Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections

Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Twitter as part of an online learning-cultures approach: exploring a

lecturers and a student-teachers perspectives.

Dr Ursula Edgington

Ms Jade Wilton

Abstract
Twitter is a popular - some would say unique - social networking and micro-blogging
site. Although social networking sites are viewed by some as a distraction to
learning, research suggests they can often be used proactively by teachers in all
sectors, to share ideas, texts and images in a positive and informal way (Poore,
2013). Twitter in particular has been found to enhance learning outcomes through
encouraging student creativity and social engagement (Jimerson, 2015; Junco et al.,
2013).

Using an auto/biographical interpretive approach, this theoretical, reflective chapter

about using Twitter, draws on the authors two individual perspectives as lecturer
and student-teacher. Within the context of a New Zealand university, we draw on a
multi-disciplinary learning cultures model (James and Biesta, 2007), founded on the
sociology of Bourdieu (1991). Presenting metaphorical ideas, together with practical
pedagogical strategies, we explain how the theoretical tools within a learning
cultures approach, resonate with Mori philosophy. Mori concepts of ako
[learning/teaching] and Te Whriki [a woven mat for all to stand on] illuminate Twitter
as an empowering third space for connected, multicultural learning.

Introduction
Twitter is a micro-blogging, social networking site, where public posts and
interactions are limited to 140 characters. Although now slightly in decline, its
popularity grew exponentially after its launch in 2006; currently over 300 million
regular users tweet on average over 500 million posts per day (Jimerson, 2015). The
public and diverse nature of tweet interactions has been argued to be the reason
why university students (and educators in particular) have been enthusiastic to

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

engage with Twitter (Junco et al., 2013). As one UK student-teacher tweeted

recently:

It's more than worth it, I've learnt loads of new ideas from Twitter. It's like a
big, live, book of ideas! (via @TrainingToTeach)

An important aspect of learning with Twitter is how it can encourage an engagement

with the topic in a community outside the physical (or virtual) classroom (Birch,
2013). For instance, making cross-disciplinary connections with news articles brings
new context to learning tasks and assessments, especially if they have personal
significance (Boud, 2009). It can also add valuable humour to an otherwise
unappealing topic or concept (Ellingson, this volume). Importantly, these kinds of
strategies may be particularly meaningful for Mori students who often place high
value on the concept of a whnau [extended family] as a shared community of
experiential learning (Mahuika, et al., 2011). But as Reeves and Gomm (2015) have
argued, it is the how and why this shared community is experienced that needs to be
explored. What does this kind of community engagement offer students and teachers
that is different from other learning communities they may participate in? Addressing
this issue, this chapter argues how a learning cultures approach could bring new
insights to this shared community experience. As an holistic multi-cultural approach
to pedagogy, it embraces the contextualisation of learning through visual and
metaphorical ideas.

Firstly, this chapter will summarise the academic literature of the theoretical concepts
in a learning cultures approach, which as we explain, carries some resonance with
Mori philosophy of learning. Author vignettes are presented as examples of our
individual perspectives of Pkeh (European) lecturer and Mori student-teacher.
After each vignette, some examples of the practical application and experience of
this approach will be discussed through the lens of a learning cultures model. In
particular, we use the metaphor of Te Whriki [a woven mat for all to stand on] to
illustrate how Twitter can empower individuals engaged in connected learning
experiences. Finally, these concepts and perspectives are drawn together to assert
Twitter be more widely put to use in enhancing contextual, multi-cultural pedagogies,
in online courses and elsewhere.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

What is a Learning cultures approach?

A learning cultures approach is based on multi-disciplinary theoretical tools from
Bourdieu (1991). The underlying principles employed in this approach are that
learning is socially experienced, so that rather than using individualised concepts of
learning, learning is seen as something that is always cultural. This also
acknowledges that the practices and definitions of learning vary and are structured
by powerful interests as well as individual choices (James and Biesta, 2007). In other
words, a shared community of learning through social interactions is crucial to
individual learning journeys. The conceptual framework of learning cultures has been
utilised in various educational environments, including tertiary colleges (James and
Biesta, 2007); community education (Birch, 2013) and universities (James, 2013). It
has also been discussed in the broader context of learning-oriented assessment and
teachers perceptions of best practice (Carless, 2015). However, this chapter is
unique in drawing comparisons with Aotearoa New Zealands Mori language and
philosophy. This analysis is valuable because, as Biesta (2011) argues, often
learning is founded on strongly-embedded assumptions based on societal norms
and the unhelpful binary language of Western world-views. In addressing these
issues, a learning cultures approach seeks to deconstruct and transcend these
assumptions, through valuing and sharing personal knowledge and experiences.

When considering the impact of specific academic disciplines in universities and the
boundaries they create, it could be argued that rather than critiquing Western
understandings, institutions further embed these biases (Boud, 2009). But if
continuing social inequalities in societies are to be addressed through education, it is
exactly these assumptions that need to be deconstructed and challenged (Bourdieu,
1991). This is particularly relevant in the New Zealand context, where Mori and
Pasifika students are underrepresented in tertiary education and within senior
positions in the workplace (Mahuika, et al., 2011). Arguably, sharing and respecting
diverse life experiences forms an important way of raising awareness of, and
overcoming stereotypical prejudice and a learning cultures approach presents
valuable ways to address this. Practical application of a learning cultures model
through using Twitter will be discussed later in this chapter, however first its

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

important to briefly explain the philosophical theory behind learning cultures and its
relevance within a New Zealand online learning context.

Theoretical Concepts of a Learning Cultures Approach

Consideration of the interactions between physical, social, spiritual and emotional
aspects of learning are widely accepted as crucial when re/designing any course and
assessment (Illeris, 2002). In the New Zealand context this approach is
conceptualised by Te Whare Tapa Wh, a contemporary Mori paradigm originally
used for Mori-focused healthcare initiatives (Durie, 1994). Te Whare Tapa Wh is
often symbolised by the four sides of the marae or community meeting-house, which
represent the influences upon individuals. The four elements are: te taha wairua, the
spiritual aspects; te taha hinengaro, the psychological or emotional aspects; te taha
tinana, the physical body; and te taha whnau, the family, extended family and wider
community. This arrangement will be familiar to Western educationalists, where
curricula strategies are commonly divided into Physical, Intellectual, Emotional and
Social (PIES) (e.g. Stretch, 2010). Like the four quarters needed to complete the
(holistic) PIES circle, a metaphorical building cannot stand without the stability of all
four walls and this represents the importance of the lived environment. For
successful learning and well-being, balance is required and any breakdown in this
stability may result in negative consequences for the individual and their wider
community. This holistic perspective is reflected in numerous psychological learning
theories worldwide and remains highly relevant when deconstructing assumptions
about how the context of students lives interconnects with institutionally-prescribed
learning objectives.

However, this paradigm is argued to be reductionist; rather than four separate

entities forming an holistic approach, these complex aspects of an individuals
context and interactions within learning processes, overlap and are interwoven (e.g.
Heaton, 2011). Furthermore, definitions of these terms cannot be simplified to
Western world-views; the Mori language reflects diverse interpretations including
the historical evolution of phrases through etymology, cosmogony, spirituality and
biology (Walker, 1990/2004). For instance, the definition of te taha tinana, [the
physical body] includes organs such as the hinengaro [spleen] which as well as

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

performing its biological function, is also believed to be the centre of an individuals

emotions and memories (Salmond, 1985). Mori ways of knowing do not comprise
unhelpful binary divisions between biological and emotional, these natural aspects of
lived experiences are unified and interrelated, not only within individuals but through
ancestral biographies (Pihama et al., 2014). Mori genealogy is a powerful entity
incorporating perspectives acquired from whakapapa [ancestors] such as the
spiritual embrace that depends upon the natural balance of entire environment. For
example, one individual wakes up to rain; today is his grand-fathers funeral and rain
is interpreted as a sign of loss from his ancestors. Similarly, another individual sets
off to work, and sees the rain as cleansing and renewing the air; interpreting this as
invigorating their day ahead. In short, Mori philosophy emphasises how individuals
feel connected to the environment that holds them within that knowledge.

Understandably, however, these different philosophical understandings may be

difficult to grasp for those unfamiliar with this worldview, hence sharing creative
pedagogies that are an intrinsic part of a learning cultures approach could be useful.
One creative strategy is metaphor, which, like art, allows for the unspoken to
become articulated; ambiguities of words or pictures that contain irony, or pun can
be deconstructed and re/interpreted (Bourdieu, 1993). Writers such as Lakoff and
Johnson (1980) have argued convincingly that metaphors influence our worldview
emphasising uncertainties of thought and language. Metaphors are therefore
important in encouraging teacher-researchers to make sense of our social worlds
and to ask questions especially when individuals interpretations differ. In this way,
new conversations are opened up, because they encourage us to see how social
structures are not concrete, but actually co-exist and interact with each other and
with their own objectives. As Grenfell and James (1998, p. 172) noted, Bourdieu
acknowledged how the unobserved is not necessarily unknowable, and has value
too; hence its importance in teaching and learning. Because metaphors are flexible,
meanings can be stretched, deconstructed and re-built in attempting to develop new
ideas and meanings (Ellingson, 2008). When creating multi-cultural pedagogies
then, metaphors could provide a useful interpretive tool to enhance conversations
about conceptual knowledge (Edgington, 2014).

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Usefully, there are valuable alternative models to Te Whare Tapa Wh in the New
Zealand educational context. For instance Te Whriki [a woven mat for all to stand
on] forms part of the New Zealand national curriculum. The document defines overall
objectives for early childhood programs, but as a metaphor, Te Whriki could be
argued to have wider, symbolic meanings that inspire individuals of all ages and
cultures to weave their own learning, empowering them within a reciprocal
relationship. This is particularly relevant for student-teachers then, because it
encourages contribution and engagement in society and critical thinking skills,
something that (as we illustrate later in this chapter), social media such as Twitter
can support. Rather than adhering to traditional Western structures of meaning in a
curriculum framework of physical, intellectual, emotional and social factors, Te
Whriki is grounded in sociocultural theory (Biesta, 2011). Interactions are therefore
the centre of students activities, co-constructing their own knowledge and
understandings (Illeris, 2002). Hence the philosophy of lifelong learning as a fluid,
developmental process is embraced, within a diverse, multi-cultural, digital society
(Coffield, 2000). Practical application of this approach can therefore be addressed
through the use of mediums like Twitter, because it embodies a structure of diverse
social interactions.

Exploring the deeper meanings of using Te Whriki through metaphor provides

some valuable insights into conceptualisations of learning, including the shared
learning experienced through Twitter. In a practical sense, the complexity could be
argued to be embodied in the traditional Mori weaving techniques symbolised here:

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Photo 1: A weave created on a live flax plant at Arapuni, Waikato, taken by the
authors.

A woven artefact is created through careful weaving, constructed through the

layering patterns of interconnecting leaves from the flax plant. Each layer is built
upon to create a structure, the pattern of which is significant because it has been
handed-down through generations of skilled ancestors through narrative and song.
With this in mind, Te Whriki becomes a useful metaphor for deeper understandings
of one of the key concepts of a learning cultures approach: Bourdieus concept of
habitus defines the complex interwoven contexts of our learning lives (Bourdieu,
1991). Dynamics that we each bring to every situation and relationship are an
intrinsic part of how we learn and interact (Reay, 2004). The consolidation of past
decisions, experiences, as well as our hopes and expectations, interact together
within fields of different pressures and rules or doxa. Similarly, in Mori tradition, the
flax plant itself holds sacred meanings with intrinsic doxa, through symbolising family
members of whnau. The central, younger shoots of the plant are seen as the child,
with parent leaves either side. Traditionally, leaves acceptable for use in weaving
are the older, weaker outside leaves; representing grandparents. This is a powerful

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

metaphorical representation of intergenerational aspects of past, present and futures

that we explained briefly above.

Bourdieu explains how our habitus may be outwardly interpreted by others through
our accent or body language. Our habitus provides an interpretation of ones
relationship to the social world and to ones proper place in it (Bourdieu, 1984, p.
474), as well as simultaneously, internally being a part of it. In the modern field of
social media, this concept takes on new meaning; our publicly available profile may
be inauthentic through strategic manipulation; different to our genuine selves.
Furthermore, our public interactions may be with individuals whom we have never
(physically) met and who may too be performing a virtual identity for a specific
purpose. Twitter is one way of engaging in this interaction because it gives voice to
individuals who might otherwise not be heard; providing an opportunity of
empowerment.

Habitus is multi-dimensional, for example it could be seen in the innate but hidden
skills within a teachers professional habitus (Grenfell and James, 1998) and the
emotional resilience teachers and students may develop over time (Hargreaves,
2000). For us, the importance of trying to understand our own habitus resonates with
the context of our lives and how professional habitus brings value and meaning to
our interactions in teaching and learning. For instance, our ancestors, family
background, gender, age, past and current experiences in different cultures and
contexts brings unique significance to the processes involved in communications
with students, peers, colleagues and research participants (Denzin, 1984). Other
aspects of professional habitus may include fears and aspirations, real or imagined
(or a combination of both). And it is interesting to note how these interactions differ
depending on whether they are via Tweets or other virtual communications. As
authors, this brings significance to our reflections and writings, and simultaneously
our continuing professional development (CPD) as (student) teachers and
researchers. This is because no researcher begins a project as such; our context
and re/presentations to our selves are an integral part of the processes and
outcomes of our thinking and writing (Wright Mills, 1959).

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

In an online learning environment, rules or doxa exist to protect individuals from

potential harm. By definition, doxa are unspoken; they may be innate or hidden.
Some students may already have experience of online learning, and be familiar with
the concepts of engaging with a forum or commenting on a podcast. Others
however, may still be in the process of learning to learn and yet this status may be
invisible to others in the group (including the teacher/lecturer). As we explain below,
Twitter can be used to break down some of these boundaries and to encourage
experiential learning activities that de-mystify some of these rules. Transposing the
concepts important in a learning cultures environment into a virtual classroom can
bring new meanings to researching and resources, contextualising them. In turn,
these reflections provide inspiration for new ways of learning and teaching.

In essence then, a learning cultures approach seeks to enable pedagogical

strategies which help to draw and reflect on past experiences and knowledge and
future aspirations in a mutually respectful atmosphere, so each student is recognised
and valued (Biesta, 2011; James and Biesta, 2007). In the New Zealand context, this
resonates with the Mori concept of ako [teaching/learning] a symbolic inter-
relationship between student and teacher in that learning is non-hierarchical and a
shared experience (Simpson and Williams, 2012). This concept is used in
classrooms where differentiation is aimed at addressing Mori and Pasifika students
needs, through approaches which are defined as holistic and creative. By drawing on
evidenced-based, diverse pedagogical strategies which embrace the ethos of ako,
Twitter can help towards developing a learning cultures approach where teacher,
teacher-student and student outcomes are enhanced.

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 Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Vignette 1: Ursula
A few years ago I was a voluntary convenor for the British Sociological Association
(BSA)s Postgraduate Forum which was a special interest group of mainly PhD
social-science students. As well as distributing a regular email via a newsletter facility,
I also utilised social networking platforms like Facebook and Twitter. This not only
provided a cost-effective way of disseminating information, it also allowed any
interested individuals to engage with the research community in events, jobs, funding
opportunities and other items of interest.

It quickly became obvious that Twitter was a favoured platform by many new and
experienced academics and that this was a fast and effective way of communicating
local and international issues, sharing blog posts and writing feedback. The hashtag
#phdchat is now well-developed, including regular synchronous conversations that
occur - facilitated by individuals from various disciplines. Other hashtags regularly
become part of these tweets (e.g. #writing #loveHE #academia etc) which encourage a
broad range of research-active individuals to join the conversation. These individuals
are all at different stages of their research project, often with valuable suggestions to
share. It is difficult to imagine a more open and fun way to explore and learn. Not only
about the research subject per se, but also about connected matters published
authors, funding opportunities and new/s articles.

I always encourage my students - at all levels of learning - to set-up a Twitter profile

and experiment with searching items of interest personal and professional. The fun of
twitter is seeing the professional and personal side-by-side; the promotion of a book by
an author, might be preceded by a photo of her walking her dog for example and this
de-mystifies the world of academia. Often its the genuine humanness of these
interactions that offers a more meaningful understanding of lived experiences within the
research process. After paying due consideration to privacy settings and netiquette,
Twitter offers a unique opportunity. Indeed, research must have been very isolating for
some individuals before Twitter, in comparison with the superb possibilities to engage
and share all that the Twitter #phdchat and other communities now offer.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Diverse types of conversations with known and unknown followers on Twitter can
help individuals build self-confidence and also assist in them getting to know their
own classmates in an informal environment. At the beginning of any learning journey
no matter how short it is important to build rapport between everyone involved
(Knowles, 1985). In a conventional classroom environment, this can be fairly
straight-forward; applied through popular ice-breaking or team-building tasks and
less-structured tea-break socialising. The online environment presents some very
specific challenges in this respect, but the principles remain the same. Introducing
the rules of the game, the doxa that will become the context to this and further
learning can be incorporated into a fun quiz or puzzle (Ellingson, In Press). This can
be shared through Twitter, which can, in turn, also provide valuable feedback from
students on its usefulness.

Building a culture of learning needs an open and trusting environment, and that can
be achieved through self-assessment strategies and playfulness, such as tasks that
involve sharing favourite music. Twitter has proved an especially useful medium for
sharing videos or clips. As the vignette above explained, by combining them under a
specific hashtag (e.g. #[the course identifier]) for the group of students to see, this
encourages interaction about music which also has relevance for developing and
sharing study-skill strategies. Another subject valuable for building rapport in this
way is asking students to search Twitter and tweet about what (other) kinds of
learning strategies they find useful on a personal level (Salmon, 2003). This task
always provides some new ideas that can be added to suggestions for future
cohorts, building a shared community which develops over time.

For those students who prefer to stay within the Virtual Learning Envrionment (VLE)
and who have not (yet) fully explored the potential of Twitter, a Twitter feed can
easily be added to the VLE, presenting students a summary of the current tweets
from relevant hashtags within a manageable box, alongside other learning materials.
Experience has taught me how a tweet reminding students about an assignment
deadline or a new reading text available is highly effective as a way of gaining
attention. When also incorporated into the VLE, it provides another motivation for

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

students to engage with Twitter to see what other posts may be useful or
inspirational to them.

Its the openness of the communication possibilities that provides the key to Twitters
appeal. Whether its a conversation with a favourite celebrity or some
encouragement from a colleague, the accessibility of these conversations is open to
anyone who chooses to get involved. Hence, in these ways and others, Twitter
provides a multi-cultural environment where opportunities for different types of
learning communities can emerge through synchronous as well as asynchronous
discussions. But balancing this is important in developing an interactional learning
space (Salmon, 2003). The dynamics of the classroom changes if synchronous
meetings or Tweet-chats are held and these should always be optional as not all
students will be able to attend or perhaps feel comfortable contributing to a
discussion at a pre-determined time (Bowles, 2004). Students may be present either
in real-time or later, but either way not necessarily provide evidence of engagement
in the debates. However, this silent lurking in the background of a discussion might
not be wholly negative; indeed, it may be valuable thinking time for some students,
that may not become apparent until a later assessment (Reeves and Gomm, 2015).
As we pointed out in the metaphor of Te Whriki, the spaces between the woven
pieces are equally important to the pattern and structure of the mat. Similarly, these
spaces empower others to use their own voice when they are able to metaphorically
stand up upon Te Whriki to articulate their perspectives. The importance of
accessibility to asynchronous discussion for students from rural areas is particularly
relevant in the New Zealand context, where Internet broadband services are
frequently unreliable and/or costly.

It is widely acknowledged that the benefits of flipped classrooms can significantly

enhance learning outcomes (Bowles, 2004; Brooks et al., 2001; Conrad and
Donaldson, 2004; Salmon, 2003). This means fully exploiting a VLEs potential, in
particular, in enhancing equal opportunities of fair accessibility for students with
specific needs. These measures can include tweeting helpful hyperlinks to resources
for students such as additional learning support tutors and the university library. The
ability to add modern, fun, relevant and engaging course content promotes students

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

who can use their devices (BYOD) in diverse settings to explore embedded study
skills such as library forums and educational blogs, research and employment
search tools, social networking skills and online safety (netiquette). In particular,
using Twitter to enhance a blended learning experience of students using a flipped
classroom technique allows absentees to the virtual classroom to catch up and
provides additional readings for those students who are of higher ability and/or are
further advanced in their studies. This differentiation is important because
technological knowledge outside the physical classroom is valuable when employers
demand these skills be enhanced, not neglected. This is why explorations of how
social media such as Twitter can be used in all types of lifelong learning
environments - including the workplace - are so essential.

Using these and similar strategies to contextualise learning and bring it some real-life
relevance for students also has the advantage of connecting lecturers with
opportunities for reflective interactions. Whether online Tweet chats with peers
and/or students or networking events where relevant research-informed pedagogy is
debated, these can usefully support the ongoing processes of development of online
courses and lecturers agency, thereby embracing a broad definition of a learning
cultures approach. The Mori word ako is therefore embodied in Twitter interactions
by presenting symbiotic relationships between students and teachers, whether in
formally defined roles or not. Returning to the usefulness of metaphor, the concept of
ako has been presented as a tuangi model; the two sides of the clam shellfish
cannot exist in isolation, nor without the context of the seawater around it (Simpson
and Williams, 2012). On that note, we present the second vignette:

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Vignette 2: Jade
As a female, Mori student my needs for an optimal learning environment involve
more than just academic know-how, I need a reciprocal student-teacher
relationship to share my own experiences and mix these into the learning;
contextualising meanings so I can achieve the best outcome. In this way, not only
am I absorbing my lecturers insights, but in turn, sharing the unique attributes my
culture offers to communicate a varied perspective. Thats because, Mori
philosophy of learning holds a deeper meaning than contemporary ideas of
student-centredness; it emphasises the belief that it is unnatural for students to
walk an academic pathway unsupported.

Initially I was introduced to Twitter because of an online academic writing course at

university. It opened up a reciprocal relationship that unfolded during my learning
journey with my lecturer, and with her guidance, Twitter invited me to a place
where I could extend my own learning. I am a person who no longer engages with
Facebook, because I am reluctant to share my personal opinions of the day in the
life posts of various meals, statuses, locations and virtual gifts. These posts
became a rather tiresome chore to like when I did not have time to participate, and
check that I was still friends with people I didnt actually know or others I could
alternatively just email or phone when required. Within Facebook I hadnt found an
intellectual community of voices I wanted to engage with; instead, it was a family
and friends network.

I found the intention of using Twitter to improve my academic writing motivating.

Twitter definitely forced me to write better, as the 140 characters maximum limit
made me concise, detailed and direct, what I now refer to as my writer fitness. As
I had no expectations, I was surprised that there was a place that academic
perspective existed, and a supportive research environment was thriving. For me,
this was invaluable by way of investigating via publications, journals and blog
exploration. It also gave my opinion credibility an approval, by way of retweet or
liking, which developed my skills as a writer, and in turn my academic confidence.
The Twitter effect is a measurable one, especially for someone like myself, who
due to family and other commitments, has limited time. It enabled me to gain new
academic opportunities by making the interaction with the community as specific to
my needs as I required, by using hashtags. It is one academic tool and relationship
with my lecturer I would now not be without.

Definitions of the Mori word ako, as described earlier, are centrally important to
student achievement, because it is where an authentic, responsive and reflective
learning practice of reciprocity is shared between teacher and learner. With the

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

concept of ako in mind, students do not attend university alone; a cultural identity
means strengths of whakapapa [ancestors] are also present, along with the support
of whnau [extended family]. Importantly, ako sits alongside whnau as an
inseparable coupling. Reflecting the concept of Bourdieus habitus, Mori student
identity is more than what meets the eye; its complex cultural layers, such as
indigenous spirituality are interconnected with physical being.

A classroom is a space of purpose; there is an underlying connection to educational

frameworks such as collaborative professional learning and development. In order
for this to happen it has to be effectively maintained, so staying connected to
learners needs is essential. A student-teacher can be challenged to keep learning,
which is an integral aspect of professional practice, and on a daily basis this can be
articulated through Twitter. Ako is present within Twitter because it consists of a
supportive community or whnau. Conceptualising Twitter as Te Whriki provides a
metaphor which consolidates the multiple meanings within the artefact of a skilfully
hand-woven mat, which, through its cultural significance to whnau and ako can
empower individuals engaged in connected learning experiences. The nature of
Twitter enables a new virtual classroom of collaboration and openness - to share,
exchange, demonstrate and impact diverse learning. This third space of learning -
from the physical and/or virtual classroom and external factors that develop from it -
adds variety to my interactions and encourages students to view the world through
different eyes, political stances, and cultural attitudes. One recent example of this is
through the Tweets surrounding the Presidential election in the USA; Donald
Trumps Twitter account (@therealdonaldtrump) has recently been the focus of
intense political controversy in respect of perceived prejudice and social inequality.
This new way of accessing such a diversity of knowledge adds depth to teaching and
learning discussions with whnau: it is unlikely I would have become so politically
aware or engaged with these debates, without Twitter.

Because Twitter promotes sharing publicly a personal perspective, participating

means giving voice to topics of interest and passion, then in turn, within the Twitter
community, there is the opportunity to see it from others viewpoints. This can be
invaluable during the writing process when seeking to refute a thesis statement.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Examples of these can be seen when a hashtag is used, and in real-time participants
are able to view pictures, and perhaps videos of those in attendance at a specific
event. Links associated with the topic, including information shared from varying
sources are also tweeted. As a student-teacher I have experienced how empowering
it is to draw my own conclusions, according to the information people have shared,
and to then develop research, ideas and lessons triggered by these interactions.
This shows how, by using Twitter as a resource full of captured global moments, a
learning platform of rich educational content is created. These interactions can be
drawn upon and used in teaching practice, as I illustrate below.

Twitter allows for connections to be formed with people, communities or

organisations, including Mori representatives such as @mihi_forbes and
@MaoRRiCulture. The community I have selected to follow is supportive and
proactive in their voice, immensely helping my studies and opportunities to be
successful. Considering I am not engaged in a traditional classroom setting of face-
to-face learning, this provides evidence of how meaningful active participation in
alternative ways can be. Another example of a Twitter account I follow is @Edutopia,
which is a USA-based educational charity, founded by filmmaker George Lucas
(Edutopia, 2016). I have tried many of the free, quick ideas to teach children with
very few resources, such as learning process drama. This is a pedagogical
technique where, after researching, students adopt historically important characters
to act-out in the classroom. In this way, every child can become someone else, and
express their knowledge in a safe environment, free from risk of ridicule of peers.
This form of dramaturgical approach to learning also means that every type of
learner is included in this classroom activity, as auditory, visual and kinaesthetic
opportunities occur as it unfolds.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Photo 2: Hand-made carving with family significance: photo taken by the authors

Like the woven flax in photo 1, the carved artefact shown in photo 2 above is a
piece that includes symbolic gaps within a pattern. This carving carries significance
as a family artefact and therefore embedded in it, is the significance of my own
professional habitus and my learning with whnau. One end is not framed like the
other three sides but open-ended; reflecting how, like the woven nature of Te
Whriki, metaphorically, these gaps allow for a third space of learning and a
continual, shared, unending path. This could be interpreted as symbolic of the
openness in opportunities from digital media such as Twitter. Furthermore, this
carving shows the skills necessary in adapting to the learned differences in density
and contours of wood. Similarly, in teaching we adapt to individuals habitus and the
educational climate, as every persons contribution in that moment affects the
dynamics; just as Twitter gives the user a multitude of rich educational moments that
are ever-evolving opportunities to share learning progressions.

Twitter provides inspirational ideas for student-teachers when planning the teaching
of a new science topic within the Primary classroom. Other helpful teacher Twitter
accounts such as @TeacherToolkit have regular, helpful classroom hacks that
provide coping strategies for those important micro elements of classroom
management. For instance, students pencil- tapping in class can be annoyances
that are easily overcome with pertinent correction and BYOD classes are made more
effective with suitable digital short-cuts. Likewise, for technology insights that are
creative and enthusiastic, TED Talks (@TedTalks) offers innovative replacements for

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

old ideas. With a research-informed international audience, including exclusive

educational perspectives, TED Talks are stimulating, informative, and research-
based. This dynamic adds credibility to what is being shared, and also adds how
theory is transformed into practice. As many of the short talks are appropriate for
children to watch too, it is another resource to include in the classroom as a lead-in
to a topic.

Sonny Bill Williams (@SonnyBWilliams), although most commonly known as a

sporting celebrity in rugby, Tweets not only about sportsmanship but also (perhaps
surprisingly) inspirational quotes about humility and peace. I have found it beneficial
to share the powerful imagery he tweets with students, to show the apparently
personal, humble side of a celebrity usually perceived as extraordinary. Like Sonny
B Williams, the people I follow on Twitter in my everyday life, I would not ordinarily
be exposed to; their life journeys contrast with my own and yet that is what makes
this medium for learning so powerful and meaningful. But it is important to have an
element of scepticism about these virtual identities and this is where knowledge of
internet safety is an important aspect of not only my own learning, but a fundamental
part of my students lessons. Nevertheless, the images @SonnyBWilliams often
shares provide useful triggers for emotive language which can be beneficial to
students thinking and writing. His motivational tweets can also help to build
leadership qualities in physical education, particularly to instil a positive inner
dialogue for my students. Inevitably, scholarly Twitter accounts such as
@britishlibrary and @WaikatoLibrary provide valuable academic information, but it is
the unexpected diversity from the outputs from some Twitter accounts which provide
the contrasting sources that can be so effective to include within my teaching
practice.

Discussion
These perspectives of Twitter provide largely beneficial outcomes for our learning,
but these concepts can carry negative connotations too. Bourdieu warned how we
are at times trapped in our social worlds. As a post-structuralist, he questions the
embedded nature of language and how definitions could be subject to different
interpretations, recreating prejudice and inequalities (Bourdieu, 1991). The

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

limitations of characters in every Twitter post can potentially emphasise the risk of
mis-interpretations (Rich and Miah, 2013). We therefore need to focus on being
sensitive to the nuances of language whilst simultaneously consciously questioning
our assumptions. Without this critique of the normalised practice of everyday lives,
we risk, in some ways, being products rather than agents of the social world in which
we exist, physically and emotionally. So, in the context of learning and supporting
others in the learning process, it is imperative that conventions embedded within the
expansion and measurement of teaching practices are challenged. Because of the
global, diverse and real-time openness of social media like Twitter, it offers some
effective ways of identifying and deconstructing these assumptions, as we have
shown in our examples in this chapter.

Social interaction - both virtual and otherwise - takes place in different fields which
are, in themselves, constantly interacting with each other (Bourdieu and Wacquant,
1992). In each field, objectives are set and forms of power through social capital can
be played-out. A field can be viewed on a macro basis, that (for example) may be the
whole of the educational system, or on a more micro level, where the institution may
be a field with its own rules and objectives, or even the (virtual) classroom itself
(James and Biesta, 2007). Similarly, a newsfeed from a Twitter profile could be an
interpretation of a type of field where public tweets provide an opportunity for an
individuals voice to be heard, challenged, influenced and defended. A field may
allow for interplay in a game where habitus provides possibilities for reward, in terms
of seeking different kinds of social capital or seeking personal recognition (Honneth,
2004; McQueen, 2014). The different pulls within this market are in the potential
wins of the players (objects and agents). Likewise it can also incur costs, for
example when individuals are overtly challenged or criticised on Twitter; potentially
harming self-esteem. Participants termed Trolls may deliberately break netiquette
rules in order to disrupt a social (learning) forum to voice irrelevant, discriminatory,
racist, sexist or homophobic views (Safko, 2010). Consequently, Artificial Intelligence
(AI) designed to assist individuals with management of social media tools can be
manipulated by Trolls, causing additional harm (Ohlheiser, 2016). There are always
risks to the Self when engaging with social media and managing potential solutions
to these should be carefully considered and discussed in all learning environments.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

Nonetheless, the value of Twitter as a constantly evolving learning tool cannot be

dismissed when considering the global, inter- and multi-cultural possibilities
(Carrigan, 2016).

The interconnectedness of inner and outer aspects of our learning lives cannot be
reduced to pedagogical strategies; they are part of the body consciousness,
simultaneously linked to residues of past emotional experiences (Denzin, 1984). The
Mori philosophy which illustrates the multiple and diverse meanings of concepts like
ako and whnau therefore resonate with aspects of the social constructionist theory
in a learning cultures approach. In particular, as lecturer and student-teacher, we can
see how using metaphor for concepts like Te Whriki, provide an opportunity for
enhanced understandings of theoretical educational concepts like professional
habitus and for illuminating reasons why Twitter is an effective learning platform.

The relevance of exploring the concept of habitus, through metaphorical thinking

which builds understandings of learning processes, provides a context which
extends beyond our own lives, into shared cultures. This has profound implications
for teaching practice, as can be seen in this quote from American sociologist Mark
Freeman, who reflected on the relevance of his Jewish ancestry when experiencing
his first visit to the German city of Berlin:

But I had carried with me a significant enough store of common knowledge

and common imagery as to activate the undercurrents of some of the events
witnessed. Memory in this context, becomes a curious amalgamation of
fictions, experiences and texts, documentary footage, dramatization, plays,
television shows, fantasies and more. (Freeman, 2002, p. 99).

As Freeman hints at above, like art and metaphor, creative fiction can also provide a
way that these unspoken aspects of our habitus can be explored. For instance, in the
fictional story, The Bone People, Keri Hulme creates a sense of place which also
carries historical significance, ordinarily unarticulated. The emotions of the
protagonist portray a spiritual sense that adds depth to the story and its inherent
symbolism of Mori Aotearoa New Zealand culture. The fluid nature of being
between past/present alone/together and life/death opens possibilities, just as an

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

awareness of this third space opens up potential for learning through critical
thinking. This is especially relevant when we consider educational research which
indicates that it is within these spaces of uncertainty and risk that learning is more
likely to occur (Roberts, 2013b; Williamson, 1998).

Conclusion
This chapter has presented a philosophical analysis of the relevance of using Twitter
as part of a learning cultures approach, within the context of a New Zealand
university. Through reflections on our own teaching and learning ethos, we have
examined the theoretical concepts from the learning cultures model and provided the
metaphorical Mori exemplar of Te Whriki as a way of illuminating the complexities
of different worldviews. For example, habitus encompasses not only our individual
past experiences and unique background; influences from myths and whnau, but
also spaces where interactions which are unspoken, present a space for deeper,
more personal learning opportunities.

As we have shown through the practical examples included in this chapter, Twitter
provides useful pedagogical strategies that support a learning cultures approach.
This is because Twitter can encourage a creative way to learn in a shared
community. However, social media communication is not without dangers, and we
need to be mindful of how a professional identity is vulnerable to informal
interactions of this kind, especially student-teachers who may be inexperienced.

Using Twitter to enhance a learning cultures approach provides students with a

realistic reflection of the increasingly fluid boundaries between work, learning and
social environments (Brooks et al., 2001). The way we write, the processes and
rituals involved in writing and how we perceive texts (and their associated
sounds/images) constantly evolves as do the tools we use to create them. Hence
learning through communication via digital learning skills is intrinsic to our everyday
lives, encouraging diversity and equality (Boud, 2009). We are interacting every
minute of every day with different kinds of media in different ways and this is how we
constantly learn; there is no reason to separate this way of thinking from formal
pedagogical strategies.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

On a wider, sociological basis, Mori and Pasifika students continue to be

underrepresented in tertiary education and within senior positions in the workplace
(Mahuika, et al., 2011). A learning cultures approach is an effective way of sharing
and respecting diverse life experiences and therefore forms an opportunity to raise
awareness of, and overcome inequalities. Indeed, New Zealand is a multicultural
society, so the artificial binary of Pkeh and Mori seems increasingly misdirected.
Using Twitter as part of a learning cultures approach can therefore offer not only
valuable pedagogical tools, but sociological benefits too.

Considering the technological progress made in social media over the past ten
years, it is impossible to guess what new ideas may emerge and how these may
impact on the development of teaching and learning. Hence, in support of the Mori
concept of Te Whriki and ako, individuals could be encouraged to view learning as
continual, fluid, social processes which are integral to developing meanings and
professional identities. Further research is needed into whether this approach could
be more broadly applied to other online learning environments and educational
sectors.

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Teaching with Sociological Imagination in Higher Education: Contexts, Pedagogies, Reflections
Edited by: Dr Christopher R. Matthews, University of Brighton, UK. Dr Ursula Edgington, Independent
Scholar, New Zealand. Dr Alex Channon, University of Brighton, UK. (In Press)

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