Cw#6

Road Intersection | Types of Road Intersections - Highway Crossings

Intersection also commonly known as crossroad is any place where two
or more than two roads intersect or meet each other at grade. According
to a source there are total 973 intersections in Karachi City. Intersections
may be signalized or non-signalized, may or may not have a roundabout.

The intersections encompassed by a roundabout are considered as safe

Advertisements intersections. The efficiency of an intersection is determined on the basis
of how well an intersection accommodates the demands of all road users.
The performance of a signalized intersection is judged on the basis of its
signal timings.

Classification of Road Intersections on the basis of number of

roads intersecting:
3-Way Intersection:

Also known as T or Y Junction is the linking of

three roads.

4-Way Intersection:

These are the most common intersections where crossing over of two roads is involved. It is further divided
into two categories depending on the angle by which the two roads intersect each other.
When the two joining roads intersect each other perpendicularly, it is termed as a Regular Intersection. When
the two roads cross at a different angle the junction is called a Skewed Intersection.

5-Way Intersection:

Crossing over of five roads.

6-Way Intersection:

Involves the crossing of three streets; most often a crossing of two perpendicular streets and a diagonal street.

More than six roads coming together at a single intersection are rare.

Staggered Intersection:

Consists of two successive T junctions

Classification of Road Crossings on the basis of Traffic Control

Uncontrolled Intersection is a junction without signs or traffic signals. In such junctions the right of way
belongs to the vehicle on the major road in case of a 3-way intersection and the traffic on the right in case of
4-way intersections. However the priorities vary for different countries. An uncontrolled intersection reduces
delays but maximizes the chances of collisions especially if the junction has a high volume of traffic.

Controlled Intersections are either signalized or regulated by means of a roundabout or traffic signs.

Manually Controlled Intersections are junctions that are controlled by traffic police. This is usually practiced
on low volume intersections.

Traffic signals are installed at relatively high traffic volume intersections. The traffic signals define a clear right
of way to the drivers and thus improve the mobility of the traffic at such high volume intersections. For low
volume junctions, generally the installation of traffic signs or roundabouts assures fine serviceability. Traffic
signals are more commonly seen in the case of 4-way intersections.

High or low volume intersections if not controlled properly are considered the most risky locations in terms of
conflicts. The intersections become more hazardous when they are located just near the ending or starting of
a flyover/underpass, as the driver is in the ascending or descending mode and thus faces difficulties in
controlling the vehicle as it approaches the intersection. There are various road traffic safety signs to warn the
 road users about the approaching intersection to reduce the chances of collisions. These signs also put in the
picture about the type of intersection that is about to appear to further spell out the road geometry to the driver.

http://www.aboutcivil.org/types-of-road-intersections.html

Traffic control devices are markers, signs and signal devices used to inform, guide and control traffic,
including pedestrians, motor vehicle drivers and bicyclists. These devices are usually placed adjacent, over or
along the highways, roads, traffic facilities and other public areas that require traffic control.

Contents
[hide]

1Types
2References
3External links

Types[edit]
1. Traffic signs are signs which use words and/or symbols to convey information to road users. These
devices are made with retroreflective materials that reflect light from headlights back towards the driver's
eyes. This is to achieve maximum visibility especially at night.

Regulatory signs are traffic signs used to convey traffic rules and regulations such as intersection
controls, weight limit, speed limit, one way, no parking and others. These signs are generally rectangular
in shape and uses white, black and red/or as their primary colors.
Warning signs are traffic signs that are used to warn road users about a potential danger. These signs are
usually diamond in shape and, except for temporary traffic control signs, have black legends and borders
on a yellow background. Work zone signs have orange backgrounds, and incident management signs
have pink backgrounds Examples of warning signs are crosswalk signs. curve warning signs, intersection
ahead signs, flagger signs, workers signs, or road machinery signs.
Guide signs help road users navigate to their destination. These signs are generally rectangular in shape
and have white text on green backgrounds. When a guide sign provides temporary guidance due to a
work zone, it will have a black legend and border on an orange background. Examples of guide signs are
street name signs, destination and distance signs, And place name signs. Work zone guide signs include
detour markers, length of work signs, and end road work signs.

2. Variable Message Signs or VMS are electronic traffic control signs which can exhibit different traffic
messages according to the needs of a specific road. Permanent CMS displays are mounted on large sign
structures overhead or alongside the road. These devices are often placed on urban freeways which have
traffic problems. Portable CMS (PCMS) panels are usually mounted on trailers, although some may be carried
by trucks. They are often used in work zones or other events that disrupt traffic. CMS devices also follow a
uniform shape, design and color that were set by the MUTCD.
3. High-level warning devices are traffic control devices that are high enough to see over other vehicles,
such as but not limited to vehicle top, poles and other places not lower than 8 feet. These devices are also
called flag tree because they feature two or three square fluorescent orange flags and a sometimes a flashing
warning light. This type of traffic control devices are used in work zones in high traffic density urban areas.

4. Channelizing devices are used to warn drivers and pedestrians and to guide them through a work zone.
Common channelizing devices are traffic cones and drums. These types of traffic control devices are usually
placed between traffic and road construction zones, or between opposing traffic streams.

Arrow boards are portable, illuminated, high-visibility panels that are used to alert motorists of an
approaching lane closure and to specify the direction in which to merge.
Traffic cones are channelizing devices shaped like cones, thus the name. They are made from bright
orange flexible materials, not less than 18 inches (0.46 m) in height. Cones used at night must have
bands of reflective material near the top. These are used to close a particular area or divide traffic lanes
temporarily.
Tubular markers are cylindrical in shape. They are also orange, with bands of reflective material near the
top. They must be at least 18 inches (0.46 m) in height and 2 inches (51 mm) in body diameter. Tubular
markers are made of flexible plastic and have a wider base that is glued or screwed to the pavement.
They are used in a similar way as cones.
Vertical panels are reflective traffic control devices which measure at least 8 inches (200 mm) wide and
24 inches (610 mm) high. They are bright orange with diagonal white stripes. These panels are used to
guide vehicle traffic. They can be more conspicuous than cones or tubular markers when viewed head-
on, but are very thin and hard to see from the side.
Construction barrels or drums are cylindrical channelizing devices that are used when conspicuity is vital.
These device are made with industrial-grade orange plastic and covered with alternating orange and
white retroreflective stripes. These drums are usually ballasted with a heavy rubber base or a sandbag in
the bottom for added stability.
Barricades are channelizing devices used to redirect traffic on high-speed roads and expressways. There
are different types of barricades depending on its size, design and applications. Barricades may be a
fixed or portable traffic control device. Barricades are also used to close roads and/or sidewalks.
Temporary raised islands are pavements that are usually 4 inches (100 mm) in height and 18 inches
(460 mm) wide that are used for temporary traffic control applications. This traffic control device follow the
standard design set by the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide.
Jersey barriers are installed to provide added protection of the work zone from adjacent traffic and vice
versa.

5. Road surface markings are traffic control devices that are applied directly to the road surfaces. They are
used to guide and channel traffic by designating lanes and indicating stopping points at intersections.
Pavement markings may be permanent or removable.
 Interim markings are temporary markings used in place of a pavement for two weeks or until a real
pavement is installed in that specific area. These broken-line markings are at least 4 feet in length.
Raised pavement markers are used to supplement or replace pavement markings. They may have
embedded reflectors or may be non-reflective.
Delineators are small reflective panels mounted on lightweight metal posts or flexible plastic tubes used to
outline roadways and paths. These are about 1.2 meters/4 feet high. In the USA, yellow reflective material
is used for delineators on the left of the road, and white delineators are used to the right of traffic. In
Queensland, Australia, where vehicles drive on the left side of the road, roadworks delineators shall
comprise red delineators on the left side and white delineators on the right (two-way roadway) or yellow
on the right (one-way roadway). Delineators should be erected 1 m minimum from the edge of the
travelled path and at a uniform height of approximately 1 m (39 inches) above the road surface.
Delineator posts should be frangible or otherwise non-hazardous.[1]

6. Traffic lights are traffic control signals used to alternately assign right-of-way to traffic moving in conflicting
directions at an intersection. Traffic lights feature three different lights that conveys different meanings. The
red light means that the vehicle facing the traffic light must come to a complete stop. A green light means that
the vehicle facing the traffic light may proceed when it is safe to do so. A yellow light indicates that a red light
will follow, and vehicle drivers must stop if it is safe to do so.

Flashing beacons are flashing signals. Yellow flashing beacons are usually used to draw attention to
other traffic control devices, such as a crosswalk sign. Red flashing beacons are used to supplement stop
signs.
Steady burning electric lamps work similarly to flashing electric lights except that its yellow lights are not
flashing. These are commonly used for on-road maintenance work.
Warning Lights are portable, battery or solar powered lighting devices that can work as flashing or steady
burning lights. These devices are commonly mounted on drums or barricades. They follow the standards
set by the ITE Purchase Specification for Flashing and Steady-Burn Warning Lights.

7. Rumble strips are roughened surfaces that are either embossed or recessed. When a vehicle drives over
them, they make a loud rumbling sound and vibration. They can be placed across traffic lanes to alert drivers
that they are approaching a potentially hazardous location, such as a work zone or an isolated intersection.
They are used along the shoulders or centerlines of highways to alert drivers that they are leaving their traffic
lane.

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ MUTCD, Part 3, Clause 3.9.2, Roadworks Delineators

External links[edit]
US Occupational Safety and Health Administration
South Dakota Department of Transportation
 AASHTO Subcommittee on Traffic Engineering
Ministry of Transport Land Transport Rules
US Department of Transportation MUTCD
Manual of uniform traffic control devices, Queensland Govt.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic_control_device

CONTROL OF CONFLICTS

A.) Conflicts at an intersection

Conflicts in an intersection are different for different types of intersection. Consider a typical four-legged
intersection. The conflicts for competing through movements are 4, those between right turn and
competing through movements are 8. The conflicts between right turn traffics are 4, and between left
turn and merging traffic is 4. The conflicts created by pedestrians come to 8 taking into account all the
four approaches. Diverging traffic also produces about4 conflicts. Summing up all the conflicts in the
intersection, it comes to 32.

The essence of the intersection control is to resolve these conflicts at the intersection for the safe and
efficient movement of both vehicular traffic and pedestrians. Two methods of intersection controls are
there. They are the time-sharing approach and the space sharing approach. The type of intersection
control that has to be adopted depends on the traffic volume, road geometry, cost involved, importance
of the road etc.

B.) Levels of intersection control

The control of an intersection can be exercised at different levels. They can be either passive control,
semi control, or active control. In passive control, there is no such direct strict rules on the driver. In
semi control, some amount of control on the driver is there from the traffic agency. Active control
means the movement of the traffic is fully controlled by the traffic agency and the drivers cannot simply
maneuver the intersection according to his choice.

B.1) Passive control

Some of the intersection control that are classified under passive control are as follows:

1. No control: If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic rules of the
road like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through movements will have priority
than turning movements, the driver itself can manage to traverse the intersection.
2. Traffic signs: With the help of warning signs, guide signs etc. it is able to provide some level of
control at an intersection.
3. Traffic signs plus marking: In addition to the traffic signs, road markings also complement the
traffic control at intersections. Some of the examples are stop line marking, yield lines, arrow marking
etc.
4. GIVE WAY control: This control requires the driver in the minor road to slow down to a minimum
speed and allow the vehicle on the major road to proceed.
5. Two way stop control: In this case, the vehicle drivers on the minor streets should see that the
conflicts are avoided.
6. All-way stop control: This is usually used when it is difficult to differentiate between the major
and minor roads in an intersection. In such a case, STOP sign is placed on all the approaches to the
intersection and the driver on all the approaches are required to stop the vehicle. The vehicle at the
right side will get priority over the left approach.

B.2) Semi control

Channelization and traffic rotaries come under semi control.

1. Channelization: The traffic is separated to ow through definite paths by raising a portion of the
road in the middle usually called as islands distinguished by road markings. The conflicts in traffic
movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case.
2. Traffic rotaries: It is a form of intersection control in which the traffic is made to ow along one
direction round a traffic island. This completely avoids through-conflicts.

B.3) Active control

Active control means the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by the traffic control
agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish. Traffic signals and grade separated intersections
come under this classification.

1. Traffic signals: This control is based on time sharing approach. At a time with the help of
appropriate
signals, certain traffic movements are restricted where as certain other movements are permitted. Two
or more phase signals may be provided depending upon the traffic conditions of the intersection.
2. Grade separated intersections: It is an intersection where crossing movements at different
levels is permitted. It is very expensive and is usually used on high speed facilities like expressways,
freeways etc.
C.) Types of intersection control

The intersections are of two types. They are at-grade intersections and grade-separated intersections. In
at grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same vertical level. Grade separated
intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels. Sometimes the topography itself may
be helpful in constructing such intersections. Otherwise the initial construction cost required will be very
high. But it increases the road capacity because vehicles can ow with high speed and accident potential
is also reduced by such vertical separation of traffic.

C.1) At grade intersection control

Different types of intersection control provided at 'at-grade' are as follows.

1. Uncontrolled or passive control: The traffic control at 'at-grade' intersection may be

uncontrolled in cases of low traffic. Here the road users are required to obey the basic rules of the road.
Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to complement the intersection control.
2. Semi controlled or channelized intersections: In channalized intersections, as the name
suggests, the traffic is directed to ow through different channels and this physical separation is made
possible with the help of some barriers in the road like traffic islands, road markings etc.
3. Rotary/Round about: It is a form of 'at-grade' intersection laid out for the movement of traffic
such that no through conflicts are there. Free-left turn is permitted where as through traffic and right-
turn traffic is forced to move around the central island in a clock-wise direction in an orderly manner.
Merging, weaving and diverging operations reduces the conflicting movements at the rotary.
4. Signalized control: When the vehicles traversing the intersection is very large, then the control is
done with the help of signals. The phases provided for the signal may be either 2 or more than 2 . If
more than two phases are provided, then it is called multiphase signal.
The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are fixed time signals and vehicle actuated
signals. In fixed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of each signal is fixed. Each cycle of
the signal will be exactly like another. But they cannot cater to the needs of the fluctuating traffic. i
vehicle actuated signals, vehicle detectors will be placed on the streets approaching the intersection,
and when the vehicle arrives, the detector will detect the vehicle and pass the information to the
controller. The controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts the phase lengths according to the
prevailing traffic requirements.

C.2) Grade separated intersection control

As we discussed earlier, grade-separated intersections are provided to separate the traffic in the vertical
grade. But the traffic need not be those pertaining to road only. When a railway line crosses a road, then
also grade separators are used. Different types of grade-separators are flyovers and interchange.
Flyovers itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass. When two roads cross at a point, if the road
having major traffic is elevated to a higher grade for further movement of traffic, then such structures
are called overpass. Otherwise, if the major road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means
of an under bridge or tunnel, it is called under-pass.

Speed limit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about road speed limits. For speed of light, see special relativity. For road speed limits in
specific countries, see Speed limits by country. For rail speed limits, seeSlow zone.

A typical 60 km/h speed limit sign used in Australia

A typical 50 mph speed limit sign in the United States.

 Map of highest-posted speed limits around the world. Click to zoom in.

Road speed limits are used in most countries to set the maximum (or minimum in some cases) speed at
which road vehicles may legally travel on particular stretches of road. Speed limits may be variable and in
some places speeds are unlimited (e.g. on some Autobahn sections in Germany). Speed limits are normally
indicated on a traffic sign. Speed limits are commonly set by the legislative bodies of nations or provincial
governments and enforced by national or regional police and/or judicial bodies.
The first maximum speed limit was the 10 mph (16 km/h) limit introduced in the United Kingdom in 1861. The
highest posted speed limit in the world is 140 km/h (87 mph), which applies to some motorways
in Poland[1] and Bulgaria;[2] similarly Texas posts 85 mph (137 km/h) on one 40-mile (64 km) long toll
road.[3] However, some roads have no speed limit for certain classes of vehicles. Best known are Germany's
less congestedAutobahns,[4] where automobile drivers have no mandated maximum speed. Measurements
from the German state of Brandenburg in 2006 showed average speeds of 142 km/h (88 mph) on a 6-lane
section of autobahn in free-flowing conditions.[5] Rural roads on the Isle of Man[6] and the Indian states
of Andhra Pradesh,[7] Maharashtra,[8] and Telangana,[9] also lack speed limits.
Speed limits are usually set to attempt to cap road traffic speed; there are several reasons for wanting to do
this. It is often done with an intention to improve road traffic safety and reduce the number of road traffic
casualties from traffic collisions. In their World report on road traffic injury prevention report, the World Health
Organization (WHO) identify speed control as one of various interventions likely to contribute to a reduction in
road casualties. (The WHO estimated that some 1.2 million people were killed and 50 million injured on the
roads around the world in 2004.)[n 1]Speed limits may also be set in an attempt to reduce the environmental
impact of road traffic (vehicle noise, vibration, emissions) and to satisfy local community wishes for streets
usable by people out of cars. Some cities have reduced limits to as little as 30 km/h (19 mph) for both safety
and efficiency reasons.[10] However, it has also been shown that in some circumstances changing a speed limit
has little effect on the average speed of cars.[11]
In situations where the natural road speed is considered too high by governments, notably in urban areas
where speed limits below 50 km/h (31 mph) are used then traffic calming is often also used. For some classes
of vehicle, speed limiters may be mandated to enforce compliance.
Since their introduction, speed limits have been opposed by some motoring advocacy groups.

Contents
[hide]

1History
2Regulations
o 2.1Basic rule
2.1.1Vienna Convention on Road Traffic
2.1.2Reasonable speed
2.1.3Excessive speed
 o 2.2Rationale for speed limit
o 2.3Maximum speed limits
o 2.4Minimum speed limits
o 2.5Variable speed limits
o 2.6Roads without speed limits
2.6.1Roads formerly without speed limits
3Method
4Enforcement
5Effectiveness
6Justification
o 6.1Road traffic safety
o 6.2Fuel efficiency
o 6.3Environmental considerations
7Advocacy
o 7.1Opposition
o 7.2Support
o 7.3Psychology
8Signage
o 8.1Maximum speed limit
o 8.2Minimum speed limit
o 8.3Special speed limits
o 8.4Speed limit derestriction
o 8.5Advisory speed limit
9See also
10Notes
11References
12Further reading
o 12.1Law Review
13External links

History[edit]
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of
the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create
a new article, as appropriate. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template
message)

Antique New Hampshire speed limit sign.

The United Kingdom Stage Carriage Act 1832 first introduced the offense of endangering the safety of a
passenger or person by 'furious driving'.[12] The first numeric speed limits were created in the UK by a series
of Locomotive Acts (1861, 1865 and 1878); the 1861 Act introduced a UK speed limit of 10 mph (16 km/h) on
open roads in town, reduced to 2 mph (3 km/h) in towns and 4 mph (6 km/h) in rural areas by the 1865 'red
flag act'. The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896, which raised the speed limit to 14 mph (23 km/h) (being the
estimated speed of a horse being driven 'furiously') is celebrated to this day by the annual London to Brighton
Veteran Car Run.
The first person to be convicted of speeding is believed to be Walter Arnold of East Peckham, Kent, who on
28 January 1896 was fined for speeding at 8 mph (13 km/h). He was fined 1 shilling plus costs.[13][14][15]
In the UK 20 mp/h speed was allowed in 1903[16].

In Australia, during the early 20th century, there were people reported for "furious driving" offences. One
conviction in 1905 cited furiously driving 20 mph (32 km/h) when passing a tram traveling at half that speed.[17]
In the 1960s, in continental Europe, some speed limit were established based on the V85 speed, (so that 85%
of drivers respect this speed)[16].
Later Sweden defined the Vision Zero program[16].

Regulations[edit]

Speed limit sign in Germany, showing a 60 km/h restriction. Signs in other European countries are similar but make use
of different fonts and sizes.

Most jurisdictions use the metric speed unit of kilometers per hour for speed limits, while some, primarily
the United States and the United Kingdom, use speed limits given in miles per hour. There is an ongoing
discussion as to whether they should follow the lead of other countries and switch to using metric units
(see Metrication in the United Kingdom and Metrication in the United States).
Basic rule[edit]
See also main article on the Basic Speed Law or Rule.
Vienna Convention on Road Traffic[edit]
In countries bounded by Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968 & 1977), article 13 defines a basic rule
for Speed and distance between vehicles[18]: "Every driver of a vehicle shall in all circumstances have his
vehicle under control so as to be able to exercise due and proper care and to be at all times in a position to
perform all manuvres required of him. e shall, when adjusting the speed of his vehicle, pay constant regard
to the circumstances, in particular the lie of the land, the state of the road, the condition and load of his
vehicle, the weather conditions and he density of traffic, so as to be able to stop his vehicle within his range of
forward vision and short of any foreseeable obstruction. He shall slow down and if necessary stop whenever
circumstances so require, and particularly when visibility is not good. "
Reasonable speed[edit]
Drivers are required to drive at a safe speed for conditions. In the United States, this requirement is referred
to as the basic rule,[19] but more generally in Britain and elsewhere in common law as the reasonable
man requirement.[20] The German Highway Code (Straenverkehrs-Ordnung) section on speed begins with a
statement[21] which may be rendered in English:
Any person driving a vehicle may only drive so fast that the car is under control. Speeds must be adapted to
the road, traffic, visibility and weather conditions as well as the personal skills and characteristics of the
vehicle and load.
In France law clarifies, that even if speed is limit by law and by local authority, the driver keep the
reponsability to control its own speed, and to reduce speed in various circumstances, such as overtaking
pedestrian, or bicycles, individually or in group, when overtaking a stopped convoy, when passing a
transportation vehicle loadin or unloading people or children, in any case where road does not appear clear,
or risk to be slidy, when visibility is low (rain, fog, ...), in turns, when the road goes rapidly down, in road
section small, busy, or with homes, near the top of the road, near a crossing when visibility is not sure, when
specific light are used, when over taking animals[22]. According to the same article, the fact for a driver to not
keep master of its speed or to not reduce it in such cases is penalized.
The US federal government has a similar law49 CFR 392.14[23]which applies in all states as permitted
under by the commerce clause and due process clause.;[24][25] for example California Vehicle Code section
22350 which states that "No person shall drive a vehicle upon a highway at a speed greater than is
reasonable ... and in no event at a speed which endangers the safety of persons or property".[26]
The basic speed law is almost always supplemented by specific maximum or minimum limits, but applies
regardless. The reasonable speed may be different than the posted speed limit in conditions such as fog,
heavy rain, ice, snow, gravel,[27] sharp corners, blinding glare,[28] darkness, crossing traffic,[29] or when there is
an obstructed view of orthogonal trafficsuch as by road curvature, parked cars, vegetation, or snow banks
thus limiting the Assured Clear Distance Ahead (ACDA).[30][31] Basic speed laws are statutized reinforcements
of the centuries-old common law negligence doctrine as specifically applied to vehicular speed.[32]
Excessive speed[edit]
Consequential results of basic law violations are often categorized as excessive speed crashes; for example,
the leading cause of crashes on German autobahns in 2012 was that category: 6,587 so-called "speed
related" crashes claimed the lives of 179 people, which represented almost half (46.3%) of 387 autobahn
fatalities in 2012.[33] However, "excessive speed" does not necessarily mean that the speed limit has been
exceeded (if one even exists), rather that police determined at least one party traveled too fast for existing
road[34] or weather[35] conditions.[33] Examples of conditions[36] where drivers may find themselves driving too fast
include: wet roadways (rain, snow, or ice), reduced visibility (fog[37] or "white out" snow[38]), uneven roads,
construction zones,[39] curves,[40] intersections, gravel roads,[41] and heavy traffic. Per distance traveled,
consequences of inappropriate speed are more frequent on lower speed, lower quality roads;[42] in the United
States, for example, the "speeding fatality rate for local roads is three times that for Interstates"[43]
Citations for violations of the basic speed law without a crash[44] have sometimes been ruled unfairly vague or
arbitrary, hence a violation the due process of law, at least in the State of Montana.[45] Even within states,
differing jurisdictions (counties and cities) choose to prosecute similar cases with differing approaches.[46]
Rationale for speed limit[edit]
As it has been observed that speeding is a reason for crash and fatalities, for safety and to protect vulnerable
users, inluding pedestrian, some State defined speed limit. The effect of speed has been popularized by
Nilssons Power Model, which legitimize the set up speed limits in various nations[16].
Speeding also creates noise: 12 dB(A) by doubling the speed [16].
Speed limit are established for normal conditions. Speed limit is not a target of speed[16].
Maximum speed limits[edit]

A speed limit sign in Ontario

In France city sign has value of speed limit

A street limited at 30 km/h

End of speed limit, previous speed limit applies

Most public roads in most countries have a legally assigned numerical maximum speed limit which applies on
all roads unless otherwise stated; lower speed limits are often shown on a sign at the start of the restricted
section, although the presence of streetlights or the physical arrangement of the road may sometimes also be
used instead. A posted speed limit may only apply to that road or to all roads beyond the sign that defines
them depending on local laws. In the European Union, large signposts showing the national (default) speed
limits of the respective country are usually erected immediately after border crossings, with a repeater sign
some 200 to 500 m (660 to 1,640 ft) after the first sign. Some places provide an additional "speed zone
ahead" ahead of the restriction and speed limit reminder signs may appear at regular intervals which may be
painted on the road surface.
Signs are normally placed on both sides of the road and in some places there are small (less than 1/4 the size
of the sign) rectangular orange reflector flags attached to both upper right corners of both signs. The speed
limit sign marking the new speed zone may also have the orange flags; this practice can be observed in New
York on highways where the speed limit varies such as New York State Route 17.

Speed limits on European Motorways in km/h.

Signage in many countries, especially in Europe, conforms to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and
Signals using black text with a red circle on a white background.
In the United States, the signs are usually rectangular with the words "SPEED LIMIT" and the values in black
on a white background. The U.S. Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices provides guidelines for the appearance of speed limit signs. In Alaska and California, speed limits are
often labeled "MAXIMUM SPEED" instead. In Oregon, most speed limit signs just say "SPEED" and the
number. Canada has similar signs bearing the legend "MAXIMUM" and in km/h instead of mph. "Maximum" is
used instead of "Speed Limit" because it has similar meanings in English and French. Australian signs are
rectangular but have a red circle like the Vienna Convention signs.[47]
The speed limit is commonly set at or below the 85th percentile operating speed (being the speed which no
more than 15% of traffic is exceeding)[48][49][50] and in the US is frequently set 4 to 8 mph (6 to 13 km/h) below
that speed.[51] Thus, if the 85th percentile operating speed as measured by a Traffic and Engineering
Survey exceeds the design speed, legal protection is given to motorists traveling at such speeds (design
speed is "based on conservative assumptions about driver, vehicle and roadway characteristics").[52] The
theory behind the 85th percentile rules is, that as a policy, most citizens should be deemed reasonable and
prudent, and limits must be practical to enforce.[53][54] However, there are some circumstances where motorists
do not tend to process all the risks involved, and as a mass choose a poor 85th percentile speed[citation needed].
This rule in substance is a process for voting the speed limit by driving; and in contrast to delegating the
speed limit to an engineering expert.[55][56]
The maximum speed permitted by statute, as posted, is normally based on ideal driving conditions, and the
basic speed rule always applies.[57] Violation of the statute generally raises a rebuttablepresumption of
negligence.[58]
In international european roads, speed should be taken into account at design stage.

Maximum speed recommended by international European road design standard

Road classification 60 m/h 80 km/h (50 mph) 100 km/h (60 mph) 120 km/h (75 mph) 140 km/h (85 mph)

Motorway x 80 100 120 140

Express road 60 80 100 120 x

 Road 60 80 100 x x

Minimum speed limits[edit]

UK minimum speed limit sign

Some roads also have "minimum speed limits", where slow speeds can impede traffic flow or be dangerous.[59]
Signs often use blue circles based on the obligatory signs of the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and
Signals. A Japanese minimum speed sign has the same design as a maximum speed sign, but with a
horizontal line below the number. In the United States of America, they are also identical to their respective
maximum speed limit signs with the exception of the text "MINIMUM SPEED".
This minimum speed is not so common, as the risk usually raise with higher speed and not with lower
spped.[16].
Variable speed limits[edit]

Example variable speed limit sign in the United States.

Digital speed limit sign for variable speed limits

In 1965, the first known experiments with variable speed limit signs took place on a 30 km stretch of German
motorway A8between Munich and the border city of Salzburg, Austria. Mechanically variable message signs
could display speeds of 60, 80 and 100 km/h, "danger zone" or "accident". Personnel monitored traffic using
video technology, and manually controlled the signage.[60] Beginning in the 1970s, additional advanced traffic
control systems were put into service. Modern motorway control systems can work without human
intervention using various types of sensors to measure traffic flow and weather conditions. In 2009, 1,300 km
(810 mi) of German motorways were equipped with such systems.[61]
In the late 1960s, heavily traveled portions of the New Jersey Turnpike began using variable speed limit signs,
in combination with variable message signs. Officials can adjust the speed limit according to weather, traffic
conditions, and construction.[62] More typically, variable speed limits are used on remote stretches of highway
in the United States in areas with extreme changes in driving conditions.[63] For example, variable limits were
introduced in October 2010 on a 52-mile (84 km) stretch of Interstate 80 in Wyoming, replacing the winter
season speed reduction from 75 to 65 mph (121 to 105 km/h) that had been in place since 2008.[64][65] This
Variable Speed Limit system has been proved to be effective in terms of reducing crash frequency and road
closures.[66][67] Similarly, Interstate 90 at Snoqualmie Pass and other mountain passes in Washington State
variable speed limits are used to slow traffic in severe winter weather.[63][68] As a response to fog-induced
chain-reaction collisions involving 99 vehicles in 1990, a variable speed limit system covering 19 miles
(31 km) of Interstate 75 in Tennessee was implemented in fog-prone areas around the Hiwassee River.[69]
A variable speed limit was introduced on part of Britain's M25 motorway in 1995 (on the busiest 14-mile
(23 km) section from junction 10 to 16). Initial results suggested savings in journey times, smoother-flowing
traffic, as well as a fall in the number of crashes, and the scheme was made permanent in 1997.[70] However a
2004 National Audit Organization report noted that the business case was unproved; conditions at the site of
the Variable Speed Limits trial were not stable before or during the trial, and the study was deemed neither
properly controlled nor reliable. Since December 2008 the upgraded section of the M1 between the M25
and Luton has had the facility for variable speed limits.[71] In January 2010 temporary variable speed cameras
on the M1 between J25 and J28 were made permanent.[72]
New Zealand introduced variable speed limits in February 2001. The first installation was on the Ngauranga
Gorge section of dual carriageway onState Highway 1 with steep terrain, numerous bends, high traffic
volumes, and higher than average accident rate. The speed limit is normally 80 km/h (50 mph).[73]
In 2006, Austria undertook a short-term experiment with a variable limit configuration that could increase
statutory limits under the most favorable conditions, as well as reduce them. In June, a stretch of motorway
was configured with variable speed limits that could increase the general Austrian motorway limit of 130 to
160 km/h (81 to 99 mph).[74] Then Austrian Transport Minister Hubert Gorbach called the experiment "a
milestone in European transport policy-despite all predictions to the contrary"; however, the experiment was
discontinued.
In 2014, the Georgia Department of Transportation installed variable speed limits on part of Interstate
285 around Atlanta. These speeds can be as low as 35 mph but are generally set to 65 mph.[75]
In 2016 the Oregon Department of Transportation has installed a variable speed zone on a 30-mile stretch
of Interstate 84 between Baker City and Ladd Canyon. The new electronic signs collect data regarding
temperature, skid resistance, and average motorist speed to determine the most effective speed limit for the
area before presenting the limit on the sign. This speed zone is scheduled to be activated November
2016.[citation needed]
Roads without speed limits[edit]
German border crossing sign showing 50 km/h (31 mph) limit in built-up areas, 100 km/h (62 mph) in rural areas, but a
legaladvisory 130 km/h (81 mph) limit for the Autobahn(motorway), increasing liabilityin the case of an accident from
driving faster [76]

Just over half of the German autobahns have only an advisory speed limit (called in
German Richtgeschwindigkeit), 15% have temporary speed limits due to weather or traffic conditions and
33% have permanent speed limits, according to 2008 estimates.[77] German federal highways and any road
outside of towns which is either a dual carriageway and/or features at least two lanes per direction do have a
general speed limit of 100 km/h. Usually it is reduced to 80 km/h at Alle-streets (federal highways bordered
by trees or bushes on one or both sites).[78] Travel speeds are not regularly monitored in Germany; however, a
2008 report noted that on the autobahn in Niemegk (between Leipzig and Berlin) "significantly more than 60%
of road users exceed 130 km/h (81 mph). More than 30% of motorists exceed 150 km/h (93 mph)".[79] Prior
to German reunificationin 1990, accident reduction programs in eastern German states were primarily focused
on restrictive traffic regulation. Within two years after the opening, availability of high-powered vehicles and a
54% increase in motorized traffic led to a doubling of annual traffic deaths,[80] despite "interim arrangements
[which] involved the continuation of the speed limit of 100 km/h (62 mph) on autobahns and of 80 km/h
(50 mph) outside cities. An extensive program of the four Es (enforcement, education, engineering,
and emergency response) brought the number of traffic deaths back to pre-unification levels after a decade of
effort while traffic regulations were conformed to western standards (e.g., 130 km/h (81 mph) freeway
advisory limit, 100 km/h (62 mph) on other rural roads, and 0.05 milligrams BAC).[81]
The Isle of Man has no speed limit on many rural roads; a 2004 proposal to introduce a general speed limits
60 mph and of 70 mph on Mountain Road for safety reasons were not progressed following
consultation. [6] Measured travel speeds on the island are relatively low.[82]
Roads formerly without speed limits[edit]
Many roads without a maximum limit became permanently limited following the 1973 oil crisis. For
example, Switzerland and Austria had no maximum restriction prior to 1973 on motorways and rural roads,
but imposed a temporary 100 km/h (62 mph) maximum limit in quick response to higher fuel prices; the limit
on motorways was increased to 130 km/h (81 mph) later in 1974.[83][84][85]
Montana and Nevada were the last remaining U.S. states relying exclusively on the basic rule, without a
specific, numeric rural speed limit prior to the National Maximum Speed Law of 1974.[86] After repeal of Federal
speed mandates in 1996, Montana was the only state to revert to the Basic Rule for daylight rural speed
regulation. The Montana Supreme Court ruled that the Basic Rule was too vague to allow citation,
prosecution, and conviction of a driver; in other words, enforcement was a violation of the due
process requirement of the Montana Constitution.[87] In response, Montana's legislature imposed a 75 mph
(121 km/h) limit on rural freeways in 1999.
In Australia's Northern Territory, after the removal of open limits in 2007, sections of the Stuart Highway had
no limits as part of an open speed limit trial from 2014 to 2016.
Method[edit]
Several method exist to set up a speed limit[88]:

Engeenering
Harm minimization,
Economic optimization
Expert system

Enforcement[edit]

Gatso speed camera

Main article: Speed limit enforcement

Speed limit enforcement is the action taken by appropriately empowered authorities to check that road
vehicles are complying with the speed limit. Methods used include roadside speed traps set up and operated
by the police and automated roadside speed camera systems, which may incorporate the use of an automatic
number plate recognition system.
In 2012, in UK, 30% of driver did not complied with speed limit[16].
In Europe, between 2009 and 2012, 20% of European drivers have been fined for excessive speed[16]. In 2012
in Europe, 62% of people supported the idea oto set up speed-limiting devices [16].
The tolerance level needs to be adequate to not add confusion to the driver. One efficient scheme consist in
penalty points and charges for speeding just a few over the speed limit[16].
Another possibility is to make the necessary work to change the road so that the driver can consider the
speed limit is legitimate in regard to the road. This can be achieved by implementing traffic calming measure,
vehicle activated signs, or safety cameras[89].
The city of Munich has adopted Self-explaining roads: roadway widths, intersection controls and crossing
types have been harmonized in regard to speed limit, so that the driver can guess the speed limit even with
no sign[89]. A Self-Explaining Road is a Self-Regulating Road[90].

Effectiveness[edit]
To be effective and applied by drivers, the speed limits need to be perceived as credible[16]. This mean that the
speed limit should be adequate in regard to some factors such as, for instance, the view ahead and the view
to the right. [16].
To be effective, speed limit needs to be set up with road infrastructure, education or enforcement activity[16].
A 1998 US Federal Highway administration report cited a number of studies regarding the effects of
reductions in speed limits and the observed changes in speeding, fatalities, injuries and property damage
which followed:[n 2]

Results from lowering speed limits.[n 2]

Country (year of research

Speed limit reduction Reported change
publication)

Australia (1992) 110 km/h to 100 km/h Injury crashes declined by 19%

No significant change (4% increase relative to

Australia (1996) 520 km/h decreases
sites not changed)

Fatal crashes declined by 24%

Denmark (1990) 60 km/h to 50 km/h
Injury crashes declined by 9%

Germany (1994) 60 km/h to 50 km/h Crashes declined by 20%

Speeds declined by 14 km/h

Sweden (1990) 110 km/h to 90 km/h
Fatal crashes declined by 21%

Speeds declined by 5 km/h

Switzerland (1994) 130 km/h to 120 km/h
Fatal crashes declined by 12%

60 mph to 40 mph /100 km/h to Speeds declined by 6 km/h (4 mph)

UK (1991)
65 km/h Crashes declined by 14%

5 mph to 15 mph (8 km/h to

US (22 states) (1992) No significant changes
24 km/h) decreases
 Results from increasing speed limits:[n 2]

Country Speed limit increase Reported change

Australia (1992) 100 km/h to 110 km/h Injury crashes increased by 25%

Australia (Victoria) Crashes increased overall by 8%, 35% decline in zones

520 km/h increases
(1996) raised from 60 km/h to 80 km/h

Netherlands (2012) 120 km/h to 130 km/h Effect as of yet unclear, more research needed

55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to

US (1989) Fatal crashes increased by 21%
105 km/h)

55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to Fatal crashes increased by 22%

US (1990)
105 km/h) Speeding increased by 48%

US (40 states) 55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to Fatalities increased by 15%

(1990) 105 km/h) Decrease or no effect in 12 States

55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to

US (Iowa) (1996) Fatal crashes increased by 36%
105 km/h)

US (Michigan) 55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to Fatal and injury crashes increased significantly on rural
(1991) 105 km/h) freeways

US (Michigan)
Various No significant changes
(1992)

55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to Injury and property damage increased but not fatal
US (Ohio) (1992)
105 km/h) crashes.[91]
 Results from increasing speed limits:[n 2]

Country Speed limit increase Reported change

US (40 states) 55 mph to 65 mph (89 km/h to Statewide fatality rates decreased 3-5% (Significant in 14
(1994) 105 km/h) of 40 states)

US (22 states) 5 mph to 15 mph (8 km/h to

No significant changes
(1997) 24 km/h) increase

Annual surveys of speed on South Dakota Interstate roads show that from 2000 to 2011, the average speed
rose from 71 to 74 mph; South Dakota increased its maximum speed limit from 65 to 75 mph (120 km/h) in
1996.[92]
The Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Speed and Speed Limits report sponsored by the Federal
Highway Administration published in 1998 found that changing speed limits on low and moderate speed roads
appeared to have no significant effect on traffic speed or the number of crashes, whilst on high-speed roads
such as freeways, increased speed limits generally resulted in higher traffic speeds and more crashes. It
states that limited evidence suggests that speed limits have a positive effect on a system wide basis.[n 3]
Research in 1998 showed that the reduction of some 30 mph (48 km/h) United Kingdom speed limits to
20 mph (32 km/h) had achieved only a 1 mph drop in speeds and no discernible reduction in accidents;
'20 mph speed limit zones' which use self enforcing traffic calming achieved average speed reductions of
10 mph, child pedestrian accidents were reduced by 70% and child cyclist accidents by 48%.[93]
Zones where speeds are set at 30 km/h (or 20 mph) are gaining popularity[94] as they are found to be effective
at reducing crashes and increasing community cohesion.[95]
Studies undertaken in conjunction with Australia's move from 60 km/h (37 mph) speed limits to 50 km/h
(31 mph) in built-up areas and found that the measure was effective in reducing speed and also the frequency
and severity of crashes.[96]
A study of the impact of the replacement of 60 km/h (37 mph) with 50 km/h (31 mph) speed limits in New
South Wales, Australia, showed only a 0.5 km/h drop in urban areas and a 0.7 km/h drop in rural areas. The
report noted that widespread community compliance would require a combination of strategies including traffic
calming treatments.[97]
A 1999 study found that the U.S. states that increased speed limits in the wake of the repeal of federally
mandated speed limits had a 15% increase in fatalities.[98]
Information campaigns are also used by authorities to support speed limits, for example the Speeding. No one
thinks big of you. campaign in Australia 2007.

Justification[edit]
Speed limits are set primarily to balance road traffic safety concerns with the effect on travel time and mobility.
Speed limits are also sometimes used to reduce consumption of fuel or in response to environmental
concerns.[99]
Some speed limit have also been initiated to avoid import too much gas-oil during 1973 oil crisis.
Road traffic safety[edit]
See also: Road traffic safety
The Pan-American Highway with central median and no freestanding obstructions increasing level of safety at high speed

According to a 2004 report from the World Health Organisation a total of 22% of all 'injury mortality' worldwide
were from road traffic injuries in 2002[n 4] and without 'increased efforts and new initiatives' casualty rates
would increase by 65% between 2000 and 2020.[n 5] The report identified that the speed of vehicles was 'at the
core of the problem[n 6] and said that speed limits should be set appropriately for the road function and design
along with physical measures related to the road and the vehicle and effective enforcement by the police.[n
7]
Road incidents are said to be the leading cause of deaths among children 10 19 years of age (260,000
children die a year, 10 million are injured).[100] They are also occasionally set to reduce vehicle emissions or
fuel use.
Maximum speed limits place an upper limit on speed choice and if obeyed can reduce the differences in
vehicle speeds by drivers using the same road at the same time.[101] Traffic engineers observe that the
likelihood of a crash happening is significantly higher if vehicles are traveling at speeds faster or slower than
the mean speed of traffic;[102] when severity is taken into account the risk is lowest for those traveling at or
below the median speed and "increases exponentially for motorists travelling much faster".[n 8]

Traffic calming can be effective on lower speed roads

It is desirable to attempt to reduce the speed of road vehicles in some circumstances because thekinetic
energy involved in a motor vehicle collision is proportional to the square of the speed atimpact. The probability
of a fatality is, for typical collision speeds, empirically correlated to the fourth power of the
speed difference(depending on the type of collision, not necessarily the same as travel speed) at
impact,[103] rising much faster than kinetic energy.
Typically motorways have higher speed limits than conventional roads because motorways have features
which decrease the likelihood of collisions and severity of impacts. For example, motorways separate
opposing traffic and crossing traffic, employ traffic barriers, and prohibit the most vulnerable users such as
pedestrians and bicyclists. Germany's crash experience illustrates the relative effectiveness of these
strategies on crash severity: on autobahns 22 people died per 1000 injury crashes, a lower rate than the 29
deaths per 1,000 injury accidents on conventional rural roads; however, the rural risk is five times higher than
on urban roads speeds are higher on rural roads and autobahns than urban roads, increasing the severity
potential of a crash.[104] The net effect of speeds, crash probability, and impact mitigation strategies may be
measured by the rate of deaths per billion-travel-kilometers: the autobahn fatality rate is 2 deaths per billion-
travel-kilometers, lower than either the 8.7 rate on rural roads or the 5.3 rate in urban areas; the overall
national fatality rate was 5.6, slightly higher than urban rate and more than twice that of autobahns.[105]
The 2009 technical report An Analysis of Speeding-Related Crashes:Definitions and the Effects of Road
Environments by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administrationshowed that about 55 percent of all
speeding-related crashes in fatal crashes had "exceeding posted speed limits" among their crash factors, and
45 percent had "driving too fast for conditions" among their crash factors. However, the authors of the report
did not attempt to determine whether the factors were actually a crash cause, contributor, or an unrelated
factor.[106] Furthermore, separate research finds that only 1.6% of crashes are "caused" by drivers that exceed
the posted speed limit.[107] Finally, exceeding the posted limit may not be a remarkable factor in crash analysis
as there exist roadways where virtually all motorists are in technical violation of the law.[108]
The speed limit will also take note of the speed at which the road was designed to be driven (the design
speed) which is defined in the US as "a selected speed used to determine the various geometric design
features of the roadway"[109] However traffic engineers recognize that "operating speeds and even posted
speed limits can be higher than design speeds without necessarily compromising safety"[110] since design
speed is "based on conservative assumptions about driver, vehicle and roadway characteristics".[52]
Vision Zero, which envision reducing road fatalities and serious injuries to zero by 2020, suggests the
following "possible long term maximum travel speeds related to the infrastructure, given best practice in
vehicle design and 100% restraint use":[111]

Possible Maximum Travel Speeds

Possible travel speed

Type of infrastructure and traffic
(km/h)

Locations with possible conflicts between pedestrians and cars 30 km/h (19 mph)

Intersections with possible side impacts between cars 50 km/h (31 mph)

Roads with possible frontal impacts between cars, including rural roads[112] 70 km/h (43 mph)

Roads with no possibility of a side impact or frontal impact (only impact with the
100 km/h (62 mph)+
infrastructure)

A stack of speed limit signs

"Roads with no possibility of a side impact or frontal impact" are sometimes designated as Type 1
(motorways/freeways/Autobahns), Type 2 ("2+2 roads") or Type 3 ("2+1 roads").[113] These roadways
have crash barriers separating opposing traffic, limited access, grade separation and prohibitions on slower
and more vulnerable road users. Undivided rural roads can be quite dangerous even with speed limits that
appear low by comparison. For example, in 2011, Germany's 100 km/h (62 mph)-limited rural roads had a
fatality rate of 8.7 deaths per billion travel-km, over four times higher than the autobahn rate of 2
deaths.[105] Autobahns accounted for 31% of German road travel in 2011,[105] but just 11% (453 of 4,009) of
traffic deaths.
Fuel efficiency[edit]
Fuel efficiency sometimes affects speed limit selection. The United States instituted a National Maximum
Speed Law of 55 mph (89 km/h) as part of the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act in response to
the 1973 oil crisis to reduce fuel consumption.[114] According to a report published in 1986 by The Heritage
Foundation, a Conservative advocacy group, the law was widely disregarded by motorists and hardly reduced
consumption at all.[115] In 2009 The American Trucking Associations called for a 65 mph speed limit and also
national fuel economy standards claiming that the lower speed limit was not effective at saving
fuel.[116] European studies have claimed that, whereas the effects of specific speed reduction schemes on
particulate emissions from trucks are ambiguous, lower maximums speed for trucks consistently result in
lower emissions of CO2 and better fuel efficiency.[117]
Environmental considerations[edit]
Speed limits can also be used to improve local air quality issues or other factors affecting environmental
quality[117] for example the "environmental speed limits" in the United States including one in an area
of Texas.[118]
The European Union is also increasingly using speed limits as in response to environmental concerns.[99]

Advocacy[edit]
Speed limits, and especially some of the methods used to attempt to enforce them, have always been
controversial. There are a variety of notable organisations and individuals who, for a variety of often
passionately held views, oppose or support the use of speed limits or the way they are enforced.
Opposition[edit]
Speed limits, and their enforcement have been opposed by various groups and for various reasons since their
inception. Historically, the AA was formed in 1905, initially to warn members about speed traps.[119]
In more recent times some advocacy groups seek to have certain speed limits as well as other measures
removed. For example, automated camera enforcement has been criticised by motoring advocacy groups
the Association of British Drivers,[120][121] the North American National Motorists Association,[122][123] and
the German Auto Club.[124]
Arguments used by those advocating a relaxation of speed limits or their removal include:

A 1994 peer-reviewed paper by Charles A. Lave et al. titled Did the 65 mph Speed Limit Save
Lives? stated that evidence that a higher speed limit may be positive on a system wide in the United
States by shifting more traffic to these safer roads.[125]
A 1998 report in the Wall Street Journal title 'Highways are safe at any speed' stated that when speed
limits are set artificially low, tailgating, weaving and speed variance (the problem of some cars traveling
significantly faster than others) make roads less safe.[126]
In 2010, German Auto Club (a major motoring organisation) argued that an autobahn speed limit was
unnecessary because numerous countries with a general highway speed limit had worse safety records
than Germany, for example Denmark, Belgium, Austria, and the United States.[124]
In 2008, the German Automobile Manufacturer's Association called general limits "patronizing",[127] arguing
instead for variable speed limits. The Association also stated that "raising the speed limits in Denmark (in
2004 from 110 km/h to 130 km/h)[128][129] and Italy (2003 increase on six-lane highways from 130 km/h to
150 km/h) had no negative impact on traffic safety. The number of accidental deaths even declined".[130]
Safe Speed, a UK advocacy organisation campaigns for higher speed limits[131] and to scrap speed
cameras on the basis that the benefits were exaggerated and that they may actually increase casualty
 levels;[132] their ePetition to the UK government in 2007 calling for speed cameras to be scrapped received
over 25,000 signatures.[133]
Support[edit]
Various other advocacy groups press for stricter limits and better enforcement. The Pedestrians
Association was formed in the United Kingdom in 1929 to protect the interests of the pedestrian. Their
president published a critique of motoring legislation and the influence of motoring groups in 1947 title 'Murder
most foul' which laid out in an emotional but detailed way the situation as they saw it and called for tighter
speed limits.[134] Historically, the Pedestrians' Association and the Automobile Association were described as
"bitterly opposed" in the early years of United Kingdom motoring legislation.[135] More recently organisations
such as RoadPeace, Twenty is Plenty, and Vision Zero have campaigned for lower speed limits in residential
areas.
Psychology[edit]
Some people consider speeding is not an issue, when other people are yet speeding (notion of two wrongs
make one right).
Drivers have some arguments to defend occasional speeding [16].
Some over-speed might be performed due to traffic circumstances not let have one eye on the
speedometer[16].
Teenagers and male drivers dirve faster than the rest of the drivers[16].
Speed estimation might be wrong due to a deceleration or having drived at high speed on the motorway[16].
In reason of the role that peripheral and central vision have on the perception of the speed, some drivers
underestimate speed on wide roads[16].

Signage[edit]
In most of the world speed limit signs display the limitation within a red circle. This design follows the style set
out by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, with the exception of United States and
Canada.[citation needed] All countries globally worldwide (except the United Kingdom and United States) use metric
speed limits in kilometres per hour.[citation needed] Metric signs are optional in the United States though less
commonly seen, while Samoa uses both units. In Ontario, Canada, the type, location, and frequency of speed
limit signs is covered by regulation 615 of the Ontario Highway Traffic Act.[136]
Maximum speed limit[edit]

Speed limit sign for 50 km/h (Vienna Convention Sign C14, most of the world follows this pattern)


UK sign for 50 mph

Standard speed limit sign used in Australiashowing 50 km/h

Alternative Vienna Convention sign with a yellow background used in some countries, such as Sweden, Finland
and Iceland

Ireland includes the symbol "km/h" since going metric in 2005

Japan uses blue numerals



Samoa uses both miles per hour and kilometres per hour

The United Arab Emirates uses bothWestern Arabic andEastern Arabic numerals

Canada (displayed in km/h)

Canada (Ontario)

Canada (Yukon andBritish Columbia)

United States (in mph)

United States (Oregonvariant)

United States (metric)

Minimum speed limit[edit]

Minimum speed limit signs are usually a blue circle with a white border and the limit in white. Some South
American countries (e.g.: Argentina), use a red border. Japan and South Korea use their normal speed limit
sign, with a line below the limit.

Common minimum speed limit sign



The United Arab Emirates uses bothWestern Arabic andEastern Arabic numerals

Argentina

Canada

Chile

Colombia


Japan

Philippines

South Korea

United States

United States (dual maximum and minimum speeds)

United States (metric)

United States (metric, dual maximum and minimum speeds)

Special speed limits[edit]

In some countries, speed limits may apply to certain classes of vehicles, or special conditions such as night-
time. Usually these speed limits will be reduced from the normal limit for safety reasons.

Australia - Speed limit during certain times

Australia - Road Train speed limit



New Zealand - Limited Speed Zone (Maximum speed limit is 100 km/h, reduces to 50 km/h if dangerous conditions
exist such as bad weather)

Romania - Trucks speed limit

United States - Roadworks zone speed limit

United States - Trucks speed limit

United States - Towed vehicles speed limit



United States - Night time speed limit

Unique speed limit sign in the United States onevacuation routesrequiring drivers to maintain the maximum safe
speed

Speed limit derestriction[edit]

In some countries, derestriction signs are used to mark where a speed zone ends. The speed limit beyond the
sign is the prevailing limit for the general area, for example the sign might be used to show the end of an
urban area. In the United Kingdom, the sign means that the national speed limit applies (60 mph on open
roads, 70 mph on dual carriageways and motorways). In New Zealand it means you are on an open road, but
the maximum legal speed of 100 km/h still applies[137] On roads without a general speed limits, such as
German Autobahn, a portion of Stuart Highway, and rural areas on the Isle of Man, it really means end of all
quantitative speed limits.

Common maximum speed limit derestriction sign

Common minimum speed limit derestriction sign



Common advisory speed limit derestriction sign

Australia [138]

Australia

Belgium, United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland pre-2005, New Zealand, Singapore,Malaysia andSwitzerland

Japan


Philippines

Philippines

End speed limit 35 mphUnited States

End speed limit (custom) United States (archaic)

Advisory speed limit[edit]
Further information: Advisory speed limit
Advisory speed limits may provide a safe suggested speed in an area, or warn of the safe maximum speed for
dangerous curves.

References[edit]
Documents referenced from 'Notes' section
 Federal Highway Administration (1998). "Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Speed and Speed Limits" (PDF).
Retrieved 2013-09-23.

British Columbia Ministry of Transportation (2003). "Review and Analysis of Posted Speed Limits and Speed Limit
Setting Practices in British Columbia" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-17.

World Health Organisation (2004). "World report on road traffic injury prevention". Retrieved 2010-04-13.
Department for Transport (2008). "Reported Road Casualties Great Britain: 2008 Annual Report" (PDF).
Retrieved 2010-01-09.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_limit

Clear Zone and Horizontal Clearance

1. What is the definition of clear zone?

The Roadside Design Guide defines a clear zone as the total roadside border area, starting at the edge of
the traveled way, available for safe use by errant vehicles. This area may consist of a shoulder, a
recoverable slope, a non-recoverable slope, and/or a clear run-out area. The desired minimum width is
dependent upon traffic volumes and speeds and on the roadside geometry. Simply stated, it is an
unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the traveled way that allows a driver to stop safely or
regain control of a vehicle that leaves the traveled way.

A recoverable slope is a slope on which a motorist may, to a greater or lesser extent, retain or regain
control of a vehicle by slowing or stopping. Slopes flatter than 1V:4H are generally considered recoverable.
A non-recoverable slope is a slope which is considered traversable but on which an errant vehicle will
continue to the bottom. Embankment slopes between 1V:3H and 1V:4H may be considered traversable but
non-recoverable if they are smooth and free of fixed objects. Aclear run-out area is the area at the toe of a
non-recoverable slope available for safe use by an errant vehicle. Slopes steeper than 1V:3H are not
considered traversable and are not considered part of the clear zone.

2. Where can I find information on clear zone dimensions?

The current edition of the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide presents information on the latest state-of-the-
practice in roadside safety. It presents procedures to determine a recommended minimum clear zone on
tangent sections of roadway with variable side slopes and adjustments for horizontal curvature.

The AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (Green Book) enumerates a clear
zone value for two functional classes of highway. For local roads and streets, a minimum clear zone of 7 to
10 feet is considered desirable on sections without curb. In the discussion on collectors without curbs, a 10-
foot minimum clear zone is recommended. The general discussion on Cross-section Elements also
indicates a clear zone of 10 ft. for low-speed rural collectors and rural local roads should be provided.

3. What is the definition of horizontal clearance?

Horizontal clearance is the lateral offset distance from the edge of the traveled way, shoulder or other
designated point to a vertical roadside element. These dimensional values are not calculated, and are not
 intended to constitute a clear zone. They are intended to provide a roadside environment that is not likely to
have an adverse affect on motorists' using the roadway. These lateral offsets provide clearance for mirrors
on trucks and buses that are in the extreme right lane of a facility and for opening curbside doors of parked
vehicles, as two examples.

4. What are some examples of roadside elements requiring horizontal clearance?

Curbs, walls, barriers, piers, sign and signal supports, mature trees, landscaping items, and power poles
are primary examples of the type of features that can affect a driver's speed or lane position if located too
close to the roadway edge. Other specific examples can be found in the Cross Section Elements, Local
Roads and Streets, Collector Roads and Streets, Rural and Urban Arterials, Freeways, and Intersections
chapters of the Green Book.

The AASHTO A Policy on Design Standards - Interstate System also contains a discussion on horizontal
clearance in the section Horizontal Clearance to Obstructions.

5. Is clear zone a controlling criterion?

No. Controlling criteria are 13 items or elements in the NHS design standards that require a formal design
exception when the adopted minimum value is not met on a project. The list of controlling criteria was
developed to insure that deviations below the adopted value for a critical element were adequately
considered in design of a project. When the original list was developed in 1985, clear zone was considered
to be synonymous with horizontal clearance. Subsequently, in 1990, following adoption of the Roadside
Design Guide, it was decided that clear zone width would no longer be considered as an element requiring
a formal design exception. In the rulemaking to adopt the Roadside Design Guide, it was determined that
clear zone width should not be defined by a fixed, nationally applicable value. The various numbers in the
guide associated with clear zone are not considered as exact but as ranges of values within which
judgment should be exercised in making design decisions. Objects or terrain features that fall within the
appropriate clear zone are typically shielded so a design exception is not needed. The FHWA believes that
a consistent design approach, guided by past crash history and a cost-effectiveness analysis is the most
responsible method to determine appropriate clear zone width.

While clear zone is not a controlling criterion for purposes of applying the Green Book to the National
Highway System, an exception to a clear zone for a project does need to be noted, approved and
documented in the same manner as exceptions to other non-controlling criteria when the established value
is not met. The documentation may be included in project notes of meetings or other appropriate means.

6. Where is the appropriate location for above ground utility structures?

FHWA policy is that utility facilities should be located as close to the right-of-way line as feasible. The
Green Book, AASHTO Highway Safety Design and Operations Guide, 1997, (Yellow Book) and the
AASHTO A Guide for Accommodating Utilities within Highway Right-of-way, all state that utilities should be
located as close to the right-of-way line as feasible. The Yellow Book, recognizing that crashes are
overrepresented on urban arterials and collectors, says this means as far as practical behind the face of
outer curbs and where feasible, behind the sidewalks.

It is not always feasible to relocate all poles within project limits. Critical locations should be considered for
improvement, such as those dictated by crash experience or in potential crash locations, such as within
 horizontal curves. Where poles cannot be relocated from critical locations, mitigation such as breakaway or
shielding should be considered. Poles should not be installed in a location that could act as a funnel
directing an errant vehicle into an obstacle (for example a roadside drainage ditch, that would also disrupt
the hydraulics). Locating a pole as far as feasible from the traveled way improves sight lines and visibility,
providing a safer roadside.

7. What clear zone needs to be maintained behind a curb?

The difference between a "clear zone" and horizontal clearance or "operational offset" has been a topic of
much confusion. When the Green Book and the Roadside Design Guide were last updated, the AASHTO
committees coordinated to dispel the misunderstanding that 2 feet (actually, 18 inches) behind a curb
constituted a clear zone. Since curbs are now generally recognized as having no significant containment or
redirection capability, clear zone should be based on traffic volumes and speeds, both without and with a
curb. Realizing that there are still contradictory passages in various AASHTO documents, the Technical
Committee on Roadside Safety has initiated a short-term project to identify all such inconsistencies and to
recommend appropriate language corrections. This effort is underway. The fourth paragraph under Section
3.4.1 Curbs in the 2002 Roadside Design Guide correctly defines AASHTO's "position".

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Safety barriers are used to stop out of control' vehicles from:

leaving the road and hitting roadside hazards, including slopes (roadside barriers)
crossing into the path of on-coming vehicles (see median barriers).
They are designed to redirect the vehicle and have a lower severity than the roadside hazard they protect. There
are three main types of safety barrier (but within these types there are different systems which have their own
specific performance characteristics).
Flexible barriers are made from wire rope supported between frangible posts. Flexible barriers may be the best
option for minimizing injuries to vehicle occupants, however they may pose a risk to motorcyclists. These barriers
deflect more than other barrier types and need to be repaired following impact to maintain their re-directive
capability.
Semi-rigid barriers are usually made from steel beams or rails. These deflect less than flexible barriers and so
they can be located closer to the hazard when space is limited. Depending on the impact these barriers may be
able to redirect secondary impacts.
Rigid barriers are usually made of concrete and do not deflect. Rigid barriers should be used only where there is
no room for deflection of a semi-rigid or flexible barrier. Rigid barriers are often utilized at high volume roadwork
sites to protect road workers or other road users particularly where another barrier type is awaiting repair. Currently
(depending on their height and other details) these provide the highest level of containment of heavy vehicles. In
most cases following impact these barriers require little or no maintenance.
Much of the benefit from the use of barriers comes from a reduction in crash severity. Although a crash may still
occur, it is likely to have a safer consequence than colliding with the object that the barrier is protecting.

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 References
iRAP Road Attribute Risk Factors - Roadside Severity - Object.
iRAP Road Attribute Risk Factors - Roadside Severity - Distance.
Department of Main Roads, Safety Barriers and Roadside Furniture.
Barriers to change - designing safe roads for motorcyclists.
Safe Barrier for Motorcyclists - a literature review.
NSW Transport, Model Safety Barrier Drawings.
NSW Transport, Types of Safety Barriers.
Task Force 13, A Guide to Standardized Highway Barrier Hardware.
Task Force 13, Barrier End Treatments.
Task Force 13, Online Guide To Barrier Transitions.
Towards Safer Roads, p66.
DMRB TD19/06 Requirements for road restraint systems