Computer communications

LAN Local Area Network

Local Area Network, Local implies a single site laboratory, a factory or office
building. LAN is a private network.
LAN has high data rate. LANs have relatively short transmission path and often use
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable data transferring rate up to 100 Mbps
Ethernet speed 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet speed 100Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet speed 10000 Mbps

MAN Metropolitan Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network is an extending over relatively large area like several
buildings in a complex or covering part of the city.

WAN Wide Area Network

Unlike MAN, WAN is not restricted to a geographical location. It can be with in a state
or country or even connecting multiple locations. WAN connects several LANs and maybe
limited to an enterprise or accessible to general public.
The Internet is an example of a worldwide public WAN.

LAN network topology

The topology of the network describes the way in which the individual users of the
network are linked together.
There are 4 basic topologies for LAN
1. The unconstrained topology
2. The star topology
3. The bus topology
4. The ring topology

The unconstrained topology

Individual nodes are connected together in an arbitrary fashion. Additional links can
be provided to reduce bottlenecks where heavy traffic passes between groups of nodes.
Disadvantage: decision must be made at each node on the best way to route a message to
its destination. Calculating the best route for each message is computationally
expensive.

1
The star topology
Star network routes all messages from source to destination via one central node and
eliminates the need for nodes to make routing decisions.
Disadvantage: All messages pass through central node, and the loss of central node
brings down the network.
Because all traffic pass through central node, it must be capable of working at a
sufficiently high speed to handle all the load.

The bus topology

Minimizing network complexity by removing central node and the need for individual
nodes to make routing decisions.

All nodes are connected to a common data highway and links all nodes. When a message is
put on the bus by a node, it travels outwards in all directions and eventually reaches
every point in the network.
Limitation: Only one path may exist between any two nodes. Bus cannot exceed some
maximum distance from end to end.
Disadvantage: Number of nodes waiting to use the bus at the same time can be difficult
to manage for larger network.

The ring topology

Nodes are connected together in the form of ring. Like bus, there is no central node.
Each node simply receive message from neighbor and pass it on to its other neighbor.
Messages flow in in one direction around the ring.

A node on the ring has a problem of how to inject a new message into the existing
traffic flow.
Disadvantage: Broken link makes it impossible to pass messages all the way around the
ring.

2
Communication protocols and standards
When any two parties communicate with each other, they must both agree to abide by a
set of unambiguous rules. For example, they must speak the same language.
The protocols governing the communications process are formalized in a document called
standard.

Open system standard for network

ISO has created a framework for the identification and design of protocols for existing
or future communication systems.
This framework is called the Reference Model for Open System Interconnection (ISO model
for OSI)
OSI Reference Model: a set of one or more computers together with the software,
peripherals, terminals, human operators, physical processes and means of data transfer
that go with them which make up a single information processing unit.
OSI model defines 7 layers.
Mnemonic phrase to quickly remember the OSI layers: Please Do Not Take Sales Persons
Advice.

Layer Traffic type Function

Application Data Concerned with application protocols such as email
Layer and file transfer. Creates interface with end-user
and works with applications like FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), IMAP
(Internet Message Access Protocol), POP (Post Office
Protocol) and others.

Works with software to provide communication

functions as required.
Presentation Data Data is formatted into a form that can be processed
layer at the receiving system. Main function is to
translate data from one code to another. It also
performs data encryption and compression.
Session Layer Data Creates the unique connection between sending and
receiving systems and ensures that the data was
transferred correctly.
Transport Layer Datagrams Manages aspects of data transmission and reception.
Isolates session and higher layers from network.
Responsible for reliable transmission of messages.
Network Layer Packets Controls the addressing used for data transmission.
Network layer chooses the optimum path for a message
to cross the network.
Data Link Layer Frames Establishes an error-free connection between two
adjacent points in a network. Data link layer also
detects errors in the message and ask for
retransmission. Manages hardware addresses.
Physical Layer Bits Defines the transmission medium, such as wire,
radio, light beam or some other transmission method.

Why OSI model is needed? How can it be used to develop networks?

The OSI model is not really a physical model and more like a design tool that aids in
developing network system which are open and inter-connectable. It allows different
designers to work with different layers.
Any layer can be replaced by a new layer independently that uses more advanced
technology without affecting the whole network.

3
For example, Data Link Layer that transfer data from one place to another using
wireless link that can be replaced by a fiber-optics link without worrying about other
layers.

TCP/IP protocol architecture

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

It is a collection of network protocols that defines the details of how data is sent
and received through network adapters, hubs, switches, routers and other network
communication hardware.
Each layer in TCP/IP corresponds to one or more layers of the 7 layer OSI model.

Application Layer Top most layer of TCP/IP model. It defines TCP/IP application
protocols and how host programs interface with transport
layer services to use the network.

Application layer includes higher level protocols like DNS

(Domain Name System), HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol),
Telnet, SSH, FTP, SMTP, DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol)
Transport Layer It permits devices on the source and destination hosts to
carry on a conversation. Transport layer defines the level of
service and status of the connection used when transporting
data.

Main protocol used in transport layer are TCP (Transmission

Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
The Internet layer Internet layer pack data into packets known as IP datagram,
which contains source and destination address that is used to
route datagram across the network.

Packet switching network depends on internetwork later. It

allows hosts to insert packets into any network and have them
delivered independently to the destination.

At the destination packets arrive in different order than the

order they were sent. It is the job of the higher layer to
arrange the packets in proper order to deliver them to
network application operating at the application layer.
Network Access Layer It defines the details of how data is physically dent through
the network, including how bits are transferred using
electric signals or optical signals.

4
 Some of the protocols in this layer are Ethernet, Token Ring,
FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay.

Most popular LAN technology is Ethernet. Ethernet uses access

method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collison
Detection)

TCP and IP
TCP: This protocol is designed for reliable data delivery and to safely get packets
from source to destination with the help of IP. TCP is responsible for controlling the
size and rate of the package exchange.
IP: Packets are unit of data that is transferred over the network. Packets consist of
header part, body part. Header contains the source and destination IP addresses. The
body part contains the data.

Ethernet
Ethernet, fast Ethernet and gigabit Ethernet are technologies used in LAN. Ethernet is
built on star network topology.

Advantages of Ethernet
1. Low cost components
2. Easy to install and configure
3. Easy to troubleshoot
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD for access control.

Network access control methods

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collison Detection)
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD access method to transmit data. In CSMA/CD every host has equal
access to transmission medium and can place data on the medium when there is no traffic
on the medium. If there is a traffic on the medium, hosts will wait till the traffic is
cleared.
If two systems put data on the medium at the same time, then those data will collide
with each other. Making the data useless. If it happens, then the data need to be
retransmitted, and each host will wait small random amount of time before retrying to
transmit the data.

CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

In CSMA/CA, before hosts send real data, they check if the medium is free to send data.
If it senses it is free then it sends a dummy data on the medium to see if it collides
with other data, if not then, hosts assume that real data will not collide and send the
real data.

Token Passing
In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA there are chances of data collision. If there are many hosts in
the network, then the chances of collision increases dramatically. In token passing
access method, empty packet called token rotates the network in high speed. If any host
want to send data, then they have to wait till the token reaches them. Once the token
reaches the host, it will fill token with data, marked it as being used and send it to
the destination. Once delivered, the token will be freed and marked as empty so others
can use it.

Network devices
There are many different types of network devices / hardware that allow to create or
connect networks in multiple ways.

5
Common network devices are
1. Repeater
2. Hub
3. Bridge
4. Switch
5. Router
6. Gateway

Repeater
A repeater is a device that receives and retransmits the signal. It is used to extend
the signal length of the network cable by regenerating the signal it receives. Wi-Fi
repeaters / extenders can receive wireless signal and then can boost the strength of
the signal and then re-broadcast it.

Hub
Hub is used to connect devices such as pc and printers to the network. Each device can
be plugged into hubs many ports. Hub receive signal from one port and then transmit
the signal to every other port therefore all devices and peripherals connected to the
hubs ports will receive the signal.
Hubs are common network devices in Ethernet networks and sometimes called multi-port
repeater. Hubs operates at physical layer of the OSI model.

Bridge
Bridge allows to connect two or more different networks together so they act like a
single network. Bridge has or creates a table of connected device addresses to know
which device exists in which network. When bridge passes the message from source, it
only sends the message to the part of the network where the receiving node exists.
This help reduces the overall network traffic and message bottleneck. Bridget works at
the data link later of OSI model.

Switch
A switch is a network device that enables devices connected to a network to communicate
each other efficiently. Main difference between hub and switch is that switch doesnt
broadcast incoming message to every port in it. It only sends the message to the port
which has the destination address assigned to it.
Switch operates at the data link later level of OSI model.

Router
Route is a network device that directs packets through the network to make it reach the
destination. It uses the addressing information from network later of OSI model. Router
allows to send and receive messages from different networks. It determines the network
by looking at the source and destination addresses (IP address) in the packet and build
a routing table.
This table is used to plot / create a path to send the data to its destination.

Difference between switch and bridge

Both bridges and switches are operating at the same data link layer of the OSI model,
but switches are considered much more superior devices than bridges.
1. Packet forwarding in bridges are done by software. Packet forwarding in the
switch uses integrated circuits (IC)
2. Switches operates at high speed than bridges.
3. A switch can have more ports than a bridge.
4. Bridge can operate only in half duplex mode, a switch can operate on both half
duplex and full duplex modes.

Gateway
Gateway is a combination of hardware and software that enables two or more networks
with different protocols to communicate with each other. Gateway is usually a dedicated
server on a network with high performance.

6
There are two types of gateways.
1. Address gateway
a. An address gateway connects networks with different structures and file-
management techniques.
2. Protocol gateway
a. A protocol gateway connects networks that uses different protocols. This
is the most common type of gateway.

Network interface card (NIC)

The NIC allows PC/Laptops to connect to a network. It is the physical link. NIC is a
translator that works between the network and the PC. Network transmits data in a
serial data format (1 bit at a time) and internal PC data is transmitted in a parallel
data format (8 bits or more at a time). The NIC converts the serial data to parallel
data back and forth depending on the direction of transmission.
NIC also formats the data as required by the network architecture.
NIC is connected to an expansion slot of the PC. Usually NICs are connected to PCI
(Peripheral Component Interconnect) slots. Current generation PCs have NIC built-into
their motherboard.
Every NIC has a universally unique identifier called MAC (Media Access Control) address
assigned to it. This MAC address is used to deliver Ethernet packets to a computer.

Network addresses
Ethernet uses different types of addresses to identify nodes in the network.

MAC address (Media Access Control)

It is a physical address or hardware address corresponding data link layer in the OSI
mode. MAC addresses are 48 bits and represented as hexadecimal number.
e.g. AA.F0.C1.E2.77.51
The first 3 bytes of the MAC address identifies the manufacturer. It is also known as
Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)

IP address (Internet Protocol)

In order for a computer or device to connect to a TCP/IP network, it must have an IP
address. This address is used by network layer in the OSI model for delivering the
packets to a device located in the same network or different network.
MAC addresses are physical address, while IP addresses are logical addresses. IP
address is a configurable address which identify which network the particular host /
node belongs to and also a network specific host number.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit binary number divided into 4 sections, but are represented as
decimal numbers. E.g. 192.168.1.45