 282 reli(n)quat 306
Position 160-4 quoad n relinque =
-it 285
Unaccented Vowels 174, quod 14, 82, no, 282, 350 remasit 311
221 quodlubet 220 Remidium 272
Vowels in Hiatus 167-9 quomodo 14, 82 remissa 37 (-ta)
Vowel Length 165-77 comodo 226 > renegat 139
Words from Other Lan- quoniam 14, 82, no =
renum reg- 269
guages 174-5 quooperta = co- 254 Repetition 40, 55, 74
quantu(m) 309 quoque 11 replenus 23
quantus 12, 71 quot 12, 71 repositorium 37
quare 12, 82 quot =
quod 282 reprehensus 250
quarranta 142, 259, 380 quum >
cum 226 requaerere 25, 139
quase 244 requserit 139
quasi 83, 219, 244 r : see Liquids requebit 225
quat(t)or 226, 379 rs > ss 291 res 10, 71, 355 (2)
quattordecim 379 rabies 319 res nata 13, 71
quat(t)ro 226, 245, 379 radius 272 respondere 399, 449
quel 393 ramante reg- 269= responduntur 449
quejus 393 raggio 272 responsi 429
que(m) 309 rama (pi.) 361 restitueram 285
quen 305, 309 ramenc 37 (-incus) restivus 39
querceus 39 rancura 42 resurge(n)s 311
quercinus 39 ranucula 42 retenere 31, 139
querel(l)a 42 rap(i)dus 239 retenet 139
questor 210 rasi 429 retere = reddere 286
questus 210 rasio = ratio 277 retina 17
quetus 225 ratio 277 retro 81
qui 69, 71, 393 razzo 272 retro- 28
qui= quia 82 re- 23, 25 retro (r) sum 291
qui= ky 187, 223 recapitulare 25 retundus 229 (6)
quia 82, no, 168 reef pit 139 reuuardent 344
quiati 209 recolli(g)endo 259 reve(r)sus 291
quicumque 71 Recomposition 31, 32, 139 reversus sum= reverti 410
quid 350 rectus 440 revolutio 37
quidem n recubitus 37 (-ta) rexi 297, 429
quiensces 311 reculons 40 rhetor 335
quietus 225 reddedi 31, 139 rhetorissare 33
quin 11 redempsi 429 richesse 341
quinqua(gi)nta 142, 380 redemti 313 rictu = rectum 198
Index. 213
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