Crow William Bernard - The Occult Properties of Herbs and Plants PDF

THE OCCULT
PROPERTIES
OF HERBS
by
W. B. CROW
D.Se., Ph.D.
THE AQUARIAN PRESS

37/38 Margaret Street, London, W.I
CONTENTS
page
I. THE NATURE OF HERBS 7
Herbs, Shrubs and Trees-Kinds of Plants
2. HERBS AS FOODS II
The Seven Cereals- TJv.ir Mysterious Origin-
Myth and Magic-Bean King and Queen-Carling
Sunday-Apple Cult-Other Fruit Ceremonies
Japanese Tea Ceremony-Other Tisanes
3. HERBS IN HEALING 18
Ancient Medicine-Ayur-veda, the Hindu System-
Moxa - Doctrine of Signatures - Herbalism -
Homoeopathy.
4. DRUGS AND POISONS 25
The Cult of Bacchus-Fermented Liquors- Tobacco
-Opium - Mescal-Indian Hemp-Some other
Vegetable Drugs-Aphrodisiacs-Poisonous Plants
5. HERBS IN ALCHEMY 33
The Herb of Immortality-Elixir of Life-Palin
genesy-Spontaneous Generation
6. HERBS IN AsTROLOGY 35
Epochs-Seasons-Plants and the Moon- The
Floral Clock-Herbs of the Planets-Plants of the
Zodiac
7. HERBS IN MAGIC 40
Lotus of the Ancients-Druids and the Mistletoe
-Rosicrucians and the Rose-Love Philtres-Herbs
tn Divination-Plants used tn Witchcraft
Antidotes to Enchantments- Trees as Oracles
8. HERBS IN RELIGION 45
Ambrosia - Nectar - The Christian Mysteries
Incense-Sacred Oils-Linen.
9. SYMBOLISM OF HERBS 50
Emblems of Places-Symbols of Gods-Symbols of
6 THE OCCULT PROPERTmS OF HERBS
Saints-Symhols of Virtues-Heraldic Herbs and

Trees.
10. MYTHICAL PLANTS 53
World Tree-Bodhi-tree- The Tree of Life-Tree
Spirits-Metamorphoses-Druidical Tree Alphabet
I I. BARKS AND WOODS 57
Types of Bark-Woods of the Cross- Various Woods
12. RESINS AND BALSAMS 60
Gums-Kinos-Gum-resins-Resins - Oleo-resins
-Oils
CHAPTER ONE
THE NATURE OF HERBS
Herbs, Shrubs and Trees If we consider plants as they

actually are, and not because of their use or medical
propertIies, ,we can class them roughiy as herbs, shrubs and
trees, with some intermediate stages, such as undershrubs.
Herbs have no woody stems above ground. They die down
in winter, and pass the cold season either as a persistent
underground stem, which may be woody, or Ithe individual
plant dies a:ltogether, and only seeds remarin to reproduce
the plant. Sometimes the under'ground persistent part is a
stem with non-green scale ,leaves, with various shapes to
which such names as rhizome, tuiber, corm, bub are
applied, and to w'h:idh roots or rootletsl are attached.
The shape of the overground shoot varies very much
according to whether the leaves are crowded together on
the stem or whether they are more W1idely separated.
In spite of the immense diversity among .the <thousands
of known plant species there is a certain common plan of
structure observable Ithroughout a large part of Ithe veget
able kingdom. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C. ) that great physi
cian of antiquity recognised the plant as a compound
individual, i.e. a unit made of many smaller units. Each
unit was a shoot, i.e. a stem with leaves. Only a few of
the shoots or a single one at ,the base may have a root or
roots attadhed. In more recent tIimes, but before the rise of
Dal1Winism, that great intiate of the arcane scienres,
Goethe (1749- 1832), taught <the doctrine of the Urpfianze,
the primkive plant, :at living form or pattern which
eXiists as an arcane archetype in all the higher plants. It is
not an ancestral species, in the sense of evolution, but a
reality epressing kinship, and itlherefore implying genetic
relationship, hence possible descent from a common ances
tor. In 1790 lin his Metamorphosis of Plants Goethe showed
1 A rootlet is simply a small root.
8 THE OCCULT PROPERTIES OF HERBS
how the vegetative or non-reproductive shoot in the higher

plants is succeeded by the flower or reproductive shoot,
equivalent or homologous to the preceding, a principle
accepted in scientific botany a.t the present day.
But t was known, even to the ancients, that some
plants, such as seaweeds and fungi, do not conform to
this pattern. They possess neit, her
still less the equivalents in the flower. Seaweeds, it is true,
have leaf-like fobes and stalks; but careful examination
shows they are not arranged as in flowering plants, Wlith
the leaves arising from nodes sometimes separated by leaf
less lengths of stem called internodes. The fungus body in
fact is a mere tangle of cellular threads and the fructi
fication of a fungus is in no way the equivalent of a
flower.
Kind. of Plaat. We must now outline the great groups

of plants, so ,that the reader who is not well up tin botany
may know th rt f plants w are referring to in the
tat r parts f thi k.
Fir t of 11 th r is a great section of the vegetable
kingdom in which the three main organs of the non
reproductive ,Parts (root, leaf and stem), not to mention
the reproductIve flow r, are missing. Instead, they aU have
an undifferentia.ted plant body, ,
great section there are three main kinds: algae, fungi and
lichens.
The algae include the seaweeds, the pond-scums of
freshwatte r and vast numbers of microscopic organisms
forming a great part of ,
ton) of the sea. The last named and many of the pond-
urns are a.pparently made up each of a single cell. Many
of the pond-scums are nothing more than rows of cells
(filaments) sometimes much branched. On the sea-shore we
And the green sheet of cells called the sea-lettuce, but most
aw ed are brown (wracks or kelps) or red (dulses) and
10m of the brown are of gigantic size. Seaweeds only live
in r.t tiv ly shaUow water around ,the shore, as they
ui
I ht for photosynthesis. Some algae have sexual
u ta 0, ften also spores which float or swim in the
th 180 reproduce vegetatively by the simple
THE NATURE OF HERBS 9
expedient of breaking off pieces. All their reproductive
organs are very small.
Fungti, unlike the algae, largely live on land. Many are
parasites on land plants, others live on decaying matters
in the soil. Consequently tlhey have no green pigment
(chlorophyll) and do not need the fight. Mushrooms may
be grown in damp cellars. The non-reproductive pant of a
fungus is merely a mass of fine much-branched filaments
(mycelium) as in mushroom spawn, but the reproductive
organs are often of Jar.ge size. What we call the mushroom
iotself is the reproductive organ (fructification) producing
millions of fine spores.
Lichens are really double organisms, living on land.
Their reproductive organs are Eke small editions of ,those
of ,the fungi. They belong to fungi, in fact, but the rest of
the fungus is not a mass of fine branched filaments but a
flat or lobed thallus like a seaweed. 'This is because the
lichen has taken into pamnership a number of small algae,
and these help it to synthesise the food, W1ith ,the aid of
the light. Hence the almost leaf-like form of the lichen body.
Mosses are small <leafy plants, with stems but no roots.
Sex organs are formed on mosses and >the embryo pro
duced grows, not into another moss but a spore producing
struoture, which remains attached to the moss, plant. The
spores reproduce new moss plants. Liverworts are like
mosses, but are often creeping and some have lobes mstead
of separat. e
When we come to the ferns we reach the fuY develop
ment oIf the vegetative parts, for there are roots, stems and
leaves. In the tropics some ferns reach the stature of ,trees.
Most ferns have enormous divided leaves. On these spores
are produced. The spores do not grow i.nto new fern
plants, but into a tiny green leaf..like object called the
prothallus. This has the sex-organs on iIt which p roduce
the embryo thatt grows into ,the fern-plant. A simrlar life
history is seen in the club-mosses, which resemble over
grown mosses, but are quite unrelated, and in the horse
tails, strange ,to say, as the latter .two kinds only have the
smaHest of leaves.
We now come to the cone-bearing plants, which include
some of !the iargest trees. The cone is the reproductive
10 TIlE OCCULT PROPERTIES OF HERBS
part. There are two kinds of cone, one the male the other
the female. They both reaNy produce spores, but the
female spore germnates inside the ovule which produces
the seed, after it has been fertilised by rthe pollen tube
which produced by the poYen of the male cone. There
are two kinds of cone plants, one with big compound
leaves like the fern. This ,type includes the cycads. The
other kind has small 'leaves adapted to colder climes. This
includes the -larches, pines, firs and yews, adapted to colder
regions, where they form forests. The cycads on .the other
hand live in ,the tropics.
We now come.to the flowering plants. The flower differs
from a cone in that the ovules, which are going to form
seeds, are enclosed .in a structure caHed an ovary. As in the
cone plants, spores are produced, the female in the ovule
forming an embryo-sac makiing the egg and the male
forming the poBen tube contanning the male ceIl for
fer.tilising the egg.
The flowering plants are an enormous group with a
wide range of form and growing in very diverse environ
ments. There are two groups: Monocotyledons, techni
calJy disllinguished by having a single seed-leaf or cotyle
don and Dicotyledons having two. If they grow into trees
thw internal structure is quite different in ,the trunk.
Monocotyledons have leaves with parallel veins and no
sta'lks, with few exceptions, the parts of the flower are
usually in twos or threes, Ithere is no distinction between
petals and sepals. Dicotyledons have net-veined leaves,
often with sta'iks,
arranged in fours or fives and sepals are generally small
and green, thus different from the ooten brightly coloured
.
.
petals.
Grasses are Monocotyledons with linconspicuous flowers,
and sedges are closely related.
Lilies and their kin, such as crocus, autumn crocus,
onion, hyacinth, tulip, yam, narcissus, iris, ginger and the
orchids generally have conspicuous flowers and Iarge bul
bous under.ground parts. Palms and aroids have numerous
small flowers, often accompanied by an enomlOUS leaf
called a spathe. The so--called arum lily is a beautiful
example. Aliithese are Monocotyledons.
THE NATURE OF HERBS 11
Dicotyledons are even more numerous.

They include catkin-trees, with inconspicuous flowers,
such as willows and poplars, bog-myrtle, warlnuts, birch,
alder, hazel, hornbeam, beech, sweet chestnut, oak, elm
and some herbs such as stinging nettles ald the goosefoot
and chickweed family.
Another section of Dicotyledons includes flowers with
conspicuous separate petals, as in buttercups, poppies,
cresses, ,the rose family, the pea family, the geranium and
holly groups, .the buckthorns, vines, maUows, v,iolets,
myrtles, parsley group and many more.
Finally,
petals includes the hmths, primrooes, tht'ifts, gentians,
olive, ash, 'lilac, dead-nettle family, potato family, fox
glove family, madders, gourd family and the sunflower
and daisy group in which many tiny flowers (florets) form
a single flower-head.
\
CHAPTER TWO
HERBS AS FOODS
The Seven Cereals Sympathetic magic depends on the

belief 'that what happens to anything is to some etent
dependent upon what happens to something else with
which a maglcal link has been forged. Today we take food
for granted. Food is just food , and ,that is all. A few
people, perhaps, will have the decency to thank God for
it, but to primitive man spiritual forces, often personified,
were hidden behind foods, both animaI and vegetable.
Nowhere else are these more obvious than in Ithe seven
'
chief cereals which formed Ithe food of man from the
Neolithic age, when the praotice of agriculture began.
What was done then was magic, designed to utilise such
occult forces, in order to ensure the growth of crops and
to stave off famine from the community. These magical
praot.ices persisted ,into 'later times in human history, and
were incorporated into religion, a'S shown by Sir James
Frazer in his monumental Golden Bough. The corn-spirit
was personified in various ways, by a human being or even

an animal. The same was Ilacrificed, or apparently sacri
ficed and came to life again, spnbolrising rohe renewa'l of
the crops.
The cereaIs are members of the grass family, which
differ from the wild species in yielding large and abundant
grain.
Wheat is tihe 'Cereal of Bl'itain, <the Mediterranean region
and Western Asia. Wheat in the ceremonies was symbol
ised by the wheat-mother, the wheat-br,
or by a dog, wolf, goa:t, cow or sow.
Rye is mainly the cereal of Germany and Russia, ,both
famoU's for rye-bread. It was symbolised by the rye
mother, an old woman or a dog, wolf, goat or. sow.
Oats is cultivated [n more northerly parts of Europe.
Hence porridge is .the national dish of &otJand. It was
symbolised by the oa:ts-mother, the oats-bride, a'Iso by a
stallion, a cow, a goat, a sow and a wolf.
Barley is cultivated. in the Mediterranean region and has
a wider range than the tw preceding. It was symbolised
by the barley-moth r, also by a cow, a sow or a wolf.
Maize was originally cul'tivated only in America, where
the natives had a malze-mother, or goddess of the maize.
llice
food of the South of Asia, where there were ceremonies of
the rice bride and bridegroom, of :the rice mother and !'lice
child.
MiUet of various kinds is cultivated in litaly, Germany
and many dry parts of Asia. Among the Ainu of ,the North
of Japan there is worshipped the god of millet.
Their Mysterious Origin As we have seen, the cereals

all appear to be members of Ithe grass family, from which
they differ merely in having very abundant and large grain.
Biologists usually explain this as due to artificiaI selection
through the ages. This means that ,they would not be what
they are, apart from breeding by man. Theosophists, who
are conwnced of the fad that each species of plant has its
group soul, na:turally
special occult link, similar to the tie that eists between
man and his domestic animals.
HERBS AS FOODS
There is a further tradition among some ,sohools of

theosophists. They believe that mankind, aJt a certain stage
in his evolution, was helped by some high initiates coming
from the planet Venus. They have reason to suppose such
helpers eist, and the recent idea of interplanetary travel
makes t seem ,that advanced beings could reach ,the earth.
Moreover, it is claimed that the said beings not only gave
morall
them wheat grains, to supply a better rerool, also bees tQ
produce honey and fertilise flowers and also ants. Rye,
they think, has been produced by man, in imitation of
wheat, by seleotive breeding. Oats and Barley, they believe,
are hybrids raised by crossing with earthly grasses.1 We
may add ,that maize is probably the most modified of the
cereals by human iIlItervention.
Myth and Magic From the materialistic point of view,

bread is the staff of life because it keeps the body perform
ing its activities in a satisfaotory manner. From a spiritual
point of view it symbola.ses the permanence of the im
morta'! part of man, it is, in symbo'lism, the spiritual and
celestial food of SwederrboI1g, the manna from heaven.
This was understood in pre-Christian times. T-he Greeks
had a goddess of corn called Demeter, better known when
taken over by the Romans by ,the Latin name of Ceres.
According Ito some, Demeter simply means the barley
goddess. Now on two occasions Ceres, as we will call her,
had withdrawn from Olympus, the residence of the gods;
in other words she had taken such aotion that the cereal
crops had begun to fail everywhere. On the one occasion
that was caused by the loss of :her daughter Proserpina
(Persephone Gk.) who had been carried down into the
earth by Pluto the King of the Underworld to become his
wife. Mtenwaros Proserpina was ailowed ,to return to earth
for six or (some say) nine months. On the other occasion
the withdrawal of Ceres from heaven was due to :her being
disgraced by her brother Neptune, whereupon she retired
into a cave, and was eventually only enticed out by the
gods assembling outside .the cave and entertaining them
selves in a noisy manner, whereupon Ceres, being filled
1 A. E. Powell: The Solar System, London, 1930.
14 TIlE OCCULT PROPERTIES OF HERBS
with cuci.osity came out to see what was happening and

was persuaded to stay out. The same story is ,told, in
Japanese mythology, of the sun-goddess Amaterasu and her
brother, with severa:l identical details.
The teaching of these two myths is obvious. The physi
call property of ,the corn was ,the maintenance of the health
of the body. The occult property of Ithe corn was the
upholding of the welfare of the spiritual life of man. But
how was this to be accomplished? The myth was to be
put into practice by means of the mysteries. The most
famous of ,the mysteries of this .goddess were the Eleusinia
among the Cretans and Greeks and the Thesmophoria
among the Greeks. These two were closely connected. The
Eleusinian mysteflies were reckoned ,the greatest of the
relgious initiations of the classkal world. They were
strictly secret, but aH the most famous men of antiquity
belonged thereto, except Socrates. They were supposed ,to
be founded by Cadmus (1550 B.C.), Erechtheus (1399
B.C.) or Eumolpus (1356 B.C.) and were only abolished
by the Emperor Theodosius I (A.D. 389) after they had
spread to Rome.
AlI"OOd y In the Eleusinian mysteries the cult of Ceres,
the goddess of corn was associated with that of Bacchus,
the god of wine. This foreshadows the use of bread and
wine in the chief Chri$tian sacrament, which is dealt with
more fully in our chapter on Herbs ill Religion.1
Bean King and Queen We now come to the pulses, such

as beans, peas and lenti'ls. In the ancient Roman festiva,l
of the Lemuria black beans were cast upon graves. Beans
were also burnt. It was thought tha.t this, and other associ
ated practices, such as beating of drums and uttering of
magical words, would prevent 'the ghosts of the dead from
troubling the LiVling. On !the other hand, legumes seem to
have been consumed a.n a reverend manner at funerals,
from which it a.ppears that their occult properties were
such as link the .Jiving and the dead.
Pythagoras is said to have foroidden his followers to use
beans. Some say this means he fOIibade them Ito ttake
public offices, as such were elected by votes taken !in the
I See page 45.
HERBS AS FOODS
form of beans. Aristot'le says beans signify lasciviousness;

thus the prohibition of using beans might mean chastity.
It has also been suggested that unruly cOnduct in general
is signified by peas and beans, because of the wild and
unruly growth of their shoots.
On Twelth Night in mediaeval France and England,
young people were chosen to play the part of a king and
queen by hiding two beans in a large cake whioh was cut
up amongst the company. The youth and maiden who
were served with the beans !Were given certain privileges.
In a somewhat similar way the ,Lord of Misru1le was
appointed at Halloween to serve Cl!t the Kling's Court until
Candlemas. He was a sort of court-fool and was called in
ScotJand, Abbot of Unreason. The custom was abolished
in 1555, but traces of similar foolery have been preserved
in our Universities.
Carling Sunday This is better known as Passion Sunday.

It was also called Care Sunday. On this day there was a
custom of eag peas, aIled carlings. They were steeped,
then fried with butter, then g,iven away. We have seen
thalt beans were associated with funerals and on Passion
Sunday was celebrated, by anticipation, I ,the funeral:
Christ. Beans and peas represent ,the souls of Ithe dead.
Beans ,were ha1: lowed
being brought to the Cl!1tar. This, also, was practJi.sed by
he Greek Ohurch. Sown seed must be moist. Except it be
buried it will not grow (John xii, 24-25). The deepest
humility is symbolised by buniai. For this reason in the
East some yogis originally practised Ithe art of being buried
aLive.
Apple Cult Apples have been said to have followed

acorns as the chief food for primitive man. But apart from
their nutritive value it may be seen, from numerous ancient
beliefs and superstitions, thaI1: apples have an occult refer
ence to love.
On the Eve of Christmas or TweHth Night an apple-cult
was still in vogue in Bnitain and some other European
J Because Lent, consisting of forty days, represents the forty
hours between crucifixion and resurrection.
countries Uilitil. ,the early part of tthe present century The

.
object 'Wa'S to ensure a good crop. It included visits to the

orchard, perambulations of the ttrees, recitations refening
to ferrtiLity, beating rthe trees !With sticks or shooting at
them, making loud noises, 'Wassailing (drinking health to
the trees in cyder), dipping branches in cyder, offering
toast, cheese and roasted apples, pouring cyder on the
roots. Sometimes a boy climbed a tree and personified the
tree spirit. Sometimes the spirit was personified by a tit,
wren or robin, which in ancient tunes was sacrificed.
Hence the old custom of hunting the wren and ,the nur
sery rhyme, "Who killed cock-robin?". In some places the
fiddle was played, after :which 'the fiddler would place his
head on the knees of each m3Jiden present and pronounce
the name of her future husband.
Some ,time before Michaelmas, maidens gathered cra:b
apples and cut into them the initials of their sUJitors, leav
ing the fruit to dry. On Michaelmas day they examined
them and tthe initials seeming most perfect were considered
to represent the most likely husbands.
On the day of Saints Simon and Jude, apples were
pared, the parings thrown down and supposed rto represent
the initials of the future husband.
Another way of divination, practised at Halloween, was
catching apples .in the mouth, suspended on a string or
floating in a bucket. If a maiden, combing her hair, and
holding an apple in her mouth, were to look m a mirror,
she might, so it was believed, catch a glance of her future
husband. A couple, shafling an apple, were likely to marry.
All this is quite .in harmony with classical mythology.
The golden apples of the Hesper-ides, for instance, were
given by Juno to Jupiter on the day of their wedding.
At the wedding of Peleus and The tis, when all the gods
and goddesses were present, except the goddess of discord,
who had not been invited, the ,latter ;threw into theit: midst
a golden apple bearing the inscription; "For the fairest".
All the goddesses claimed t, but at last three were selected
(Juno, Minerva and Venus) between whom ,the judgment
was to be given by a mortal. Paris was chosen to be the
judge, and he awarded it to Venus, thus precipitating the
Trojan War.
HERBS AS FOODS
In another story the beautiful but athletic princess

Atalanta, to free herself from the .importunities of her
many suitors, says she will marry the first one of them
that can outrun her in a race. Not one , was successful until
Hippomanes competed. He was no better a runner than
the others, but he had been prov:ided by Venus with three
golden apples, which he threw down during the race. Dis
traoted by this, Atalanta allowed Hippomanes Ito win and
thus become her husband.
Other Fruit CerelDomes There were many other cere

monies connected wth fruits, some of which are witnesses
to special or general occult properties. Naturally a very
general connection with fruits was with fertility. This is
locally associated with feasts of 'the dead, since death
requires new Efe for repla'cement, hence fertility. All Souls
day (Nov. 2nd) is celebrated for ali the dead, not only by
Christians, but by Buddhists and Druids. Its eve, celebrated
for all Saints by Christians, was -the feast of Pomona,
goddess of fruit, amongst the pagan Romans. Halloween
(All Soul's Eve) has been caHed the Chnistian equivalent
of this, and more vulgarly Nutcracker Night, because of
certain divinatory practices with nuts, especially 'the hazel.
It was .the Keltic Samhain, also a feast among the pagan
Franks and Germans.
Among the most important tree cults were those of the
fig, sacred to Pan, the vine, sacred Ito Bacchus (to be dealt
with later), the okive sacred to Minerva (see also 'later) and
the pomegranate to Juno.
Harvest festivals are numerous. One of ,the oldest is the
Jewish Feast of Tabernades. In <this occurs t>he carrying of
four kinds of plants: the lulau or tall palm branch, the
esrog or citron, the hadassim or myrtle and the arDuous
o-r willow. The first three signify the beauty of God's gifts,
the last as <to teach humiflity.
Japanese Tea CerelDony Tea was inltroduced into Japan

from the marnland of Asia in the eighth century, but did
not become popular until the ,thirteenth. Shortly af'ter,
influence of Zen Buddhism began to make itself felt in
the realm of <tea-dninking, and a Buddhist monk brought
2-TOPOH
over from China a complete set of utensils for the proper

preparation and serving of .tea. As ris weB known Zen
claims to teach a direct approach to hidden human abili
ties. Hence there was supposed ,to be a proper mode of
serving tea, as there was in many other arts! Besides this
it was said that ,tea was favourable to meditation, as it
maintained
the utmost simplicity and the movements of the mtual
were extremely harmonious.
Tea was also consumed ;in large quantties in T,ibetan
monasteries.
Other Tisanes Tea was introduced into Europe in the

smteenth century and soon became popular. It is made
by treating the dried leaves of the tea-bush (Thea) with
boaing water, and such preparations are called tisanes.
They also include coffee from the kernels (so-called beans)
of the coffee-plant (Coffea), roasted and ground, cocoa
from the powdered seeds of Theobroma, and mate tea from
the ooed leaves of a species of flex, a plant of the holly
genus, widely used in South America.
CHAPTER THREE
HERBS IN HEALING
Ancient Medicine From historical and archaeological

studies we now have extensive Usts of plants used by the
ancients lin the art of healing. ,Some of these are still
included in the modern pharmacopoeia whilst others have
been elimina'ted.
psyohology into modern medicine, drugs are now expected
to have a chemical action on the body. Even those affect
ing the mind are assumed to work by chemical action on
cells of the brain.
Pomegranate was used by the ancient Babylonians and
Egyptians, but is now regarded as useless. The Babylonians
used turmeric, now regarded as nothing more ,than a
colouring agent. Spikenard, a most important drug of the
HERBS IN HEALING 19
Hebrews and Hindus, is now reduced to a mere adUilter
ating material. found <in some samples of valerian. Mistletoe,
to which the Druids ascribed almost miraculous powers of
healing, is no longer mentioned in our books on pharma
cognosy.
It appears that the ancients were aware of occult pro
perties of heIibs, which they believed had effects on the
invisible aspects of man, which are thought [0 be purely
imaginary by the materialistic science of the present day.
Only a few clairvoyants have dared to il:alk about ,uhis
sort of thing in recent years. In 1906 an old genil:leman
calling himself Charubel published a bookl dealing with
the cure of disease by sympathy with herbs and stones on
whM he called the soul plane. Later Dr. Rudolf Steiner,
founder of the Anthroposophical Society, introduced
medicines based on his investigations of spicitual science
and these included mistletoe. Steiner believed spirituail
elements worked through physical substances, so thM his
methods were not anltagonistic to, but complementary to,
modern medicine.
The casting out of devU.Is, well known from the New
Testament, was believed ,to be possible, among the Baby
lonians, Egyptians and Hindus by the act of in,jecll:ion of
an enema or clyster.2 Most of the modes of administration,
known to pharmacists today, were of anoient origin.
Ayur-veda, the Hindu System The four Vedas are the

most important of the Hindu scriptures and the Ayur-veda
is ,the medical. supplement ,to one of them, said to have been
written by Dhanwantari, the physician of the gods. It
trea'ts the subject from an exceedingly broad point of view,
for Ayu means simply life.3 It alleges that health is the
1 Psychology of Botany, Leigh, 1 906, giving psychic impressions

of thirty-nine plants, three metals and eleven precious stones, with
symbols appropriate to each.
2 C. J. S. Thompson: The Mystery and A rts of the Apothecary,
London, 1 929.
3 Our account is based on Ayurveda or the Hindu System of
Medicine by B. V. Raman, edited and annotated by W. B. Crow,
first published in The Search Quarterly IV, 1 1 934 and after
wards reprinted at Bangalore.
hal'IIlonious balance of the three ,important forces acting in

the body and of its seven main tissues. Disease is of three
IllaIin kinds: physical, accidental and mental, but all three
have a spiritual basis. Medicines also are of three kinds:
(i) mantras (regulated sound vibrations) rites and offerings,
plants and gems; (iii) articles applied with reason and (iii)
freedom of the mind from injurious acts. Herbs therefore
only form a part of the treatment, yet many are utilised
from ,the very abundant native flora of India. Many of
these have been ffilporrted in Western medicine and used
for their obvious physiological effects. An example is
Rauwolfia, a poisonous genus of the periwinkle family,
.
long used .in India as a pur.gative and antidote against

snake and insect bites. This came a.nto use in Europe as a
tranquilliser some few years ago. Nevertheless it is not for
the physiological effeots alone that the Ayurvedic drugs
are used in India. Accordling to Dr. Raman1 the following
characteristics are taken into account (i) the preponderant
of the five bhutas2 in the composition of the drug, viz. (ii)
its taste, (iii) its qualities e.g. Equid or solid, heavy or light,
etc., (iv) its potency or strength of acton, (v) its ater-effects,
(vi) any special. peculiarities. The Ayur-vedic practitioner
also takes into account the season of the year, the condition
of the patient, his food and every aspect of his environ
ment.
Moxa In China, from <the earliest times a system of medi

cine has been in vogue which purports to cure disease by
inserting needles into various parrts of the body. This
system is called acupuncture. Special charts and models
show exaotly where the needles should be applied. Too
system has spread <to Europe and has been much practised
in France. As it has nothing to do with herbs it is outside
the scope of this book.
However, the practJitioners of acupuncture sometimes use
what is cal,led moxa, and .there are separate practitioners of
1 Loc. cit.
2 bhuta is translated element, but as Dr. Raman points out it is
certainly not an element in the sense of chemistry; rather it
resembles an element in the sense of the nature-philosophy or
a.rcane science.
HERBS IN HEAUNO 21
the latter. Moxa consists of the use of small cones or

cylinders of the powdered leaves of mugwort. (Artemisia),
a composte plant related to the chamomile, which are
used as counter..urritants. They are placed on definite
places on the body, specified by moxa-chaI1ts, quite distinct
from acupunoture charts, set fire to by a taper or burning
joss-stick, raising a small blister jnto ,which the ash may be
rubbed. Even moxa has occasionally been practised in
Europe.
Docte of Signatures In the Middle Ages in Europe a

curious occult property was ascribed to certain plants. It
was noted ,that certain parts of a plant might resemble in
form or colour some part of the human body, and it was
believed that diseases of the said organ could be cured by
the application of the corresponding plant. This was the
doctnne of signatures, which stated that every plant was
signed, as it were, with its own use, and it was only neces
sary ,to look for and understand the signature. In some
plants this was easy. The l'iverworts, for instance, were so
named because the plant body ooten resemble a Ever in
shape. Consequently they were used for liver complaints.
The lungwort, a plant allied to the borage and forget-me
not had leaves resembling the lungs and was used for the
trealtment of that organ. The bladder-wort is a water-plant
with submerged leaves upon which are borne smalJ Ibladders
in which insects are caught. It was used in diseases of the
urinary bladder. It is distantly related to the foxglove.
The orchis, a Monocotyledon, receives its name from ts
underground -tubers resembling the 'testes of the male body,
therefore believed especially valuable for diseases of the
male sex organs. The birthwort, belonging to a somewhat
isolated group of Dicotyledons, has enormous flowers, the
corolla of which resembles the wOIDb of .the female body,
consequently being used in female diseases, especially if
connected with childbirth. As regards colour, red sandal
wood was used for diseases of the blood, as also were the
petals of red roses. The yellow colour of saffron, from the
stigmas of a monocotyledonous plant of Itlhe crocus type,
was thought to resemble bile and consequently was used in
the treatment of biliousness.

HerbaliSID In the early Middle Ages physicians used

many herbs as their medicines, following the great classical
works of Hippocrates (460-377 B.C. ) and Galen1 (circa A.D.
130-200), but about the time of the Reformation, Paracelsus
( 1493-1541) tintroduced many mineral drugs. In England,
the Royal College of Physicians dbtained letters paJtent in
1518 (during the reign of Henry VIII 1491-1547) with
powers somewhat simiIar ,to those now possessed by the
General Medical Council. But aJbout this time an act of
ParLiament was passed whereby anyone having a know
ledge of the healing properties of plants was ahlowed to
make use of such knowleg d e.
charter by many practitioners of folk-medicine, who had
not studied anatomy, physiology and the clinical subjects
in a medical school. They became known as herbalists.
The plants used at the beginning of the present century
were wild herbs (Dicotyledons) very few of which were
recognised as being of any use by the regular medical
profession. The following is the list,2 arranged according
to families :
Loranthus Family (Loranthceae): mistletoe (Viscum).

Dock Family (Polygonaceae): bistort (Polygonum).
:Bink Family (Caryophyllaceae): ohickweed (Stellaria).
Rose Family (Rosaceae): agrimony (Agrimonia),
meadowsweet (Ulmaria), !Wild raspberry (Rubus).
Bean and Pea Family (Leguminosae): broom (Sarotham
nus).
Flax Family (Linaceae) : mountain flax (Linum).
Lythrum Family (Lythraceae): purp loosestrife (Ly:th
rum).
Carrot Family (UmbeHiferae): sea holly (Eryngium),
wild carrot (Daucus), wood sanicle (Sanicula).
Gentian Family (Gentianaceae): buck bean or bog bean
(Menyanthes), centaury
Borage Family (Boraginaceae): comfrey (Symphytum).
Dead Nettle Family (Labiatae): black horehound
(Ballota), white horehound (M arrubium) ground-ivy
1 Vegetable drugs are still called galenicals after Galen.
2 From W. H. Webb (Ed.) : Standard Guide to non-poisonous
Herbal Medicine, Southport, 1 9 1 6 .
HERBS IN HEALING
(Glechoma), self-heal (Prunella), skull-cap (Scutellaria),

wood betony (Betonica), wood sage (Teucrium), red
sage (Salvia), water mint (Mentha), hyssop (Hyssopus).
Blantain Family (Plantaginaceae) : plantaJin (Plantago).
Valerian Family (Valerianaceae) : Valel'ian (Valeriana).
Sunflower Family (Compositae): burdock (Arctium),
burmarigold (Bidens), coltsfoot (Tussilago), dandelion
(Taraxacum), mugwort (Artemesia), ragwort (Sene
cio), yarrow (Achillea).
Herbalism spread to America with ,the pilgrim fathers
and a rather distinctive set of plants came tinto use which
included the following of which the first two families are
monocotyledonous:
Orchid Family (Orchidaceae): lady's sl1pper (Cypripe-

dium).
Arum Family (Araceae): wake robin (Arum).
Myrtle Family (Mycicaceae): bog myrtle (Myrica).
Birthwort Family (Aristolochiaceae): birthwort (Aristo-
lochia), Canada snakeroot (Asarum).
Water Lily Family (Nymphaeaceae): water-lily (Nym
phaea).
Buttercup Fami,ly (Ranunculaceae): black snake root
(Cimicifuga), golden seal (Hydrastis).
Barberry Family (Berberidaceae): barberry (Berberis).
Witch-hazel Family (Hamamelidaceae): witch-hazel
(Hamamelis).
Wood-sorrel Family (Oxalidaceae): wood-sorrel (Oxalis).
{
Rue Family (Rutaceae): pnickly ash Zanthoxylum).
Wintergreen Family (Pyrolaceae): wmtergreen (Pyrola).
Potato Famly (Solanaceae): cayenne pepper (Capsi-
cum).
Dead Nettle Family (Labiatae):
water horehound (Lycopus . )
Foxglove Family (Scrophulanaceae) : balmony (Chelone).
Sunflower Family (Compositae): gravel root (Empator
ium).
Lobehia Family (Lobeliaceae): Lobelia.
Many of !these were ,taken over from the native Indian
folk-medicine. Lobelia and Capsicum were the chief medi-
cines of the Thomsonian system, so-called from Samuel

Thomson ( 1 76g-1 843) who introduced them. They were
the cause of much controversy w.i.rt:h the medical profession,
who opposed the herbalists.
HODloeopathy The system of medicine called homoeo

pathy was introduced by a medical man and ha's been
practised by thousands of qua'Jified physicians. But if
differs from orclrinary medicine, which tits practit,ioners
call allopathy. T<he differences are as follows : (i) Every
drug used in homoeopathy must have been tested on a
heal-thy person, (ii) in such person the drug must produce
exactdy the symptoms of the disease it is used to cure,
(iii) only one remedy is to be used at a time, (iv) the drug
is used in its greatest possible dilution, in fact dilution is
thought to activate the drug. Hence degrees of dilution
are called potencies.
Homoeopathy was brought into existence by Samuel
Hahnemann ( 1 755- 1 843). Whilst translating Cullen's
Materia Medica he noted a number of medicines, called
specifics, which acted only In certain disea,ses. One of these
was Peruvian bark from Cinchona a South American piailit
of the madder family which was, at the 'time, becoming
very popular in the treatment of malaria. Being of an
inquiring mind he tried this drug on himself and found
he had developed symptoms similar to those of ma,laria,
even in detaru. He then, with the aid of friends, experi
mented with a wide range of drugs and found ,the same
sort of thing. Thus deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna)
produces ,the symptoms of scarlet fever, poison tvy (Rhus
toxicodendron) produces those of erysipelas, thorn-apple
(Datura stramonium) those of asthma, colocynth (Citrullus
colocynthis) those of colic, etc.
The drug is always used in small quantities, diluted
with water or mixed with an inert powder, such as milk
sugar (lactose). Some of the early homoeopaths used such
extreme dilutions that it is said that only a few molecules
or none at aH were availa:ble. This led to suggestions, such
as we believe were put forward by the aforementioned
Dr. Rudolf Steiner, that occult or super-physicai properties
were involved. We understand some investigations along
HERBS IN HEALING
these lines have been made by the Anthroposophical

Society.
CHAPTER FOUR
DRUGS AND POISONS
The Cult of Bacchus The cereals, as we have seen, whilst

u holding the physical life of man, from the occult point
y
o V'iew are seen, in tthe ceremonies of Demeter or Ceres,
as upholding the spiritual life. In the mysteries of Bleusis,

we have remarked, the goddess was associated with Diony
sus, the god called Bacchus by ,the Romans. The latter
also had several festivals of his own in Athens. Dionysus
was the god of the vane, and hence of wine. From the
occult point of view the wine is not merely an intoxicating
liquor, but it can be used for spwituall purposes. At its
lowest level this can be :seen in ,the drinking bouts practised
in the West I ndies and among the Caribs of Central
America, where after dI1inking heavily the drinkers fall
down alongside graves, and afterwards relate messages
that they receive from the dead. At its highest level, intoxi
cation with wine symbolises to the mystic divine ecstasy.
Although Islam forbids the use of wine, many of Ithe Sufis,
the mystics of this religion, wrote poems tin the praise of
wine, using this symbolism.
Today certain people are claiming that -the use of new
drugs results n the expansion of consciousness. This mis
taken dea was shared by the ancients n the use of wine.
Consequently the cult of Bacchus in Rome degenerated
into a series of orgies at one time. I t was suppressed, but
later reinstated, as it was realised that the proper use of
wine in the mysteries had a profound oocult significance.
To this we will return later.
FerDlented Liquors On the skin of grapes a microscopic

fungus called yeast (Saccharomyces) lives. When the grapes
are pressed and the juice called must is obtained, the ,latter
has the yeast cells within it and these cause, by a process
of fermentation, the conversion of the grape sugar mto
ethyl akohod (ethanol), the laJt ter being the intoxicating

principle. Alcoholic liquors are also made from heI1bs con
taining other sugars or even starch. I n the Latter case the
starch has to be converted to sugar by means of a Iiwng
agent, and there are micro-organisms rthat do this. In a
few ca'ses human sa,liva has been used, for which purpose
the vegetable matter is chewed ! Spirits of course are pre
pared from fermented liquoI1S which have been distilled,
a process already known to the ancients.
Apart from a few instances, such as mead made from
honey, 1 the sugar avaiJlahle in nature comes from the vege
table kingdom. Noah was :the first traditional cultivator of
the vine after his egress from ,the ark. Wine is therefore in
use in ilie early stages of wrutJten history and is recorded
from everywhere in Europe, although ilie vine win not

grOtW in the colder countries. Wine was often imported. We
have already referred to cider, produced from apples.
Perry, from pears, was made in a similar manner. I n
Britain native plants were used at an early daJte, so a kind
of wine was produced from sloe, gooseberry, blackberry,
eldeI1berry, rhubarb and even turnip. In the tropics other
plants were used The sugar-cane, probably a native of
.
the East Indies, was also used in Africa producing the

wine called massanga. A bananawine was in vogue in
East Mruca. Palm-wine, derived from various palms was
produced in North and West Mrica, I ndia, Ceylon, the
isles of .the Pacific and South and Central America. Wine
from the agave, caUed pulque was widespread in Mexico
and South America and in these regions even cacti were
sometimes used.
As regards starch as a source of liquors, cereals were
often used. Beer was brewed in ancient Egypt, and hence
spread to Europe and ilie codder pants of Asia and firIally
to the rest of ,the world. It was made from malt, which
is germinating barley grain. Hops were not used lin Egypt,
but were added later for flavouring. Millet was used at a
very early date for making a kind of 'beer in I ndia, T.ibet
and Mrica and is still used under the name of pombe in
many parts of West Mrica . Wheat was used for making
1 Even honey is derived from nectar of flowers, although
indirectly through the bee.
DRUGS AND POISONS
white beer in Germany. Rice was used in producing what

was called tuak in Borneo and saki in China and Japan.
Maize was the plant for producing chicha in Central and
South America. Tapioca and yucca were materials for
other drinks in the same regions. The last three examples
were prepared by the aforementioned chewing. 1
The vast number of different liquors that have received
separ3)te names depend on different flavours, partly due
to the source, partly to special substances added or mixed,
partly to >1lhe method of preparation. Flavour and mode
of preparation will be referred to again in our chapter on
magic. It should be mentioned however thalt the malcing of
the beverages was often associated with certain cults, not
only were there exact rules in the preparation of the drinks,
bUJt also for celebr3)tions, such as dances, songs and the like.
Tobacco The tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum), a native

of America and now cultivated in all warm countries,
provides leaves which are slowly dci.ed and slightly fer
mented . They are now used .in all parts of .the world
(except by Sikhs, Parsis and a few others) in >1lhe foLlowing
ways: (i) by chewing, (ii) as snuff, (iJii) smoked in a pip e,
(iv) as cigars, (v) as cigarettes. These methods of indulgmg
in the herb d eveloped in the Old World rapidly, in spite
of opposition, after the voyage of Columbus and other early
eploreI'S opened up ,the New World of America. The point
of interest for us, however, is that not only were the native
peoples of America, such as the Aztecs and Toltecs of
Mexico and their redslcin successors addicted .to tobacco,
but they mad e a cult of it. As p ointed out by Lewin,2
tobacco banishes vacancy of mind, bo redom and the aggres
sive instincts, and produces a mild excitation, so that we
can say .that ,the occult property of tobacco, used correctly,
is the produotion of the state of peace. Hence it is well
known that North American Ind ians presented a pipe of
peace to fci.endly people, and the same was smoked in an
atmosphere of harmony in their assemblies. The same rite
was even imported into Europe.
1 For many more details of these and other drugs see that
classical work : L. Lewin : Phantastica: Narcotic & Stimulating
Drugs, trans. London, 1 964.
2 Loc. cit.
OpiUDl On cutting many plants a milky fluid called latex,

streams out, and aftelWards hardens. It may be of different
colours and qualiliies. Opium is the hardened white latex
of the large capsules of the opium poppy (Papaver somni
ferum) whicil turns brown on keeping. This contains many
alkaloids, the chief of whioh is morphine. Whilst useful
in medicine for the ,temporary relief of pain, the opium
alkaloids are mostly dangerous drugs of addiction, the
illegal spread of which t has been very difficwlt ,o sup
press. The addicts use opium (i) by consuming the dried
latex by mouth, (ii) by smoking or (iii) by injecting mor
phine or one of its salts. We can hardly call thlis a cult,
unless t be of sleep or death. However, >the ancients were
weB-aware of the effects of poppies and a female figure
crowned ,wih Ithese flowers would represent Nox, the god
dess of night, or a male similarly adorned would probaJbly
be Morpheus, the god of dreams, referrung to the visions
caused by the drug. He was said 1:0 be .the son of Somnus,
the god of sleep.
Mescal This drug, otherwise known as peyotl consists of

.the dl'ied heads of the cactus Anhalonium lewinii. It con
tains four alkaloids, the chief of which is caUed mescalin
and which appears to be peculiar 1:0 this species. Mescalin
has very peculiar effects. It val'ies somewhat with the in
dividual, iJts chief effects are visual, somet'imes auditory,
often with a disturbance in .the apparent sequence of time
and other hallucinations whereby the taker believes him
self to be in another world.
The plant is indigenous to Mexnco and pal'ts of the
UnDted StaJtes. The government of ,the latter country has
prohibited its use, but the natives have made the eating
of it mto a cult, with assembLies around a fire, music,
singing, preparation of ,the drug and other ritua,l actions.
Indian HeDlp Hemp plants are the source of an important

fibre, but Indian hemp (Cannabis indica ) is a weLl-known
drug and is made into a beverage called haschisch or has
hish,! whilst the leaves and young shoots called bhang
and the resin obtained from the plants by beaJting, called
1 This name is often given to the plant itself ; there are distinct
male and female plants which is unusual in the vegetable kingdom.
DRUGS AND POISONS
churrus, are smoked. The seeds are also smoked. lit was
known in ancient times and in mediaeval times was much
used in the Middle East, where aJttempts were made to
prohibit it. It is chiefly famous for its use among the sect
of the assassins, whose Ieader, caHed the Old Man of the
Mountain, whose headquarters were on Mount Lebanon,
used hashish ,to induce his followers to commit numerous
politicaI murders ( 1 090-1 272). Hence the word assassina
tion is derived from the word hashish.
SOIne other Vegetable Drugs Cocaine is obtained from

the shrub called coca (Erythroxylum coca) which was
native to South America, but is now only known in cultiva
tion in Peru and Bolivia, and places from which it has
been exported. The dried leaves of coca were chewed by
the natives, mixed with lime or ash, and were said to
impart powers of endurance, allaying fatigue, hunger and
pain. The plant is distantly related to the geranium family.
In South America among the nat ives of Ecuador the
woody climber Banisteria caafi yields aya-huasca from the
stems, a beverage being prepared. It contains a substance
harmine, related to mescalin. According to Lewinl its
effects also resemble those of thom-apple,2 and like the
latter it was used by sorcerers. 'J1he plant is again a distant
relation of the geranium family. In .the Amazon vaHey
grows another woody climber of :the genus Paullinia, only
very distantly related to the preceding plant. It furnishes
seeds which are scraped or ground Ito produce, Wlith water,
a paste (pasta guarana) from ,which a beverage is pre
pared. This is olassed by Lewin3 as an excitant. In the
same region of Ithe world a snuff called parica is prepared
from the seeds of Piptadenia peregrina, a legume of the
Acacia group.
Kava-kava is prepared as a beverage on New Guinea
and many of the islands of Polynesia. It comes from the
rootstock (rhizome) of a plant Piper methysticum of the
pepper-family (Pperaceae). As the preparation involves
chewing it was formerly thought alcoholiic fermentation
explained the properties, 6ut Lewin proved that !the excit
ant effects are due to a resin.
I Loc. cit. 2 See page 44. 3 Loc. cit.
Among the Austraiian aborigines, pituri consisted of the

powdered leaves of Duboisia hopwoodii, a plant of either
the potato or foxglove families. Pituri was both . chewed
and smoked.
Throughout the warmer parts of Asia, especially on the
islands from Madagascar to the PhiHipines, the nut of the
betel pahn (Areca catechu) is chewed.
In China, Japan and Formosa, camphor is produced
from Cinnamomum camphora, a ,tree closely related to
cinnamon. A volatile oil is distilled from parts of the plant,
and the crystalline white solid is separated. I,t has been
used in tinctures and pills for hundreds of years n Europe
and it is a dangerous excitant, except in very 'SmaH dO'ses.
In Arabia an infusion called khat of ,the shoots O'f Catha
edulis, a plant of the spindle-tree family (Celastraceae) is
prepared. In the Yemen the shoots are chewed.
We must not forget to mention :the kola-nut, native to
the Sudan, from whence it has spread .to many countries.
The chewing of the nut is extremely popular in warm
countries. It comes from Cola acuminata a plant of the
cocoa family (Sterculiaceae). There are many similar nuts,
but they ck .the exci.tant qualities of kola.
Finally we can include a drug calJed kanna or channa
from succulents of the 'large genus Mesembryanthemum
(Aizoaceae). This is used largely by the Hottentots of South
Africa.
All the drugs mentioned lin this section have an impor
tant effeot on the social life of the various peoples using
'them. Although :their physiologica'l effects are now fairly
well known, their psychological and sociological studies
might reveal many curious phenomena worthy of engaging
the in terest of students of the occult.
Aphrodisiacs A medicine stimulating the sexual instinct

is caJl:Jed an aphrodisiac, after iMle Greek goddess Aphro
dite, caLled Venus by the Romans. An ap'hrodisiac must
not be confused with a love potion. 'J1he former lis purely
medical and is supposed to act on physiological pheno
mena ; ,the latter is purely magicai and is believed to' act
through occul:t forces. The former stimulates the sex force
in general, the latter directs it to some particular individual.
DRUGS AND POISONS 31
Aphrodisiacs are the most unreliable o f medicines ; in

modern medicine it might be said that they do nat exist,
or that many foods are aphrodisiacs. Certainly a diet that
mainta'ins one in health tends to uphold :the sex instinct, as
i-t does the instinctive life in general. A poisonous drug
like stryClhnine, used in smaIl quantities to increase the tone
of muscles, may possibly facilitaJte the performance of the
sexual aot, especially if, iike yohimbine, it acts particularly
on bhe pelvic muscula;ture. But it is now admitted, thanks
.to the investiga;tions intD the psyoholDgy Df the unconscious,
that sexual likes and dislikes are so influenced by the mind
that the idea Df direct action of drugs is ruled out. Even
the materialist, ItOday, believes the brain acts through Dr
in harmony with the endocrine glands : "mDnkey-gland"
treatment was tried Dut about thirty years ago and found
tOo be unsatisfactory.
lit may still be of interest, hDwever, to record some Df
the aphrodisiacs of repute, remembering that even when
successflli., much depends on the correct dosage, and bear
ing in mind the opposing effects of small and <large doses.
From the animal kingdom, musk and ambergris were
used, alsD ants and certain beetles producing cantharides,
a drug so oflten producing death. Very many foods, such as
garlic, onion, artichoke, cardoon, asparagus, beans, lentils,
cabbage, carrots and celery were thought .to possess aphro
disiac properties, and more especially many frui,ts and
seeds, and anythin of stimulatJing taste or odour, such as
many spices, for mstance, nutmeg, pepper, red pepper,
turmeric, . vanilla, capers, aniseed, caraway seed, horse
radish, etc.
We have already referred to strychnine, a dangerous
poison obtained from nux vomica, the seeds of Strychnos
nux-vomica, a smMI tree of ,the Buddleia family (Logani
aceae) and to yohimbine obtained from the bark of stems
of Pausinystalia yohimba a tree of ,the madder family
(Rubiaceae). A similar, if not identJical principle is obtained
from the bark of the white quebracho (Aspidosperma
quebracho) a plant of the periwinkle family (Apocynacp.ae).
Less powerful are damiana and saw palmetto, which were
commonly used together by herbalists [n the form of
,ta;blets or pills. Damiana consists Df the leaves of Turnera
32 THE OCCULT PROPERTIES O F HERBS
diffusa a herb of Centrall America, distantly related to <tIhe

violet family (Violaceae). Saw palmetto or sabal consists
of the fruits of rthe palm Serenoa repens, having a nutty
vaIllilla-like odour.
Poisonous Plants The upas-tree (Antiaris) of Java, a

member of the mulberry famiy, is reputed to be the most
poisonous of plants. Vapours from this plant were sup
posed to kiH off vegetable and animai life for miles around.
This story is based on the fact that lit grows in certain low
valleys where volcapic vapours do destroy life, but not
va pour from ,the tree. It furnished, nevertheless, an arrow
poi son for the natives. 'J1he same applied 11:0 three species
of Euphorbia in Africa, one species of :the same ,genus an
Brazil, whilst in Guiana a species of Strychnos (different
from the one yielding strychnine) and stJill another iII Java
are also used for the same purpose.
A very poisonous latex comes from the mancruneel (Hip
pomane) of the Euphorbia family in Centra'i America and
the West Indies.
An arrow poison used by the Zulus comes from the
genus Acokantheria of the peruwinkle family.
Many genera of the EuphoI1bia family are poisonous,
e.g. Croton, Codiaeum, Toxicodendrum. Some members of
the pea and bean family, such as Crotalaria (sunn-hemp)
and Physostigma (ordeal bean of CaIabar) are poisonous.
The cashew family (Anacardiaceae) includes the poison
ivy, the poison oak and the poison sumach, all members
of ,the genus Rhus.
The monkshood Aconitum nas been caLled the queen
mother of poisons. It is a native of Britain and cultivated
for !its flowers. Another poisonous genus of the same family
(Ranunculaceae) Helleborus includes the hellebore and
Christmas rose, whilst Veratrum of the monocotyledonous
Lily family (Liliaceae) is the wrute hellebore. Many other
poisonous plants have been mentioned and will be men
tioneq later. They are found an most families. But in some
families, such as the carrot family (Umbelliferae) and
potato famny (Solanaceae) they are particularly abundant.
HERBS IN ALCHEMY 33
CHAPTER FIVE
HERBS IN ALCHEMY
The Herb of Immortality Elsewhere we have stated our

belief that alchemy was an antique and mediaeva<l science
concerned with three malin problems (i) the ma:lcing of gold
(ii) the finding of the elixir of life and (iii) the art of pro
ducing living things from the non-Eving. Before the days
of alchemical laboratories, however, preserved on Baby
lonian tablets, the oldest of which goes back to the second
millenium B.C. tis the Gilgamesh Epic, in the latter part
of which the great hero Gilgamesh after the death of his
friend Enkido goes on a aong and complicated journey in
search of the herb of immortality. Eventually he reaches,
after great difficulties, the paradise of Uta-Napishtim, the
Babylonian Noah, who has, after <the flood, been gUven
immortality by the gods. Gilgamesh is told, however, ;that
it is impossible for a mortal to attain immortality by
earthly things, but lis permitted ;to share a great secret,
namely that at the bottom of the sea in a certain place is
a prickly plant and any old per'SOn eating the same regains
his youth. With further difficulties Gilgamesh obtains ,this
plant, and makes for home. On <the way back he stops to
bathe and lays the plant aside. On emerging from the
water he sees the plant is carried away by a serpent and
all his effoI1ts have been in vain.
Elhir of Life Whilst the 'H indus and Buddhists looked

for regeneration in yogic praotices affecting <the vegetative
soul of man, some of the mediaeval recipes for the elixir
of life contain herbs, but usually only as accessories, the
malin ingredients being 'SOmething unknown. The idea ,that
there was a single substance that could cure all diseases,
however, was very preva1len<t in the Middle Ages. Such a
substance was called a panacea. In The Thousand and
One Nights there is a reference to the apple of Samar
cand, which is a cure for every di'SOrder. This may be
founded on the existence of some fruit used in heaLing in
early days. Besides our ordinary apple there are other
3-TOPOH
fruits called apples. The custard-apple, the sugar-apple

and the alligator-apple are species of Anona, related to the
cherimoyer and some are edible. The .love-apple is the
tomato (Lycopersicum). l1he elephant-apple or wood-apple
(Feronia) lis also edible, and so is the rose-apple or Malay
apple (Eugenia). The may-apple (Podophyllum) belongs to
a drug-yielding plant. The pine-apple (Ananas) helps lin
the digestion of protein. The star-ap ple (Chrysophyllum)
is edible. The thorn-apple (Datura) is thorny and poison
ous, although it has been used in medicine in minute doses.
Another elixir of life was the Promethean unguent, made
from a hel1b from which 'some of the blood of Prometheus
had faHen. In mythology the wiJt:ch Medea gave some of
it to her lover Jason, to preserve him from burns and
wounds. In Sir Walter Scott's Pirate the dulse of Guiodin,
a sea"weed, will cure every disease except the black death.
In China the ginseng, a species of Aralia was often
regarded as a panacea. Elephant's foot, a speoies of Hydro
cotyle, a plant of the carrot family is another. In the
thirties a newspaper report recorded the death of a China
man who had thnived on this herb, dying at an age weH
over two :hundred years.
Palingenesy Certain writers of the middle of the seven

teenth century claimed to know of a peculiar substance,
which unfol1tunately cannot now be identified, whereby a
plant could be apparently resuscitated from its ashes. A
plant was burnt, its ashes carefully collected and Itreated lin
a certain manner with the special subs,tance. A blue powder
resulted. This was placed in a suitable vessel and gently
heated. Under the influence of the heat the I?owder
assumed e ghost-like form of :the plant from whlch the
ashes had 'been taken. On withdrawall of ,the heat the
appa6tion disappeared, but could be reproduced by fur
ther heating. Similar experiments were recorded for ani
mals and even human beings.'
Spontaneous Generation The ancients believed that

plants and animals, besides being born from other plants
' For further details see Lewis Spence : An Encyclopaedia of
Occultism, London, 1 920, article Paligenesy.
HERBS IN ALCHEMY 35
and animals by seeds, egg and other ways, might arise from
non-living substances. Even Aristotle, who was so accurate
in many observations on living things, thought vertebrates
such as eels, frogs and serpents might be born from mud.
The modern view,l that living things including micro
orgaruisms always arise from other living things of the
same or simhlar species was not fully established until the
woIik of L. Pasteur ( 1 82 2- 1 895). It was not surprising,
therefore, that the alchemists thought it possible to pro
duce living things, including human beings,2 in an arti
ficiall manner.
CHAPTER SIX
HERBS IN ASTROLOGY
Epochs Properly understood, astrology is a study of some

of the rhythms3 of nature and of man. Whilst it includes
far more tthan Ithe materialist can imagine, we will first
point out <that, in the history of the earth, plant and animal
l,ife were quite different a:t different epochs. From the
study of fossils we learn th.art: in the oldest rooks (pre
Cambrian and Cambrian) there are remains of algae and
bacteria, in the next (Ordovician) very simple fish-like
vertbrates appear but land"Plants are doubtful. In the
next period (Silurian) land plants not much above the
moss level appear, some land scorpions and many true
fishes, in .the next (Devonian) stihl more fishes and plants
like giant club-mosses and horsetails, in the next (CaI"bon
iferous) fern-like plants, insects, spiders and amphibians
1 For some account of the history of the controversy see W. B.

Crow : Spontaneous Generation The Search, 1 93 3 or for a
l
shorter account the same author s A. Synopsis of Biology, Bris tol ,
1 960 and !lnd edition, 1 964, p. !l.
2 For a brief account of this see W. B. Crow : A. History of
Magic, Witchcraft and Occultism, London, 1 968, p. !l09.
3 W. B. Crow : Biological Rhythms the basis for S cientific Astro
logy, Proteus, I , Jan. 1 93 1 and Further Biological Rhythms,
Proteus, 4, Oct. 1 93 I .
among animals, in the net (Permian) reptiles and cone

plants flourish. These epochs constitUite the Palaeozoic.
Now comes rtlhe long age of reptiles (Mesozoic) and lit was
not until .the third division of this (Cretaceous) that the
flowering plants becatne abundaIlJl:. In the following (Ter
tiary) era the various famiJies of ,the same evolved.
Seasons While in the tropics seasona:l changes are less

noticeable, in rtlhe temperate zone they affeot both animal
and plant life profoundly. There are times for seed to be
set, times for germination, budding, shedding of leaves,
flowering, fruiting and dispersal
seeds. Different plants
flower at different times. To illustrate from the Brtish
Flora :
January : speedwell (Veronica), winter aconiJt:e

(Eranthis) ;
February : lesser celandine (Ficaria), dog's mercury
(Mercurialis) ;
March : marsh marigold (Caltha), wood anemone
(Anemone) ;
April : bluebell (Sc"illa), ladies' smock (Carda
mine) ;
May : wood sanicle (Sanicula), haw,thorn or may
(Crataegus) ;
June : dog-rose (Rosa), wild thyme (Thymus) ;
July : bindweed (Convolvulus), Traveller's Joy
(Clematis) ;
August : ivy (Hedera) ;
September : Meadow saffron (Colchicum) ;
October : Sternbergia, aHied to preceding (Mediter
ranean) ;
November : (Rimafayan) of
Le,,!cesteria the elder
affinity ;
December : Christmas rose (Helleborus).
A similar table could be constructed for germination,

budding, ripening of fruit and other phenomena.
Plants and the Moon It has long been believed that the
HERBS IN ASTROLOGY 37
growth of vegetation varies with the phases of the moon. I
In 1 929 L. Kolisk02 published results of some experiments
which had been carried out during severnl years. These
showed that in wheat plants, which were the subject of the
experiments, there lis an increase of growth with the wax
ing moon, but there is aIso a yearly cycle, growth decreas
ing on the whole towards the winter months. Both factors
must be taken into account. In faot, in December the usual
increase towards the time of the new moon does not occur,
and there is a remarkable acceleration of growth before
the Easter full moon. During the fortnight before the
latter, additional! growth more than counterbalances the
usual effects of the waning moon. Similar results were soon
after obtained with maize, and since that time other im
portant results of research have been published by workers,
mostly among the anthroposophi.sts.
The Floral Clock The fact that flowers open and close at
different hours of the day and night led Linnaeus ( 1 707-
1 7 78) >1:0 suggest the so-called floral clock, whereby one
coudd tell !the time, very roughly, from observing which
flowers are open or closed. The d ifficulties are (i) flowers
open and close at different times at different latitudes (ii)
the flowers most useful for constructing such a clock are
not aU flourishing at !the same time of the year. Neverthe
less, attempts have been made to plant the clook in public
gardens. The original list was constructed by Linnaeus for
Upsala, 600 N a second by Kerner3 for I nnsbruck 47. A
list giving English names was published by Brewer.4
Herbs of the Planets The flowers of the floral clock can.

nolt correspond with .the planetary hours, since the latter
depend, not only on the 24-hour cycl , but also on the
cycle of the week. As each day of the week corresponds
wih a planet we might expect a 7-day cycle. We suggest
1 For some account of lunar rhythms, in plants, animals and
the human subject see W. B. Crow, Lunar Rhythms, Proteus, 5,
Jan. 1 9311.
2 Der Mond und das Pflanzenwachstum, Giia Sophia, IV, 1 929.
3 Both these lists are published in Kerner, The Natural History
of Plants, trans. Oliver, 2nd voL, London, 1 902.
4 Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, London, 1 895.
the clue to this might be found in the 28-day iunar cycle

divided by the four elements : fire, earth, air and water,
which do play a part in astrology.
'
But to consider now the traditional rulership of herbs
according to the seven planets we must remind any
readers who are not acquainted with astrology that the
sun and moon, called luminaries, are counted with the
seven planets.
The sun rules Sunday and passes through the zodiac in
one year. Consequently the solar heros are mostly of
annual growth and symbolised in old herbals by the sun's
symbol 0 . Alternatively they would show one of the signa
tures of the sun, viz. (ii) a golden or orange colour, like
saffron or the orange,l (ii) an orbicular shape, (iii) a large
size, (iv) a radiating shape, e.g. sunflower, (v) an aromatic
odour, (vi) an action on the iheart, i.e. as cordials, from
cor the heart, ruled by the sun, like cinnamon, (vii) a ten
dency to turn ,towards the sun, e.g. sunflower and helio
trope.
The moon (Symbol 1l ) rules Monday and passes ,through
the zodiac lin twenty-eighlt days. Its herbs have (i) soft
juicy ,leaves ; (ii). often live in freshwater, (ii) the flowers
and fruits are white or pale yeLlow, (iv) t1lhe fruits are
large ; (iv) also watery and tasteless, like the melon, pump
kin and gourd ; (vi) they are believed Ito show a marked
monthly periodicity ; (vii) they show lunar signatures, e.g.
the shape of the gibbous phase of the moon in the fruits
of honesty (Lunaria), the crescentic leaves of moonwort
(Botrychium lunaria) and iIlhe crescentic gemma-cup of
Lunularia.
The planet Mars rules Tuesday. It passes through the
zodiac in, very roughly, 'two years, consequen1Jly its sign 0-
was formerly used for biennials.2 Its plants (i) possess
thorns, spines or prickles, e.g. hawthorn, sloe, bramble,
thistles ; (ii) !live .in dry places, even deserts, e.g. caoti, (iii)
have acrid pungent or stimulating properties like rasp
berry or red pepper, (v) show a red colour, like :the red
1Orange also shows signature (ii) and (iii).

2
Now used in biology for the male sex, being shield and spear,
whilst the sign of Venus (looking glass) indicates the female.
HERBS IN ASTROLOGY 39
rose with its red thorns or (v) show a conical root calJed a
tap-root (which aho may be red, as nn carrot or beet) .
The planet Mercury (Symbol t;l ) rules Wednesday, and
passes through the zodiac in three months. Its herbs (i)
have fine or highly divided leaves or stems, owing to the
airy nature of this planet, e.g. grasses, (ii) have a subtle
odour e.g. aniseed, (iii) have a medicinal effect on
tongue, lungs and nervous system, and (iv) are important
as food, e.g. the cereals.
The planet Jupiter rules Thursday and passes ,through

the zodiac in roughly :twelve years. Its symbol indiCaJted
her:baceous perennials, which often live about twelve years.
Lts heros (i) show the signature of the cross, e.g. Cruoiferae,
as the god Jupiter ruled over aU the four quarters of the
globe ; ( ii) they are large and conspicuous, e.g. fig, olive
and grape ; ( iii) they are ed1ble and nutritlious, e.g. acorn,
beech-nut ; (iv) Itlhey have a pleasant odour, e.g. mulberry,
cloves, nutmeg and marjoram.
The planet Venus ( Symbol S? ) rules Friday and passes
through Ithe zodiac in nine months. I ts herb (i) have
beautiful flowers, white or pink,! as some roses; (ii) a
pleasant smell, as rose and lily of the valley ; (iii) smooth,
green foliage and fruits, sometimes with a blushing tinge
of pink or roo, e.g. apple.
The planet Saturn rules 'Saturday and completes its
course Ithrough the zodiac in thirty years. Its symbol h ill
used for ,woody perennia:ls, the majority of which often
live thirty years or :thereabouts, although some trees live'
much longer. The plants of Saturn (i) show annual rings,
as Saturn is the god of tim e ; (ii) have grey or dull foliage
or bark ; (iii) their flowers are scaly or insignificant ; (iv)
they are ,woody, even if not shrubs or trees, e.g. tortoise
plant (Testudiooria) of the yam family, (v) they have dun
green foliage ; (vi) unpleasant taste, and smell, such as
valerian, and (vii) are often poisonous, e.g. hellebore of the
buttercup family, hemlock and many plants of the carrot
family and deadly nighrt:shade and many plants of the
potato family.
1 The pink colour is the feminine counterpart of red, as Mars
(red) is the lover of Venus.
Plants of the Zodiac The author has proposed, following

ancient tradition, a wdiacal classification of the vegetable
kingdom.1 Pisces, the fishes obviously rule the algae which
includes the pond-scums and seaweeds. Aries, the ram,
signifying the pioneer, rules the lichens, plants that re
semble seaweed in form, yet are pioneers on land, prepar
ing the way for other vegetation. Taurus, the bull, signify
ing the eal'th, rules Itlhe fungi which mostly grow near
(mushroom) or under (truffle) the ground. Gemini, the
twins, an aary sign, rules the mosses, many of which grow
as epiphyltes, i.e. on :trees in the air. Cancer, tthe crab, a
watery sign, rules the ferns, horse-tails and club-mosses, the
sexual stage of whioh lives in water.
Leo, the lion, a fiery sign, rules !the cone-plants, cycads,
pines and firs. The cone is a signature of fire and the sun
which rules this sign.
Virgo, the virgin, an earth sign, dedicated to Ceres the
earth-mother, naturaUy rules cereals, grasses and sedges.
Libra, the balance, ruled by Venus, rules Ithe most
beautiful flowering plants such as mis, lillies and orchids.
Scorpio, the scorpion rules aroids and palms ; 'these
plants have a phallic signature and ScoI'pio rules sex.
Sagittarius, the centaur, rules the great forest trees bear
ing Caltklins, such as the oak, beech and elm, for his sign
rules forests.
Capricorn, the goat, mles the plants having flowers with
separate petals.
Aquarius, the water-pourer, rules the plants having
flowers with uniIted petals.
CHAPTER SEVEN
HERBS IN MAGIC
Lotus of the Ancients Both in ancient Egyptian and

Hlindu creation legends, the first objeot <to make its appear-
1 Al so of animals and minerals, see The Astrological Correspon

dences of Animals, Heros and Jewels, Mysteries of the A ncients,
2, London, 1 942.
HERBS IN MAGIC
ance was a golden egg, or sometimes it was a 'lotus or

water-lily, floating on the primaeval waters. It burst open,
revealing the supreme God. Iamblicus (d. A.D. 333), Neo
platonic philosopher, explained <the round leaves and
spherical fruit of the lotus as symbolic of intellect, its
coming up from the mud as the supremacy of mind over
matter, the deity as seated on the flower, on the surface
of 'the water, as intellectual sovereignty.
Everywhere in ancient Egypt the sculptures, even the
heads of columns, display the lotus. It was regarded as
sacred in I ndia, Tbet and China. There were three forms
of the lotus in Egypt : the white Nymphaea lotus with
toothed leaves and round buds, the blue Nymphaea caer
ulea, and the red or rose Nelembium speciosum. The la.st
named is mentioned by Herodotus (5th century B.C.) but
no longer grows in 1lhe Nile.
The blue lotus, whioh has a pleasant smell, was certamly
the most sacred. The dead and the living are shown smell
ing it and presumrubly performing some sort of spiritualist
cult.
Druids and the Misdetoe The Druids were the priests of

the Keltic peoples of Gaul, Great Britain and Ireland.
They were supreme lruwgivers. Kings and chiefs held office
under their authority. They also acted as physicians and
were teachers of aU branches of ,learning.
Whether they used large stone :temples, like Stonehenge,
is debated. But it is cel'tain they had a vegetation cult in
which the oak was sacred, but the mistletoe grOWling on
the oak still more so. The mistletoe is planted on a tree by
a bird. The latter, it has been suggested, was the symbol
of the Holy Ghot, the mistletoe was the Messiah, and the
oak the tree of Jesse. The Druids cut off branches of mistle
toe with a golden sickle and distributed ,them to their con
gregaJtion. That gO'ld alone may touch the sacred plant
reminds one of the Christian Eucharist.1
The Druids paid attention to all S01'ts of O'ther plants
and had an alphabet in which each detter was represented
I W. B. Crow : Druids and the Mistletoe Sacrament, Mysteries
of the Ancients, 14, London, 1 944.
by a tree or shrub. ! The bards were under the supervision

of Druids. They were not poets in the modem sense, i.n
that what they recited were magicaI compositions.
Rosicrucians and the Rose The Rosicrucians first be

came known to the public when certain anonymous publi
cations appeared in Germany in 1 6 1 4, 1 6 1 5 and 1 6 1 6. They
traced their society to a certain Christian Rosenkreutz who
was supposed to be born in the fourteenth or fifteenth
century and lived one hundred and six years. His tomb
was supposed to have been discovered shortly before the
appearance of the publications. Thereafter, many writers
claimed to disclose facts of interest about the secret fratern
ity. 1Ihey were opponents of the Papacy, they were
advocates of a world reformation in science, they possessed
secrets of akhemy and healing and later were said to have
conneotions with Freemasonry. The puzzling question about
them is how the rose on the cross came to be -their chief
symbol. It is (i) certainly connected with the name of their
alleged founder ; it is (ii) possibly connected with the coat
of arms of the anti-papal Luther, and the Lutheran min
ister Andreae, who is said to have written one of the mani
festoes; (iii) the rose ,from ancient times was a symbol of
secrecy and (v) the rose, as the queen of flowers may
symbolise the activation of the vegetative life of man,
being combined wth the cross, as the lotus did when
activated :by Kundalini an yoga .
Love Philtres As we have previously indicated, aphro

disiacs and love phHtres are quite different. Aphrodisiacs
are physiological in action, love philtres act Ithrou occult
forces and properties. Aphrodisiacs, it is supposed, merely
increased sexual libido, love philtres direot it ail: some par
ticular person. Love philtres were of,ten complex mixtures.
Tohere is always a sample or complex magical ceremonial
in making a love philtre act, oflten involving blood or
bodilly excretions. The constituents of a love philtre were
oflten of animal origjn, involving whole animals (e.g.
spiders), hair, feathers, animal. ,tissues and parts, with or
without herbs. The philtre in Ithe love affair of Tristan
! See page 57.
HERBS IN MAGIC 43
and Isolde was sruid to be wholly herbal. The only reaBy

pleasant love philtre we have noted is that of Oberon (in
Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream) which he
gives to Titania Ito make her dote upon the first :thing she
sees when she wakes from sleep, the objeot being to recover
one of his pages that Ttan ia had taken from him. The
plant used was called 'love-in-idleness and has been identi
fied with the pansy (Viola tricolor). Other"" oten used in
real l ife included fern rhizome, black hellebore, cinquefoil,
cummi n seed, verbena, marjoram, tobacco, mandrake, val
erian and white bryony, which are mostly dangerous or
nauseating.
For making potions for love and fertility no plant was
more highly regarded than the mandraike (Mandragora) a
plant of !the potato family. For the TOot of this plant was
said to resemble the whole ma'ie human body, except for
the head, the place of which was ltaken by the overground
green shoot. The difficulty WM that when pulled from the
eaI'th the mandrake screams and anyone who hears it dies.
To obviate this a dog is tied to the shoot and dog-food
placed, visible to the dog, bUit out of reach. The operator
rides away quickly, the dog strugles and eventuaHy pulls
up the root, sacrificing its ife in lts heroic efforts. Natur
ally, mandrake was very expensive.
Herbs in Divination Hundreds of different methods of

divination are recognised, named according to the objects
used. Divination by means of ants is caled botanomancy.
It is largely used for revealing the ,future of one's ,love hife,
e.g. prospective husband or bride and the character of the
same. One form of this divination consists of a competi
tion in which arties of boys and girls look for a cer,tain
f
arrangement 0 ash leaves. The first from each pal'lty to
find it are supposed to get married. With nuts, divination
is made by naming each nut after a person, and then heat
ing on a fire. Whether a nut burns rapidly or slowly, or
jumps suddenly, have different meanings. Bachelors' but
tons was a name given to flowers of a common genus
(Lychnis) of the pink family, also sometimes to other
flowers. They were so-cahled because they were 53.id to be
carried about by bachelors in the hope that if they flour-
ished :the carrier would be successful in love. SometJimes

onions were named or marked and set beside the ohimney
and tthe first <to sprout indicated the future marriage
partner. An ivy-leaf named on New Year's Eve, inspected
on Twelfth night, wall show sgns of the perron named.
Flowers were made into garlands, used in various divin
atory games. The readings {rom tea-leaves and coffee
grounds has been widely praotised. For this form of
divination certain cups, marked out on the inside into
areas of various significance, have been produced.
Plants used in Witchcraft Witchesl supplied love

potions and poisons and by what we now term the power
of suggestion caused untold suffering on innocent people,
especially children. Witches also attended meetings, "the
witches' sabbaths" or more correctly sabbats. To prepare
herself for one of these, the witch stripped herself naked
and rubbed an ointment all over her body. The ointment
was called flying ointment, and was of several different
kinds. It nearly always contained fat from the body of a
murdered unbaptised infant, mixed in many cases with an
extract of aconite, leaves of poplar, hemlock, water hem
lock, sweet flag, cowbane, cinquefoil, thornapple and deadly
nightshade. Some of these are dangerous poisons. Some
medical authorities believe that the active principles of
such plants might be absorbed through the skin and would
induce a state of trance, during which the subject might
imagine she would be transported through the air in a sort
of dream, and there engage in a number of perverted and
criminal acts. However, actual meetings of witches cer
tainly did occur.
Antidotes to Enchantlnents People protected themselves

against witchcraft by holy water, consecraJted salt, by
candles hallowed at Candlemas and leaves blessed on Palm
Sunday. Protection was aJro given by cinquefoil, white
thorn, vervain, St. John's 'Wort, olive, palm, orchis and
other her,bs. Witches were kept away by the fumes of
frankincense and myrrh. The horse-shoe over a door-way
1 For a further account of the witch cult see W. B. Crow : A
History of Magic, Witchcraft and Occultism, London, 1 968.
HERBS IN MAGIC 45
is a relic of proo:ection against witches. The five-pointed

star was formerly used.
Trees as Oracles At times, trees act as oracles. Moses

heard -the instructions of God from the burning bush (Ex.
iii, 2-22). There are other references to speaking trees in
the Old Testament. The prophetess Deborah gave pro
nouncement under a padm-'1:ree near Bethel. David was
given the &ignal for attacking the Philistines from a pear
01' mulberry-tree.
The great oracle of Apollo at Delphi was founded at the

place where the nymph Daphne was supposed ,to have been
changed into a laurel. The famous place, however, was
originaUy a cleft in the earth, from which fumes ,issued,
dedicated to the Earth-goddess. The pythoness, under the
influence of the fumes, pronounced the oracle. Dodona, in
the Epirote mountains, depended on a great oak, the
message being obtained from ,the sound of weapons and
instruments suspended from Ithe branches. These were in
terpreted by doves, as 'the priestesses of the cult were
ca,.lled. There were many other oracles in Greece, Rome
and ancient Egypt. The Zoroastrians possessed one at the
Holy Plane Tree at Armavira in ,the Caucasus, the pre
I,slamic Arabs at the Sacred Palm at Nejran lin ,the Yemen.
CHAPTER EIGHT
HERBS IN RELIGION
Aulbrosia The gods and goddesses of Greece were sup

posed to live on Mount Olympus. They owed their im
morta'lity to ,the fact that they fed on ambrosia whilst their
drink was nectar. Although some may think ambrosia
refers Ito some powerful hallucinatory drug, secretly used
in the Eleusiman mysteries, we are convinced It was
nothing but bread. We do know that the Epopteia in
these mysteries corresponds with the Christian Mass, except
that bread was believed to be the body of the goddess
Demeter and wine the blood of Dionysus. The Roman
author Cicero ( 1 06-43 B.C.) jeered alt the belief that bread
coU'ld be <transformed nto a deity, but he did not under
stand the mysteries. In Egypt, barley represented <the god
Osiris, and the germinating grain was planted in the figure
of the god. The same was seen in the so-called gardens of
Adonis. Both gods belong to a class of deities <that die and
are resurrected to immortal life. This dogma is represented in
all religions. The tulasi, a plant of the genus Ocymum, of the
basil family, used as a condiment, was very sacred in India.
Among the Teutonic peoples apples were the food of
the gods and mead was their drink Among the Aztecs of
MeXcico maize and blood were used.
Nectar To the Greek and Romans, red wine was the
nectar. Wine was also used by the Drwds, Jews, Egyptians,
Chinese and Tibetans. The Hindus said soma was the drink
of the gods, but it was weB known to be nothin more
than the juice of Asclepias, a plant of the penwinkle
family, in everyday life. The Zoroastrians used haoma,
which wa's the juice of Ephedra, a plant distantly related
to the cone-bearers.
The Christian Mysteries In the Catholic Mass, wine is
transubstantiated into the blood of Christ and bread, tin
the form of wafers, into His body. In rtJhe Gospels (john
xv, I) Jesus describes Himself as the .true VID e. At the Last
Supper He said the bread was His body, the wine was
His blood (Matt. xxvti, 26, 2 7 ; Mark xiv, 2 2, 24 ; Luke
xxii, 1 9, 20 ; Cor. xi, 24, 2 5)' His words are repeated by
the pr,i est a,t Mass. The bread is placed on a dish called a
paten, and the wine :in a cup called the chalice. Water is
added <to the wtine, following an old Jewish custom. The
wine was said to represent the divine nature of Christ
and the water His human nature. However the Armenians
do not mingle water w,ith the wine, as they do not believe
in the two natures of Ghrjst, which is why they are termed
monophysites. In some Oriental Catholic rrtes the wine is
simply unfermented grape-juice. 1 In most, however, the
1 E. S. Drower : Water into Wine, London, 1 956. This is the
standard work on the usage of bread and wine in near Eastern
rites both Christian and non-Christian. Lady Drower says the
Mandaens also use unfermented wine.
HERBS IN RELIGION 47
wine is fermented, as in the Western (Roman) rictes. The
bread is unleavened in .the Roman, Maronite and Armenian
rites. Elsewhere in the East it is leavened. !
The bread used b y a U Christians is made from pure
wheaten flour and was baked in olden times, as t still is
in some Eastern ri:tes, by the der.gy ,themselves, or by
virglin girls. Prayers were said during the baking. The
wafer or host, as it s called, is round and stamped with
some sacred device, usua1hly the cross or the letters IHS,
the iatter being an abbreviation of the Greek ichthys,
meaning a fish, the symbol of Christ.2
Tohe breads used by <the Oriental Catholics are larger
than ours and are marked out in complicated patterns. A
square piece in the centre, called the Holy Lamb (the lamb
being another symbdl of Ghrist) is cut out. This alone is
consecrated, the rest is used fOT the antidoron, i.e. bread
cListr,ibuted after the Mass. The bread is cut with the
lonche, a small spear or ance, and stabbed with the point
of the same, to commemorate the fact -that when Jesus was
on the cross his side was pierced with a spear. A piece of
<the consecrated bread is dropped into the wine in both
Eastern and Western rites. In the East -t is known as the
pearI. 3
A very curJous custom is observed by the Nestorian
Christians. On Maundy Thursday .they make a mixture
of flour, salt and powdered fragments of the consecrated
sacramental bread, and at every Mass throughout the year
they add some of the powdered sacramental bread. This
mixture, called the melka is added by ,the priest when .they
bake ,their hosts. Thus every new host, when consecrated,
already contains tiny fragments of an old (consecra'ted)
one, and the old ones contained traces of a still older and
they say this sequence can be traced right back to the
Last Supper. So their Hosts might be said to contain a
homoeopathic dose of the bread used and consecrated by
the Lord Himsclf!
! Thus we may count yeast, which is a fungus, as one of the
plants used in the Mysteries.
2 Some early Christians, it is believed, actually had a fish sacra
ment.
3 For a legend connected with this see W. B. Crow : Precious
Stones: their occult power and hidden significance, London, 1 968.
Both in the West and ,in the East t is believed that

Christ s really present both in the wine and the bread.
A:s a consequence, communion may be in one or both
species. However in the West, among Catholics O'f the
Roman rite, only ,the bread tis now given to the congre
gatiO'n, whereas in the East it is given in both kinds, by
intinction generally, that , <the sacred Host tis moistened
with the consecrated Wine and is often administered in a
labis or spoon, although sometimes only the Wane is admin
istered and sometimes the spoon is not used at all.
In the West the consecrated wafers are reserved in a
vessel caUed a ciborium which resembles a cha<lice with
the addition of a lid. This is kept in a veiled tabernacle
or ark, either O'n the ahar or at the side thereof. The
object of reserving is so ,tha't the Sacrament can be carried
to the dy.ing, should the need arise. Many of the Eastern
CathO'lics do not reserve the sacred Host, but consecrate it
at any time required. The Catholics of the Roman rite
also use the reserved Host for blessing the people. For
this purpose a monstrance is used, wherein the Host may
be seen by all, being sometimes carDied in procession
through the streets.
Incense In the West, incense is used at High Mass, Bene

diction, Vespers and Funera!ls and in the East at practically
aU public worship. The paschal candle, which n recent
RO'man usage was blessed and <lighted on the eve of Easter,
had five grains of incense ,inserted intO' it, to' represent the
five wounds of Christ. I t burned for the forty days of
Easter. Incense is otherwise thrown on red-hot charcoal n
an incense-burner caHed a censer or ,thurible, whilst the
priest utters a special blessing. There are special rules for
using ,the censer, which, is suspended on (:hains.1
Sacred Oils In the Christian Mysteries all the candles

must be composed of bee's wax and all the lamps must
burn olive O'il. The olive is a tree widely cultivated in ,the
Mediterranean region. The edible fruit of the cultivated
variety is compressed to yjeld olive oil, used in salads. In
the Catholic Church, both in the East and West, olive om
1 The nature of incense is dealt with in chapter 1 2.
HERBS IN RELIGION 49
and baIsams are consecrated on Maunday Thursday, the
day whioh commemorates the Last Supper. The consecrated
oils are treated with great respect, 'second on'ly to the
reverence paid to ,the Body and Blood of our Lord. There
are three kinds of oils, according to consecration and use,
but all 'three are olive oil, with or without balsam. They
are as follows :
( I ) Oil of Catechumens : ,this takes its name from irts
use in baptism, since those preparing for baptism were
caLled catechumens. The same oil is used for blessing the
font, ,the consecration of ahars and temples, the ordination
of priests and the coronation of k ings and queens.
(2) Oil of the Sick : caUed prayer-oil in the East,
used in the sacrament of healing and, curiously enough in
the blessing, or so-called baptism, of bells.
(3) Chrism : 1his alone being a mixture of olive oi,l
and balsams, l it is used in blessing the font, in the sacra
ment or mystery of unction or chrism, in the consecration
of bishops and formerly of kings, in the consecration of
chalice and paten, and, very remarkably, in ,the blessing
of belis.
Linen A plant that plays an important par,t in ,the

Mystellies is flax (Linum). For flax yields Linen, one of the
most remarkable of textiles. Egyptian mummies were
swathed in linen. Linen cloths are used in Catholic sacra
ments, presumaMy because Jesus was burued in Egyptian
fashion. We need only mention ,the three aItar cloths
that cover the altar, the corporal on which chaEee and
paten are placed, the pall placed art times over ,the chalice,
the purificator used for wiping the inside of the chalice,
after the same has been washed out ,with ordinary wine
and water. In the East a single linen doth, the poteriok
alumma serves the functions of the pall and sometimes
also the purificator. The Easterns also have a cloth which
is placed over the paten ; it is called the diskokalluma, also
a fine cloth called ,the aer to cover both. Some of the
moderns, as in Russia, do not always use linen. The
Easterns also have a ritual object, caJ,led the asterisk to
prevent rtlhe veils touching ,the Host on the paten. Each
1 For further details of balsams, see chapter 1 2.
4-TOPOH
of ,these objects has a symbolic significance. Thus the

asterisk, whioh is star-shaped, represents the star of Bethle
hem.
CHAPTER NINE
SYMBOLISM OF HERBS
Em.blem.s of Places An emblem differs from a symbol in

that t [s purely arbitrary. I t is a purely 'conscious thing,
whereas a symbol refers to the unconscious, and may be
only known to the initiated, or to others by revelation.
Both may be learnt. It :is somewhat difficUJlt to distinguish
between emblems and symbols. Some of the plants ascribed
to certain places may have been symboJic, but their ore
has now been lost. Others have been added in arbitrary
fashion.
Among the best known emblems of countries are the rose
for, England, the leek for Wales, the .thistle for Scotland,
the shamrock for Ireland, the lily (fleur-de-lis) for France,
the pOniegra:nate for Spain, the 1inden for Prussia, the
mignonette for Saxony, the wolet 'for Greece, the mapie
for Canada. In the United States each state has its floral
emblem.
Sym.bols of Gods Herbs and other plants were very

generally connected with gods, playing a part in myth,
sacrifice or some form of ritual. In ancient Egypt the
acacia was sacred to Osiris, the aibsinthe to Isis, the syca
more to Hathor and Nuit, dle peach to Harpocrates.
Among the Babylonians the cedar was dedicated to Ea,
among the Persians the cypress ,to M ithras. In India the
lotus formed the throne of Brahma, the pipul and the
banyan and aJl members of the fig genus were consecrated
to Vishnu, the wood-apple or bel-tree to Siva. Among the
Buddhists it was sa:id that Buddha attained enlightenment
under the bodhi-tree. Among the Chinese, Lao-tse was
symbolised by the plum, Confucius by ,the bamboo and
Buddha by the pine. They were caUed the three friends.
SYMBOLISM OF HERBS 51
The three star gods are connected with the peach.

lit is among the Greeks and Romans that we have the
most frequent references to plant symbolism. The vne for
Bacchus and wheat for Ceres have already been men
tioned. Bacchus also took ivy and fig. The latter was also
given to Pan. Saturn was also said to take the fig, but
probably the bramble (Rubus) and the dragon-plant
(Dracunculus) are more correct. Jupiter as king of the
gods had the palm. The dogwood was assigned to Mars,
the ,laurel to Apollo, the apple to Venus, the mulberry to
Mercury, the dittany (a plant of the dead-nettle family)
to Diana. The olive belonged to Minerva, the sugar-cane
to Cupid, the poplar to Hercules, the cypress to Pluto,
the mint to Proserpina, the knapweed to Chiron, the
aconite to Cerberus, the quince to Juno, ,the heliotrope to
Sol, the tamarisk to Luna, the plane to Helen, the golden
apples "oranges ?) to the Hesperides, the beech ,to the
Golden Fleece, the narcissus to the Fates.
Symbols of Saints In Christian symbolism even God is

represented by some herbal symbols. Shamrock rep resents
the Holy Trinity. Bread and wne represent the Saviour.
The dove flower and the seven-petalled columbine were
regarded pal1ticularly as plants dedicated to the Hly
Ghost. The sym1bol of the dove is well known for the Holy
Ghost and His seven gifts are symbolised by the seven
petals. Many flowers were assigned to the Virgin Mary.
In a mediaeval litany the chaplet of Mary consists of
rose, violet, maI'guerite, marjoram and rosemary, each rep
resenting a particular virtue. 'St. Mary ,is usually symbolised
by the white a-ily, seen in piotures of the Annunciation. The
rose is then assigned .to St. Mary Magdalene.
Certain plants are named after saints in folk-'lore. Lady's
smock (Cardamine pratensis) is only one of about a dozen
different plants probably named after OUf Lady. St.
John's wort (Hypericum, several speoies), St. Barnaby'S
Thistle (Centaurea solstitiaZis), and Herh Ohristopher
(Actaea spicata) are three examples of herbs na:med after
saints. The handsome plant called C ro:wn Imperiai (Fritil
Zaria imperialis) is said to have received its name from St.
Edward the Confessor, King of England ( 1 002-1066).
In art, numerous symbols are used <to distinguish differ

ent saints, and among these one will find a number of
plants used in the symbolism.
S}'JDbols of Virtue Under this heading we propose to

list a few examples of virtues, vices and abstract ideas.
Among Christians the rose represents charity, the olive
peace, the myrtle compassion, the mignonette mildness, the
myrrh continence, the lotus chastity, the orange-blossom
innocence. Of course vice was symbolised too. The plant
called basil, the name of which was thought to connect with
the deadly reptile, the basilisk, was supposed to show anger,
the stinging nettle portrayed gluttony, the hellebore calum
ny, the bramble envy, the poppy sloth and the cedar pride.
Death was symbolised by the yew, which was grown in
burial grounds. Resurrection was represented by foliage of
box. Immortality was well shown by the amaranth. Because
of tits small size and enormous production the mustard
seed represented omnipotence (Matt. xiii, 3 1 ; Mark iv, 3 1
and Luke xiii, 1 9). Victory was represented by the palm,
and was often shown in connection wjth martyrs.
Heraldic Herbs and Trees In coats of arms every con

ceivable kind of symbol is show . Naturally pla? ts a;e
numerous. They of.ten have therr usuail. s)"mbohsm, tID
addition to something connected with the life of a
particular individual or family. Of trees the oak, olive and
palm are favourites. Others are the almond, apple, pear,
cherry and walnut. The pine is the commonest of the
cone plants. The herbs are usually those wth notable
flowers, such as rose, -lily, hyacinth and amaranth. The
shamrock is, of course, very significant. The pomegranate
is a favourite fruit. Some sma:l,l herbs like darnel and house
leek occur for particular reasons.
Heraldry not only concerns itself with grants of coats
of-arms, but also deals with the conferring of honours.
One of the most peculiar of all honour,s ,is the golden rose,
conferred by the Pope. With this honour goes an actual
model in gold, originaLly a single flower, later a small
branch system with several flowers, richly ornamented with
precious stones and red enamel to symbolise the Passion
SYMBOLISM OF HERBS 53
and perfumed with ambergris and musk. A special bless
ing was devised for it on the fourth Sunday in Lent. It
is usuaily received only by queens. King Henry Vln
received it however before he fell out with the Pope. More
recent awards were in 1 86 1 to the Queen of Spain and
1 862 ,to the Empress of the French.
CHAPTER TEN
MYTHICAL PLANTS
World Tree The materialistic science of the last century

gave us a picture of the universe in the form of globes
rotating and revolving ,i n space and time. Its ianguage was
mathematical. The spiritual science of ancient and medi
aeval times, the truth of which is now being vindicated by
the findings of depth psychology, represents the universe,
or rather the spiritua'l Whole, as a temple, a tree or a
mount, or more especially an integrated combination of
aU three. And of course this was represented lin my,tho
logical language.
The tree grew on the mount of the gods, Olympus of
the Greeks, whereon was llheir home, which was also
their temple. The tree was situated "in ,the midst of
paradise" {Gen. ii, 9) but n many myths it was taken for
granted its branches reached to the confines of the uni
verse. The Egyptians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Persians,
Druids, Norsemen, Hindus, Chinese, Japanese, the Maories
of New Zealand, the Aztecs of Mexico, the Mayas of
Yucatan and the Incas of Peru, all had this tree.
Among the Hebrews the tree developed into the philo
sophical kaba<listic diagram of the tree of life, on which
hung the ten sephiroth (sing. sephira). Each was repre
sented by a pomegranate of a particular colour. There is
of course, an extensive J1teraJture on Ithe Kahalah, with
which some readers will ibe familiar.
The Norse version of this myth is also very definite, as
it has been recounted in the Prose or Younger Edda. The
world-tree is a gigantic ash, situated in the middle of a
mountain on which the gods meet in council. Its branches

reach "above heaven" . Three gceat roots pass out, widely
separated. They are descr,ibed briefly thus : (i) goes to
Niflheim a sort of cold, damp, dark hell, where Ilives the
wolf Fennis, whi'lst underneath the root is a fountain or
spring called Hvergelmir and nearby the serpent Nidhug
for ever gnaws the root : (ii) goes Ito the land of the frost
giants, Jotunnheim, with its chief dty Utgard ; beneath
this root [s the well of wisdom, guarded by the giant
Mimir; (iii) goes to the land of 1Jhe gods and under this
root is .the sacred fountain of Urd, attended by the .three
Norns or Fates. On the branches of the tree four harts
gnaw the shoots. hey represent the four winds or four
elements. An eagle perches on the topmost branch, and
between .the eyes of the eagle is a hawk .l A squirrel climbs
up and down the .tree, carrying messages causing confliot
between the eagle and the aforementioned snake. This
world-tree of the Norsemen is caHed Yggdrasil, which
means the g<lJHows of Ygg or Odin, the King of the gods,
who was supposed to have been hanged on lit for nine
, days.
Bodhi-tree Among the Buddhists a tree was associated

with each buddha, as a plant was associated with each
god of ,the Greeks and Romans. In art the best known
was the pippa:la, peepul or bo-tree (Ficus religiosa), under
which Gautama, the historical buddha, a'ttained enlighten
ment. This tree and the related F. indica and F. beng
halensis are about the most bulky plants in existence, as
their branches continue outward growth much more ex
tensively than do those of other trees, being supported by
down-,growing roots looking like trunks. So a single plant
mimics a whole woodland. It is not surprising that this
is .the Buddhist version of the world-tree.
When Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden
of Eden, according to egend, they took with them, or
according to another account sent their third son, Seth,
to the gates of the garden to obtain, three seeds of the
tree of life. From these were raised trees which furnished
1 A bird on the tree is mentioned in some of the myths of other
cultures, see e.g. page 4 1 (bird planting mistletoe).
MYTHICAL PLANTS 55
(i) wood for the rod of Moses, (ii) the branch that was
used to sweeten the waters of Marah, (iii) the wood used
in the building of Solomon's temple, (iv) the wood for
constructing the bench on which the Sibyls sat when
they prophesied the coming of Christ, (v) the wood from
whioh Ithe Cross of Christ itself was made. The legend is
represented in a picture over .the altar of a church in
Leyden, HoIland.
It is interesting to note that the Kabalists often show
the archetypal man on their ,tree of Iife. Also that the
cross of Christ is called a tree (Acts v, 30 ; Acts x, 39 ;
Galatians W, 1 3 ; I Peter ii, 24). Zoroaster was fabled to
have been suspended on a tree and was called the splendid
light of this tree. As sacrificed gods, both Adonis of Syria
and Attis of Phrygia were connected with vegeta'tion.
Osiris of Egypt, a vegetation god, was kiltled by entomb
ment in a box which eventual'ly 'lodged in an acacia or
tamarisk ,tree. Krishna, supreme incarnation of Vishnu in
Indian mthology, was killed by an arrow which nailed
him to a tree. We have already mentioned Odin. Many
other instances conneot the incarnate sacrificed god with
the tree.
Tree Spirits Most students of the occult know the dif

ference between elementaries and elementals. The former
are spooks or shades of the dead wherein the immortal
spirit is delayed, for a time, before passing on to higher
realms. They inolude ordinary graveyard ghosts and those
that occasionaHy haunt old houses. Elementails, on the
contrary, are nature spir,its. They are of a iower order than
angels. They are not immortal, like the latter, but can be
made so, according to belief, by cohabiting with human
beings. There are six main olasses1 : gnomes, .the spirts of
earth, undines of water, sylphs of air, salamanders of fire ;
dryads of vegetation and fauns of animal Iife. Here we
can only deal with the dryads. I n classical times each tree
was supposed to be nhabited by, or in some way con
neoted with, one of these spirits or nymphs, who died with
1 For some account of the classes not dealt with in this book see
pages I I O and I I I in W. B. Crow : A History of Magic, Witch
craft and Occultism, London, I 968.
the tree itself. These were called hamadryads. Offerings

of milk, oil and honey were frequently made tto tthem by
country folk, and witches would occasionally sacrifice a
goat. The dryads also inoluded those who were group
spmits of herbs, as distinct from trees, also probably the
oreades who presided over mountains, and napaeae over
hil,ls and dales.
MetalDorphoses Human beings, in classical mythology,

were sometimes changed into animals or plants. This no
doubt refers to psychological change and the particular
living thing into which . the victim was metamorphosed
corresponds with the occult property involved. In Ovid's
Metamorphoses there are many of these changes. Of
those involving vegetable life, the nymph Daphne was
changed into a laurel to escape the advances of Phoebus,
Syrinx into reeds because of the lust of Pan. The youth
Narcissus, to avoid the opposite sex, especially .the talka
tive nymph Echo, was changed nto the flower of that
name. Clytie, a nymph deserted by the sun-god, was
changed into a sunflower, which turns its head to the sun.
Adonis, the lover of Venus, when wounded by a boar, was
changed into an anemone. Myrrha, the mother of Adonis,
was changed into a myrrh tree for <:OIIlIll itting incest lWiith
her own father. However, ,there were suppoed to be

antidotes for such transformations. For example, in the
Odyssey the hero uses moly, a plant of the onion genus
(Allium) to restore 'to human form his companions turned
into swine by Circe. Garlic, another plant of .the same
genus, was in later times used against vampires.
Metamorphosis an myth foreshadowed ,the discovery of
the same sort of thing actually takin place in nature, e.g.
the transformation of the tadpole mto the frog. There
were severa.} imaginary metamorphoses of this kind, e.g.
the belief, which was matintained until aot least the seven
teenth century that, according to some, the pine or fir
type trees, near ,the North-West coasts of Scotland and
Ireland, grew barnacles and from out of the barnacles
came barnacle geese. There a real, although superficial,
resemblance between the appendages of a barnacle and
MYTHICAL PLANTS 57
the feathers o f a bird.! T o the student o f occul tism there
is no reason why an occult affinity should not exist between
a tree, a barnacle and a goose, in spite of the fact that
there is no physical metamorphosis and .that they belong
to ,totally different types of structure and therefore diff
erent realms of nature.
Druidical Tree Alphabet We have seen that in myth

ology, to each od there was dedicated one or more special
plants. In KeltiC mythology there was a special Hst of gods
with their corresponding trees. This accounts for such
myth as the battle of the trees. The trees were almost to
be regarded as totems of clans. The original Gaelic alpha
bet was also in correspondence with this tree list. It con
sisted of seventeen letters. Later H was added (the Uath
or whitethorn). It ran BLNFS(H)DTCMGPRAOUEI,
each letter being represented by the name of a tree. Today
it follows a more usuaJ sequence and goes something like
this : Ailm, Beite, Call, Dur, Eagh, Fearn, Gath, Huath,
Togh, Luis, Muin, Nuin, Oir, Peith, Ruis, Suie, Teine, Ur.
The corresponding trees are : Elm, Birch, Hazel, Oak,
Aspen, Alder, Ivy, Whitethorn, Yew, Rowan or Quicken,
Vine, Ash, Spindle-tree, Pine, Elder, Willow, Furze, Heath.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
BARKS AND WOODS
Barks In some of the barks used in medicine their healing

powers are indicated by an aroma'tic odour as in the West
Indian canella, the cinnamon of Ceylon, the cascarilla of
the Bahama Islands, the cassia of Indo-China, the sassa
fras and lippery elm of the U.S.A., and several others.
These mostly come from different famil ies, but cinnamon
and cassia are both related to the laurel.
The barks possessing no aroma also include representa
tives of different families. They include those of pame-
! A full account is given in E. Heron-Allen : Barnacl.s in
Nature and Myth, London, 1 928.
granate, spincLle-tree, black haw, w,ild cherry, cascara sag

rada, cinchona and witch-hazel. Black ha;w is not related
to hawthorn, but to the wayfaring tree. Cinchona, from
S. America is the source of quinine. Witch-hazel is in a
family of its own (Hamamelidaceae) tin the rose order. It
was so caBed because its twigs were frequently used as
divining rods. Itt is the shape, however, that facilitates
divining, not the wood. The material of which a divining
rod is composed may be anything, mineral, vegetable or
animal, as the faculty depends on unconscious human mus
cular movements.
The bark of birch, carried a;bout by anyone, was said to
protect against enchantments, whilst .that of willow could
prevent delusory vi,sions. The bark of species of Eucalyptus
is caned iron-hark.
Woods To go back to legend, an interesting question

arises as to of what wood the cross of Christ was composed.
A common assertion was that it was aspen, because the
leaves of this tree are constantly trembling, with fear,
according to poets. Another idea, mentioned by Sir John
Mandeville (d. 1 3 72) in travel tales about 1 3 7 1 , was that
the cross was composed of four woods : the upright of
cypress; the cross-piece, pa'lm ; the base in the ground,
cedar ; whilst the table of the inscription was olive. He says
the choice was made for permanence. Another idea was
that the woods came from the four corners of the earth.
So the cross embodied comprehensiveness both in time and
space. A different idea was that the cross was the mistletoe,
once a large tree, but punished by being reduced to a
parasitic shrub.
Many early writers, including Shrukespeare,l say that
Judas Iscariot hanged himself on an elder. The latter plant
was grown n gardens to warn off witches and warlocks.
If caught, ItJhey mig:ht be crowned with elder in disgrace.
The woods of hornbeam, of hazel ,and of willow were
a!ll favourites for making Ithe forked V-shaped baguette or
divining rod, as weB as witch-hazel as mentioned.
Some woods are very resistant. That of Erythrina glauca
of the pea family has been caBed "immonal wood". It is
1 In Love's Labour Lost.
BARKS AND WOODS 59
durable, but not hard. Juniper wood is immune from the
attacks of worm-like creatures, cedar from those of moths
and spiders, whilst alder, cedar, myrtle and yew are said
to dispel fleas.
It must be remembered that wood, except in herbaceous
and very young woody plants, consists of the living sap
wood and the dead heartwood. The latter, however, is
important to the plant as a skeleton is to an animal. It is
of course the heartwood which is most resistant and used
in building and the manufaoture of innumerable articles.
It is usually more deeply coloured than the sap-wood.
The wood of Monocotyledons is totally different from
that of Dicotyledons. The wood of cone-bearers is also
different, lacking vessels, which are regarded as more ad
vanced elements.
Bamboos are grasses, being examples of Monocot}"ledon
stems used in building and the manufacture of many
objects. Like other grasses they contain the mineral silica.
Concretions of .this substance found in one species (Bam
busa arundinacea), known as tabashir are used in the East
in folk-medicine ,in many diseases.
Tobacco at one time was frequently flavoured and I()he
making of cigar boxes of cedar and juniper wood was said
to be because of the perfect blending of their odours wlih
that of the tobacco.
Woods used in medicine include the aromatic sassafras
and sandal, the bitter wood quassia and the coloured !Woods
guaiacum, red sanders, logwood and sappan.
Guaiacum has yeHow sapwood and greenish-brown heart
wood and comes mainly from the West Indies. Red san
ders has pink sapwood and blood-red heartwood ; it comes
from South India and the Philippines. LOgiWood, of which
oruly ,the heartwood is used, is purple in colour, and comes
from Central America. Sappan, of which heartwood is
mostly used, has white sapwood and oran e heartwood,
and comes from India and the Malay Archlpelago.
CHAPTER TWELVE
RESINS AND BALSAMS
Gums A mucilage is obtained from the evaporation of a

vegetable juice and is insoluble do alcoho'l or ether. As weB
known from l1heir use as adhesives mucilages form a sticky
solution in water. A gum, in Ithe narrow sense of ,the word,
,is used for a product of iIlljury lin a plant. These occur in
nature, owing to the attacks of insects, injuries caused by
the wind, etc. Both kinds are included as gums in ,the broad
sense of Ithe word. Gums in medioine have a use as mild
demulcents and as a means of suspending drugs less soluble
in water. They include gum Arabic, traJgacanth and carob
m. Other gums were used in magic. Cherry-gum, for
Instance, was used under the cryptic name of ''brain'' in
magica'l fumigations.
Kinos Under this heading we include dried juices such

as Malabar or East Indian kino from Pterocarpus, 50-
called red gum or Eucalyptus kino, and Bengal kino from
Butea of the pea family. The only one used in magic, as
far as our records go, was the dried juice of Aloe from the
I.arge Ileaves of this plant of the lily family. It was an
ingredient in the magicaI fumigations of the sun, moon
and the two beneficent planets Venus and Jupilter.
Gum-Resins These are intermediate between gums and

resins. They include galbanum, olibanium or frankincense,
myrrh, bdellium, ammoniacum, gamboge and asafoetida,
all used in medicine.
Asafoetida has an intense penetrating odour of tlhe allti
aceous type, and comes from a species of Ferula of the
carrot family. It was used in magic and in Persia as a
condiment. Even in the latter capacity it was thought to
have remarkable occult qualities, as it was caHed "the food
of the gods".
Myrrh, which comes from N.E. Asia and has an aro
matic odour, was used ,in embalming and was ,therefore
symbolic of death. In magic it was used in rites of the
RESINS AND BALSAMS 61
planet Saturn, ,the greater infortune. Bdellium, also from
,the East was used in the rites of the planet Mars, the lesser
infortune.
In addition to the haoma which we have already seen
was used in worship by 'the Parsis, they also make use of
palm fronds and pomegranate twigs and formerly bundles
of resinous twigs of barsam, which today are replaced by
bundles of wires. The Parsis ,themselves seem unahle Ito ten
us exaotly from what plant the twigs of Ithe barsam are
derived. But it seems likely that they belonged to the
myrrh family (Burseraceae) and they may have been of the
same genus as the myrrh (Commiphora).
The Magi or wise men .who visited the infant Jesus
offered gold, frankincense ,and myrrh. It is said that gold
signifies His kingship, frankincense His priesthood and
myrrh His death and resurrection. In anCIent times, gold
and frankincense were offered in places as far ap art as
China and Peru ,to priest-kings. Myrrh was used for em
balming in ancient Egypt to prepare the body for future
resurrection. It must be remembered that, in the Old
World, the Jews and Christians praotised mummification
as did the 3iboriginal inhabitants of :the New World. Fur
ther, the body of Jesus, taken down from ,the cross, was
bound up with spices by St. Joseph of Arimathea and St.
Nicodemus "as the manner of the Jews is to bury" (John
xix, 40). They used no less than one hundred pounds
weight of myrrh and aloes. The last named was probably
not the dried juice previously mentioned here and still
used in medicine but a gum ,resin from Ithe fragrant Indian
eagl -tree Aquilaria agallocha, a Dicotyledon of doubtful
affimty.
Resins In the restricted sense, resins are plant products

soluble in alcohol, ether and ethereal oils, but not in
water. Sandarac, benzoin, dragon's blood and mastic are
obtained simply by cwtting. Colophony and Venetian tur
pentine are prepared by distilling away much of the liquid,
when they remain as residues. Mastic was used in rna.gtic
for ceremonies related to the planet Mercury. Dragon's
blood was also used under the cryptic designation of
"blood". Mastic comes from a species of Pistachia of the
62 THE OCCULT PROPERTIES O F HERBS
cashew-family living in the Mediterranean region. Dragon's

blood from <the fruits of Daemonorops, a palm. It comes
in clear, deep-red pieces severl centimetres across but is'
often powdered. Another kind formerly came from the
trunk of the dragon tree genus (Dracaena). It .is n ,the
form of smaller drops. These plants are tropical.
Benzoin is prepared by cut,ting stems of Styrax, the
resin being fonned as a result of wounding. The plants
are native to, and cultivated in, Sumatra and Siam. They
are trees somewhat related <to ebony. As benzoin and
frankincense are the chief constituents of incense used in
worship, we take this opportunity of adding a few remarks
on this subject, some facts 'COncerning which have already
been given.! In practicaHy all religious worship, except
among protestants and some Moslems, incense was used
in the ritual. Among Hebrews it was prescribed by God
(Exod. xxx, I , 5) and there was a special altar of incense
for daily use. Although early Christians refused to offer
incense to -the deities of Rome, they were using it in their
own worship, references of which are made in the Apoc
alypse of St. John and the works of Orgen. Materialistic
writers, suoh as Maimonides, said incense was used in
assemblies to counteract body odours, but although it may
have this effect that is not its occult purpose, which is, as
Leadbeater2 remarks, fourfold : (i) syzt!bolism of the ascent
of prayer, (ii) spreading of divine mfluence, (,iii) showing
of respect and (iv) effecting purification. He goes on to say
the presence of incense, owin& to what he calls its undula
tion rate, s favourable ,to sptr1tual vibrations, but hostile
to almost all others. He goes on to mention its mnet.ised
condition, as he calls it, effected by the priest, and to dis
cuss the connection of the use of incense with the inhbit
an ts of unseen worlds.
Incense was used by the ancient Egyptians, Hindus,
Buddhists, Greeks and Romans. I n Lamaism the thurible
or censer, in which incense tis burnt, closely resembles that
usuaHy carried in the Western Catholic Church. There are,
however, no end of varieties of thuribles, often made of
! See page 48.
2 C. W. Leadbeafer : The Science of the Sacraments. Madras,
1 929
RESINS AND BALSAMS
very precious material. A favourite shape was ,in the form

of some bird. This symbolised air, as did incense itsedf,
the idea being :that all four elements must be tincluded in
worship : holy water includes salt and water, the salt repre
senting earth, the flames of the candles and char.coa:l repre
sent fire, whilst the incense vapour signifies air.
The formula for making a suitable tincense to be used
by Moses is given in Exod. xxx, 34. It includes gaLbanum
and frankincense and everail other substances difficult to
identify.
Oleo-Resins The oleo-resins are intermediate between
resins and oils. They are balsams in the narrow sense of
the term. They are obtained by cutting, and in some cases
such as balsam of Peru and Storax, are caused by the
wounding. The thick liquid which oozes out on cutting
graduaHy hardens to solid form.
The balsams used in the making of chrism are generally
about six different kinds in ,the West and ,thirty-six in the
East. They must ,indlude at least one constituent whioh is
technically a ba..!sam in ,the broad sense of the term, which
includes gum-resins, resins and oleo-resins. The oleo-resins :
balsam of Peru, ba:lsam of Tolu and Canada ba'l sam come
from the New World, so were not used by the early Chris
tian. Storax, which comes from a genus (Liquidambar) of
the witoh-hazel family is Turkish in oriin and almost
certainly was. It was alIso used in mag,ic for ceremonies
connected with the moon.
Oils These include fixed oils, which are called fats if
solid at ordinary temperatures, and the chemicaUy different
essential oils ,which contain vola,tile substances and are re
sponsible for the fragrant odours of many flowers. Cam
phor is obtained by d istillation from oill from the wood
of a plant from the cinnamon genus (Cinnamomum) of
nhe -laurel family. It was used in magic ceremonies of the
moon. Clove oil is obtained from the flower buds of a
plant (Eugenia) of the myrtle family. They were used in
magical ceremonies connected with the planet Mercury.
Olive oil. has already been deal}.t wi,th. In the Old Testa
ment (Exod. xxx, 23-24) the anointing oil was described as
containing myrrh, cinnamon, calamus, cassia and olive.
In the New Testament, when St. Mary Magdalene

anointed Jesus and adverse criticism was made about this
act, our Lord expla,ined that she had anointed Him for
burial The ointment used was said to be of precious
spikenard and was contained .in an alabaster box. If .the
translation be correct, this is a plant of the valerian family
and the genus Nardostachys, the two species of which
grow in the HimaIayan region. The active prinoiple is
deriv:<l from the fragrant rhizomes (underground stems).

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THE OCCULT

THE AQUARIAN PRESS

Saints-Symhols of Virtues-Heraldic Herbs and

THE NATURE OF HERBS

Herbs, Shrubs and Trees If we consider plants as they

how the vegetative or non-reproductive shoot in the higher

Kind. of Plaat. We must now outline the great groups

Dicotyledons are even more numerous.

The Seven Cereals Sympathetic magic depends on the

was personified in various ways, by a human being or even

Their Mysterious Origin As we have seen, the cereals

There is a further tradition among some ,sohools of

Myth and Magic From the materialistic point of view,

with cuci.osity came out to see what was happening and

Bean King and Queen We now come to the pulses, such

form of beans. Aristot'le says beans signify lasciviousness;

Carling Sunday This is better known as Passion Sunday.

Apple Cult Apples have been said to have followed

countries Uilitil. ,the early part of tthe present century The

object 'Wa'S to ensure a good crop. It included visits to the

In another story the beautiful but athletic princess

Other Fruit CerelDomes There were many other cere

Japanese Tea CerelDony Tea was inltroduced into Japan

over from China a complete set of utensils for the proper

Other Tisanes Tea was introduced into Europe in the

Ancient Medicine From historical and archaeological

Ayur-veda, the Hindu System The four Vedas are the

1 Psychology of Botany, Leigh, 1 906, giving psychic impressions

hal'IIlonious balance of the three ,important forces acting in

long used .in India as a pur.gative and antidote against

Moxa In China, from <the earliest times a system of medi

the latter. Moxa consists of the use of small cones or

Docte of Signatures In the Middle Ages in Europe a

the treatment of biliousness.

HerbaliSID In the early Middle Ages physicians used

Loranthus Family (Loranthceae): mistletoe (Viscum).

(Glechoma), self-heal (Prunella), skull-cap (Scutellaria),

Orchid Family (Orchidaceae): lady's sl1pper (Cypripe-

cines of the Thomsonian system, so-called from Samuel

HODloeopathy The system of medicine called homoeo

these lines have been made by the Anthroposophical

DRUGS AND POISONS

The Cult of Bacchus The cereals, as we have seen, whilst

as upholding the spiritual life. In the mysteries of Bleusis,

FerDlented Liquors On the skin of grapes a microscopic

ethyl akohod (ethanol), the laJt ter being the intoxicating

from everywhere in Europe, although ilie vine win not

the East Indies, was also used in Africa producing the

white beer in Germany. Rice was used in producing what

Tobacco The tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum), a native

OpiUDl On cutting many plants a milky fluid called latex,

Mescal This drug, otherwise known as peyotl consists of

Indian HeDlp Hemp plants are the source of an important

SOIne other Vegetable Drugs Cocaine is obtained from

Among the Austraiian aborigines, pituri consisted of the

Aphrodisiacs A medicine stimulating the sexual instinct

Aphrodisiacs are the most unreliable o f medicines ; in

diffusa a herb of Centrall America, distantly related to <tIhe

Poisonous Plants The upas-tree (Antiaris) of Java, a