Writing Mechanics

module IV
The EGUMPP Learning System
Your solution for understanding English grammar
and improving your writing skills.

Writing Mechanics
I
Grammar

II III IV
Usage Punctuation and Writing
Capitalization Mechanics

EGUMPP Certification

Safran Publishing Company

1605 Clugston Road
York, PA 17404
IV
Electronic Grammar Usage
www.egumpp.com Bob Safran Mechanics Proficiency Program

egumpp-mod-IV-i12.indd 1 9/28/10 8:13:54 AM

 INTRODUCTION

Module IV
WRITING MECHANICS
ii

Copyright 2010 Safran Publishing Company

1605 Clugston Road
York, PA 17404

All Rights Reserved

The text of this publication, or any part thereof, may not
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
storage in an information retrieval system, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission from the publisher.

ISBN: 978-0-9840948-4-4

Printed in the United States of America

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 3

INTRODUCTION

ABOUT EGUMPP
EGUMPP (Electronic Grammar Usage Mechanics Proficiency Program) is
an interactive learning system that includes four modules. Each module
is designed for you to complete at your own pace.

For Module I - GRAMMAR the learning objectives are to develop an

understanding of 70 grammar terms and to become proficient in identifying
the function of all words, phrases, and clauses in sentences reviewed.
Module I includes 20 lessons and a mastery test.

For Module II - USAGE the learning objectives are to become proficient

in identifying sentences with usage errors and to become proficient in
applying the rules of usage to sentences. The rules pertain to personal
pronoun usage, subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement,
who-whom usage, apostrophe usage, verb usage, and number usage.
Module II includes 7 lessons and a mastery test.

For Module III - PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION the learning

objectives are to become proficient in punctuating the various types of
elements in sentences that require punctuation, capitalizing words in
sentences that require capitalization, and recognizing punctuation and
capitalization errors in sentences. Module III includes 7 lessons and a
mastery test.

For Module IV - WRITING MECHANICS the learning objectives are

to become proficient in identifying run-on sentences and sentence
fragments and to become proficient in identifying sentences with
misplaced modifiers, unparallel structure, word mistakes, ineffective and
inappropriate words, unnecessary words, wordy elements, and unclear
elements. Module IV includes 8 lessons and a mastery test.

EGUMPP Certification is awarded to individuals who qualify. Final grades

in all four modules determine the level of EGUMPP certification. Basic
Certification is awarded for a 75-80 percent final grade in all four modules,
Advanced Certification is awarded for an 81-90 percent final grade in all
four modules, and Mastery Certification is awarded for a 91-100 percent
final grade in all four modules. An individual's level of certification is
displayed in the EGUMPP student portal.

Introduction
 5

COURSEWARE INTRODUCTION

ABOUT MODULE IV COURSEWARE

Module IV Writing Mechanics provides a unique, interactive approach to
understanding and correcting the most common writing mistakes in the
English language and teaches how to correct and/or improve sentences
that are not clear and concise.

Module IV consists of eight lessons and a Mastery Test. Each lesson

includes one practice exercise and two graded exercises. All three
exercises must be completed before you can begin the next lesson.

You may return to any previous lesson as often as you wish. You will want
to return to a lesson for review purposes and/or to improve a lesson
grade. The two graded exercises in each lesson are called the PTM A
Applying Rules and the PTM B Finding Errors. A PTM test may be
attempted as many times as necessary until you achieve your desired
lesson grade. After you complete all seven lessons, you may attempt the
Mastery Test; however, once you start the Mastery Test, you can no
longer improve lesson grades.

The time required to complete Module IV ranges from 7 to 15 hours. The

amount of time depends on your current knowledge of English grammar
and your ability to grasp new concepts.

Introduction
 7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE IV LESSON CONTENTS

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES ............ 9-30

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS ................................ 31-46

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE.............................. 47-58

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES ......................................... 59-72

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND INAPPROPRIATE WORDS .... 73-82

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS ................................ 83-90

LESSON 7: WORDY ELEMENTS ........................................91-96

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS ...................................97-108

REVIEW: MODULE IV TERMS TO LEARN .................... 109-114

APPENDIX: FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS .................. 115-130

Introduction
 LESSON 1
FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES
10

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

INTRODUCTION

Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing

sentence fragments and run-on sentences.

Overview:
Sentence fragments and run-on sentences appear frequently
in written communications. Both of these writing errors
involve incorrect sentence structure. In order to avoid these
writing errors, an understanding of correct sentence structure is
necessary. To understand the difference between correct and
incorrect sentence structure, an understanding of grammar
concepts is necessary. For this reason, this lesson introduction
begins with a summary of grammar concepts and terms.

If you have successfully completed Module I, you should know all

of the terms presented in this grammar summary. If you have not
completed Module I and do not understand the concepts and
terms presented in this grammar summary, you should complete
Module I before attempting Module IV.

This review begins with the definition of a clause. A clause is a

group of related words that includes a subject and a verb and
expresses either a complete thought or an incomplete thought.
There are independent clauses and dependent clauses. An
independent clause is a group of related words that includes a
subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. To express
a complete thought, a sentence must have both a subject (usually
expressed but sometimes implied) and a verb. When the first word
of an independent clause is capitalized and an ending punctuation
mark is placed after the last word, an independent clause becomes
a simple sentence.

The subject of a sentence is a noun or a pronoun about which

something is being said. The subject answers the question Whom
or what are we talking about? or Who or what is doing
something? A noun is a word that names a person, a place, or
a thing and provides an answer to a What? Who? or Whom?
question; and a pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.
A verb is a word(s) needed along with the subject to make a
statement, ask a question, or give a command. A main verb is a
one-word verb or the last word of a verb phrase that expresses an
action, a state of being, or a condition. A helping verb is a verb
that usually precedes the main verb and must be included with
certain forms of the main verb.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 11

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

INTRODUCTION

A dependent clause (also referred to as a subordinate clause)

is a group of related words that includes a subject and a verb but
does not express a complete thought. A subordinator always
introduces a dependent clause. A subordinator is an introductory
word(s) such as a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun
that makes a group of words with a subject and a verb a dependent
clause. A subordinating conjunction is a word such as after,
although, as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that, though,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whether, or while that
begins a dependent clause and makes the dependent clause
express an incomplete thought. A relative pronoun is a word
such as that, what, whatever, which, who, whoever, whom,
whomever, or whose that serves as a subordinator of a dependent
clause and also functions as a pronoun or an adjective within
that clause.

In addition to a subject and a verb, a clause may include a verb

complement. A verb complement is a word or a group of words
that follows a transitive verb and completes the meaning of the
subject and the verb. Direct objects and indirect objects are the
two types of verb complements. A direct object is a verb
complement that follows a transitive verb and answers the
question What? or Whom? An indirect object is a verb
complement that follows a transitive verb, precedes a direct
object, and usually answers the question To whom? For whom?
To what? or For what? A transitive verb is a main verb that
usually expresses an action and always has a direct object. An
intransitive verb is a main verb that never has a complement.

A second type of complement is a subject complement. A subject

complement is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that follows a
linking verb and renames or describes the subject. Predicate
nominatives and predicate adjectives are the two types of subject
complements. A predicate nominative is a noun or a pronoun
that follows a linking verb and renames the subject. A predicate
adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes
the subject. A linking verb is a main verb that expresses a state
of being or a condition and is always followed by a predicate
nominative or a predicate adjective.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

12

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

INTRODUCTION

A clause may also include a phrase or phrases. A phrase is a

group of related words that never includes a subject and a verb
and functions in a sentence as a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or
a noun. The four types of phrases are verb phrases, prepositional
phrases, verbal phrases, and appositive phrases.

A verb phrase is a main verb and all of its helping verbs. A

simple predicate is another name for the verb or a verb phrase
in a sentence. A complete predicate is the part of the sentence
that consists of the verb, its complement, and any modifiers.

A prepositional phrase is a preposition plus its object and any

modifiers. A preposition is a word such as at, during, of, on,
through, or to that joins and shows a relationship of a noun or
a pronoun to some other word in a sentence. An object of a
preposition is a noun or a pronoun that follows a preposition
and usually answers the question Whom? or What?

A verbal phrase is a group of words considered as a single unit

that includes a verbal and its complement(s) and/or modifier(s).
A verbal is a verb form that functions as a noun, an adjective,
or an adverb in a sentence. A verbal complement is a noun,
a pronoun, or an adjective that follows a verbal and completes
its meaning.

There are three types of verbalsparticiples, gerunds, and

infinitives. A participle is a verbal that functions as an adjective
and usually ends with ing, ed, or en. A participial phrase is a
participle plus its complement(s) and/or modifier(s). A gerund is
a verbal that functions as a noun and always ends with ing. A
gerund phrase is a gerund plus its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s). An infinitive is a verbal that functions as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb and is usually introduced by the word to.
An infinitive phrase is an infinitive plus its complement(s)
and/or modifier(s).

An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that immediately follows

another noun or pronoun for the purpose of further identifying,
clarifying, or explaining the first noun or pronoun. An appositive
phrase is an appositive and all of its modifiers.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 13

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

INTRODUCTION

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete

thought, always begins with the first word capitalized, and always
ends with a punctuation mark. The four types of sentences are:

(1) Simple sentence a one-word verb command with the

subject being the pronoun you understood or an independent
clause with or without phrases.

(2) Compound sentence two or more independent clauses

with or without phrases.

(3) Complex sentence one independent clause and one or

more dependent clauses with or without phrases.

(4) Compound-complex sentence two or more independent

clauses and one or more dependent clauses with or without
phrases.

Since a sentence must be a complete thought, only independent

clauses can function as sentences. A writing error occurs when a
group of words that is not an independent clause is treated as a
sentence. This writing error is called a sentence fragment. A
sentence fragment is a group of words that begins with the
first word capitalized, ends with a punctuation mark, and is not a
complete thought. Examples of sentence fragments are dependent
clauses and/or phrases treated as sentences.

A run-on sentence is another form of incorrect sentence structure.

A run-on sentence occurs when consecutive independent clauses
within a compound sentence or a compound-complex sentence are
not connected with a coordinating conjunction and are not punctuated
correctly. A coordinating conjunction is a word such as for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, or so used to connect words, phrases, and clauses
of equal status.

A fused sentence is a type of run-on sentence. A fused sentence

is a sentence without a coordinating conjunction connecting
consecutive independent clauses and without a punctuation
mark separating the clauses. Another type of run-on sentence is
a comma splice. A comma splice is a sentence without a
coordinating conjunction connecting consecutive independent
clauses and with only a comma separating the clauses.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

14

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

INTRODUCTION

Terms to Learn: clause, independent clause, subject, noun,

pronoun, verb, main verb, helping verb, dependent clause,
subordinator, subordinating conjunction, relative pronoun,
verb complement, direct object, indirect object, transitive verb,
intransitive verb, subject complement, predicate nominative,
predicate adjective, linking verb, phrase, verb phrase, simple
predicate, complete predicate, prepositional phrase, preposition,
object of preposition, verbal phrase, verbal, verbal complement,
participle, participial phrase, gerund, gerund phrase, infinitive,
infinitive phrase, appositive, appositive phrase, sentence, simple
sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, compound-
complex sentence, sentence fragment, run-on sentence, coordinating
conjunction, fused sentence, comma splice, transitional expression

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 15

LESSON 1: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Clause: A group of related words that includes a subject and a

verb and expresses either a complete thought or an incomplete
thought.
2. Independent clause: A group of related words that includes a
subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
3. Subject: The part of a sentence about which something is being
said and best answers the question Whom or what are we
talking about? or Who or what is doing something?
4. Noun: A word that names a person, place, or thing and provides
an answer to a What? Who? or Whom? question.
5. Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun.
6. Verb: A word(s) needed along with the subject to make a
statement, ask a question, or give a command.
7. Main verb: A one-word verb or the last word of a verb phrase
that expresses an action, a state of being, or a condition.
8. Helping verb: A verb that usually precedes the main verb
and must be included with certain forms of a main verb.
9. Dependent (subordinate) clause: A group of related words
that includes a subject and a verb but does not express a
complete thought.
10. Subordinator: An introductory word(s) such as a subordinating
conjunction or a relative pronoun that makes a group of words
with a subject and a verb a dependent clause.
11. Subordinating conjunction: A word such as after, although,
as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that, though, unless,
until, when, whenever, where, whether, or while that begins a
dependent clause and makes the dependent clause express an
incomplete thought.
12. Relative pronoun: A word such as that, what, whatever,
which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, or whose that serves
as a subordinator of a dependent clause and also functions as
a pronoun or an adjective within that clause.
13. Verb complement: Another name for a direct object or an
indirect object.

Lesson 1 Terms to Learn

16

LESSON 1: TERMS TO LEARN

14. Direct object: A verb complement that follows a transitive verb

and answers the question What? or Whom?
15. Indirect object: A verb complement that follows a transitive
verb, precedes a direct object, and usually answers the question
To whom? For whom? To what? or For what?
16. Transitive verb: A main verb that usually expresses an action
and always has a direct object.
17. Intransitive verb: A main verb that never has a complement.
18. Subject complement: A noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that
follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject.
19. Predicate nominative: A noun or a pronoun subject
complement that follows a linking verb and renames the subject.
20. Predicate adjective: An adjective subject complement that
follows a linking verb and describes the subject.
21. Linking verb: A main verb that expresses a state of being or a
condition and is always followed by a predicate nominative or a
predicate adjective.
22. Phrase: A group of related words that never includes a subject
and a verb and functions as a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or
a noun.
23. Verb phrase: A main verb and all of its helping verbs.
24. Simple predicate: Another name for the verb or a verb phrase
in a sentence.
25. Complete predicate: The part of the sentence that consists of
the verb, its complement, and any modifiers.
26. Prepositional phrase: A preposition plus its object and any
modifiers.
27. Preposition: A word such as at, during, of, on, through, or to
that joins and shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to
some other word in a sentence.
28. Object of preposition: A noun or a pronoun that follows a
preposition and usually answers the question Whom? or What?

Lesson 1 Terms to Learn

 17

LESSON 1: TERMS TO LEARN

29. Verbal phrase: A group of words considered as a single unit

that includes a verbal and its complement(s) and/or modifier(s).
30. Verbal: A verb form that functions as a noun, an adjective, or
an adverb in a sentence.
31. Verbal complement: A noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that
follows a verbal and completes its meaning.
32. Participle: A verbal that functions as an adjective and usually
ends with ing, ed, or en.
33. Participial phrase: A participle plus its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s).
34. Gerund: A verbal that functions as a noun and always ends
with ing.
35. Gerund phrase: A gerund plus its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s).
36. Infinitive: A verbal that functions as a noun, an adjective, or
an adverb and is usually introduced by the word to.
37. Infinitive phrase: An infinitive plus its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s).
38. Appositive: A noun or a pronoun that immediately follows
another noun or pronoun for the purpose of further identifying,
clarifying, or explaining the first noun or pronoun.
39. Appositive phrase: An appositive and all of its modifiers.
40. Sentence: A group of words that expresses a complete
thought, always begins with the first word capitalized, and
always ends with a punctuation mark.
41. Simple sentence: A sentence that has one independent clause.
42. Compound sentence: A sentence that has two or more
independent clauses.
43. Complex sentence: A sentence that has one independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses.
44. Compound-complex sentence: A sentence that has two or
more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Lesson 1 Terms to Learn

18

LESSON 1: TERMS TO LEARN

45. Sentence fragment: A group of words that begins with the

first word capitalized, ends with a punctuation mark, and is not
a complete thought.
46. Run-on sentence: A writing error that occurs when consecutive
independent clauses are not connected with a coordinating
conjunction and are not punctuated correctly.
47. Coordinating conjunction: A word such as for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, or so used to connect words, phrases, or clauses of
equal status.
48. Fused sentence: A run-on sentence without a coordinating
conjunction connecting consecutive independent clauses and
with no punctuation mark separating the clauses.
49. Comma splice: A run-on sentence without a coordinating
conjunction connecting consecutive independent clauses and
with a comma separating the clauses.
50. Transitional expression: A word or a phrase such as for
example, as a result, therefore, consequently, however,
on the other hand, or nevertheless that links independent
clauses in a compound sentence or links consecutive sentences.

Lesson 1 Terms to Learn

 8
POINTS TO REMEMBER
20

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-1
1
A clause is a group of related words that includes a subject and
a verb and expresses either a complete thought or an incomplete
thought. There are independent clauses and dependent clauses.
An independent clause is a group of related words that includes
a subject (S) and a verb (MV) and expresses a complete
thought. A dependent clause (also referred to as a subordinate
clause) is a group of related words that includes a subject and
a verb but does not express a complete thought. A subordinator
always introduces a dependent clause. A subordinator is an
introductory word(s) such as a subordinating conjunction
(SUBC) or a relative pronoun (RP) that makes a group of
words with a subject and a verb a dependent clause.

Examples:

Independent clause Dependent clause

(complete thought) (incomplete thought because
of a subordinator)

S MV SUBC S MV
he is tired when he is tired

S MV SUBC S MV
Warren has many friends if Warren has many friends

S MV SUBC S MV
the bus stops here when the bus stops here

NOTE: When the first word of an independent clause is capitalized

and an ending punctuation mark is placed after the last word, an
independent clause becomes a simple sentence.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 21

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-2
A phrase is a group of related words that never includes a
subject and a verb and functions as a verb, an adjective, an
adverb, or a noun within a sentence. The four types of phrases
are verb phrases, prepositional phrases, verbal phrases, and
appositive phrases.

(1) A verb phrase is a main verb and all of its helping verbs.

Example of a verb phrase:

HV HV MV
we should have been
verb phrase

(2) A prepositional phrase is a a group of words considered as a

single unit that includes a preposition plus its object and any
modifiers.

Example of a prepositional phrase:

PR AJ AJ OP
the woman with the red hair
prepositional phrase

(3) A verbal phrase is a group of words considered as a single

unit that includes a verbal and its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s). The three types of verbal phrases are participial
phrases, gerund phrases, and infinitive phrases. A participle
is a verbal that functions as an adjective and usually ends
with ing, ed, or en.

Example of a participial phrase:

PAR AJ AJ VC
the company celebrating its first anniversary
participial phrase

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

22

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

...CONTINUED POINT 1-2
1
A gerund is a verbal that functions as a noun and always ends
with ing.

Example of a gerund phrase:

GS AJ VC VC
hiking the Appalachian Trail was
gerund phrase

An infinitive is a verbal that functions as a noun, an adjective,

or an adverb and is usually introduced by the word to.

Example of an infinitive phrase:

IAV IAV AJ AJ VC
to create a lasting friendship, we
infinitive phrase

(4) An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that immediately

follows another noun or pronoun for the purpose of further
identifying, clarifying, or explaining the first noun or pronoun.
An appositive phrase is a group of words considered as a
single unit that includes an appositive and all of its modifiers.

Example of an appositive phrase:

S AJ AJ AP
Uncle John, our oldest relative,
appositive phrase

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 23

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-3
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought,
always begins with the first word capitalized, and always ends
with a punctuation mark. The four types of sentences are
simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

(1) Simple Sentence one independent clause with or without

phrases.

Example:

AV MVT DO
Please call us.
IDC IDC IDC

(2) Compound Sentence two or more independent clauses

with or without phrases.

Example:

AV MVT DO CC AV MVT AJ DO
Please call us, and then call your brother.
IDC IDC IDC IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2

(3) Complex Sentence one independent clause and one or

more dependent clauses with or without phrases.

Example:

AV MVT DO SUBC PNS MVI PR OP

Please call us when you arrive in town.
IDC IDC IDC AVC AVC AVC AVC AVC

(4) Compound-complex Sentence two or more independent

clauses and one or more dependent clauses with or without
phrases.

Example:

AV MVT DO SUBC PNS MVI CC HV AV MVT IDO IDO VC VC

Please call us when you arrive, and do not forget to call Uncle Rod.
IDC IDC IDC AVC AVC AVC IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2 IDC2

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

24

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-4
1
A sentence fragment is a group of words that begins with the
first word capitalized, ends with a punctuation mark, and is not
a complete thought. Dependent clauses, stand-alone phrases,
and groups of words containing dependent clauses and phrases
are examples of groups of words that are incomplete thoughts
frequently but incorrectly treated as sentences.

Examples:

Fragment: Because the wind caused my glasses to be coated

with a salty film.

(This is a dependent clause treated as a

sentence. The subordinator because makes
this group of words an incomplete thought.)

Fragment: After speaking with the injured passengers of the

train wreck.

(These are three phrases treated as a

sentence.)

Fragment: A high school having an excellent academic record.

(This is an incomplete thought because there

is no main verb. Having an excellent academic
record is a participial phrase modifying the
noun high school.)

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 25

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-5
A run-on sentence is a writing error that occurs when consecutive
independent clauses are not connected with a coordinating
conjunction and are not punctuated correctly. A fused sentence
is a type of run-on sentence. A fused sentence is a sentence
without a coordinating conjunction connecting consecutive
independent clauses and with no punctuation mark separating
the clauses. The three ways to correct a fused sentence are:

(1) by inserting a semicolon between the two clauses.

(2) by creating two sentences.

(3) by inserting a comma at the end of the first clause and

connecting the two clauses with a coordinating conjunction.

Example:

Fused sentence:
S MV S MV
Several clients were upset their discontent resulted in a
disturbance at the front desk.

(1) Corrected with a semicolon:

S MV S MV
Several clients were upset; their discontent resulted in a
disturbance at the front desk.

(2) Corrected as two sentences:

S MV S MV
Several clients were upset. Their discontent resulted in a
disturbance at the front desk.

(3) Corrected by inserting a comma and a coordinating

conjunction:
S MV S MV
Several clients were upset, and their discontent resulted in
a disturbance at the front desk.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

26

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-6
1
A comma splice is another type of run-on sentence. A comma
splice is a sentence without a coordinating conjunction connecting
consecutive independent clauses and with a comma separating
the clauses. The three ways to correct a comma splice are:

(1) by inserting a semicolon in place of the comma.

(2) by inserting a coordinating conjunction after the comma.

(3) by making the two clauses separate sentences.

Example:

Run-on sentence with a comma splice:

S MV S MV
Bob decided to move to Ohio, this decision upset his family.

(1) Corrected by inserting a semicolon in place of the

comma:
S MV S MV
Bob decided to move to Ohio; this decision upset his family.

(2) Corrected by inserting a coordinating conjunction

after the comma:
S MV CC S MV
Bob decided to move to Ohio, and this decision upset his
family.

(3) Corrected by writing two sentences:

S MV S MV
Bob decided to move to Ohio. This decision upset his family.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 27

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-7
There are six rules for connecting and punctuating consecutive
independent clauses in a sentence.

RULE 1: Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (CC)

that connects two independent clauses unless both clauses are
brief and closely related. A coordinating conjunction is a word
such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so used to connect words,
phrases, and clauses of equal status. (Presented in this order,
the first letter from each of these coordinating conjunctions
creates the acronym FANBOYSan easy way to remember
these seven coordinating conjunctions.)

Example:

S MV CC S MV
Fast food is tasty, but it contains too much fat.
(independent clause) (independent clause)

RULE 2: Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses

when the clauses are not joined by a coordinating conjunction
and the second clause does not explain or illustrate the first
clause.

Example:

S HV MV S HV MV
I will write the letter; you will deliver it.
(independent clause) (independent clause)

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

28

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

...CONTINUED POINT 1-7
RULE 3: Use a semicolon and a comma when the two
independent clauses are linked by a transitional expression.
Place a semicolon before the transitional expression and a
comma after the transitional expression. A transitional
expression (TE) is a word or phrase such as for example,
as a result, therefore, consequently, however, on the other
hand, or nevertheless that links independent clauses in a
compound sentence or that links consecutive sentences.

Example:

S HV MV TE
Your job performance has been excellent; therefore,
(independent clause)

S HV HV MV
you are being promoted.
(independent clause)

RULE 4: Use a semicolon in place of a comma to separate two

independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction when
one or both of the clauses contain internal commas.

Example:

S S S MV
The appetizer, the salad, and the entre were excellent;
(independent clause)

CC S HV MV
but I did not like the dessert.
(independent clause)

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 29

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-7 ...CONTINUED

RULE 5: Use a colon between two independent clauses in place

of a semicolon when the second clause explains or illustrates
the first.

Example:

MV S HV MV
Remember one thing: Success does not happen without
(independent clause) (independent clause)

effort and dedication.

RULE 6: Use a colon after an independent clause that introduces

a direct question in a sentence.

Example:

S MV S MV
My question is this: Who devoted the most time to this
(independent clause) (independent clause)

project?

NOTE: Lesson 5 of EGUMPP: Module III includes exercises on

punctuating independent clauses.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

30

LESSON 1: FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

POINT 1-8
1

A simple sentence may include two main verbs joined by a

coordinating conjunction. When this occurs, the two main verbs
are called compound verbs. When a coordinating conjunction is
joining two main verbs in a simple sentence, no comma is
required; but when a coordinating conjunction is joining two
independent clauses in a compound sentence, a comma is
required.

Examples:

No comma required - compound verb in a simple

sentence:

S MV MV
Chris went to the auto auction in Manheim and bought a
new car.

Comma required two independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction:

S MV S
Chris went to the auto auction in Manheim, and he
MV
bought a new car.

Lesson 1 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

 LESSON 2
MISPLACED MODIFIERS
 32

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

INTRODUCTION

Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing

sentences with misplaced modifiers.

Overview:
A modifier is a word(s) that describes or expands the meaning of
another word(s) in a sentence. There are adjective modifiers and
adverb modifiers.

An adjective is a word(s) that modifies or describes a noun or a

pronoun and answers the question Which one? What kind of?
How many? or Whose? In addition to one-word and compound-
word adjective modifiers, there are groups of words that function
as adjective modifiers. These are adjective prepositional phrases,
participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adjective clauses. An
adjective prepositional phrase is a prepositional phrase that
modifies a noun or a pronoun and usually answers the question
Which one? or What kind of? An adjective clause is a dependent
clause that begins with a relative pronoun, modifies a noun or a
pronoun, and usually answers the question Which one? What
kind of? or Whose?

An adverb is a word(s) that modifies or describes a verb, an

adjective, or another adverb and answers the question When?
Where? How? or To what extent? In addition to one-word
adverb modifiers, there are groups of words that function as
adverb modifiers. These are adverb prepositional phrases, infinitive
phrases, and adverb clauses. An adverb prepositional phrase is
a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb and usually answers the question When? Where? Why?
or How? An adverb clause is a dependent clause that begins
with a subordinating conjunction, modifies a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb, and usually answers the question When? Where?
Why? How? To what extent? or Under what condition? A
modifier should be placed close to the word(s) it modifies.

Correct positioning of a modifier in a sentence is necessary

to ensure sentence clarity. A misplaced modifier is a word, a
phrase, or a dependent clause that is not positioned properly in
a sentence. Misplacing a modifier can lead to an awkward (and
sometimes humorous) interpretation of the sentence. A squinting
modifier is an adverb in a sentence that can be interpreted as
modifying either the word(s) preceding the adverb or the word(s)
following the adverb.

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 33

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

INTRODUCTION

Terms to Learn: modifier, adjective, adverb, adjective

prepositional phrase, adverb prepositional phrase,
adjective clause, adverb clause, misplaced modifier,
squinting modifier

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

34

LESSON 2: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Modifier: A word(s) that describes or expands the meaning of

another word(s) in a sentence.
2. Adjective: A word(s) that modifies or describes a noun or a
pronoun and answers the question Which one? What kind of?
How many? or Whose?
3. Adverb: A word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb and answers the question When? Where?
How? or To what extent?
4. Adjective prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase that
modifies a noun or a pronoun and usually answers the question
Which one? or What kind of?
5. Adverb prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase that
modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb and usually answers
the question When? Where? Why? or How?
6. Adjective clause: A dependent clause that begins with a
relative pronoun, modifies a noun or a pronoun, and usually
answers the question Which one? What kind of? or Whose?
7. Adverb clause: A dependent clause that begins with a
subordinating conjunction, modifies a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb, and usually answers the question When? Where? Why?
How? To what extent? or Under what condition?
8. Misplaced modifier: A word, a phrase, or a dependent clause
that is not positioned properly in a sentence.
9. Squinting modifier: An adverb that can be interpreted as
modifying either the word(s) preceding the adverb or the
word(s) following the adverb.

Lesson 2 Terms to Learn

 10
POINTS TO REMEMBER
36

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-1
A modifier is a word, a phrase, or a dependent clause that
describes or expands the meaning of another word(s) in a
sentence. A modifier should be placed close to the word it
modifies. A misplaced modifier is a word, a phrase, or a
dependent clause that is not positioned properly in a sentence.
This type of writing error is corrected by moving the misplaced
word, phrase, or dependent clause closer to the word it modifies.

Example of a misplaced word:

Frank lost the race almost by nine seconds.

Corrected:
Frank lost the race by almost nine seconds.

(The adverb almost modifies the adjective nine.)

Example of a misplaced phrase:

She served drinks to her guests in plastic cups.

(prepositional phrase)

Corrected:
She serves drinks in plastic cups to her guests.
(prepositional phrase)

(In plastic cups describes the drinks, not the guests.)

Example of a misplaced dependent clause:

The novel is about the Civil War that I am reading.

(dependent clause)

Corrected:

The novel that I am reading is about the Civil War.

(dependent clause)

(That I am reading describes the word novel.)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 37

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-2
A modifier may be a one-word or a compound-word adjective.
An adjective (AJ) describes a noun or a pronoun and answers
the question Which one? What kind of? How many? or
Whose? Misplacing a one-word or a compound-word adjective
modifier rarely occurs.

Examples of one-word adjective modifiers:

AJ
Patio furniture is on this floor. (Which floor?)

AJ
Soft wood burns fast. (What kind of wood?)

AJ
Several students went home. (How many students?)

AJ
Susans dog was lost. (Whose dog?)

Examples of compound-word adjective modifiers:

AJ AJ
I enjoy the excitement of high school football games.
(What kind of football games?)

AJ
The hot-air balloon should appear soon.
(What kind of balloon?)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

38

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-3
A modifier may be an adverb. An adverb (AV) expands or
describes the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb and answers the question When? Where? How? or
To what extent? The adverbs almost, also, even, hardly, just,
merely, nearly, only, and scarcely are examples of adverbs
that are usually misplaced when they are not placed directly
before the word they modify.

Examples of misplaced adverbs:

AV
Beth nearly talked for two hours on the airplane.

Corrected:
AV
Beth talked for nearly two hours on the airplane.

(The adverb nearly modifies the adjective two.)

AV
I only brought enough food for the two of us.

Corrected:
AV
I brought only enough food for the two of us.

(The adverb only modifies the adjective enough.)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 39

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-4
A squinting modifier is a modifier that can be interpreted as
modifying either a word preceding it or a word following it.
Make certain that all modifiers are modifying the intended
words in sentences.

Example of a squinting modifier:

AV
People who practice writing frequently benefit from this activity.

(The adverb frequently could be referring to how often people

practice writing or to how often people benefit from writing.)

Corrected:

AV
People who frequently practice writing benefit from this activity.

or

AV
People who practice writing benefit frequently from this activity.

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

40

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-5
A modifier may be a prepositional phrase. A preposition (PR) is
a word such as at, during, of, on, through, or to that joins and
shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to some other
word in a sentence. An object of preposition (OP) is a noun or
a pronoun that follows a preposition and usually answers the
question Whom? or What? A prepositional phrase is a preposition
plus its object and any modifiers. There are adverb prepositional
phrases and adjective prepositional phrases. Misplacing an
adverb prepositional phrase rarely occurs; however, misplacing
an adjective prepositional phrase occurs frequently. Always make
certain that an adjective prepositional phrase is placed before or
after the noun it modifies.

Example of a misplaced adjective prepositional phrase:

PR AJ AJ OP
Warren chased the squirrel on his roller skates.
(adjective prepositional phrase)

Corrected:
PR AJ AJ OP
On his roller skates, Warren chased the squirrel.
(adjective prepositional phrase)

or
PR AJ AJ OP
Warren, on his roller skates, chased the squirrel.
(adjective prepositional phrase)

(On his roller skates describes Warren, not the squirrel.)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 41

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-6
A modifier may be a verbal phrase. A verbal is a verb form that
functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence.
A verbal complement is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that
follows a verbal and completes its meaning. A verbal phrase is
a group of words considered as a single unit that includes a
verbal and its complement(s) and/or modifier(s). The three
types of verbal phrases are participial phrases, infinitive phrases,
and gerund phrases. Participial phrases function as adjectives
and infinitive phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
Since a gerund phrase can only function as a noun, a gerund
phrase is never a modifier.

Example of a participial phrase modifying the subject Pat:

Having fallen behind this semester, Pat withdrew from school.

(participial phrase)

Example of an infinitive phrase modifying the direct object right:

You have the right to express your opinion.

(infinitive phrase)

Example of an infinitive phrase modifying the verb left:

Lynly left work early today to attend Maxs tennis match.

(infinitive phrase)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

42

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-7
Participial phrases are often misplaced. A participle (PAR) is a
verbal that functions as an adjective and usually ends with ing,
ed, or en. A participial complement, also known as a verbal
complement (VC), is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that
follows a participle and completes its meaning. A participial
phrase is a participle plus its complement(s) and/or modifier(s).
Always make certain that a participial phrase is modifying the
correct noun in the sentence.

Example of a misplaced participial phrase:

PAR AJ AJ VC
Jessica walked across the bridge carrying her little sister.
(participial phrase)

Corrected:
PAR AJ AJ VC
Carrying her little sister, Jessica walked across the bridge.
(participial phrase)

or
PAR AJ AJ VC
Jessica, carrying her little sister, walked across the bridge.
(participial phrase)

(Carrying her little sister describes Jessica, not the bridge.)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 43

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-8
Infinitive phrases functioning as adjectives are often misplaced.
An infinitive (IF) is a verbal that functions as an adjective, an
adverb, or a noun and is usually introduced by the word to. An
infinitive complement, also know as a verbal complement (VC), is
a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that follows an infinitive and
completes its meaning. An infinitive phrase is an infinitive plus its
complement(s) and/or modifier(s). Always make certain that an
infinitive phrase is modifying the correct noun in the sentence.

Example of a misplaced infinitive phrase:

IF IF AJ VC
Jasons decision was well received to handle all complaints
(infinitive phrase)
AV
personally.

Corrected:
IF IF AJ VC AV
Jasons decision to handle all complaints personally was well
received. (infinitive phrase)

(To handle all complaints personally describes the word

decision.)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

44

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-9
A modifier may be an adjective clause. An adjective clause is a
dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun, modifies
a noun or a pronoun, and usually answers the question Which
one? What kind of? or Whose? A relative pronoun is a word
such as that, what, whatever, which, who, whoever, whom,
whomever, or whose that serves as a subordinator of a dependent
clause and also functions as a pronoun or an adjective within
that clause. Always make certain that an adjective clause is
placed after the word it modifies.

Example of a misplaced adjective clause:

Educational institutions are more successful with children

RPS MV DO
that involve parents.
(adjective clause)

Corrected:

RPS MV DO
Educational institutions that involve parents are more
(adjective clause)

successful with children.

(That involve parents describes the noun institutions.)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 45

LESSON 2: MISPLACED MODIFIERS

POINT 2-10
A modifier may be an adverb clause. An adverb clause is a
dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction,
modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and usually answers
the question When? Where? Why? How? To what extent?
or Under what condition? A subordinating conjunction
(SUBC) is a word such as after, although, as, because, before,
if, once, since, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever,
where, whether, or while that begins a dependent clause and
makes the dependent clause express an incomplete thought. An
adverb clause is rarely misplaced because its placement at the
beginning or at the end of a sentence is optional.

Examples of adverb clauses:

SUBC AJ S HV MV
Bob decided to resign before the votes were counted.
(adverb clause)

or

SUBC AJ NS HV MV
Before the votes were counted, Bob decided to resign.
(adverb clause)

SUBC PNS HV MV
Because it was raining, we did not have recess.
(adverb clause)

or

SUBC S HV MV
We did not have recess because it was raining.
(adverb clause)

Lesson 2 Misplaced Modifiers

 LESSON 3
UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE
 48

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing
sentences that contain words, phrases, or clauses that are
not parallel in structure.

Overview:
Coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions are words that
connect words or groups of words of equal status. A coordinating
conjunction (CC) is a word such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or
so used to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal status. A
correlative conjunction (CORC) is one of four word pairs (either/
or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) used to connect words,
phrases, or clauses of equal status.

When a coordinating conjunction such as the word and or a

correlative conjunction such as the word pair either/or joins two
or more words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence, then all words,
phrases, or clauses must be of the same grammatical form. This
required balance is called parallel structure. For example, a series
of subjects must all be nouns and/or pronouns, all gerunds and/or
gerund phrases, all infinitives and/or infinitive phrases, or all noun
clauses. A gerund is a verbal that ends with ing and functions as a
noun. A gerund phrase is a gerund plus its modifier(s) and/or
complement(s). A noun clause is a dependent clause that begins
with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction and
functions as a noun.

Parallel elements are words, phrases, or clauses of the same

grammatical structure such as all nouns or pronouns, all verbs,
all adjectives, all infinitives, or all gerunds that are joined by a
conjunction. Unparallel structure is a writing error that occurs
when two or more dissimilar grammatical elements are joined by
a coordinating conjunction or correlative conjunction. For example,
you cannot mix an infinitive subject with two gerund subjects.

Unparallel structure:
CC
Swimming, biking, and to camp are my favorite hobbies.
(gerund) (gerund) (infinitive)

Corrected with three gerunds:

CC
Swimming, biking, and camping are my favorite hobbies.
(gerund) (gerund) (gerund)

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

 49

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION
When correlative conjunctions (either/or, neither/nor, both/and,
not only/but also) join words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence,
the words/groups of words must be parallel. In some cases,
rewriting the sentence is necessary.

Unparallel structure:
CORC CORC
Either you must approve his request or incur the consequences.
(clause) (verb)

Corrected with two verbs:

CORC CORC
You must either approve his request or incur the consequences.
(verb) (verb)

or

Corrected with two clauses:

CORC CORC
Either you must approve his request, or you must incur the
(clause) (clause)

consequences.

Parallel structure is also required when comparing words/groups of

words with the word than.

Unparallel structure:

The cost for repairs is less than to buy a new computer.

(noun) (infinitive phrase)

Corrected with two nouns:

The cost for repairs is less than the cost of buying a new computer.
(noun) (noun)

Terms to Learn: correlative conjunction, noun clause, parallel

elements, unparallel structure

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

50

LESSON 3: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Correlative conjunction: One of four word pairs (either/or,

neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) used to connect words,
phrases, or clauses of equal status.
2. Noun clause: A dependent clause that begins with a relative
pronoun or a subordinating conjunction and functions as a noun.
3. Parallel elements: Words, phrases, or clauses of the same
grammatical structure joined by a conjunction.
4. Unparallel structure: A writing error that occurs when
grammatical forms are mixed within a series.

Lesson 3 Terms to Learn

 13
POINTS TO REMEMBER
52

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

POINT 3-1
Do not mix an infinitive with a gerund(s).

Incorrect:

Calling clients and to interview new candidates will be your

(gerund phrase) (infinitive phrase)

new responsibilities.

Corrected:

Calling clients and interviewing new candidates will be your

(gerund phrase) (gerund phrase)

new responsibilities.

Incorrect:

Jared likes to bowl, to golf, and swimming.

(infinitive) (infinitive) (gerund)

Corrected:

Jared likes to bowl, to golf, and to swim.

(infinitive) (infinitive) (infinitive)

POINT 3-2
Do not mix an infinitive with a noun(s).

Incorrect:

A boxer needs courage and to have a competitive spirit.

(noun) (infinitive phrase)

Corrected:

A boxer needs courage and a competitive spirit.

(noun) (noun)

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

 53

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

POINT 3-3
Do not mix an infinitive with a verb(s).

Incorrect:

Sam cannot decide if he should join the army or to enroll in

college. (verb) (infinitive)

Corrected:

Sam cannot decide if he should join the army or enroll in

college. (verb) (verb)

POINT 3-4
Do not mix an infinitive with a clause(s).

Incorrect:

Your father said that he would be late and to start cooking

(noun clause) (infinitive phrase)

by 6 p.m.

Corrected:

Your father said that he would be late and that you should
(noun clause) (noun clause)

start cooking by 6 p.m.

Incorrect:

We need someone to take charge of the office

(infinitive phrase)

and who can do the accounting.

(dependent clause)

Corrected:

We need someone to take charge of the office

(infinitive phrase)

and to do the accounting.

(infinitive phrase)

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

54

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

POINT 3-5
Do not mix a prepositional phrase with an infinitive(s).

Incorrect:

Call Dr. Yoes office to schedule an appointment and

(infinitive phrase)

for your new prescription.

(prepositional phrase)

Corrected:

Call Dr. Yoes office to schedule an appointment and

(infinitive phrase)

to request a new prescription.

(infinitive phrase)

POINT 3-6

Do not mix a gerund with a noun(s).

Incorrect:

Sheri likes pizza and eating ice cream.

(noun) (gerund phrase)

Corrected:

Sheri likes pizza and ice cream.

(noun) (noun)

POINT 3-7
Do not mix a clause with a verb(s).

Incorrect:

Mia unwrapped the disk, opened the case, and she played
(verb) (verb) (independent clause)

the CD.

Corrected:

Mia unwrapped the disk, opened the case, and played the CD.
(verb) (verb) (verb)

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

 55

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

POINT 3-8
Do not mix a clause with a noun(s).

Incorrect:

The shape of the object, its color, and how large it was
(noun) (noun) (dependent clause)

reminded me of a pyramid.

Corrected:

The shape of the object, its color, and its size reminded me of
(noun) (noun) (noun)

a pyramid.

POINT
POINT 3-103-9

Do not mix a clause with a gerund(s).

Incorrect:

In this class you will be taught sewing, cooking, and

(gerund) (gerund)

how you can decorate your home.

(dependent clause)

Corrected:

In this class you will be taught sewing, cooking, and

(gerund) (gerund)

interior decorating.
(gerund)

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

56

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

POINT 3-10
Do not mix a clause with a prepositional phrase(s).

Incorrect:

Check with someone at your job or who lives in your

(prepositional phrase) (dependent clause)

neighborhood for more information.

Corrected:

Check with someone at your job or in your neighborhood for

(prepositional phrase) (prepositional phrase)

more information.

POINT 3-11

Do not mix a predicate nominative with a predicate adjective(s).

A linking verb is a state-of-being or condition verb that is
always followed by a predicate nominative or a predicate
adjective. A predicate nominative is a noun or a pronoun
that follows a linking verb and renames the subject. A
predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb
and describes the subject.

Incorrect:

The conference was enlightening, stimulating, and an

(predicate adjective) (predicate adjective)

informative session.
(predicate nominative)

Corrected:

The conference was enlightening, stimulating, and informative.

(predicate adjective) (predicate adjective) (predicate adjective)

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

 57

LESSON 3: UNPARALLEL STRUCTURE

POINT 3-12
Do not mix elements when using correlative conjunctions
(either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also).

Incorrect:

CORC CORC
Either you should present the evidence or rest your case.
(clause) (verb)

Corrected:

CORC CORC
You should either present the evidence or rest your case.
(verb) (verb)

or
CORC CORC
Either you should present the evidence, or you should rest
(clause) (clause)

your case.

POINT 3-13

Do not mix elements when comparing words/groups of words

with the word than.

Incorrect:

Sending an e-mail message takes less time than to send a

(gerund phrase) (infinitive phrase)

letter.

Corrected:

Sending an e-mail message takes less time than sending a

(gerund phrase) (gerund phrase)

letter.

Lesson 3 Unparallel Structure

 LESSON 4
WORD MISTAKES
60

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing
word mistakes in sentences.

Overview:
Always review sentences for word mistakes. Word mistakes
in a sentence include:

1. a missing letter(s) at the end of the word.

2. a missing article (a, an, the), possessive pronoun, or

preposition.

3. an unacceptable word such as hisself instead of himself.

4. the use of a double negative.

5. the misuse of a word such as the possessive pronoun its when

the contraction it's is required.

6. the absence or incorrect placement of an apostrophe/

apostrophe plus s with a possessive noun.

While the grammar check and the spell check tools of a word
processing program identify many word mistakes, these tools do
not identify all word errors in a sentence.

This lesson includes some of the most frequently misused words.

They are the articles a and an; the possessive pronouns its, their,
your, and whose; the contractions it's, they're, you're, and who's;
the words may and can; the words good and well; the words than
and then; the words their and there; and the word them incorrectly
used as an adjective.

For additional information regarding misused words, refer to the

Appendix for an alphabetized listing and an explanation of 64
misused words.

Terms to Learn: double negative, contraction, possessive noun,

possessive pronoun

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

 61

LESSON 4: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Double negative: The use of two negative words such as

never, no, not, neither, none, no one, nobody, nothing, barely,
hardly, or scarcely in the same clause.
2. Contraction: A shortened form of two words such as a subject
and a verb or a verb and an adverb in which the apostrophe
indicates the omitted letter(s) of a word.
3. Possessive noun: A noun changed to an adjective that
shows possession by using an apostrophe plus s or using s
plus an apostrophe.
4. Possessive pronoun: The personal pronouns (my, your, his,
her, its, our, and their) that function as adjectives.

Lesson 4 Terms to Learn

 18
POINTS TO REMEMBER
64

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-1
Review for a missing letter(s) at the end of a word. Verbs that
end with the letters s, d, or ed and the coordinating conjunction
and are frequently keyed with the ending letter missing. Any of
these endings may be missed in a document because they are
not always pronounced clearly when spoken.

Word With Missing Letter Corrected

He use to work here. He used to work here.

They were suppose They were supposed

to meet us here. to meet us here.

No one imagine that No one imagined that

she would win. she would win.

Joe an I jog daily. Joe and I jog daily.

POINT 4-2

Review for missing words. Articles (a, an, the), possessive

pronouns, and prepositions are frequently unintentionally
not keyed.

Missing Word Corrected

He demanded answer. He demanded an answer.

A clause requires a A clause requires a

subject and verb. subject and a verb.

She left purse at She left her purse at

the restaurant. the restaurant.

Your keys are not the table. Your keys are not on the table.

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

 65

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-3
Do not use hisself and theirselves as pronouns. These are
unacceptable words. The correct words are himself and
themselves.

Unacceptable Word Corrected

Ed has only hisself to blame. Ed has only himself to blame.

They gave theirselves They gave themselves

too much credit. too much credit.

POINT
POINT 4-44-4

Do not use alright, anyways, anywheres, everywheres, nowheres,

somewheres, or irregardless. These are unacceptable words.
The correct words are all right, anyway, anywhere, everywhere,
nowhere, somewhere, and regardless.

Unacceptable Word Corrected

Whatever you decide is alright Whatever you decide is all

with me. right with me.

You were wrong anyways. You were wrong anyway.

I will go anywheres that I will go anywhere that

you suggest. you suggest.

He looked everywheres for He looked everywhere for

his glasses. his glasses.

We have nowheres to go. We have nowhere to go.

He lives somewheres in He lives somewhere in

Arizona. Arizona.

Irregardless of what you say, Regardless of what you say,

I will make my own decision. I will make my own decision.

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

66

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-5
Do not substitute the word of for the helping verb have. The
use of the word of in place of the word have is unacceptable.

Unacceptable Word Corrected

He could of won that race. He could have won that race.

She should of called She should have called

by this time. by this time.

You would of been impressed. You would have been

impressed.

Elvis may of left the building. Elvis may have left the building.

Ira might of made a mistake. Ira might have made a

mistake.

They must of left town. They must have left town.

POINT 4-6

Do not substitute the word and for the word to with the words
sure and try. The use of the word and in place of the word to
is unacceptable.

Unacceptable Word Corrected

Be sure and allow Be sure to allow

plenty of time. plenty of time.

Try and be early Try to be early

for the meeting. for the meeting.

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

 67

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-7
Do not substitute the words being as or being that for the
subordinating conjunction since or because. This substitution
is unacceptable.

Unacceptable Words Corrected

Being as you did not pay your Because you did not pay your
premium, your insurance premium, your insurance
coverage has lapsed. coverage has lapsed.

Being that Kim was ill, Since Kim was ill,

she did not call me. she did not call me.

POINT
POINT 4-84-8

Do not use two negative words such as never, no, not, neither,
none, no one, nobody, nothing, barely, hardly, or scarcely in the
same clause. This writing error is called a double negative.

Double Negative Corrected

He does not have no money. He does not have any money.

The rescue team has not found The rescue team has not found
nothing. anything.

She cannot barely walk to She can barely walk to

her car. her car.

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

68

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-9
Review for the misuse of the article a. A is used before a word
that begins with a consonant sound, a hard sounding h, or a
long u.

Misused Word Corrected

an book a book

an hotel a hotel

an pen a pen

an union a union

POINT 4-10

Review for the misuse of the article an. An is used before a

word with a vowel sound, except long u, and before words
beginning with silent h.

Misused Word Corrected

a apple an apple

a envelope an envelope

a hour an hour

a outcome an outcome

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

 69

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-11
Review for the misuse of the possessive pronouns its, their,
your, and whose. Possessive pronouns are personal pronouns
that function as adjectives. The words its, theyre, youre, and
whos are contractions and function as a subject and a verb.

Misused Word Corrected

Its wrong to cheat. Its wrong to cheat.

(It is)

Their upset with you. Theyre upset with you.

(They are)

Your going with us. Youre going with us.

(You are)

Whose in the house? Whos in the house?

(Who is)

POINT 4-12

Review for the misuse of the contractions its, theyre, youre,

and whos. A contraction is a shortened form of two words such
as a subject and a verb or a verb and an adverb in which the
apostrophe indicates the omitted letter(s) of a word. The words
its, their, your, and whose are possessive pronouns and function
as adjectives.

Misused Word Corrected

Its features are numerous. Its features are numerous.

(Not it is)

Theyre friends are in town. Their friends are in town.

(Not they are)

Youre answer is wrong. Your answer is wrong.

(Not you are)

Whos book is it? Whose book is it?

(Not who is)

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

70

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-13
Review for the misuse of the words may and can. The word may
implies permission or possibility, and the word can implies ability
or power.

Misused Word Corrected

Can I go with you? May I go with you?

Can I have Friday off? May I have Friday off?

POINT 4-14

Review for the misuse of the words good and well. The word
good functions only as an adjective; it does not function as
an adverb. The phrase to feel good means to be in good
spirits. The word well may function as either an adjective or
an adverb. As an adjective, the word well refers to health.
The phrase to feel well means to be in good health.

Misused Word Corrected

The new guitarist plays good. The new guitarist plays well.
(Plays how?)

I did good on that test. I did well on that test.

(Did how?)

I dont feel good today. I dont feel well today.

(Not in good health)

I feel well about my chances I feel good about my chances

of winning. of winning.
(In good spirits)

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

 71

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-15
Review for the misuse of the words than and then. The word
than is a conjunction used for comparison, and the word then
is an adverb used to describe a time.

Misused Word Corrected

My computer is faster then My computer is faster than

your computer. your computer.

If you proofread my thesis, If you proofread my thesis,

than I will lend you my then I will lend you my
motorcycle for the weekend. motorcycle for the weekend.

POINT 4-16

Review for the misuse of the words their and there. The word
their functions as an adjective, and the word there means in
that place and functions as an adverb.

Misused Word Corrected

There project was to be Their project was to be

completed today. completed today.

Reza was to meet me their Reza was to meet me there

at 8 p.m. at 8 p.m.

POINT 4-17

Review for the misuse of the word them. The word them
always functions as a pronoun; it cannot function as an
adjective.

Misused Word Corrected

Please pass them books to me. Please pass those books to

me.

Them apples were sour. (These or Those) apples were

sour.

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

72

LESSON 4: WORD MISTAKES

POINT 4-18
Review for the absence or the incorrect use of an apostrophe
with a possessive noun. Use an apostrophe plus s to form the
possessive of most singular nouns; use only an apostrophe to
form the possessive of plural nouns already ending with s; and
use an apostrophe plus s to form the possessive plural of nouns
not ending with s.

Incorrect Word Corrected

Marys favorite recipe Marys favorite recipe

(Singular possessive noun)
or

Marys favorite recipe

the three attorneys fees the three attorneys fees

(Plural possessive noun
ending with s)

the womens basketball team the womens basketball team

(Plural possessive noun not
ending with s)
or

the womens basketball team

Lesson 4 Word Mistakes

 LESSON 5
INEFFECTIVE AND
INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
74

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND

INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
INTRODUCTION

Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing

ineffective and inappropriate words in sentences.

Overview:
The type of audience determines how you speak. When you are
with your family or friends, there is less concern with diction
the choice and use of words. In fact, nonstandard English (slang
and colloquial expressions) is used quite frequently in informal
conversation. Also, the use of phrasal verbs is common. A phrasal
verb is a verb combined with a preposition or an adverb resulting
in a new verb with a different meaning. Examples of phrasal verbs
include words such as burn down, fill out, pass out, set up, or
write down.

While the use of nonstandard English and phrasal verbs occurs

quite frequently in everyday conversation and in written communication
such as private letters, personal email messages, and business
correspondence between close associates, the use of nonstandard
English and phrasal verbs is not appropriate with formal writing.
Written communication for the business world and the academic
world requires a more formal style.

For this reason, it is important that you review all words and
phrases in your sentences for their appropriateness and correct
connotation. The thesaurus tool in your word processing program
is an excellent method for identifying more effective and appropriate
words for improving the quality of your written communication.

Terms to Learn: phrasal verb

Lesson 5 Ineffective and Inappropriate Words

 75

LESSON 5: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Phrasal verb: A verb combined with a preposition or an

adverb resulting in a new verb with a different meaning.

Lesson 5 Terms to Learn

 4
POINTS TO REMEMBER
78

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND

INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
POINT 5-1

Review sentences for ineffective nouns, verbs, adjectives, and

adverbs. Each word in a sentence should be reviewed for its
effectiveness, appropriateness, and correct connotation.

Ineffective Word More Appropriate

Noun Thank you for the Thank you for the

chance to interview for opportunity to interview
a position with your for a position with your
company. company.

Verb Do you got a major Do you (have, own,

credit card? possess) a major credit
card?

Adjective Matt has become quite Matt has become quite

skinny. thin.

Adverb Your opinion on this Your opinion on this

subject is terribly subject is (very, most)
important. important.

NOTE: All forms of the verb to get (get, getting, got, gotten);
the verb to put (put, putting); and the verb to go (go, going,
went, gone) are often overused and should be replaced with
more effective words. LESSON 1

Lesson 5 Ineffective and Inappropriate Words

 79

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND

INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
POINT 5-2
Review sentences for informal words and phrases. While
informal words and phrases (including slang and colloquial
expressions) are used frequently in casual conversation,
these words and phrases are not appropriate for formal writing.

Informal Words and Phrases More Appropriate

I will drive you anyplace you I will drive you anywhere you
would like to go. would like to go.

That was an awfully difficult That was a (very, extremely)

assignment. difficult assignment.

A bunch of people are waiting A (group of) people are

for you in your office. waiting for you in your office.

I need a couple of dollars I need two dollars until

until tomorrow. tomorrow.

I expect you do not want I suppose you do not want

to pay this bill. to pay this bill.

Since you did not call, we Since you did not call, we
figured you were not joining assumed you were not joining
us tonight. us tonight.

Al flunked the test. Al failed the test.

Kim has a fun job. Kim has an (interesting,

exciting) job.

She is getting better at She is improving her public

public speaking. speaking skills.

He heard lots of complaints at He heard (several, many)

the meeting. complaints at the meeting.

Most everyone spoke at the Almost everyone spoke at the

meeting. meeting.

Lesson 5 Ineffective and Inappropriate Words

80

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND

INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
...CONTINUED POINT 5-2

Informal Words and Phrases More Appropriate

I felt that this workshop was I felt that this workshop was
not all that important. not very important.

There is plenty of time to There is ample time to make

make your decision. your decision.

LESSON 1

Lesson 5 Ineffective and Inappropriate Words

 81

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND

INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
POINT 5-3
Avoid using phrasal verbs in formal written communications.
A phrasal verb is a verb combined with a preposition or an
adverb resulting in a new verb with a different meaning.
Look after, turn off, and make up are all examples of
phrasal verbs. While phrasal verbs and phrasal verbals
(participles, gerunds, and infinitives) are used extensively
in oral communication, phrasal verbs and phrasal verbals
should be avoided in formal writing.

Phrasal Verb More Appropriate

He set up a meeting for He scheduled a meeting for

this afternoon. this afternoon.

Phrasal Verbal More Appropriate

(Participle)

The new manager dropping The new manager visiting our

by our facility was quite facility was quite impressed.
impressed.

Phrasal Verbal More Appropriate

(Gerund)

Passing out the pamphlets Distributing the pamphlets

required most of the day. required most of the day.

Phrasal Verbal More Appropriate

(Infinitive)

I find it easy to catch on to I find it easy to learn new

new software applications. software applications.

Lesson 5 Ineffective and Inappropriate Words

82

LESSON 5: INEFFECTIVE AND

INAPPROPRIATE WORDS
POINT 5-4

Review prepositional phrases to determine if there is an

incorrect or an inappropriate-sounding preposition. Prepositions
that follow certain verbs and certain adjectives may not sound
correct and require a different preposition.

Incorrect or Inappropriate- More Appropriate

Sounding Preposition

In this neighborhood most In this neighborhood most

people rely in public people rely on public
transportation. transportation.

Our supervisor refuses to Our supervisor refuses to

comply to company policy. comply with company policy.

We received your letter about We received your letter

your displeasure with our concerning your displeasure
cleaning service. with our cleaning service.

Ms. Franks is to receive her Ms. Franks is to receive her

payment inside of a week. payment within a week.

Everyone outside of Don Everyone except Don

was present. was present.
LESSON 1

Lesson 5 Ineffective and Inappropriate Words

 LESSON 6
UNNECESSARY WORDS
84

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing
unnecessary words in sentences.

Overview:
Effective written communication requires sentences that
are clear and concise. Redundant and other unnecessary words
are frequently used when speaking and writing. For these reasons,
sentences should always be reviewed for unnecessary words. In
this lesson unnecessary words are words or phrases that can be
removed from a sentence without changing its meaning.

Terms to Learn: no new terms

Lesson 6 Unnecessary Words

 10
POINTS TO REMEMBER
86

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS

POINT 6-1
Review sentences for redundant adjectivesadjectives that
have meanings similar to the nouns they modify.

Unnecessary Adjective Revised

(Redundant)

The lawyer asked for The lawyer asked for the facts.
the true facts. (Facts are true.)

A huge throng of people A throng of people gathered

gathered for the festivities. for the festivities.
(A throng is huge.)

POINT 6-2

Review sentences for similar adjectives modifying the same

word. The use of only one adjective is sufficient. (Word choice
is optional if both words are appropriate.)

Unnecessary Adjective Revised

(Similar)

We will pay for additional or We will pay for additional

extra shipping charges. shipping charges.
or
We will pay for extra shipping
charges.

Each and every student will Each student will receive a

receive a reference manual. reference manual.
or
Every student will receive a
reference manual.

Lesson 6 Unnecessary Words

 87

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS

POINT 6-3
Review sentences for redundant adverbsadverbs that have
meanings similar to the words they modify.

Unnecessary Adverb Revised

(Redundant)

All ingredients were combined All ingredients were combined.

together. (Combined means
mixed together.)

The airplane circled around The airplane circled the city

the city before it landed. before it landed.
(Circled means around.)

POINT 6-4
Review sentences for an unnecessary directional adverb such as
up, down, or out following a verb or a verbal.

Unnecessary Adverb Revised

(Follows Verb or Verbal)

My brother and I are opening My brother and I are

up a delicatessen. opening a delicatessen.

Kim emptied out her desk Kim emptied her desk

drawers yesterday. drawers yesterday.

He tried to finish up his work He tried to finish his work

before noon. before noon.

Lesson 6 Unnecessary Words

88

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS

POINT 6-5
Review sentences for an adverb modifying an incomparable word.
In most situations words like correct, false, honest, round,
square, true, and unique are not comparable and do not require
an adverb modifier.

Unnecessary Adverb Revised

(Incomparable Word)

Bill had a very unique idea. Bill had a unique idea.

(It is either unique, or it is
not unique.)

What he said was quite true. What he said was true.

(It is either true, or it is not
true.)

POINT 6-6
Review sentences for an unnecessary adverb at the end of a
sentence.

Unnecessary Adverb Revised

(End of Sentence)

We have not received his We have not received

answer yet. his answer.

May I seat you awhile? May I seat you?

Lesson 6 Unnecessary Words

 89

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS

POINT 6-7
Review sentences for an unnecessary preposition such as at or
to ending a sentence. Words such as behind, below, beneath,
down, and up are directional words that can be used alone as
an adverb or function as a preposition. These words may end a
sentence. Words such as at and to do not indicate direction and
are not necessary at the end of a sentence.

Unnecessary Preposition Revised

(End of Sentence)

Where is your car at? Where is your car?

Where did Alex go to? Where did Alex go?

POINT 6-8
Review sentences for unnecessary consecutive prepositions. In
some cases, one preposition can be deleted; and in other
cases, both prepositions can be deleted.

Unnecessary Preposition Revised

(Consecutive)

The lawn mower fell off The lawn mower fell off the
of the truck. truck.

I will meet up with you at the I will meet you at the mall at
mall at 3 p.m. 3 p.m.

Lesson 6 Unnecessary Words

90

LESSON 6: UNNECESSARY WORDS

POINT 6-9
Review sentences for a redundant prepositional phrase.
Prepositional phrases that have meanings similar to other
parts of speech that modify the same word(s) should
be omitted.

Unnecessary Phrase Revised

(Redundant)

This room is too small in size. This room is too small.

Come to our restaurant for a Come to our restaurant for

complementary dinner on us. a complementary dinner.

POINT 6-10
Review sentences for an unnecessary consecutive conjunction.

Unnecessary Conjunction Revised

(Consecutive)

Bill lost the race, and yet he Bill lost the race, yet he acted
acted as though he won. as though he won.

The weather was damp and The weather was damp and
chilly, and so the concert chilly, so the concert was
was held indoors. held indoors.

Lesson 6 Unnecessary Words

 LESSON 7
WORDY ELEMENTS
92

LESSON 7: WORDY ELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing
wordy elements in sentences.

Overview:
Always review sentences to determine if they contain wordy
elements. Wordy elements are phrases or clauses that can be
reduced in size or structure without affecting the meaning of the
sentence. Review sentences for wordy phrases that introduce
dependent clauses, wordy predicates, clauses that can be reduced
to phrases, and clauses and phrases that can be reduced to
one-word modifiers.

Terms to Learn: no new terms

NOTE: While a sentence with a wordy element may be

grammatically correct, concise sentences are usually more
effective and appropriate with formal writing.

Lesson 7 Wordy Elements

 7
POINTS TO REMEMBER
94

LESSON 7: WORDY ELEMENTS

POINT 7-1
Consider changing a wordy phrase that introduces a dependent
clause to a one-word subordinator.

Wordy Revised

Due to the fact that it might Because it might rain today, I

rain today, I am postponing am postponing our afternoon
our afternoon outing. outing.

In the event that the If the letter carrier is not here

letter carrier is not here by by noon, take this package to
noon, take this package to the post office.
the post office.

Do not report to this office Do not report to this office

until such time as this matter until this matter is resolved.
is resolved.

POINT 7-2

Consider changing a wordy prepositional phrase to a one-word

preposition.

Wordy Revised

This product can be used for This product can be used for
the purpose of removing removing stains from carpet.
stains from carpet.

The cost of the new office The cost of the new office
furniture will be in the furniture will be about five
neighborhood of five thousand dollars.
thousand dollars.

Lesson 7 Wordy Elements

 95

LESSON 7: WORDY ELEMENTS

POINT 7-3
Consider revising a wordy predicate. A simple predicate is another
name for the verb or verb phrase in a sentence; and a complete
predicate is the verb, its complement, and any modifiers.

Wordy Revised

John is in need of a new car. John needs a new car.

Enclosed you will find the Enclosed is the complete

complete Anderson file. Anderson file.

POINT 7-4

Consider changing a participial phrase that follows a noun to a

participle that precedes the noun.

Wordy Revised

Everyone was annoyed by the Everyone was annoyed by the

crickets, making short chirping crickets.
chirping sounds.

The concert tickets reserved Our reserved concert tickets

for us were not at were not at the ticket booth.
the ticket booth.

POINT 7-5

Consider changing an adjective clause that follows a noun to an

adjective that precedes the noun.

Wordy Revised

Nathan has a job that is Nathan has a stressful job.

stressful.

The suggestion that Alex Alexs suggestion for

made for improving improving productivity is
productivity is worth worth considering.
considering.

Lesson 7 Wordy Elements

96

LESSON 7: WORDY ELEMENTS

POINT 7-6
Consider changing an adverb prepositional phrase to a
one-word adverb.

Wordy Revised

In the very near future, we Soon we will be expanding our

will be expanding our operation. operation.

In this day and age, people Today people are reluctant to

are reluctant to trust the news trust the news media.
media.

POINT 7-7
Consider changing an adjective clause to an appositive phrase,
a participial phrase, or a prepositional phrase.

Wordy Revised

(appositive phrase)
Mr. Allen, who was the Mr. Allen, our high school
custodian at our high school custodian for 20 years,
for 20 years, will retire will retire in June.
in June.

(participial phrase)
These peaches, which were These peaches, grown in York
grown in York County, are County, are delicious.
delicious.

(prepositional phrase)
Find me a hotel that is near Find me a hotel near the
the airport. airport.

Lesson 7 Wordy Elements

 LESSON 8
UNCLEAR ELEMENTS
98

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Lesson Objective: To become proficient in recognizing

unclear elements in sentences.

Overview:
Always review sentences for unclear elements. A sentence
with an unclear element generally requires more than one
reading to understand its meaning. In Lesson 2 a misplaced
modifier, one example of an unclear element, was presented. A
misplaced modifier is a word, a phrase, or a dependent clause
that is not positioned properly in the sentence. This type of writing
error is corrected by placing the modifier closer to the word(s) it
modifies.

In this lesson other examples of unclear elements in sentences

are presented. They include dangling modifiers, unclear pronoun
reference, pronoun shift, verb tense shift, and mixed construction.

A dangling modifier is a participial phrase, an infinitive phrase,

a prepositional phrase (usually with a gerund as the object of the
preposition), or an elliptical clause that does not sensibly modify
any word(s) in the sentence. (An elliptical clause is a condensed
clause with key words such as the subject and the verb omitted but
implied.) A sentence with a dangling modifier usually requires a
more extensive rewrite than a sentence with a misplaced modifier.

An unclear pronoun reference refers to a sentence with a

personal pronoun that is unclear because the pronoun is not
referring to a specific word (antecedent) in the sentence or
because the pronoun is referring to a possessive modifier, an
implied antecedent, or an unspecified person (or people) in the
sentence.

A pronoun shift is a writing error that occurs when a writer uses

one pronoun subject in the first clause and shifts to a different
pronoun subject in the second clause. This incorrect shift is
frequently from the pronoun one to the pronoun you or the
pronoun I or from the pronoun we to the pronoun you.

A verb tense shift is a writing error that occurs when a writer

uses one verb tense in the first clause and shifts to a different
verb tense in the second clause. This incorrect shift is frequently
from the present tense to the past tense or from the past tense to
the present tense.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

 99

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Mixed construction is a writing error that occurs when a sentence

has incompatible parts. An example of mixed construction is a
sentence with an introductory adverb phrase or clause functioning
as the subject of a sentence or an adverb phrase or clause
functioning as a predicate nominative.

Voice is the property of a verb that indicates whether the subject is

acting or receiving action. In the active voice the subject does the
acting. In the passive voice the subject receives the action. When
it is possible, use the active voice rather than the passive voice.

Terms to Learn: dangling modifier, elliptical clause,

unclear pronoun reference, antecedent, pronoun shift,
verb tense shift, mixed construction, voice, active voice,
passive voice

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

100

LESSON 8: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Dangling modifier: A participial phrase, an infinitive phrase,

a prepositional phrase, or an elliptical clause that does not
sensibly modify any word(s) in the sentence.
2. Elliptical clause: A condensed clause with key words such as
the subject and the verb omitted but implied.
3. Unclear pronoun reference: A personal pronoun that is
unclear because the pronoun is not referring to a specific
word (antecedent) in the sentence or because the pronoun is
referring to a possessive modifier, an implied antecedent, or
an unspecified person (or people) in the sentence.
4. Antecedent: A word (usually the subject) to which a personal
or possessive pronoun specifically refers in the sentence.
5. Pronoun shift: A writing error that occurs when a writer uses
one pronoun subject in the first clause and unnecessarily shifts
to a different pronoun subject in the second clause.
6. Verb tense shift: A writing error that occurs when a writer
uses one verb tense in the first clause and shifts to a different
verb tense in the second clause.
7. Mixed construction: A writing error that occurs when a
sentence has incompatible parts such as an adverb clause
functioning as a subject or a predicate nominative.
8. Voice: The property of a verb that indicates whether the
subject is acting or receiving action.
9. Active voice: The subject of the sentence is the doer of the
action.
10. Passive voice: The subject of the sentence is the receiver of
the action.

Lesson 8 Terms to Learn

 6
POINTS TO REMEMBER
102

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

POINT 8-1
Review sentences for a dangling modifier. A dangling modifier is
a participial phrase, an infinitive phrase, a prepositional phrase,
or an elliptical clause that does not sensibly modify any word(s)
in the sentence. A sentence with a dangling modifier requires
part of the sentence to be rewritten.

Example A:

A dangling participial phrase corrected by changing the

participial phrase to a dependent clause.

Unclear Driving by the ocean, the waves splashed

and against the pier.
Faulty: (The phrase appears to be modifying the word
waves.)

Revised: As I drove by the ocean, the waves splashed

against the pier.

Example B:

A dangling infinitive phrase corrected by rewriting the main

clause.

Unclear To qualify for this job, your experience must

and include graphic design.
Faulty: (The phrase appears to be modifying the word
experience.)

Revised: To qualify for this job, you must have

experience in graphic design.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

 103

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

POINT 8-1 ...CONTINUED

Example C:

A dangling prepositional phrase corrected by changing the

prepositional phrase to a dependent clause.

Unclear After painting the walls, my room needed fresh

and air to remove the fumes.
Faulty: (The phrase appears to be modifying the word
room.)

Revised: After I painted the walls, my room needed fresh

air to remove the fumes.

Example D:

A dangling elliptical clause corrected by rewriting the main

clause or by rewriting the elliptical clause. (An ellipical clause
is a condensed clause with key words such as the subject and
the verb omitted but implied.)

Unclear Although tired, the sales at the shopping mall

and were irresistible.
Faulty: (The elliptical clause appears to be modifying the
word sales.)

Revised: Although tired, we could not resist the sales at

(a rewrite of the main clause)

the shopping mall.

or

Although we were tired, the sales at the

(a rewrite of the elliptical clause)

shopping mall were irresistible.

NOTE: Elliptical clauses are not appropriate in formal writing.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

104

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

POINT 8-2
Review sentences for an unclear pronoun reference. An unclear
pronoun is a pronoun that is not referring to a specific word
(antecedent) in the sentence or a pronoun that is referring to a
possessive modifier, an implied antecedent, or an unspecified
person (or people) in the sentence.

Example A:

Pronoun is not clearly referring to a specific antecedent.

Unclear Craig told Frank that he lacked confidence.

and
Faulty: (Who lacked confidence, Craig or Frank?)

Revised: Craig told Frank that Frank lacked confidence.

or
Craig told Frank that Craig lacked confidence.

Example B:

Pronoun is referring to a possessive modifier.

Unclear In Joes defense, he did not start the argument.

and
Faulty:

Revised: In Joes defense, Joe did not start the argument.

or
In his defense, Joe did not start the argument.

Example C:

Pronoun is referring to an implied antecedent.

Unclear At last nights council meeting, we asked them to

and vote on the new budget.
Faulty:

Revised: At last nights council meeting, we asked the

council members to vote on the new budget.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

 105

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

POINT 8-2 ...CONTINUED

Example D:

The pronoun they is referring to an unspecified person or people.

Unclear They predict that we are going to have a very

and cold winter.
Faulty:

Revised: Meteorologists predict that we are going to have

a very cold winter.

Example E:

The personal pronoun it is functioning as an awkward and

unclear subject.

Unclear In this medical book it states that phlebitis is

and the inflammation of the wall of a vein.
Faulty:

Revised: This medical book states that phlebitis is the

inflammation of the wall of a vein.

POINT 8-3

Review sentences for a pronoun shift. A pronoun shift occurs

when a writer uses a pronoun such as we, you, I, or one as the
subject in the first clause and makes an unnecessary shift to a
different pronoun subject in the second clause.

Unclear As we tried to lift the safe, you could tell it was

and not going to move.
Faulty:

Revised: As we tried to lift the safe, we could tell it was

not going to move.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

106

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

POINT 8-4
Review sentences for a verb tense shift. A verb tense shift
occurs when a writer uses one verb tense in the first clause
and shifts to a different verb tense in the second clause of a
sentence.

Unclear We waited for the passenger train when

and (past tense)

Faulty: lightning strikes nearby.

(present tense)

Revised: We waited for the passenger train when

(past tense)

lightning struck nearby.

(past tense)

POINT 8-5

Review sentences for mixed construction. Mixed construction

occurs when a sentence has incompatible parts such as an
adverb clause funtioning as a subject or a predicate nominative.

Example A:

Unclear Because I stopped at the bank is the reason for

and my being late for the meeting.
Faulty:
(The adverb clause because I stopped at the bank
appears to be functioning as the subject; however,
an adverb clause cannot function as a noun.)

Revised: I was late for the meeting because I stopped at

the bank.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

 107

LESSON 8: UNCLEAR ELEMENTS

POINT 8-5 ...CONTINUED

Example B:

Unclear This gift for you is because you are always

and helping me with my homework.
Faulty:
(The adverb clause because you are always helping
me with my homework appears to be functioning
as the predicate nominative; however, an adverb
clause cannot function as a noun.)

Revised: This gift is for you because you are always helping
me with my homework.

POINT 8-6

Review sentences for passive-voice construction. A sentence

with passive-voice construction is usually a weaker sentence
because the subject is receiving the action instead of doing the
acting. Voice is the property of a verb that indicates whether
the subject is acting or receiving action. In the active voice,
the subject does the acting; in the passive voice, the subject
receives the action. As a general rule, use the active voice
when the doer of the action is known; and use the passive
voice when the doer of the action is unknown.

Example:

Passive Voice: This program was created by Robin Bair.

Active Voice: Robin Bair created this program.

Lesson 8 Unclear Elements

 MODULE IV
TERMS TO LEARN
110

MODULE IV: TERMS TO LEARN

1. Active voice: The subject of the sentence is the doer of the

action. (Lesson 8)
2. Adjective: A word(s) that modifies or describes a noun or a
pronoun and answers the question Which one? What kind of?
How many? or Whose? (Lesson 2)
3. Adjective clause: A dependent clause that begins with a
relative pronoun, modifies a noun or a pronoun, and usually
answers the question Which one? What kind of? or Whose?
(Lesson 2)

4. Adjective prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase that

modifies a noun or a pronoun and usually answers the question
Which one? or What kind of? (Lesson 2)
5. Adverb: A word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb and answers the question When? Where?
How? or To what extent? (Lesson 2)
6. Adverb clause: A dependent clause that begins with a
subordinating conjunction, modifies a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb, and usually answers the question When? Where? Why?
How? To what extent? or Under what condition? (Lesson 2)
7. Adverb prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase that
modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb and usually answers
the question When? Where? Why? or How? (Lesson 2)
8. Antecedent: A word (usually the subject) to which a personal
or possessive pronoun specifically refers in the sentence. (Lesson 8)
9. Appositive: A noun or a pronoun that immediately follows
another noun or pronoun for the purpose of further identifying,
clarifying, or explaining the first noun or pronoun. (Lesson 1)
10. Appositive phrase: An appositive and all of its modifiers.
(Lesson 1)

11. Clause: A group of related words that includes a subject and a

verb and expresses either a complete thought or an incomplete
thought. (Lesson 1)
12. Comma splice: A run-on sentence without a coordinating
conjunction connecting consecutive independent clauses and
with a comma separating the clauses. (Lesson 1)
13. Complete predicate: The part of the sentence that consists of
the verb, its complement, and any modifiers. (Lesson 1)

Module IV Terms to Learn

 111

MODULE IV: TERMS TO LEARN

14. Complex sentence: A sentence that has one independent

clause and one or more dependent clauses. (Lesson 1)
15. Compound sentence: A sentence that has two or more
independent clauses. (Lesson 1)
16. Compound-complex sentence: A sentence that has two or
more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
(Lesson 1)

17. Contraction: A shortened form of two words such as a subject

and a verb or a verb and an adverb in which the apostrophe
indicates the omitted letter(s) of a word. (Lesson 4)
18. Coordinating conjunction: A word such as for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, or so used to connect words, phrases, or clauses of
equal status. (Lesson 1)
19. Correlative conjunction: One of four word pairs (either/or,
neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) used to connect words,
phrases, or clauses of equal status. (Lesson 3)
20. Dangling modifier: A participial phrase, an infinitive phrase,
a prepositional phrase, or an elliptical clause that does not
sensibly modify any word(s) in the sentence. (Lesson 8)
21. Dependent (subordinate) clause: A group of related words
that includes a subject and a verb but does not express a
complete thought. (Lesson 1)
22. Direct Object: A verb complement that follows a transitive verb
and answers the question What? or Whom? (Lesson 1)
23. Double negative: The use of two negative words such as never,
no, not, neither, none, no one, nobody, nothing, barely, hardly,
or scarcely in the same clause. (Lesson 4)
24. Elliptical clause: A condensed clause with key words such as
the subject and the verb omitted but implied. (Lesson 8)
25. Fused sentence: A run-on sentence without a coordinating
conjunction connecting consecutive independent clauses and
with no punctuation mark separating the clauses. (Lesson 1)
26. Gerund: A verbal that functions as a noun and always ends
with ing. (Lesson 1)
27. Gerund phrase: A gerund plus its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s). (Lesson 1)

Module IV Terms to Learn

112

MODULE IV: TERMS TO LEARN

28. Helping verb: A verb that usually precedes the main verb
and must be included with certain forms of a main verb. (Lesson 1)
29. Independent clause: A group of related words that includes a
subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. (Lesson 1)
30. Indirect object: A verb complement that follows a transitive
verb, precedes a direct object, and usually answers the question
To whom? For whom? To what? or For what? (Lesson 1)
31. Infinitive: A verbal that functions as a noun, an adjective, or
an adverb and is usually introduced by the word to. (Lesson 1)
32. Infinitive phrase: An infinitive plus its complement(s) and/
or modifier(s). (Lesson 1)
33. Intransitive verb: A main verb that never has a complement.
(Lesson 1)

34. Linking verb: A main verb that expresses a state of being or a

condition and is always followed by a predicate nominative or a
predicate adjective. (Lesson 1)
35. Main verb: A one-word verb or the last word of a verb phrase
that expresses an action, a state of being, or a condition.
(Lesson 1)

36. Misplaced modifier: A word, a phrase, or a dependent clause

that is not positioned properly in a sentence. (Lesson 2)
37. Mixed construction: A writing error that occurs when a
sentence has incompatible parts such as an adverb clause
functioning as the subject or the predicate nominitive. (Lesson 8)
38. Modifier: A word(s) that describes or expands the meaning of
another word(s) in a sentence. (Lesson 2)
39. Noun: A word that names a person, place, or thing and provides
an answer to a What? Who? or Whom? question. (Lesson 1)
40. Noun clause: A dependent clause that begins with a relative
pronoun or a subordinating conjunction and functions as a noun.
(Lesson 3)

41. Object of preposition: A noun or a pronoun that follows a

preposition and usually answers the question Whom? or What?
(Lesson 1)

42. Parallel elements: Words, phrases, or clauses of the same

grammatical structure joined by a conjunction. (Lesson 3)

Module IV Terms to Learn

 113

MODULE IV: TERMS TO LEARN

43. Participle: A verbal that functions as an adjective and usually

ends with ing, ed, or en. (Lesson 1)
44. Participial phrase: A participle plus its complement(s) and/or
modifier(s). (Lesson 1)
45. Passive voice: The subject of the sentence is the receiver of
the action. (Lesson 8)
46. Phrase: A group of related words that never includes a subject
and a verb and functions as a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or
a noun. (Lesson 1)
47. Phrasal verb: A verb combined with a preposition or an
adverb resulting in a new verb with a different meaning. (Lesson 5)

48. Possessive noun: A noun changed to an adjective that

shows possession by using an apostrophe plus s or using s
plus an apostrophe. (Lesson 4)
49. Possessive pronoun: The personal pronouns (my, your, his,
her, its, our, and their) that function as adjectives. (Lesson 4)
50. Predicate adjective: An adjective subject complement that
follows a linking verb and describes the subject. (Lesson 1)
51. Predicate nominative: A noun or a pronoun subject
complement that follows a linking verb and renames the
subject. (Lesson 1)
52. Preposition: A word such as at, during, of, on, through, or to
that joins and shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to
some other word in a sentence. (Lesson 1)
53. Prepositional phrase: A preposition plus its object and any
modifiers. (Lesson 1)
54. Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun. (Lesson 1)

55. Pronoun shift: A writing error that occurs when a writer uses
one pronoun subject in the first clause and unnecessarily shifts
to a different pronoun subject in the second clause. (Lesson 8)
56. Relative pronoun: A word such as that, what, whatever,
which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, or whose that serves
as a subordinator of a dependent clause and also functions as
a pronoun or an adjective within that clause. (Lesson 1)

Module IV Terms to Learn

114

MODULE IV: TERMS TO LEARN

57. Run-on sentence: A writing error that occurs when consecutive

independent clauses are not connected with a coordinating
conjunction and are not punctuated correctly. (Lesson 1)
58. Sentence: A group of words that expresses a complete thought,
always begins with the first word capitalized, and always ends
with a punctuation mark. (Lesson 1)
59. Sentence fragment: A group of words that begins with the
first word capitalized, ends with a punctuation mark, and is not
a complete thought. (Lesson 1)
60. Simple predicate: Another name for the verb or a verb phrase
in a sentence. (Lesson 1)
61. Simple sentence: A sentence that has one independent clause.
(Lesson 1)

62. Squinting modifier: An adverb that can be interpreted as

modifying either the word(s) preceding the adverb or the word(s)
following the adverb. (Lesson 2)
63. Subject: The part of a sentence about which something is being
said and best answers the question Whom or what are we
talking about? or Who or what is doing something? (Lesson 1)
64. Subject complement: A noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that
follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject.
(Lesson 1)

65. Subordinating conjunction: A word such as after, although,

as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that, though, unless,
until, when, whenever, where, whether, or while that begins a
dependent clause and makes the dependent clause express an
incomplete thought. (Lesson 1)
66. Subordinator: An introductory word(s) such as a subordinating
conjunction or a relative pronoun that makes a group of words
with a subject and a verb a dependent clause. (Lesson 1)
67. Transitional expression: A word or a phrase such as
for example, as a result, therefore, consequently, however,
on the other hand, or nevertheless that links independent clauses
in a compound sentence or links consecutive sentences. (Lesson 1)
68. Transitive verb: A main verb that usually expresses an action
and always has a direct object. (Lesson 1)

Module IV Terms to Learn

 115

MODULE IV: TERMS TO LEARN

69. Unclear pronoun reference: A personal pronoun that is

unclear because the pronoun is not referring to a specific word
(antecedent) in the sentence or the pronoun is referring to a
possessive modifier, an implied antecedent, or an unspecified
person (or people) in the sentence. (Lesson 8)
70. Unparallel structure: A writing error that occurs when
grammatical forms are mixed within a series. (Lesson 3)
71. Verb: A word(s) needed along with the subject to make a
statement, ask a question, or give a command. (Lesson 1)
72. Verb complement: Another name for a direct object or an
indirect object. (Lesson 1)
73. Verb phrase: A main verb and all of its helping verbs. (Lesson 1)

74. Verb tense shift: A writing error that occurs when a writer
uses one verb tense in the first clause and shifts to a different
verb tense in the second clause of a sentence. (Lesson 8)
75. Verbal: A verb form that functions as a noun, an adjective, or
an adverb in a sentence. (Lesson 1)
76. Verbal complement: A noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that
follows a verbal and completes its meaning. (Lesson 1)
77. Verbal phrase: A group of words considered as a single unit
that includes a verbal and its complement(s) and/or modifier(s).
(Lesson 1)

78. Voice: The property of a verb that indicates whether the

subject is acting or receiving action. (Lesson 8)

Module IV Terms to Learn

 APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS
118

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(1) A/AN: A is used before a word that begins with a

consonant sound, a sounded h, or a long u. An is
used before a word with a vowel sound, except
long u, and before words beginning with silent h.

a book an apple

a hotel an envelope

a pen an hour

a union an outcome

(2) A while/Awhile: As two words, a while functions

as an adjective and a noun. As one word, awhile
functions as an adverb.

They waited for a while. (Adjective and noun.)

She was here awhile ago. (Adverb.)

(3) Accept/Except: Accept is a verb that means to

take, to receive. Except can be used as a verb
that means to exclude; it can also be used as a
preposition that means excluding.

Do you accept credit cards? (Verb.)

The club formerly excepted women. (Verb.)

Everyone is ready except Mark. (Preposition.)

(4) Adapt/Adopt: Both words function as verbs. Adapt

means to modify and adopt means to choose.

She adapted her schedule to allow more time for proofreading.

I hope they will adopt the new proposal.

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 119

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(5) Adverse/Averse: Adverse is an adjective meaning

against or antagonistic. Averse is an adjective
meaning unwilling.

Adverse publicity could hurt our project.

I hope you are not averse to working late.

(6) Advice/Advise: Advice is a noun that means a

suggestion or a recommendation. Advise is a verb
that means to recommend or to inform.

Please consider my advice. (Noun.)

I would advise you against taking that action. (Verb.)

(7) Affect/Effect: Affect is a verb meaning to change

or to influence. Effect is usually a noun meaning
a result and sometimes a verb meaning to bring
about.

The snow storm affects the driving time. (Verb.)

Good nutrition has a positive effect on health. (Noun.)

The company effected the policy change immediately. (Verb.)

(8) All ready/Already: All ready means prepared and

already means previously.

Marsha is all ready to go to the opera.

Ken already met the new CEO.

(9) All ways/Always: All ways means by all methods

and always means at all times.

Try all ways possible to complete the work.

She is always on time for work.

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

120

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(10) Altar/Alter: Altar is a noun that refers to part of a

church. Alter is a verb that means to change.

Floral arrangements were placed on the altar for Easter. (Noun.)

The writer altered the report to include a longer summary.

(Verb.)

(11) Among/Between: Ordinarily among is used to refer

to more than two persons or things. Between is
used to refer to two persons or things.

Divide the candy equally among the five children.

The inheritance was divided between the two brothers.

(12) Amount/Number: Amount is used for things in

bulk. Number is used for individual items.

A large amount of oil was spilled into the stream.

A number of disks were used for the backup procedure.

(13) Any one/Anyone: Use any one when it is followed

by an of phrase, or when it means one of many
people or things. Use anyone to mean anybody.

Any one of you could do the next assignment.

I will consider anyone with an acting background for our next

commercial.

(14) Any way/Anyway: Use any way when it means by

any method; anyway means in any case.

I will be happy to help in any way that I can.

The school is closed on Monday, anyway.

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 121

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(15) Assure/Ensure/Insure: Assure means to give

someone confidence. Ensure means to make
certain. Insure means to protect against loss.

The realtor assured the client that the roof was sound.

The new homeowners ensured their privacy by erecting a fence.

You will want to insure that diamond ring as soon as possible.

(16) Bad/Badly: Bad functions as an adjective; Badly

functions as an adverb.

It was a bad accident. (Adjective.)

I hope you were not hurt badly in the accident. (Adverb.)

(17) Beside/Besides: Beside means next to. Besides

means in addition to.

Please sit beside me.

How many other people are invited besides the five you
mentioned?

(18) Can/May: Can implies ability or power. May implies

permission or possibility.

I can type 85 words per minute. (Ability.)

You may type the document now. (Permission.)

He may go to Canada tomorrow. (Possibility.)

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

122

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(19) Capital/Capitol: Capital used as a noun means a

city serving as the official seat of government; a
principal sum of money; a large letter of a kind
used to begin a sentence. Capital used as an
adjective means chief; first-rate; punishable by
death. Capitol refers to the building in which the
United States Congress meets in Washington and
a building in which a state legislature meets.

What is the capital of Alaska?

We are visiting the capitol in Harrisburg on our field trip.

(20) Choose/Chose: Choose means to select. Chose is

the past tense of choose.

Whom will you choose for the position?

I chose Harry Kerr as my new assistant.

(21) Cite/Site: Cite is a verb meaning to quote; to

summon. Site means a location.

How many people can you cite on the issue?

Where is the site of the new building?

(22) Complement/Compliment: Complement is a verb

meaning to complete. Compliment as a verb
means to praise; as a noun it means something
said in praise.

That sweater will complement the blue of your eyes.

It is pleasant to receive a compliment on ones work.

(23) Conscience/Conscious: Conscience is a knowledge

or sense of right and wrong. Conscious is a mental
state of awareness.

The childs conscience guided him to make the right decision.

How soon will I be conscious after the surgery?

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 123

APPENDIX A
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(24) Continual/Continuous: Continual means happening

steadily but with occasional interruptions.
Continuous means happening without stopping.

The continual ringing of the door bell is distracting.

The continuous sound of the water fall is pleasing.

(25) Council/Counsel: A council is a group of people.

Counsel means to give advice.

We will present that question to the members of the city council.

The instructor counseled the student about her course

selections.

(26) Desert/Dessert: Desert as a noun means barren

land. As a verb it means to abandon. Dessert
means the last course of a meal.

Coyotes roamed the desert.

She served Black Forest Cake for dessert.

(27) Disburse/Disperse: Disburse means to pay out.

Disperse means to scatter.

Please disburse the money equally among the three people.

The police dispersed the crowd.

(28) Doesnt/Dont: Doesnt means does not. When

the subject is third person singular or the pronoun
he, she, it, theirs, this, or that, use the contraction
doesnt. Dont means do not. When the subject is
third person plural or the pronoun I, you, we, they,
these, or those, use the contraction dont.

Fred doesnt Boys dont

(Third person singular.) (Third person plural.)

He doesnt I dont

This doesnt These dont

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

124

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(29) Elicit/Illicit: Elicit means to draw out. Illicit

means unlawful.

The interviewer elicited responses to the questionnaire.

Marie and Ed were involved in an illicit business.

(30) Eminent/Imminent: Eminent means prominent.

Imminent means threatening; likely to occur.

See if you can schedule an eminent speaker for the conference.

The possibility of change is imminent.

(31) Every day/Everyday: Every day means each day.

Everyday means ordinary; daily.

To be a proficient typist, you need to practice every day.

(Adverb.)

The receptionists everyday routine includes opening and sorting

the mail. (Adjective.)

(32) Every one/Everyone: Use every one when it is

followed by an of phrase or when it means one
of many people or things. Use everyone to mean
everybody.

Our plan can work if every one of you takes responsibility for
(Adjective and Person.)
your part.

Everyone in the office was invited to the party.

(Indefinite Pronoun)

(33) Explicit/Implicit: Explicit means clearly

expressed. Implicit means suggested, implied.

The software package came with explicit directions on how it

should be used.

The lawyers statement was an implicit accusation.

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 125

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(34) Farther/Further: Farther means at a greater

distance and refers to actual distance. Further
means to a greater extent or degree; in addition.

Driving to Texas is farther than I realized.

You will receive further details about the trip we are taking.

(35) Fewer/Less: Fewer refers to something that can be

counted. Less refers to degree or amount.

There were fewer people at the concert than I expected.

There is less air pollution now since stricter controls are in effect.

(36) Formally/Formerly: Formally means in a formal

manner. Formerly means in the past.

You will be formally inducted into the National Honor Society.

He was formerly associated with this firm.

(37) Good/Well: Good functions as an adjective. Well

may function as either an adjective or an adverb.
As an adjective the word well refers to health.

The attorney provided good advice. (Adjective.)

I do not feel well today. (Adjective.)

She plays soccer quite well. (Adverb.)

(38) Incite/Insight: Incite means to arouse. Insight

means an understanding.

The speaker incited interest in his subject.

With the help of a therapist, the woman gained insight into her
behavior.

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

126

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(39) Interstate/Intrastate: Interstate means between

states. Intrastate means within a state.

That trucking company is involved with interstate travel.

We are interested only in intrastate marketing.

(40) Its/Its: Its functions as an adjective. Its is a

subject-verb contraction that means it is.

The student council will conduct its meeting in this room.

(Adjective.)

Its possible to improve ones vocabulary. (Contraction.)

(41) Lay/Lie: Lay is an irregular verb (to lay, lay(s), lay-

ing, laid, laid) meaning to place and is usually
transitive. Lie is an irregular verb (to lie, lie(s),
lying, lay, lain) meaning to recline; to assume a
reclining position and is intransitive.

Please lay the book on the table. (To lay.)

I lie down for a nap every afternoon. (To lie.)

(42) May be/Maybe: May be is a verb phrase. Maybe is

an adverb meaning perhaps.

She may be the most exciting person I know.

Maybe the meeting will be delayed.

(43) Passed/Past: Passed is the past tense of the verb

to pass. Past refers to something that has ended;
or as a preposition, it means beyond.

He passed the ball to the other children.

In the past we submitted reports on Mondays. (Ended.)

We walked past the library on our way to school. (Beyond/Prep.)

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 127

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(44) Personal/Personnel: Personal means private.

Personnel means the employees.

That is a personal matter.

The personnel enjoyed the company picnic.

(45) Perspective/Prospective: Perspective means an

outlook. Prospective means anticipated.

His perspective on the new venture was favorable.

He is talking to several prospective customers.

(46) Precede/Proceed: Precede means to go before.

Proceed means to go foreword.

His speech will precede mine.

You may proceed with the interview.

(47) Principal/Principle: Principal as an adjective means

chief; main. As a noun it means the chief official
of a school; a capital sum of money that draws
interest. Principle means a fundamental truth;
a rule.

The principal has to maintain a certain level of authority.

(Noun.)

A principal cause of heart disease is smoking. (Adjective.)

It is difficult for some people to believe in the principle of

innocent until proven guilty.

(48) Raise/Rise: Raise is a regular verb (to raise,

raise(s), raising, raised, raised) meaning to lift
something and is usually transitive. Rise is an
irregular verb (to rise, rise(s), rising, rose, risen)
meaning to move upwards; to ascend and is
usually intransitive.

Please raise your hands if you have any questions. (To lift up.)

The moon rises about nine oclock. (To move up.)

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

128

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(49) Real/Really: Real functions as an adjective, and

really functions as an adverb.

We asked for real cream for our coffee. (Adjective.)

Corey was really tense before the talent show. (Adverb.)

(50) Receipt/Recipe: A receipt is a written

acknowledgement of a thing received. Recipe
is a set of instructions for mixing something.

The cashier stapled the receipt to the bag for the customers
convenience.

Claire closely followed her aunts recipe for tomato sauce.

(51) Set/Sit: Set is an irregular verb (to set, set(s), set-

ting, set, set) meaning to place something and is
usually transitive. Sit is an irregular verb (to sit,
sit(s), sitting, sat, sat) meaning to be in an upright
position of rest and is usually intransitive.

I set the picture frame on the mantle near the candles.

Mrs. Smith often sits on the front porch.

(52) Shall/Will: Shall is used in formal writing and

speech. Will is used in informal writing and speech.

We shall meet on Tuesday of next week to review the contract.

Will you call me tonight?

(53) Should/Would: Should is used in formal writing

and speech. Would is used in informal writing
and speech.

I should like to schedule the interview at a later date.

Would you please make me some tea?

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 129

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(54) Some/Somewhat: Some may function as an

adjective or an indefinite pronoun. Somewhat
functions as an adverb.

Some changes in personnel will be necessary. (Adjective.)

I would like some. (Indefinite pronoun.)

She was somewhat distraught at the idea. (Adverb.)

(55) Some time/Sometime: Some time means a period

of time. Sometime means an undefined time.

It took some time for her to complete the manuscript.

You should receive your catalog sometime this month.

(56) Stationary/Stationery: Stationary means

standing still; fixed. Stationery means
writing materials.

Is the counter stationary or moveable?

Jessica orders stationery for her company every six months.

(57) Sure/Surely: Sure functions as an adjective, and

surely functions as an adverb.

Mother was sure her keys were not in her purse.

We will surely need to increase our office staff.

(58) Than/Then: Than is a conjunction used for

comparison. Then is an adverb used to describe
a time.

Ms. Fuhrmar was more fluent in Spanish than she was in French.

We are leaving for our trip at 6 a.m.; be ready then.

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

130

APPENDIX
FORMING PLURALS...CONTINUED

(59) Their/There/Theyre: Their functions as an

adjective. There means in that place and functions
as an adverb. Theyre is a subject-verb contraction
that means they are.

Their job was data entry. (Adjective.)

I told Reza to meet me there at 7 a.m. (Adverb.)

Theyre receiving music awards this year. (Contraction.)

(60) Them/Those: The word them always functions as a

pronoun. The word those may function as either an
adjective or a pronoun.

He gave them his books. (Pronoun.)

I like them. (Pronoun.)

Those books are mine. (Adjective.)

Those are mine. (Pronoun.)

(61) To/Too/Two: To is a preposition meaning

toward. Too is an adverb meaning more than
enough; also. Two is a number.

Turn to the right after you reach the gas station. (Preposition)

Is Rebecca going too? (Also)

Two students were chosen to attend the conference. (A number)

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 131

APPENDIX
FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS

(62) Who/Whom: Who is a pronoun that functions as

a subject or a predicate nominative. Whom is a
pronoun that functions as an object.

Did Anne tell you who was making the cake? (Subject.)

Who is driving? (Subject.)

We asked who the captain was. (Predicate nominative.)

Whom have you hired to replace Mr. Jones? (Direct object.)

To whom were you writing? (Object of preposition.)

(63) Whose/Whos: Whose functions as an adjective.

Whos is a subject-verb contraction that means
who is.

Whose car is in my parking space? (Adjective.)

Whos going with me? (Contraction.)

(64) Your/Youre: The word your functions as an

adjective. Youre is a subject-verb contraction
that means you are.

How fast can your car go? (Adjective.)

Youre in charge of handling the concert. (Contraction.)

Appendix Frequently Misused Words

 EGUMPP CODES
WORD-FUNCTION CODES CLAUSE-IDENTIFICATION CODES

CODE TRANSLATION CODE TRANSLATION

NS Noun Subject IDC Independent Clause

PNS Pronoun Subject AVC Adverb Clause
PNU Pronoun Subject Understood AJC Adjective Clause
GS Gerund Subject NCS Noun Clause Subject
IS Infinitive Subject NCSC Noun Clause Subject Complement
RPS Relative Pronoun Subject NCDO Noun Clause Direct Object
MV Main Verb NCIO Noun Clause Indirect Object
HV Helping Verb NCOP Noun Clause Object of Preposition
MVT Main Verb Transitive IDC2 Independent Clause (second)
MVI Main Verb Intransitive
MVL Main Verb Linking SENTENCE-IDENTIFICATION CODES
DO Direct Object
GDO Gerund Direct Object S Simple Sentence
IDO Infinitive Direct Object CD Compound Sentence
RPDO Relative Pronoun Direct Object CX Complex Sentence
AJ Adjective CDCX Compound-complex Sentence
PAR Participle
IAJ Infinitive Adjective
RPAJ Relative Pronoun Adjective
AV Adverb
IAV Infinitive Adverb
PR Preposition
OP Object of Preposition
GOP Gerund Object of Preposition
SC Subject Complement
GSC Gerund Subject Complement
ISC Infinitive Subject Complement
RPSC Relative Pronoun Subject Complement
IO Indirect Object
GIO Gerund Indirect Object
AP Appositive
GAP Gerund Appositive
VC Verbal Complement
SUBC Subordinating Conjunction
CC Coordinating Conjunction
CORC Correlative Conjunction
 Writing Mechanics

module IV
The EGUMPP Learning System
Your solution for understanding English grammar
and improving your writing skills.

Writing Mechanics
I
Grammar

II III IV
Usage Punctuation and Writing
Capitalization Mechanics

EGUMPP Certification

Safran Publishing Company

1605 Clugston Road
York, PA 17404
IV
Electronic Grammar Usage
www.egumpp.com Bob Safran Mechanics Proficiency Program

egumpp-mod-IV-i12.indd 1 9/28/10 8:13:54 AM