Usage

module II
The EGUMPP Learning System
Your solution for understanding English grammar
and improving your writing skills.

Usage
I
Grammar

II III IV
Usage Punctuation and Writing
Capitalization Mechanics

EGUMPP Certification

Safran Publishing Company

1605 Clugston Road

II
York, PA 17404

Electronic Grammar Usage

www.egumpp.com Bob Safran Mechanics Proficiency Program
Module II
usage
ii

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 3

INTRODUCTION

ABOUT EGUMPP
EGUMPP (Electronic Grammar Usage Mechanics Proficiency Program) is an
interactive learning system that includes four modules. Each module is
designed for you to complete at your own pace.

For Module I - GRAMMAR the learning objectives are to develop an

understanding of 70 grammar terms and to become proficient in identifying
the function of all words, phrases, and clauses in sentences reviewed.
Module I includes 20 lessons and a mastery test.

For Module II - USAGE the learning objectives are to become proficient

in identifying sentences with usage errors and to become proficient in
applying the rules of usage to sentences. The rules pertain to personal
pronoun usage, subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement,
who-whom usage, apostrophe usage, verb usage, and number usage.
Module II includes 7 lessons and a mastery test.

For Module III - PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION the learning

objectives are to become proficient in punctuating the various types of
elements in sentences that require punctuation, capitalizing words in
sentences that require capitalization, and recognizing punctuation and
capitalization errors in sentences. Module III includes 7 lessons and a
mastery test.

For Module IV - WRITING MECHANICS the learning objectives are

to become proficient in identifying run-on sentences and sentence
fragments and to become proficient in identifying sentences with
misplaced modifiers, unparallel structure, word mistakes, ineffective and
inappropriate words, unnecessary words, wordy elements, and unclear
elements. Module IV includes 8 lessons and a mastery test.

EGUMPP Certification is awarded to individuals who qualify. Final grades

in all four modules determine the level of EGUMPP certification. Basic
Certification is awarded for a 75-80 percent final grade in all four modules,
Advanced Certification is awarded for an 81-90 percent final grade in all
four modules, and Mastery Certification is awarded for a 91-100 percent
final grade in all four modules. An individual's level of certification is
displayed in the EGUMPP student portal.

Introduction
 5

COURSEWARE INTRODUCTION

ABOUT MODULE II COURSEWARE

Module II Usage provides a unique, interactive approach to understanding
and correcting the most common usage errors in the English language.

This module consists of seven lessons and a Mastery Test. Each lesson
includes one practice exercise and two graded exercises. All three
exercises must be completed before you can begin the next lesson.

You may return to any previous lesson as often as you wish. You will
want to return to a lesson for review purposes and/or to improve a
lesson grade. The two graded exercises in each lesson are called the
PTM A Applying Rules and the PTM B Finding Errors. A PTM test may
be attempted as many times as necessary until you achieve your desired
lesson grade. After you complete all seven lessons, you may attempt the
Mastery Test; however, once you start the Mastery Test, you can no
longer improve lesson grades.

The time required to complete Module II ranges from 7 to 15 hours. The

amount of time depends on your current knowledge of English grammar
and your ability to grasp new concepts.

Introduction
 7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE II LESSON CONTENTS

LESSON 1: personal pronoun usage........................... 9-18

LESSON 2: subject-verb agreement........................... 19-34

LESSON 3: pronoun-antecedent agreement.............. 35-48

LESSON 4: who-whom usage...................................... 49-56

LESSON 5: apostrophe usage.................................... 57-68

LESSON 6: verb usage................................................ 69-80

LESSON 7: number usage............................................81-90

review: module II terms to Learn..............................91-92

appendixes

appendix A: Forming plurals....................................93-98

appendix B: Verbs (Additional Information)........99-104

Introduction
 LESSON 1
PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE
10

LESSON 1: PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying personal
pronoun usage rules to sentences and finding personal
pronoun usage errors in sentences.
Overview:
Personal pronouns are pronouns that refer to one or more
persons or things and are distinguished by case and number.
The three case forms of personal pronouns are nominative case,
objective case, and possessive case. Number refers to singular or
plural. To avoid using personal pronouns incorrectly, you must
learn the case form of each personal pronoun.

THE NOMINATIVE CASE

Personal pronouns that function as subjects and predicate
nominatives are the words I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.
These words are classified as personal pronouns in the nominative
case. (See Note regarding the personal pronouns it and you.)
Examples:

(subjects)
Correct: (I, You, He, She, It, We, or They) will go.
Incorrect: (Me, Him, Her, Us, or Them) will go.

(predicate nominatives)
Correct: It was (I, you, he, she, it, we, or they).
Incorrect: It was (me, him, her, us, or them).

THE OBJECTIVE CASE

Personal pronouns that function as direct objects, indirect objects,
and objects of prepositions are the words me, you, us, him, her, it,
and them. These words are classified as personal pronouns in the
objective case. (See Note regarding the personal pronouns it and you.)
Examples:

(direct objects)
Correct: Sally likes (me, you, him, her, it, us, or them).
Incorrect: Sally likes (I, he, she, we, or they).

(indirect objects)
Correct: Jose asked (me, you, him, her, it, us, or them) a question.
Incorrect: Jose asked (I, he, she, we, or they) a question.

(objects of prepositions)
Correct: Otto gave it to (me, you, him, her, it, us, or them).
Incorrect: Otto gave it to (I, he, she, we, or they).

Lesson 1 Personal Pronoun Usage

 11

LESSON 1: PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE

INTRODUCTION...CONTINUED
Note: The words it and you are personal pronouns that may
function in both the nominative case and the objective case.

Examples:

(You or It) should win the prize. (Subject)

I like (you or it). (Direct object)
This is for (you or it). (Object of preposition)

THE POSSESSIVE CASE

Personal pronouns that attribute ownership to someone or something
and function as adjectives are the words my, your, his, her, its,
our, and their. These words are classified as personal pronouns in
the possessive case and are called possessive pronouns.

Examples:

Your friend is my friend. (Your and my are adjectives.)

Their friends are also our friends. (Their and our are adjectives.)

NUMBER
Personal pronouns may take the place of one or more nouns. This
means there are both singular (one person, place, or thing) and
plural (more than one person, place, or thing) personal pronouns.
The personal pronoun summary below classifies personal pronouns
by case and number.
Nominative Case Objective Case Possessive Case
Subject and Direct object, indirect Adjective
predicate nominative object, and
object of a preposition
Singular I, you, he, she, it me, you, him, her, it my, your, his, her, its
Plural we, you, they us, you, them our, your, their

Terms to Learn: nominative case pronoun, objective case

pronoun, possessive case pronoun, number, elliptical clause

Lesson 1 Personal Pronoun Usage

12

lesson 1: terms to learn

1. Nominative case pronoun: A pronoun that functions as a

subject or a predicate nominative in a sentence.
2. Objective case pronoun: A pronoun that functions as a direct
object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition.
3. Possessive case pronoun: A pronoun that attributes ownership
to someone or something and functions as an adjective in a
sentence.
4. Number: The usage term for the form of a noun (man, men),
a pronoun (I, we), a demonstrative adjective (this, these), or
a verb (sings, sing) that indicates whether the word is singular
or plural.
5. Elliptical clause: A condensed clause with key words such as
the subject and the verb omitted but implied.

Lesson 1 Terms to Learn

 8
RULES TO FOLLOW
14

LESSON 1: PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE

rule U1-1
A personal pronoun that functions as the subject of a
verb must be in the nominative case. The personal
pronouns in the nominative case are the words I, you,
he, she, it, we, and they.

Example:

(subjects)
(I, You, He, She, It, We, or They) will go.

Point to Remember!
When only a personal pronoun follows the word as or than, the
result is an elliptical clause or an incomplete construction. (An
elliptical clause is a clause with a key word, or words, missing.
The missing word may be the verb.) Listed below is an example
of an elliptical clause with the verb missing.

Example:

Lynly types faster than I [type]. (NOT: me type)

(Elliptical clause with a personal pronoun in the
nominative case required.)

rule U1-2

A personal pronoun that functions as a predicate

nominative must be in the nominative case. The
personal pronouns in the nominative case are the
words I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.

Example:

(predicate nominatives)
It was (I, you, he, she, it, we, or they).

Lesson 1 Personal Pronoun Usage

 15

LESSON 1: PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE

rule U1-3
A personal pronoun that functions as a direct object of
a verb must be in the objective case. The personal
pronouns in the objective case are the words me, you,
him, her, it, us, and them.

Example:

(direct objects)
Sally likes (me, you, him, her, it, us, or them).

Point to Remember!
When only a personal pronoun follows the word as or than, the
result is an elliptical clause or an incomplete construction. (An
elliptical clause is a clause with a key word, or words, missing.
The missing words may be the subject and the verb.) Listed
below is an example of an elliptical clause with the subject and
the verb missing.

Example:

You like her better than [you like] me. (NOT: I)

(Elliptical clause with a personal pronoun in the
objective case required.)

rule U1-4
A personal pronoun that functions as an indirect object
of a verb must be in the objective case. The personal
pronouns in the objective case are the words me, you,
him, her, it, us, and them.

Example:

(indirect objects)
Jose asked (me, you, him, her, it, us, or them) a question.

Lesson 1 Personal Pronoun Usage

16

LESSON 1: PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE

rule U1-5
A personal pronoun that functions as an object of a
preposition must be in the objective case. The personal
pronouns in the objective case are the words me, you,
him, her, it, us, and them.

Example:

(objects of prepositions)
Otto gave directions to (me, you, him, her, it, us, or them).

Point to Remember!
When only a personal pronoun follows the word as or than, the
result is an elliptical clause or an incomplete construction. (An
elliptical clause is a clause with a key word, or words, missing.
The missing words may be the subject, the verb, and a preposition.)
Listed below is an example of an elliptical clause with the subject,
the verb, and a preposition missing.

Example:

She thinks more of him than [she thinks of] me. (NOT: I)
(Elliptical clause with a personal pronoun in the
objective case required.)

rule U1-6
A personal pronoun that functions as a verbal complement
of a participle, a gerund, or an infinitive derived from an
action verb must be in the objective case. The personal
pronouns in the objective case are the words me, you,
him, her, it, us, and them.

Examples:

The person hugging (me, you, him, her, it, us or them) is

Uncle Pete. (Participial phrase)

Kara enjoys telling (me, you, him, her, it, us or them)

bedtime stories. (Gerund phrase)

They tried to convince (me, you, him, her, it, us or them).

(Infinitive phrase)

Lesson 1 Personal Pronoun Usage

 17

LESSON 1: PERSONAL PRONOUN USAGE

rule U1-7
A personal pronoun that functions as an adjective must
be in the possessive case. The personal pronouns in the
possessive case are the words my, your, his, her, its, our,
and their.

Example:

(adjectives)
Megan was (my, your, his, her, its, our, or their) friend.

rule U1-8

A personal pronoun that immediately precedes a gerund

must be in the possessive case. The personal pronouns
in the possessive case are the words my, your, his, her,
its, our, and their.

Examples:

I would appreciate your sending the check immediately.

(NOT: you sending)

No one should be upset about my leaving early.

(NOT: me leaving)

Did you know about his winning a scholarship?

(NOT: him winning)

Lesson 1 Personal Pronoun Usage

 LESSON 2
subject-verb agreement
20

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying
subject-verb agreement usage rules to sentences and
finding subject-verb agreement usage errors in sentences.

Overview:
A subject must agree with its verb in number. (Number refers
to singular and plural.) A subject may be any of the following: a
singular or plural noun, a singular or plural personal pronoun, two
or more singular or plural nouns or pronouns connected by a
coordinating conjunction or a correlative conjunction, a singular
or plural indefinite pronoun, a collective noun, or a gerund phrase.
Words such as boy, child, family, I, he, and someone are
examples of words that may function as singular subjects; words
such as boys, children, families, we, they, and several are
examples of words that may function as plural subjects.

Verbs also have number. Every word that functions as a verb has
both a singular form and a plural form. A singular noun or pronoun
subject requires a singular verb, and a plural noun or pronoun
subject requires a plural verb. The singular verb form of most
action verbs is created by adding s, adding es, or changing a y
to i and adding es to the word. For the verb be, the singular verb
forms are the words am and is. The plural verb forms are the
words are and were.

Examples:

PNS MVI
He walks to school every day.
(Singular subject with a singular verb)

PNS MVI
They walk to school every day.
(Plural subject with a plural verb)

NS MVI
The book is on the table.
(Singular subject with a singular verb)

NS MVI
The books are on the table.
(Plural subject with a plural verb)

Term to Learn: subject-verb agreement

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 21

lesson 2: terms to learn

1. Subject-verb agreement: The usage rule that states that

singular subjects require singular verbs and plural subjects
require plural verbs.

Lesson 2 Terms to Learn

 23
RULES TO FOLLOW
24

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-1

Singular noun subjects require singular verbs.

Examples:

Your answer is wrong. (NOT: are)

Mr. Carter lives on this street. (NOT: live)

Three Points to Remember!

Point 1:
The singular verb form for many verbs is created by changing the
root word as illustrated below:

A. Add s to most verbs.

Examples:

A clock ticks (NOT: tick)

Mary swims (NOT: swim)

An author writes (NOT: write)

B. Add es to verbs ending in ch, o, s, sh, x, or z.

Examples:

The boy catches (NOT: catch)

The child goes (NOT: go)

The quarterback passes (NOT: pass)

C. Change the y to i and add es to verbs ending in y preceded by

a consonant.

Examples:

The worker applies (NOT: apply)

The child tries (NOT: try)

The airplane flies (NOT: fly)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 25

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-1 ...continued
Point 2:
Do not be misled by sentences that have a subject and a verb
separated by an interrupting phrase or clause that ends with a
plural noun.

Examples:

The student with the books is my friend. (NOT: are)

The vacant house that was ransacked by vandals was in

shambles. (NOT: were)

Point 3:
When you are uncertain whether a noun subject is singular or
plural, consult a dictionary. Refer to Appendix A for a list of
rules pertaining to changing words from singular to plural.

rule U2-2

Plural noun subjects require plural verbs.

Examples:

Your answers are wrong. (NOT: is)

The Carters live on this street. (NOT: lives)

rule U2-3

Two or more noun subjects joined by the coordinating

conjunction and require a plural verb unless they refer to
the same person or thing.

Examples:

A note and a coin were in the bottle. (NOT: was)

Julia and her twin sister naturally resemble each other.

(NOT: resembles)

The walls and the ceiling were beautifully decorated.

(NOT: was)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

26

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-4
Two or more noun subjects joined by the coordinating
conjunction and require a singular verb when they refer
to the same person or thing.

Examples:

Our president and chief executive officer is Fred Jones.

(NOT: are)

Macaroni and cheese was served for lunch. (NOT: were)

rule U2-5

Two singular noun subjects joined by the coordinating

conjunction or or nor or two singular noun subjects
joined by the correlative conjunctions either/or or
neither/nor require a singular verb.

Examples:

Abe or Irene is bringing dessert. (NOT: are)

Either my brother or my sister is likely to be at home.

(NOT: are)

Neither the CEO of the company nor the vice president has a
four-year degree. (NOT: have)

rule U2-6

When a singular noun subject and a plural noun subject

are joined by the correlative conjunctions either/or or
neither/nor, the verb must agree with the second
subject.

Example:

Either the judge or the lawyers are wrong. (NOT: is)

Point to Remember!
The writer should always place the plural subject second: this
construction sounds better.

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 27

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-7
Singular personal pronoun subjects (he, she, or it)
require singular verbs.

Examples:

He is the captain. (NOT: are)

She lives at home. (NOT: live)

Point to Remember!
Personal pronouns are classified by person. Person consists of first
person (the person speakingI or we), second person (the person
spoken toyou), and third person (the person, place, or thing
spoken abouthe, she, it or they). The third person singular
personal pronounhe, she, or itrequires the same change to
its verb as a singular noun subject as illustrated below:

A. Add s to most action verbs when the subject is a third

person singular pronoun.

Examples:

he types BUT: I type, you type, we type, and they type

she swims I swim, you swim, we swim, and they swim
it takes I take, you take, we take, and they take

B. Add es to verbs ending in ch, o, s, sh, x, or z when the

subject is a third person singular pronoun.

Examples:

he catches BUT: I catch, you catch, we catch, and they catch

she does I do, you do, we do, and they do
it passes I pass, you pass, we pass, and they pass

C. Change the y to i and add es to verbs ending in y preceded

by a consonant when the subject is a third person singular
pronoun.

Examples:

he applies BUT: I apply, you apply, we apply, and they apply

she tries I try, you try, we try, and they try
it flies I fly, you fly, we fly, and they fly

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

28

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-8
Plural personal pronoun subjects (we or they) require
plural verbs.

Examples:

We were correct. (NOT: was)

They are satisfied. (NOT: is)

rule U2-9

When the personal pronoun you functions as a subject, it

always requires a plural verb.

Examples:

You are correct. (NOT: is)

rule U2-10

When the indefinite pronoun each, either, neither, one,

anyone, someone, everyone, anybody, somebody, or
everybody functions as a subject, it is singular and
requires a singular verb.

Examples:

Each of the boys has his own motorcycle. (NOT: have)

Neither of the workers wants more money. (NOT: want)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 29

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-11
When the indefinite pronoun several, few, both, or
many functions as a subject, it is plural and requires
a plural verb.

Examples:

Several of the regular members were absent. (NOT: was)

Few of the members of my family really understand me.

(NOT: understands)

Both of your excuses sound plausible. (NOT: sounds)

Many were surprised at the final score. (NOT: was)

rule U2-12

When the indefinite pronoun some, any, none, all, or

most functions as a subject and is followed by a
prepositional phrase that has an object of preposition
that is singular, it is a singular subject and requires a
singular verb.

Examples:

Some of the money was missing.

(Indicates a single unit and requires a singular verb)

Most of the book was interesting.

(Indicates a single unit and requires a singular verb)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

30

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-13
When the indefinite pronoun some, any, none, all, or most
functions as a subject and is followed by a prepositional
phrase that has an object of preposition that is plural, it
is a plural subject and requires a plural verb.

Examples:

Some of the quarters were missing. (Indicates plural)

(NOT: was)

Most of the books were interesting. (Indicates plural)

(NOT: was)

rule u2-14

When the word each or the word every precedes two or

more subjects joined by and, use a singular verb.

Examples:

Each knife, fork, and spoon is to be inspected for spots.

(NOT: are)

Every man, woman, and child was asked to contribute.

(NOT: were)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 31

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-15
A collective noun subject requires a singular verb when
the speaker is thinking of the group as a unit.

Examples:

This team is ranked first in the nation. (NOT: are)

The crowd was noisy. (NOT: were)

Point to Remember!
Using a plural verb with a collective noun is usually awkward.
When a writer or speaker wishes to express that the members of a
group are thought of as acting separately, it is recommended to
include the words members of the (company, team, group, etc.)
and then the plural verb. This arrangement makes the word
members the subject and requires applying Rule U2-2.

Examples:

Awkward: The jury were split on their decision.

Better: The members of the jury were split on their decision.

rule U2-16

Noun subjects that express a stated amount (such as

amounts of time, money, measurement, weight, volume,
or fractions) are singular when the amount is considered
as a unit.

Examples of expressions considered as a single unit:

Three years in a strange land seems like a long time.

(NOT: seem)

Ten dollars is not enough. (NOT: are)

Three-fourths of the money has been recovered.

(NOT: have)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

32

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-17

The title of a work of art, literature, or music even when

plural in form requires a singular verb.

Example:

Consumer Reports has an article on scooters in this months

issue. (NOT: have)

rule U2-18

Although plural in form, most noun subjects that end in

ics such as civics, economics, or politics and some noun
subjects that end with s such as mumps, measles, or
news usually require a singular verb.

Examples:

World economics bears directly upon world peace.

(NOT: bear)

Measles is a disease to take seriously. (NOT: are)

rule U2-19

The word number used as a subject requires a singular

verb when it is preceded by the article the and when the
word represents a figure.

Examples:

The number of errors was surprising. (NOT: were)

A number was written on the board. (NOT: were)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 33

LESSON 2: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

rule U2-20
The word number used as a subject requires a plural
verb when it is preceded by the article a and followed by
a prepositional phrase.

Example:

A number of errors were made by both teams. (NOT: was)

rule U2-21
Gerund subjects require singular verbs.

Example:

Running two miles in 12 minutes is my goal. (NOT: are)

rule U2-22
Relative pronoun subjects that refer to a singular noun
or pronoun require a singular verb.

Example:

Your father is someone who believes in me. (NOT: believe)

rule U2-23

Relative pronoun subjects that refer to a plural noun

require a plural verb.

Example:

Your parents are people who believe in me. (NOT: believes)

Lesson 2 Subject-Verb Agreement

 LESSON 3
PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT
AGREEMENT
36

LESSON 3: pronoun-antecedent agreement

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying
pronoun-antecedent agreement usage rules to sentences
and finding pronoun-antecedent agreement usage errors
in sentences.

Overview:
Pronouns are used extensively in writing and speaking to avoid
the awkwardness of continually repeating nouns. As a result, a
personal or possessive pronoun appearing in a sentence often
refers to a noun or a pronoun mentioned earlier in the sentence.
This first noun or pronoun is called the antecedent and is usually
the subject of the verb in the sentence.

An antecedent may be any of the following: a singular masculine,

feminine, or neuter noun or pronoun; a plural noun or pronoun; a
singular noun of a common gender; two or more singular or plural
nouns joined by a correlative or a coordinating conjunction; an
indefinite pronoun; or a collective noun.

A personal pronoun or a possessive pronoun that refers to an

antecedent must agree with its antecedent in number and in
gender. Number refers to singular and plural, and gender refers
to sexmasculine, feminine, or neuter. The masculine gender
personal and possessive pronouns are he, him, and his; the
feminine gender personal and possessive pronouns are she, her,
and hers; and the neuter gender personal and possessive
pronouns are it and its.

Terms to Learn: pronoun-antecedent agreement, antecedent,

gender

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 37

lesson 3: terms to learn

1. Pronoun-antecedent agreement: The usage rule stating that

personal or possessive pronouns that refer to another word in a
sentence must be of the same number and gender.
2. Antecedent: A word (usually the subject) to which a personal or
possessive pronoun specifically refers in the sentence.
3. Gender: The classification of nouns and pronouns as masculine
(man, he, him), feminine (woman, she, her), or neuter (city, it,
them).

Lesson 3 terms to learn

Lesson 3 Terms to Learn

 15
RULES TO FOLLOW
40

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-1
A singular masculine noun or pronoun antecedent is
referred to by a singular masculine personal or
possessive pronoun.

Examples:

Bill is concerned that he will lose the election.

Rob broke his watch while playing tennis.

He spent most of his time at the library.

Rule U3-2

A singular feminine noun or pronoun antecedent is

referred to by a singular feminine personal or possessive
pronoun.

Examples:

Sue believes that she is right.

Holly had her gifts wrapped in the department store.

She received her clerical training at a business school.

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 41

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-3
A singular neuter noun or pronoun antecedent is referred
to by a singular neuter personal or possessive pronoun.

Examples:

The copier stopped working after it copied the third page.

The copier stopped working after its rollers jammed.

Point to Remember!
An animal is referred to by a singular neuter personal or
possessive pronoun.

Examples:

The dog began to bark when it heard the siren.

The dog gave the bone to its master.

rule U3-4

A plural noun or pronoun antecedent is referred to by a

plural personal or possessive pronoun.

Examples:

The Smiths were not told that they had won.

The Smiths played their match yesterday.

They played their match yesterday.

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

42

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-5
A singular noun antecedent of a common gender such as
doctor, teacher, lawyer, student, or supervisor requires
both the pronouns he and she for the nominative case,
him and her for the objective case, and his and her for
the possessive case when uncertain of gender.

Examples:

Whenever the new supervisor is appointed, make certain that

he or she is alerted to the problem.

Whenever the new supervisor is appointed, give him or her

this report.

A new student will be permitted to take his or her exemption

test on Friday.

rule U3-6

Two or more singular subject antecedents joined by the

correlative conjunctions either/or or neither/nor are
referred to by a singular personal or possessive pronoun
of the correct gender.

Examples:

Either Frank or Todd will have to submit his resignation.

(NOT: their)

Neither Lynn nor Bess had her keys with her.

(NOT: their)

Neither Lynn nor Bess thought that she would win the race.
(NOT: they)

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 43

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-7
Two or more plural subject antecedents joined by the
correlative conjunctions either/or or neither/nor are
referred to by a plural personal or possessive pronoun.

Examples:

Either the Smiths or the Johnsons said that they will speak
today.

Either the Smiths or the Johnsons will present their

speeches today.

rule U3-8

Two or more singular or plural subject antecedents

joined by the coordinating conjunction and or joined by
the correlative conjunctions both/and are referred to by
a plural personal or possessive pronoun.

Examples:

Nancy and Richard said that they will provide the

refreshments.

The Kozaks and the Andersons rode their motorcycles in the

parade.

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

44

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-9
Singular and plural subject antecedents joined by the
correlative conjunctions either/or or neither/nor are
referred to by the subject nearest the verb.

Example:

Neither the supervisor nor the workers were satisfied with

their performance. (Preferred)

Point to Remember!
Always write or state the plural subject second, and use a plural
personal or possessive pronoun.

Example:

Neither the workers nor the supervisor was satisfied with his
or her performance. (NOT preferred)

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 45

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-10
When the indefinite pronoun each, either, neither,
one, everyone, everybody, nobody, anyone, anybody,
someone, or somebody functions as a pronoun
antecedent, it is usually referred to by a singular
personal or possessive pronoun of the correct gender.

Examples:

Each of the women had removed her shoes.

One of the cars in the parking lot had its headlight broken.

If anyone calls, tell him or her not to worry.

Point to Remember!
In some cases the meaning of the antecedents everyone and
everybody is plural.

Example:

Everyone shuddered when they heard the news.

(NOT: he or she.)

rule U3-11

When the indefinite pronoun many, few, several, others,

or both functions as a pronoun antecedent, it is referred
to by a plural personal or possessive pronoun.

Examples:

Both of the winners said that they were pleased with the prizes.

Several felt that it was within their responsibility to speak out.

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

46

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-12
When the indefinite pronoun all, none, any, some, more,
or most is referring to a single unit and is functioning
as a pronoun antecedent, it is referred to by a plural
possessive pronoun.

Examples:

None of the mall has lost its appeal to merchants. (single unit)

Most of your portfolio is losing its value. (single unit)

rule U3-13

When the indefinite pronoun all, none, any, some, more,

or most is referring to more than one unit and is
functioning as a pronoun antecedent, it is referred to
by a plural possessive pronoun.

Examples:

None of the employees are unhappy with the amount of their

pay increase. (more than one unit)

Most of the students were listening intently to their instructor.

(more than one unit)

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 47

LESSON 3: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT agreement

rule U3-14
A subject that is a collective noun such as committee,
company, corporation, faculty, or group is referred to by
a singular personal or possessive pronoun when the
speaker is referring to the word as a single unit.

Examples:

The committee has decided that it will not vote on the issue.

The United States Army is promoting its new higher education

incentive program in our newspaper.

Point to Remember!
When the speaker or writer is thinking of a collective noun as
individual members within a unit, he or she should use the words
members of the (committee, company, faculty, group, etc.) and
then the plural verb and plural possessive or personal pronoun.
This arrangement makes the word members the subject and
requires applying Rule U3-4.

Example:

Several members of the committee have decided to make

their decision public.

rule U3-15

When the word each or the word every precedes a series

of two or more subject antecedents, these antecedents
are referred to by a singular personal or possessive
pronoun.

Example:

Every parent and child will have his or her medical record
reviewed next week.

Lesson 3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 LESSON 4
who-whom USAGE
50

LESSON 4: Who-whom usage

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying
who-whom usage rules to sentences and finding
who-whom usage errors in sentences.

Overview:
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
The words who and whom are interrogative pronouns when they
ask a question. Who is in the nominative case, and whom is in the
objective case. Use who as a subject or a predicate nominative in
a sentence. Use whom as a direct object, an indirect object, or an
object of a preposition.

Examples:

Who called this morning? (The nominative case is required

because who is the subject of the verb called.)

Whom did George call? (The objective case is required because

whom is the direct object of the verb phrase did call.)

To whom are you referring? (The objective case is required

because whom is the object of the preposition to.)

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The words who and whom (whoever and whomever) are relative
pronouns when they begin a dependent clause. The case of the
relative pronoun is determined by its use in the dependent clause.
(The case is not affected by any word outside the clause.) Use the
nominative case who or whoever if the relative pronoun functions
as the subject or the predicate nominative in the dependent clause.
Use the objective case whom or whomever if the relative pronoun
functions as the direct object of the verb in the dependent clause.

In order to analyze a who-whom problem with a dependent clause,

follow these three steps:

1. Identify the dependent clause.

2. Determine how the relative pronoun functions in the

clausesubject, predicate nominative, or direct object.

3. Select the correct case of the pronoun.

Lesson 4 Who-Whom Usage

 51

LESSON 4: Who-whom usage

INTRODUCTION

Examples:

PROBLEM: The new teacher, (who, whom) has taken Mrs.

Greens position, is from Arizona.
Step 1: The dependent clause is (who, whom) has
taken Mrs. Greens position.
Step 2: In this clause the relative pronoun functions as
the subject of the verb phrase has taken; as a
subject it should be, according to rule, in the
nominative case.
Step 3: The nominative case pronoun is who.
SOLUTION: The new teacher, who has taken Mrs. Greens
position, is from Arizona.

PROBLEM: The new teacher, (who, whom) I met today, is

from Arizona.
Step 1: The dependent clause is (who, whom) I met
today.
Step 2: In this clause the subject is I; the verb is met; and
the relative pronoun is the direct object of the verb
met (I met whom). As a direct object, it should be,
according to rule, in the objective case.
Step 3: The objective case pronoun is whom.
SOLUTION: The new teacher, whom I met today, is from
Arizona.

PROBLEM: Does anyone know (who, whom) the new

teacher is?
Step 1: The dependent clause is (who, whom) the new
teacher is.
Step 2: In this clause, the subject is teacher; the verb is
is; the relative pronoun is a predicate nominative
(the teacher is who). As a predicate nominative,
it should be, according to the rule, in the
nominative case.
Step 3: The nominative case pronoun is who.
SOLUTION: Does anyone know who the new teacher is?
Terms to Learn: no new terms
Lesson 4 Who-Whom Usage
 7
RULES TO FOLLOW
54

LESSON 4: who-whom USAGE

rule U4-1
The pronoun who is in the nominative case and may
function as a subject in an independent clause.

Example:

PNS MVT AJ DO
Who created the disturbance?

Point to Remember!
Interrogative pronouns are used to introduce questions. Both the
words who and whom may function as interrogative pronouns.

rule U4-2
The pronouns who and whoever are in the nominative
case and may function as a relative pronoun subject in a
dependent clause.

Examples:

AJ NS RPS MVT AJ DO HV MVI

The person who created the disturbance has left.

(Who created the disturbance is an adjective clause with the

relative pronoun who functioning as the subject of the clause.)

RPS MVT AJ DO AV HV MVT AJ DO

Whoever answers this question correctly will receive a prize.

(Whoever answers this question correctly is a noun clause

that functions as the subject of the verb phrase will receive.
The relative pronoun whoever is the subject of the verb
answers.)

Point to Remember!
An adjective clause always begins with a relative pronoun, and a
noun clause may begin with a relative pronoun or a subordinating
conjunction.

Lesson 4 Who-Whom Usage

 55

LESSON 4: who-whom USAGE

rule U4-3
The pronoun who is in the nominative case and may
function as a predicate nominative in an independent
clause.

Example:

PNS MVL SC
You are who?
(Who is the predicate nominative following the linking verb are.)

rule U4-4

The pronoun whom is in the objective case and may

function as a direct object of the verb in an independent
clause.

Example:

DO HV PNS MVT
Whom did you select?
(Whom is the direct object of the transitive verb select.) You
did select whom.

Point to Remember!
A verbal complement is in the objective case and requires the
pronoun whom.

Example:

PNS MVT IDO IDO VC

You want to nominate whom?

Lesson 4 Who-Whom Usage

56

LESSON 4: who-whom USAGE

rule U4-5
The pronouns whom and whomever are in the objective
case and may function as a relative pronoun direct object
of the verb in a dependent clause.

Examples:

AJ AJ NS RPDO PNS AV MVT MVI PR OP

The new director whom I just met lives near you.
(Whom I just met is an adjective clause with the relative
pronoun whom functioning as the direct object of the
transitive verb met.)

PNS HV MVT RPDO PNS MVT

You may select whomever you wish.
(Whomever you wish is a noun clause that functions as a
direct object of the verb phrase may select. The relative
pronoun whomever functions within the noun clause as the
direct object of the transitive verb wish.)

rule U4-6

The pronoun whom is in the objective case and may

function as an indirect object of the verb in an
independent clause.

Example:

PNS MVT IO AJ DO
You gave whom a quarter?
(Whom is the indirect object of the transitive verb gave.)

rule U4-7

The pronoun whom is in the objective case and may

function as the object of a preposition.

Example:

PR OP HV PNS MVI
To whom are you referring?
(Whom is the object of the preposition to.)

Lesson 4 Who-Whom Usage

 LESSON 5
apostrophe USAGE
58

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying
apostrophe usage rules to sentences and finding
apostrophe usage errors in sentences.

Overview:
An apostrophe () has four common uses:

 n apostrophe is used to change a word that normally

1. A
functions as a noun or a pronoun to a word that functions
as an adjective and shows possession.

Examples:

Toms automobile was taken to the garage.

Everyones attitude was positive.

The childrens toys arrived early.

The CPA's audit was submitted today.

2. An apostrophe is used to indicate omitted figures within a

number.

Examples:

The Class of 02 presented a new flagpole to the school.

Musical hits of the 50s were featured in the movie.

3. An apostrophe is used to show the plural of letters, figures,

abbreviations, and acronyms.

Examples:

Temperatures yesterday were in the 90s.

There are three ns in the word running.

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

 59

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

INTRODUCTION...CONTINUED
4. An apostrophe is used to form a contraction. A contraction
is a shortened form of two words such as a subject and a
verb or a verb and an adverb in which the apostrophe
indicates the omitted letter(s) of a word.

Examples:

subject-verb contraction verb-adverb contraction

I am Im can not cant

I have Ive could not couldnt

I will Ill did not didnt

It is Its should not shouldnt

We have Weve was not wasnt

They are Theyre will not wont

Who is Whos would not wouldnt

Point to Remember!
Whos, Its, Youre, and Theyre are subject-verb contractions.
Whose, Its, Your, and Their are adjectives.

Examples:

contraction required adjective required

Whos in the house? (Who is) Whose book is it?

Its wrong. (It is) Its features are numerous.

Youre going with us! (You are) Your answer is wrong.

Theyre my friends. (They are) Their friends are in town.

Term to Learn: contraction

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

60

lesson 5: terms to learn

1. Contraction: A shortened form of two words such as a subject

and a verb or a verb and an adverb in which the apostrophe
indicates the omitted letter(s) of a word.

Lesson 5 Terms to Learn

 17
RULES TO FOLLOW
62

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-1
Use an apostrophe plus s to form the possessive of most
singular nouns.

Examples:

Marys favorite recipe

the presidents speech

the bosss schedule

Mr. Joness dog

Point to Remember!
If the addition of an extra syllable makes a word ending with the
letter s awkward to pronounce, add only an apostrophe.

Examples:

Mrs. Rawlings sweater (NOT: Rawlingss)

Los Angeles freeways (NOT: Los Angeless)

rule U5-2

Use only an apostrophe to form the possessive of plural

nouns already ending with s.

Examples:

both boys grades

all attorneys fees

most families friends

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

 63

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-3
Use an apostrophe plus s to form the possessive of
plural nouns not ending with s.

Examples:

childrens toys

sheeps wool

mens shoes

womens clothes

rule U5-4
Use an apostrophe plus s to form the possessive for
most indefinite pronouns.

Examples:

everyones friend

ones choice

neithers fault

somebodys problem

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

64

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-5
Use an apostrophe plus s after the last element of a
singular or plural compound-word noun to form its
possessive if the last word does not end with s.

Examples:

mother-in-laws dress

editors in chiefs responses

Rule U5-6

Use only an apostrophe after the last element of a plural

compound-word noun to form its possessive if the plural
form of the compound-word noun ends with s.

Examples:

singular plural plural possessive

attorney general attorney generals attorney generals

clerk-typist clerk-typists clerk-typists

vice president vice presidents vice presidents

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

 65

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-7
Use an apostrophe plus s to form the singular possessive
of abbreviations and acronyms.

Examples:

CNN's weather report

NASA's project

rule U5-8
Use an apostrophe to show omitted numbers.

Examples:

the Class of 91 (the Class of 1991)

the Spirit of 76 (the Spirit of 1776)

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

66

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-9
Use an apostrophe plus s to show the plural for figures,
for all lowercase letters of the alphabet, and for the
uppercase letters A, I, and U. For all other uppercase
letters, use the letter s only.

Examples:

Most of the test scores fell in the low 80s.

Always remember to dot your is and cross your ts.

There were four As on his report card.

rule U5-10
Use an apostrophe plus s (s) after the pronoun it to
form the subject-verb contraction that means it is.

Example:

Its possible to improve your vocabulary. (It is)

rule U5-11

Use the word its as opposed to the contraction its when

the word is functioning as an adjective.

Example:

The choir has its next practice on Thursday.

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

 67

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-12
Use an apostrophe plus re (re) after the pronoun they to
form the subject-verb contraction that means they are.

Example:

They're going to New York City next week. (They are)

rule U5-13

Use the word their as opposed to the contraction theyre

when the word is functioning as an adjective.

Example:

Their friends are staying for a week.

rule U5-14
Use an apostrophe plus s (s) after the pronoun who to
form the subject-verb contraction that means who is
or who has.

Example:

Whos going with me? (Who is)

rule U5-15

Use the word whose as opposed to the contraction whos

when the word is functioning as an adjective.

Example:

Whose car is in my parking space?

LessonLesson
1 Personal
5 Apostrophe
Pronoun Usage
68

LESSON 5: APOSTROPHE USAGE

rule U5-16
Use an apostrophe plus re (re) after the pronoun you to
form the subject-verb contraction that means you are.

Example:

Youre responsible for preparing dinner. (You are)

rule U5-17

Use the word your as opposed to the contraction youre

when the word is functioning as an adjective.

Example:

How fast can your car go?

Lesson 5 Apostrophe Usage

LESSON 6
verb usage
70

LESSON 6: VERB USAGE

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying verb
usage rules to sentences and finding verb usage errors in
sentences.

Overview:
Here are six important Points to Remember about verbs. Study
these six points before you review the Rules to Follow in this
lesson.

Point 1:
All verbs can be expressed as an infinitive and in four principal
forms. These four forms are the present, present participle,
past, and past participle.

Point 2:
Regular verbs are verbs that form their past and past participle by
adding d or ed to the present form.

Examples of the principal forms of regular verbs:

Present Past
Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle
to bake bake(s) baking baked baked
to vote vote(s) voting voted voted

NOTE: See Page 74 for an extended list of regular verbs.

Point 3:
Irregular verbs are verbs that form their past and past participle in
some other way than by adding d or ed to the present form.

Examples of the principal forms of irregular verbs:

Present Past
Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle
to begin begin(s) beginning began begun
to drive drive(s) driving drove driven

NOTE: See Page 75 for an extended list of irregular verbs.

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

 71

LESSON 6: VERB USAGE

INTRODUCTION...CONTINUED
Point 4:
The verb form to be is an exception to irregular verbs. Both the
present form and the past form include more than one word. The
words that comprise the forms for the verb to be are as follows:

Present Past
Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle
to be am, is, are being was, were been

Point 5:
The helping verbs can and may are frequently misused. The word
can implies ability or power, and the word may implies permission
or possibility. If you keep these definitions in mind, you should not
have a problem using these helping verbs correctly.

Point 6:
The regular verb raise and the irregular verbs lay, lie, rise, set,
and sit are called the troublesome verbs because they are
frequently misused. The rules presented in this lesson will help
you to learn how to use these troublesome verbs correctly.

Terms to Learn: regular verb, irregular verb

NOTE: Additional information regarding verb usage is found in

Appendix B.

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

72

LESSON 6: VERB USAGE

INTRODUCTION...CONTINUED

Here is an extended list of the principal forms of regular verbs:

Present Past
Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle
to abbreviate abbreviate(s) abbreviating abbreviated abbreviated
to abide abide(s) abiding abided abided
to achieve achieve(s) achieving achieved achieved
to assist assist(s) assisting assisted assisted
to bake bake(s) baking baked baked
to climb climb(s) climbing climbed climbed
to carry carry (carries) carrying carried carried
to call call(s) calling called called
to dance dance(s) dancing danced danced
to invest invest(s) investing invested invested
to land land(s) landing landed landed
to lift lift(s) lifting lifted lifted
to move move(s) moving moved moved
to play play(s) playing played played
to raise raise(s) raising raised raised
to receive receive(s) receiving received received
to talk talk(s) talking talked talked
to vote vote(s) voting voted voted
to walk walk(s) walking walked walked

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

 73

LESSON 6: VERB USAGE

INTRODUCTION...CONTINUED

Here is an extended list of the principal forms of irregular verbs:

Present Past
Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle
to begin begin(s) beginning began begun
to bite bite(s) biting bit bitten
to blow blow(s) blowing blew blown
to break break(s) breaking broke broken
to bring bring(s) bringing brought brought
to burst burst(s) bursting burst burst
to catch catch(es) catching caught caught
to choose choose(s) choosing chose chosen
to come come(s) coming came come
to do do(es) doing did done
to drink drink(s) drinking drank drunk
to drive drive(s) driving drove driven
to eat eat(s) eating ate eaten
to fall fall(s) falling fell fallen
to fly fly (flies) flying flew flown
to freeze freeze(s) freezing froze frozen
to give give(s) giving gave given
to go go(es) going went gone
to grow grow(s) growing grew grown
to know know(s) knowing knew known
to lay lay(s) laying laid laid
to lie lie(s) lying lay lain
to lose lose(s) losing lost lost
to put put(s) putting put put
to ride ride(s) riding rode ridden
to ring ring(s) ringing rang rung
to rise rise(s) rising rose risen
to run run(s) running ran run
to say say(s) saying said said
to see see(s) seeing saw seen
to set set(s) setting set set
to shake shake(s) shaking shook shaken
to shrink shrink(s) shrinking shrank shrunk
to sit sit(s) sitting sat sat
to speak speak(s) speaking spoke spoken
to steal steal(s) stealing stole stolen
to swear swear(s) swearing swore sworn
to swim swim(s) swimming swam swum
to take take(s) taking took taken
to tear tear(s) tearing tore torn
to throw throw(s) throwing threw thrown
to write write(s) writing wrote written

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

74

lesson 6: terms to learn

1. Regular verb: A verb whose past form and past participle form
are the same word, created by adding d or ed to its present
form.
2. Irregular verb: A verb whose past form and past participle
form are created in some other way than by adding d or ed
to its present form.

Lesson 6 Terms to Learn

 10
RULES TO FOLLOW
76

lesson 6: verb usage

rule U6-1
Use the present form or the past form of an irregular
verb when the helping verb have, has, or had is not
used.

Examples:

She takes dancing lessons. (Present form)

She took dancing lessons. (Past form)

Rule U6-2

Use the past participle form of an irregular verb when

the helping verb have, has, or had is used.

Example:

She has taken dancing lessons. (Past participle form)

Rule U6-3

Use the helping verb can when a sentence implies ability

or power.

Example:

I can type 90 words per minute.

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

 77

lesson 6: verb usage

rule U6-4
Use the helping verb may when a sentence implies
permission or possibility.

Examples:

You may go to the mall after dinner.

Our area may be affected by the hurricane.

rule U6-5

Use a form of the verb to lay (lay(s), laying, laid)

when the word means to place.

Example:

He laid the book on the table.

POINT TO REMEMBER!
The verb to lay is usually transitive. (It will be followed by a direct
object.)

rule U6-6

Use a form of the verb to lie (lie(s), lying, lay, lain) when
the word means to recline or to assume a reclining
position.

Example:

Your dog is lying on the bed.

POINT TO REMEMBER!
The verb to lie is usually intransitive. (It will not be followed by a
direct object.)

Lesson 1 Personal
Lesson 6Pronoun
Verb Usage
78

lesson 6: verb usage

rule U6-7
Use a form of the verb to raise (raise(s), raising, raised)
when the word means to lift something.

Example:

Please raise the flag.

POINT TO REMEMBER!
The verb to raise is usually transitive. (It will usually be followed
by a direct object.)

rule U6-8

Use a form of the verb to rise (rise(s), rising, rose, risen)

when the word means to move upwards or to
ascend.

Example:

The temperature rose all day.

POINT TO REMEMBER!
The verb to rise is usually intransitive. (It will not be followed by a
direct object.)

rule U6-9

Use a form of the verb to set (set(s), setting, set)

when the word means to place something.

Example:

She set the vase on the table.

POINT TO REMEMBER!
The verb to set is usually transitive. (It will be followed by a direct
object.)

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

 79

lesson 6: verb usage

rule U6-10
Use a form of the verb to sit (sit(s), sitting, sat) when
the word means to assume or to be in an upright
sitting position.

Example:

Please sit down.

POINT TO REMEMBER!
The verb to sit is usually intransitive. (It will not be followed by a
direct object.)

Lesson 6 Verb Usage

 LESSON 7
number USAGE
82

lesson 7: number usage

INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objective: To become proficient in applying number
usage rules to sentences and finding number usage errors
in sentences.

Overview:
When expressing a number in a sentence, you must choose
whether to spell out the number or use the figure(s). Figures are
used exclusively in tables, statistical matter, and financial reports.
In business correspondence, there are general guidelines that
most writers follow. All reference manuals do not agree on the
rules pertaining to expressing numbers in sentences. The rules
presented in this lesson represent the ones most frequently
agreed upon in most reference manuals.

Terms to Learn: no new terms

Lesson 7 Number Usage

 17
RULES TO FOLLOW
84

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-1
Spell out numbers from one through ten in a sentence
unless the numbers have technical significance or need
to stand out for quick comprehension.

Example:

There were seven contestants chosen as finalists.

rule U7-2

Use figures for numbers above ten in a sentence unless

the number begins a sentence.

Example:

There were 35 people who applied for the job.

rule U7-3

Express related numbers in the same manner. If any of

the numbers are above ten, use figures for all of the
numbers.

Examples:

The telemarketing survey resulted in 50 requests for

information and 7 requests for interviews.

The file included 3 current customers, 10 previous customers,

and 72 leads.

Lesson 7 Number Usage

 85

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-4
To avoid confusion when several unrelated numbers
appear in the same sentence, use both figures and
spelled-out numbers.

Example:

Within the next three months, I expect 12 of our sales people

to reach 90 percent of their quota.

Point to Remember!
When two consecutive unrelated numbers occur in a sentence,
write one in figures and the other in words. Ordinarily, spell out
the first number.

Examples:

The man needed seven 8-foot boards.

The order called for twelve 55-gallon drums of soap.

rule U7-5

Use figureseven for numbers one through tenwhen

numbers have technical significance. This includes
weights and measures such as inches, feet, yards, miles,
kilometers, ounces, pounds, tons, grams, pints, quarts,
gallons, liters, dozen, gross, reams, pecks, bushels,
degrees, and acres; it includes periods of time involving
discounts, interest rates, and credit terms; and it
includes age when the age appears directly after a
persons name or is used in a legal or technical sense.

Examples:

You may not include any parcels weighing more than 5 pounds.

We are applying for a 20-year mortgage.

Shirley Harris, 38, gave birth to quintuplets.

Lesson 7 Number Usage

86

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-6
Write indefinite numbers and amounts as words in a
sentence.

Examples:

The paper reported that over one hundred people attended

the meeting.

You can expect thousands of readers to respond.

Rule U7-7

Spell out a number that begins a sentence.

Examples:

Six students from our section entered the contest.

Thirty-three people were injured in the plane crash.

Rule U7-8

When the day precedes the month in a sentence, express

the day either in ordinal figures (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th,
etc.) or in ordinal words (the first, the fourth, the
thirty-first, etc.).

Examples:

The 15th of January is the scheduled date for the meet.

The third of April will be the deadline.

Lesson 7 Number Usage

 87

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-9
When the day follows the month in a sentence, write the
day in figures. Do not use ordinal figures.

Examples:

The January 15 meeting has been postponed. (correct)

The January 15th meeting has been postponed. (incorrect)

rule U7-10

Always use figures with a.m. and p.m.

Examples:

Scott began his speech at 8:45 a.m.

The workshop is scheduled for 7:15 p.m.

Point to Remember!
Use either figures or spell out the number with oclock, and do
not use a.m. or p.m. with oclock.

Examples:

I expect everyone at the meeting by eight oclock.

The bus is scheduled to arrive by 11 oclock.

Lesson 7 Number Usage

88

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-11
Spell out nontechnical references to periods of time
referring to days, weeks, months, or years that can be
expressed in one or two words, and use figures when
they require more than two words.

Examples:

Within twelve months the construction will be completed.

This statue has been here for more than 175 years.

Point to Remember!
Nontechnical references to clock time (hours, minutes, or
seconds) are spelled out for the numbers one to ten and
expressed as figures for the number eleven and above.

Examples:

She missed beating the school record by less than three hours.

The play will begin in 20 minutes.

rule U7-12

When a fraction stands alone in a sentence, write it in

words. Use a hyphen between the numerator and the
denominator.

Example:

The carpet covered approximately two-thirds of the floor space.

Lesson 7 Number Usage

 89

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-13
Write a mixed number (a whole number plus a fraction)
entirely in figures in a sentence unless the number
appears at the beginning of a sentence.

Example:

The cost was 3 1/2 times higher than expected.

rule U7-14

Express percentages in figures, and spell out the word

percent in sentences. The percent symbol (%) is
generally used with tables or with charts.

Example:

The company expects a 14 percent increase in sales this fall.

rule U7-15

Use the word million or the word billion with figures for
clarity.

Examples:

Last years gross profits were $95 million.

(NOT: $95,000,000)

This years gross profits are $1.7 billion.

(NOT: $1,700,000,000)

Lesson 7 Number Usage

90

LESSON 7: number USAGE

rule U7-16
Use figures to express exact amounts of money. Omit
the decimal and zeros when expressing whole dollar
amounts.

Examples:

The additional cost for delivery is $17.45.

The bill for the repair was $82.

Point to Remember!
In legal and other business documents, amounts of money are
often expressed first in words; then the figures are enclosed
within parentheses.

Example:

The total cost was Two Hundred Thousand Dollars

($200,000).

rule U7-17
Use a figure and spell out the word cents in a sentence
when the amount of money is less than one dollar.

Example:

The tokens for the ride cost 80 cents.

Lesson 7 Number Usage

 MODULE II
TERMS TO LEARN
92

Module II: terms to learn

1. Antecedent: A word (usually the subject) to which a personal

or possessive pronoun specifically refers in the sentence.
(Lesson 3)

2. Contraction: A shortened form of two words such as a subject

and a verb or a verb and an adverb in which the apostrophe
indicates the omitted letter(s) of a word. (Lesson 5)
3. Elliptical clause: A condensed clause with key words such as
the subject and the verb omitted but implied. (Lesson 1)
4. Gender: The classification of nouns and pronouns as masculine
(man, he, him), feminine (woman, she, her), or neuter (city, it,
them). (Lesson 3)
5. Irregular verb: A verb whose past form and past participle
form are created in some other way than by adding d or ed
to its present form. (Lesson 6)
6. Nominative case pronoun: A pronoun that functions as a
subject or a predicate nominative in a sentence. (Lesson 1)
7. Number: The usage term for the form of a noun (man, men),
a pronoun (I, we), a demonstrative adjective (this, these), or
a verb (sings, sing) that indicates whether the word is singular
or plural. (Lesson 1)
8. Objective case pronoun: A pronoun that functions as a direct
object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. (Lesson 1)
9. Possessive case pronoun: A pronoun that attributes ownership
to someone or something and functions as an adjective in a
sentence. (Lesson 1)
10. Pronoun-antecedent agreement: The usage rule stating that
personal or possessive pronouns that refer to another word
in a sentence must be of the same number and gender. (Lesson 3)
11. Regular verb: A verb whose past form and past participle form
are the same word, created by adding d or ed to its present
form. (Lesson 6)
12. Subject-verb agreement: The usage rule that states that
singular subjects require singular verbs and plural subjects
require plural verbs. (Lesson 2)

Module II Terms to Learn

 APPENDIX A
forming plurals
 95

appendix a
FORMING PLURALS

A-1. T
 he regular way to form the plural of a noun is to
add an s.

Examples:

Singular Plural

ship ships

idea ideas

friend friends

A-2. T
 he plural of nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh is
formed by adding es.

Examples:

Singular Plural

lens lenses

box boxes

waltz waltzes

church churches

wish wishes

A-3. T
 he plural of nouns ending in y preceded by a
consonant is formed by changing the y to i and
adding es.

Examples:

Singular Plural

army armies

copy copies

country countries

Appendix A Forming Plurals

96

appendix a
FORMING PLURALS...continued

A-4. T
 he plural of nouns ending in y preceded by a
vowel is formed by adding an s.

Examples:

Singular Plural

boy boys

attorney attorneys

A-5. T
 he plural of some nouns ending in f or fe is
formed by changing the f to v and adding s or es.

Examples:

Singular Plural

calf calves

leaf leaves

A-6. T
 he plural of nouns ending in o preceded by a
vowel is formed by adding s; the plural of nouns
ending in o preceded by a consonant is formed by
adding es.

Examples:

Singular Plural

radio radios

echo echoes

Appendix A Forming Plurals

 97

appendix a
FORMING PLURALS...continued

A-7. T
 he plural of a few nouns is formed in irregular
ways.

Examples:

Singular Plural

foot feet

man men

tooth teeth

A-8. T
 he plural of compound nouns written as one word
is formed by adding s or es.

Examples:

Singular Plural

spoonful spoonfuls

printout printouts

eyelash eyelashes

A-9. T
 he plural of hyphenated compounds is formed by
adding an s to the main element of the
compound.

Examples:

Singular Plural

brother-in-law brothers-in-law

leave of absence leaves of absence

Appendix A Forming Plurals

98

appendix a
FORMING PLURALS...continued

A-10. T
 here are nouns that are the same in the
singular and the plural.

Examples:

Singular Plural

corps corps

deer deer

sheep sheep

A-11. M
 any nouns of foreign origin retain their foreign
plurals, others have been given English plurals,
and still others have two pluralsan English one
and a foreign one.

Examples:

Singular ENGLISH Plural Foreign plural

alumnus alumni

stimulus stimuli

syllabus syllabuses syllabi

addendum addenda

criterion criterions criteria

phenomenon phenomenons phenomena

Appendix A Forming Plurals

 APPENDIX B
verbs
(additional information)
100

appendix B
VERBS (ADDITIONAL INFORMATION)

Tense is that property of a verb that refers to time. There

are three primary tenses, three perfect tenses, and six
progressive tenses. The tense of a verb is formed by
using one of the four principal forms of a verb with or
without a helping verb. Here are examples of the use of
each tense:

The three primary tenses of a verb are present, past, and future.

B-1. T
 he present tense is used to express action (or to
help make a statement about something) occurring
now, at the present time.

Examples:

I work here.

The coach runs with his players.

B-2. T
 he past tense is used to express action (or help
make a statement about something) that occurred
in the past but did not continue into the present.

Examples:

I worked here.

The coach ran with his players.

B-3. T
 he future tense is used to express action (or to
help make a statement about something) occurring
at some time in the future. This tense consists of
the helping verb will or shall and the present form
of the verb.

Examples:

I will work here.

The coach will run with his players.

Appendix B Verbs (Additional Information)

 101

appendix B
VERBS (ADDITIONAL INFORMATION)

The three perfect tenses of a verb are present perfect, past

perfect, and future perfect.

B-4. T
 he present perfect tense is used to express action
(or to help make a statement about something)
occurring at no definite time in the past. This tense
consists of the helping verb have or has and the
past participle.

Examples:

He has worked for us many times.

The coach has run with the players all week.

B-5. T
 he present perfect tense is also used to express
action (or to help make a statement about
something) occurring in the past and continuing
into the present.

Example:

I have worked here for six weeks. (I am still working here.)

B-6. T
 he past perfect tense is used to express action
(or to help make a statement about something)
completed in the past before some other past
action or event. This tense consists of the helping
verb had and the past participle.

Example:

After I had worked for a week, I asked for my pay.

(The working preceded the asking.)

Appendix B Verbs (Additional Information)

102

appendix b
VERBS (ADDITIONAL INFORMATION)

B-7. T
 he future perfect tense is used to express action
(or to help make a statement about something)
which will be completed in the future before some
other action or event. This tense consists of the
combined helping verbs will have or shall have and
the past participle.

Example:

By the time school opens, I will have worked here eight

weeks. (The working precedes the opening of the school.)

The six progressive tenses are the present progressive, past

progressive, future progressive, present perfect progressive, past
perfect progressive, and future perfect progressive.

B-8. The
 present progressive tense is used to express
action still in progress. This tense consists of the
helping verb am, is, or are and the present
participle.

Examples:

I am reading a very interesting novel.

The coaches are running with the players.

B-9. T
 he past progressive tense is used to express
action in progress sometime in the past. This tense
consists of the helping verb was or were and the
present participle.

Examples:

He was working this past weekend when the accident occurred.

They were hiding when the police officer arrived.

Appendix B Verbs (Additional Information)

 103

appendix b
VERBS (ADDITIONAL INFORMATION)

B-10. T
 he future progressive tense expresses action
that will be in progress in the future. This tense
consists of the combined helping verbs shall be
or will be and the present participle.

Examples:

We will be working all weekend on the project.

The coaches will be running trial times this weekend.

B-11. T
 he present perfect progressive tense is used to
express action that started in the past and is still
in progress. This tense consists of the combined
helping verbs has been or have been and the
present participle.

Examples:

He has been working at this job for several years.

They have been running for an hour.

B-12. T
 he past perfect progressive tense expresses
continuous action that was in progress sometime
in the past and was completed before another
past action. This tense consists of the combined
helping verbs had been with the past participle.

Example:

We had been working on this project infrequently until we

finally realized its potential.

Appendix B Verbs (Additional Information)

104

appendix b
VERBS (ADDITIONAL INFORMATION)

B-13. The
 future perfect progressive tense expresses
action that will be in progress in the future and
will be completed by a certain time in the future.
This tense consists of the combined helping verbs
shall have been or will have been and the present
participle.

Example:

By next Saturday we will have been working on this project

for three weeks.

Appendix B Verbs (Additional Information)

 EGUMPP CODES
WORD-FUNCTION CODES CLAUSE-IDENTIFICATION CODES

CODE TRANSLATION CODE TRANSLATION

NS Noun Subject IDC Independent Clause

PNS Pronoun Subject AVC Adverb Clause
PNU Pronoun Subject Understood AJC Adjective Clause
GS Gerund Subject NCS Noun Clause Subject
IS Infinitive Subject NCSC Noun Clause Subject Complement
RPS Relative Pronoun Subject NCDO Noun Clause Direct Object
MV Main Verb NCIO Noun Clause Indirect Object
HV Helping Verb NCOP Noun Clause Object of Preposition
MVT Main Verb Transitive IDC2 Independent Clause (second)
MVI Main Verb Intransitive
MVL Main Verb Linking SENTENCE-IDENTIFICATION CODES
DO Direct Object
GDO Gerund Direct Object S Simple Sentence
IDO Infinitive Direct Object CD Compound Sentence
RPDO Relative Pronoun Direct Object CX Complex Sentence
AJ Adjective CDCX Compound-complex Sentence
PAR Participle
IAJ Infinitive Adjective
RPAJ Relative Pronoun Adjective
AV Adverb
IAV Infinitive Adverb
PR Preposition
OP Object of Preposition
GOP Gerund Object of Preposition
SC Subject Complement
GSC Gerund Subject Complement
ISC Infinitive Subject Complement
RPSC Relative Pronoun Subject Complement
IO Indirect Object
GIO Gerund Indirect Object
AP Appositive
GAP Gerund Appositive
VC Verbal Complement
SUBC Subordinating Conjunction
CC Coordinating Conjunction
CORC Correlative Conjunction
 Usage

module II
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and improving your writing skills.

Usage
I
Grammar

II III IV
Usage Punctuation and Writing
Capitalization Mechanics

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