Organisational Behaviour Notes
Organisational Behaviour Notes
Organisational Behaviour Notes
MARATHALLI, BANGALORE
(Affiliated to Bangalore University)
A Recipient of Prestigious Rajyotsava State Award 2012 conferred by the Government of Karnataka
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Prepared By
Ms LINCY JOYKUTTY
Ms VIJAYALAXMI MEDAR
Sl No Title Page No
3 PERSONALITY 33 42
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UNIT 1
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Organization
Structure of an organization
Organization structure is the basic frame work with in which the decision making
behavior of an executive take place
Types of organization
Some organizations are profit driven and some serve the society like universities ,
hospitals and welfare organizations
1. Functional organization
3. Matrix form
In recent time there are informal structures which have invisible relationship
between the members, such as network organization and boundary less
organization. These are called as virtual organization
Functional organization
In this type the specialists person will be heading their respective departments to
discharge specific functions assigned to them
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Workers under functional type receives instructions from their head or specialists
Matrix organization
This is the multiple command system in which workers will have two bosses
1. Tall structure
2. Flat structure
1. Centralization of authority
4. Impersonality
2. De Centralized authority
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Organizational structures is determined by varies factor,
2. Job designing
3. Grouping of activity
4. Span of control
5. Delegation of authority
Todays organizations are becoming oriented towards flat structure and technology
is the driving force therefore virtual organizations are increasing reducing the
human force at work
As Nadler and Tushman put it, "Understanding one individual's behaviour is challenging
in and of itself; understanding a group that is made up of different individuals and
comprehending the many relationships among those individuals is even more complex.
Ultimately, the organisation's work gets done through people, individually or collectively,
on their, own or in collaboration with technology. Therefore, the management of
organisational behaviour is central to the management taska task that involves the
capacity to "understand" the behaviour patterns of individuals, groups and organisations,
to ''predict'" what behavioural responses will be elicited by various managerial actions
and finally to use this understanding and these predictions to achieve "control".
Organisational behaviour can then be defined as: "The study of human behaviour in
organisational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organisational
context, and the organisation itself."
The above definition has three partsthe individual behaviour, the organisation and the
(interface between the two. Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of
beliefs, values, attitudes and other personal characteristics and these characteristics of all
individuals must interact with each other in order to create organisational settings. The
organisational behaviour is specifically concerned with work-related behaviour, which
takes place in organisations.
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In addition to understanding; the on-going behavioural processes involved, in 'their own
jobs, managers must understand the basic human element of their work. Organisational
behaviour offers three major ways of understanding this context; people as organisations,
people as resources and people as people.
Above all, organisations are people; and without people there would be no organisations.
Thus, if managers are to understand the organisations in which they work, they must first
understand the people who make up the organisations.
As resources, people are one of the organisation's most valuable assets. People create the
organisation, guide and direct its course, and vitalise and revitalise it. People make the
decisions, solve the problems, and answer the questions. As managers increasingly
recognise the value of potential contributions by their employees, it will become more
and more important for managers and employees to grasp the complexities of
organisational behaviour.
Finally, there is people as people - an argument derived from the simple notion of
humanistic management. People spend a large part of their lives in; organisational
settings, mostly as employees. They have a right to expect something in return beyond
wages and benefits. They have a right to expect satisfaction and to learn new skills. An
understanding of organisational behaviour can help the manager better appreciate the
variety of individual needs and' expectations.
OB:
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure
have on behavior within organization, for the purpose of applying such knowledge
toward improving an organizations effectiveness.
It is the study of what people think, feel and do in and around organization.
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Basic concepts/variables of OB
Individual behaviour
Perception
Motivation
FOUNDATIONS OF OB
1. Individual differences
2. A whole person
3. Caused behaviour
4. Human dignity
5. Social system
6. Mutuality of interest
7. Holistic concept
1. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
2. A whole person
An individual is not only measured in terms of the skills he is processing but also his
likes and dislikes, pride and prejudice etc.
A persons family life can not be ignored/separated from his work life.
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3. Caused behaviour
And his behavior is directed towards what is wright or wrong, his interest etc.
4. Human dignity
People should be treated differently from other factors as they are in the highest
order in the universe.
Every job entitles a person to treated with respect and recognition of their
ABILITIES.
5. Social systems
Organizations are social system and all activities are governed by social and
psychological laws.
People have social roles and status. Their bahaviour is influenced by group and individual
drives.
Two types of system exists side by side: formal and informal systems.
6. Mutuality of interest
Organization have human purpose. They are formed and maintained because of the
mutual interest among the people.
7. Holistic concept
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This concept interprets organization relationship as a whole person, whole group, whole
organization and a whole social system.
IMPORTANCE /BENEFITS OF OB
2. The field of OB uses scientific research to help us understand and predict organizational
life: OB is not a pure science but it helps us in understanding the cause and effect
relationship among the people in an organization.
4. OB helps an individual understand himself and others better: this helps in improving the
interpersonal relationships considerably.
7. The subject of OB is also useful in the field of marketing: organization behavior helps in
understanding the consumer choice and studying their behavior, there fore OB helps us in
innovating new products with creativity and learning of responses
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TOWARD AN OB DISCIPLINE (OB AN INTERPLINARY DISCIPLINE)
Psychology
The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans
and other animals.
Unit of Analysis:
Individual
Contributions to OB:
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Individual decision making, performance appraisal attitude measurement
Organizational behaviour can be treated as a distinct field of study. It is yet to become a science.
Now efforts are being made to synthesize principles, concepts and processes in this field of
study.
Interdisciplinary Approach
Organizational behaviour is a normative science. A normative science prescribes how the various
findings of researches can be applied to get organizational results, which are acceptable to the
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society. Thus, what is acceptable by the society or individuals engaged in an organization is a
matter of values of the society and people concerned.
Organizational behaviour focuses the attention on people from humanistic point of view. It is
based on the belief that needs and motivation of people are of high' concern. Further, there is
optimism about the innate potential of man to be independent, creative, predictive and capable of
contributing positively to the objectives of the organization.
A Contingency Approach
A contingency approach to organizational behaviour implies that different situations require
different behavioral practices for effectiveness instead of following a traditional approach for all
situations. Each situation must be analyzed carefully to determine the significant variables that
exist in order to establish the more effective practices. The strength of this approach is that it
encourages analysis of each situation prior to action. Thus, it helps to use all the current
knowledge about people in the organization in the most appropriate manner.
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Productivity Approach
Productivity is a ratio that compares units of output with units of input. It is often measured in
terms of economic inputs and outputs. Productivity is considered to be improved, if more outputs
can be produced from the same amount of inputs. But besides economic inputs and outputs,
human and social inputs and outputs also arc important.
Systems Approach
A system is an interrelated part of an organization or a society that interacts with everyone
related to that organization or society and functions as a whole. Within the organization 'people'
employ 'technology' in performing the 'task' that they are responsible for, while the 'structure' of
the organization serves as a basis for co-ordinating all their different activities. The systems view
emphasizes the interdependence of each of these elements within the organization, if the
organization as a whole is to function effectively. The other key aspect of the systems view of
organization is its emphasis on the interaction between the organization and its broader
environment,, which consists of social, economic, cultural and political environment within
which they operate.
Organizations arc dependent upon their surrounding environment in two main ways:
First, the organization requires 'inputs' from the environment in the form of raw material, people,
money, ideas and so on. The organization itself can be thought of as performing certain
'transformation' processes, on its inputs in order to create outputs in the form of products or
services. Secondly, the organization depends on environment such as, public to accept its output.
The systems view of organization thus emphasizes on the key interdependencies that
organizations must manage. Within themselves the organizations must trade off the
interdependencies among people, tasks, technology and structure in order to perform their
transformation processes effectively and efficiently. Organizations must also recognize their
interdependence with the broader environments within which they exist.
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A significant concern about organizational behaviour is that its knowledge and
techniques could be used to manipulate people without regard for human welfare. People
who lack ethical values could use people in unethical ways.
The growing interest in organizational behaviour stems from both a philosophical desire by
many people to create more humanistic work places and a practical need to design more
productive work environments. As a result of these forces, organizational behaviour is now a part
of the curriculum of almost all courses including engineering and medical.
The field of organizational behaviour has grown in depth and breadth. The keys to its past
and future success revolve around the related processes of theory development, research and
managerial practice.
Ob model
Group behavior covers group dynamics, leaderships, power and politics, communication
and conflicts.
At organizational level, organizational culture change and development etc are covered.
Two Marks
1. Define organisation.
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5. What is tall structure?
Eight Marks
Fifteen Marks
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UNIT 2
Meaning of Perception:
Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around
us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize this information and how
to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.
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PERCEPTUAL PROCESS:
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Receiving Stimuli: Stimuli are received by us through sensory organs such as vision,
hearing, smell, touch & taste. There are two types of stimuli. They are:
* External Stimuli: Light waves, sound waves, mechanical energy or pressure, etc
from objects that one can smell & taste.
Selecting stimuli: The process of filtering information received by our senses is called
selecting stimuli or selective attention.
External Factors:
* Size: Generally, objects of larger size attract more attention than do smaller
ones.
* Contrast: It states that external stimuli which stands out against the background
or which are not what people are expecting, will receive their attention.
* Movement: The principle of motion states that a moving object receives more
attention than an object that is stationary. Ex: A workman will be focused more on a
conveyor belt of a machine than a idle flower vase.
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* Repetition: It state that a repeated stimuli would draw more attention that a non
repetitive one. Ex: The same advertisement of an airtel flashed daily on television is
based on the principle of repetition.
Internal Factors:
* Learning: Learning is a cognitive factor. People tend to perceive what they want
to perceive.
Bird in the
the hand
* Age Difference: Senior executives complain about the inability of the young
ones to take tough decisions concerning terminating people or paying attention to details
& paper work.
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Perceptual Organisation: It is the process by which people group stimuli into recognisable
patterns. Example: Most people have a mental picture of an object made of plastic &
having four legs, a seat, aback- an image of chair.
People organise the incoming information into a meaningful whole & recognise the
object to be a chair.
Perceptual Grouping: This principle was 1st defined by Gestalt psychologists include the
following:
* Principle of similarity: When objects of similar shape, size or colour tend to be grouped
together. Ex: All employees who wear Black Gown may be perceived as a Lawyer, when,
in reality, each worker is a civil lawyer or criminal lawyer or a unique individual.
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* Principle of proximity: It states the tendency to perceive stimuli which are near one
another as belonging together. Ex: Several employees in an organisation may be
identified as a single group because of physical proximity.
* Principle of Closure: A person has a tendency to perceive a whole when none exist. It
supplies missing stimuli. Ex: When, a manger has to take a decision even when there is
no sufficient data. He takes the decision based on experience; imagination the data can be
filled.
* Area: Where one part of an area showing an ambiguous figure is smaller in size than
the remainder, it is more likely that the smaller area will be seen as a figure & the rest of
the total area as background.
* Size Constancy: It refers to the fact that as an object is moved farther away we tend to
see it as more or less invariant in size. Ex: The players in the opposite side of the field do
not look smaller than those closer to you even though their images on the retina of the
eye are much smaller.
* Colour Constancy: It implies that familiar objects are perceived to be of the same
colour in varied conditions.
Process of Interpreting: Once the data have been received & organised, the perceiver
interprets or assigns meaning to the information.
* Attribution: It refers to the process by which the individual assigns causes to the
behaviour he or she conceives.
* Stereotyping: It means judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group
to which that person belongs.
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* Halo effect: The halo effect refers to the tendency of judging people on the basis of a
single trait which may be good or bad, favourable or unfavourable.
* Projection: We tend to believe that other posses the same characteristics of what we
have.
The process of checking: The perceiver tends to check whether his interpretations are
right or wrong.
The process of reacting: The perceiver would finalise with some action in relation to his
or her perception which may be a favourable or unfavourable.
Recency effect: Individuals tend to remember the recent happenings& based on that,
come to a conclusion on a particular event.
Projection: We tend to believe that other posses the same characteristics of what we
have.
Stereotyping: It means judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to
which that person belongs.
Halo effect: The halo effect refers to the tendency of judging people on the basis of a
single trait which may be good or bad, favourable or unfavourable.
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Interpersonal Perception: It is understanding & interpretation process of two individuals
in a work setting. It focuses on only people. It is otherwise called Social perception.
Perception, in many cases has important effects on organisation. They are discussed as
follows:
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Conflict Management: The perceptions of an employee have of others even overflow into
the workplace & cause conflict with other co-workers.
Measures:
Have a high level of self awareness; Individual needs, experience & expectations can all
affect perceptions.
Avoid inappropriate attributions: Each and every employee would describe the cause of
behaviour in a wrong situation which has to be avoided.
Be Empathetic: Employee should be able to perceive the situation same as it is. Do not
arise the personal impressions at your work place.
Attitude represents the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings & behavioural intentions towards an
object. They reflect how one feels about something or somebody. Based on the believes &
perceptions an individual frames his attitude.
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Attitudes are learned pre-dispositions towards aspects of our environment. They may be
positively or negatively directed towards certain people, service or institutions.
Nature of Attitudes:
ABC Model:
The three components of attitude is called the ABC model, the three letters respectively
standing for affect, behavioural & cognition.This model helps us in a thorough
understanding of the attitude of people.
Ex: If an employer wants to introduce flexitime in his office he would want to know:
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c) What they think about the policy (Cognition)
Technology
Noise
Peers
Rewards
Formation of Attitudes:
A person acquires his attitude from several sources. The important sources of acquiring attitudes
are:
Direct Personal Experience: A person direct experience with the attitude object
determines his attitude towards it. The personal experience of an individual will affect his
attitude deeply.
Association: Sometimes acquaintance or association with people & events also influence
the attitude.
Family & Peer groups: Attitudes can be acquired from parents, teachers & peer group
members. We observe the way our family & friends behave & we shape our attitudes
accordingly. Ex: Family support political party, you will start doing it.
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Neighbourhood: The neighbourhood in which we live has certain cultural facilities,
religious groupings & ethnic differences. Further more, it has people who are neighbours
who may belong to different cultures. All these will have a bearing on our attitudes.
Economic status & occupations: The economic status & occupational position of an
individual also affects his attitude formation. Our socio economic background influences our
present & future attitudes.
Vicarious learning: This refers to the formation of attitudes by observing the behaviour of
others & the consequences of their behaviour.
Increases productivity: Employee possessing positive attitude towards the work will help
to contribute effectively & increases the productivity of an organisation.
Solves problems: The problems crop up in the organisation can be solved quickly when
employees belief is positive towards the work environment.
Improves quality: An employee having a positive attitude would try to increase the
quality output for the organisation which would help him to grow in the organisation.
Encourages team work: Organisation has to encourage team work in order to increase
productivity & growth of the organisation which is possible to attain through positive
attitude of employee towards the work.
Reduce stress: When the work is enjoyed by the employee who shows there is a positive
approach towards the work & it reduces the stress of employee in an organisation.
Job Satisfaction: In order to satisfy the employee with a job, the organisation has to
provide a positive work environment which would help to increase the satisfaction level
in an organisation.
Better organisational relations & fewer conflicts: An employee is able to establish a good
rapport with the superiors peers, subordinates, etc which would provide the scope for
minimal conflict.
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Reduces absenteeism: An employee approaching positively towards the organisation will
show a reduced absenteeism which would help them to contribute effectively towards an
organisation.
Increases ones ability to motivate & inspire others & oneself: A person has belief &
positive attitude towards the work would motivate other employees to work effectively
for the betterment of the organisation.
Helps in achieving goals & attaining success: Goals of the organisation are achieved with
a positive attitude of employee towards an organisation.
Functions of Attitudes:
Adjustment function: Attitudes often help people adjust to their work environment. The
attitudes help employees adjust to their environment & are a basis for future behaviour.
Ego defense function: People often form & maintain attitudes to protect their own self
images. Such attitude is generally found among people in the management level where
they do not accept or welcome any ideas given by their subordinates to protect their self
ego.
Value expressive function: Attitudes provide people with a basis for expressing their
values. Our value expressive attitudes are closely related to our self concept. Ex: One
who values freedom will have the attitude towards decentralisation.
Badge value: Attitudes helps to define us & make up statements about who we are &
what we believe.
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Changing attitudes of self: The following hints can help an individual change his or her
attitude:
* Co-opting approach: This is another way of changing attitude where people who are
dissatisfied with a situation are given the responsibility of improving things.
Types of Change:
Congruent change: It means that the change is a movement in the same direction but the
intensity of the feeling is reduced.
Incongruent change: This refers to a change of direction in the attitude from positive to
negative & vice versa.
Prior commitments: On barrier to change of attitude are prior commitments. This occurs
when people feel a commitment to a particular action or person & are unwilling to
change.
Insufficient Information: Sometimes people see no reason why they should change their
attitudes.
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Cognitive dissonance: This refers to a state of inconsistency between an individuals
attitude & behaviour. This can be overcome either by changing the attitude or behaviour
or both to an extent.
Rating Scales: It allows an individual to rate their liking or disliking towards a job or an
individual. One of the most popular rating scale is the JDI (Job Descriptive Index)
Critical Incidents: Here employees were asked to describe incidents on the job when they
were particularly satisfied or dissatisfied. The incidents were then analysed in
determining which aspects of these incidents of results in positive & negative attitudes in
the employee.
Action Tendencies: They represent the inclinations people have to avoid or approach
certain things. By gathering information on such inclinations, their job satisfaction can be
measured.
Likert Scale: This was developed by Likert & is widely used even today. Here an
individual is asked to indicate agreements or disagreement with job factors .The
individual is also required to state how strongly he or she agrees or disagrees. This is
normally done on a 5 point scale which includes:
*Strongly Approve
* Approve
* Undecided
*Disapprove
* Strongly disapprove
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Two Marks:
1. Define Perception.
2. What is stereotyping?
4. Define attitude.
Eight Marks
Fifteen Marks
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UNIT 3
PERSONALITY
Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts
with others
Personality refers to how people affect others and how they understand and view
them selfs as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable trades, and the
person situation interventions
Determinants of personality
1. Heredity
It is the process by which features and traits are passed on from parent to their
children before they are born. Ex. Physical stature,facial attractiveness,
gender,energy level etc.
How ever personality traits are not completely decided by heridity Ex. Physical
apperance can be changed by external materials. Muscales mass can be improved
by different product in the markets.
2. To Environment
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3. Family
Parents sibllings and other family members and family its self as a whole influence
personality
Parents are the role model for their childern, and children try to copy and immitate the
parents behaviour.
Family size, religion,rituals,education of the family etc. Impact an induvidual Ex. Nuclear
family v/s joint family
Socialisation is the process by which people (children) are made to interact and behave
with others in an acceptable way.
It helps in maintaining interpersonal relationship with others and also with in the group.
5. Situational factors
Situation demands different aspect of ones personality . Ex. Temple, class room,
office,interview,canteen, court,house,others house,Etc. Shapes the person personality
Ex. Indivudual designation and position in organisation also affects his personality,
professor in a class room etc.
This model supports 5 basic personality dimensions or domains which determines overall
human personality and account for individual differences.
Openness
Consciousness
Extroversion
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Agreeableness
Neuroticism
OPENNESS
This dimension reflect ones range of interests and fascinations with novelty.
People who like to learn new thing and enjoy new experiences usually score high in
openness.
On the other hand those who score low are less receptive to new ideas, more rigid,
comfort seekers.
CONSCIOUSNESS
(CAREFULLNESS)
1. Dependability
2. Responsible
3. Organized systematic
4. Persistent
Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized and unreliable.
EXTROVERSION
These are sociable and are lively, assertive, talkative and outgoing.
The opposite of extroverts are introverts which reflects those traits like timid, reserved,
quiet, and the person gets his energy from within.
AGREEABLENESS
It refers to a persons ability t get along with others. These are friendly, co-operative,
kind, compassionate, warm and trusting.
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People who score low on agreeableness are cold, more distant and unkind to others,
disagreeable and antagonistic(aggressive and hostile).
NEUROTICISM
(EMOTIONAL STABILITY)
This dimension reflects a person's ability to withstand stress and degree of negative
emotions. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self confident and self
confident and secured.
A person with low emotional stability tends to be nervous, depressed, anxious and in
secured
Some of the important personality factors that determine what kind of behaviors are exhibited at
work include the following:
Locus of Control
Locus of control is the degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has direct
impact on the consequences of that behavior. Some people, for example, believe that if they
work hard they will certainly succeed. They, strongly believe that each individual is in control of
his or her life. They are said to have an internal locus of control. By contrast, some people think
that what happens to them is a result of fate, chance, luck or the behavior of other people, rather
than the lack of skills or poor performance on their part. Because- these individuals think that
forces beyond their control dictate the happenings around them, they are said to have an external
locus of control.
As a personality attribute, locus of control has clear implications for organizations. For
example, certain individuals have an internal locus of control, which means they have a
relatively strong desire to participate in the management of their organizations and have a'
freedom to do their jobs. Thus, they may prefer a decentralized organization where they have a
right of decision-making and work with a leader who provides them freedom and autonomy.
They may like a reward system that recognizes individual performance and contributions.
Conversely, people with an external locus of control, are likely to prefer a more
centralized organization where they need not take any decisions. They may incline to structured
jobs where standard procedures are defined for them. They may prefer a leader who makes most
of the decisions and a reward system that considers seniority rather than merit.
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Introversion and Extroversion
Introversion is the tendency of individuals, which directs them to be inward and process feelings,
thoughts and ideas within themselves. Extroversion, on the contrary, refers to the tendency in
individuals to look outside themselves, searching for external stimuli with which they can
interact. While there is some element of introversion as well as extroversion in all of us, people
tend to be dominant as either extroverts or introverts. Extroverts are sociable, lively and
gregarious and seek outward stimuli or external exchanges. Such individuals are likely to be
most successful while working in the sales department, publicity office, personal relations unit,
and so on, where they can interact face to face with others. Introverts, on the other Hand, are
quiet, reflective, introspective, and intellectual people, preferring to interact with a small intimate
circle of friends. Introverts are more likely to be successful when they can work on highly
abstract ideas such as R&D work, in a relatively quiet atmosphere. Since managers have to
constantly interact with individuals both in and out of the organization and influence people to
achieve the organization's goals, it is believed that extroverts are likely to be more successful as
managers.
Self-esteem denotes the extent to which individuals consistently regard themselves as capable,
successful, important and worthy individuals. Self-esteem is an important personality factor that
determines how managers perceive themselves and their role in the organization. Self-esteem is
important to self-concept, i.e., the way individuals, define themselves as to who they are and
derive their sense of identity. High self-esteem provides a high sense of self-concept, which, in
turn, reinforces high self-esteem. Thus, the two are mutually reinforcing. Individuals with a high
self-esteem will try to take on more challenging assignments and be successful. Thus, they will
be enhancing their self-concept i.e., they would tend to define themselves as highly valued
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individuals in the organizational system. The higher the self-concept and self-esteem, the greater
will be their contributions to the goals of the organization, especially when the system rewards
them for their contributions.
Authoritarianism is the extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences
are important within' hierarchical social systems like organizations. For example, an employee
who is highly authoritarian may accept directives or orders from his superior without much
questioning. A person who is not highly authoritarian might agree to carry out appropriate and
reasonable directives from his boss. But he may also raise questions, express disagreement and
even refuse to carry out requests if they arc for some reason objectionable.
Dogmatism is the rigidity of a person's beliefs and his or her openness to other
viewpoints. The popular terms 'close-minded' and 'open-minded' describe people who are more
and less .dogmatic in their beliefs respectively. For example, a manager may be unwilling to
listen to a new idea related to doing something more efficiently. He is said to be a person who is
close-minded or highly dogmatic. A manager who is very receptive to hearing about and trying
out new ideas in the same circumstances might be seen as more open-minded or less dogmatic.
Dogmatism can be either beneficial or detrimental to organizations, but given the degree of
change in the nature of organizations and their environments, individuals who are, not dogmatic
are most likely to be useful and productive organizational members.
Risk Propensity
Risk-propensity is the decree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky
decisions. A manager with a high-risk propensity might be expected to experiment with new
ideas and to lead the organization in new directions. In contrast, a manager with low risk
propensity might lead to a stagnant and overly conservative organization.
Machiavellianism
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Type A and B Personalities
Type A persons feel a chronic sense of time urgency, are highly achievement-oriented, exhibit a
competitive drive, and are impatient when their work is slowed down for any reason. Type B
persons are easy-going individuals who do not feel the time urgency, and who do not experience
the competitive drive. Type A individuals are significantly more prone to heart attacks than Type
B individuals. While Type A persons help the organization to move ahead in a relatively short
period of time they may also suffer health problems, which might be detrimental to both
themselves and the organization in the long run.
Work-Ethic Orientation
Some individuals are highly work-oriented while others try to do the minimum Work that is
necessary to get by without being fired on-the-job. The extremely work oriented person gets
greatly involved in the job. Extreme work ethic values could lead to traits of "workahollism"
where work is considered as the only primary motive for living with very little outside interests.
For a workaholic turning to work can sometimes become a viable alternative to facing non-work
related problems. A high level of work ethic orientation of members is good for the organization
to achieve its goals. Too much "workahollism", however, might lead to premature physical and
mental exhaustion and health problems, which is dysfunctional for both organization and the
workaholic members.
The above ten different personality predispositions are important for individual,
managerial and organizational effectiveness.
YOUR Success at work depends upon what kind of person you are.
In one study, the emperical evidence reveals that some define success in terms of money
whereas others in terms of intrinsic happiness.
More successful men were found to be more persistent. They were exhibiting self
confidence and had agreeableness.
They were open minded and extroverts which increases their performance.
Generally, the essential traits are expected traits of management professionals are
persistent and confoidence.
Personality is the sum total of our habits, physical, mental and emotional.
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INTERACTIVE BEHAVIOUR
The people who are interactive are basically friendly, sociable, lively, gregarious,
aggressive and express their feeling and ideas openly.
Hence they are more suitable and successful in the areas which require continuous and
frequent interactions with others.
So those people who exhibit the above characters and behaviour come under interactive
behaviour as there is continuous negotiations between many people.
They tend to work faster, dislike complicated procedure. They usually communicate
freely and are often impatient with long slow jobs.
Conflicts:
Conflict arises from difference of opinion between the group members while attaining the
organizational goals. An organization is an interlocking network of groups, departments, sections
or work teams. In organizations everywhere, conflict among groups of different interests is
unavoidable. According to one survey, managers spend an estimated 20 percent of their time
dealing with group conflicts. The success of an organization depends upon the harmonious
relations among all independent groups. Managers may either directly resolve the conflicts or
they may act as mediators between two or more employees. In either case, knowledge and
understanding of conflict and the methods of resolving it are important.
Inter-group conflicts result from the ways in which organizations co-ordinate the work of
different groups and distribute rewards among those groups.
Interpersonal conflict
Stress may be caused because of conflicting personality and behavior. When two or more
people work together having different personality ,attitudes and behavior it may result in
conflict.
Conflict is triggered when a person behavior will mutually exclusive from others.
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The outcome of conflict is frustration , inner tension and stress. Ex. A person having an
internal locus of control ( Who believes in himself)may get frustrated working with an
other person, who believes in destiny, fate, god etc.
Types of conflicts
1 functional
2 Dysfunctional
A conflict between individuals and groups which has a positive impact and that would
facilitates the company growth is called as functional conflict.
On the other hand conflict which results in destruction or stagnation of company growth.
This is called an functional conflict.
Personal conflict: Are the conflicts that arise among employees, individuals
because of their competitive roles.
Group conflict: Are the conflicts arising within two or more groups due to difference in
their attitudes and behavior.
Infra-organizational conflict: Are the conflict arising between levels of an organization,
which are of two types. Vertical conflict arises between higher and lower level of
management. Horizontal conflict arises among the employees at same level.
Latent conflict: Is a situation when the conditions for conflict arise. For example, two
groups competing for scarce resources.
Perceived conflict: Is a situation when both the groups realize that there exists conflict
between them.
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Felt conflict: Is a situation when members involved in the conflict feel tense or anxious.
Manifest conflict: Is a situation when both the group try to frustrate each other.
Two Marks
1. Define personality
2. What is machievallineism?
3. Who is extrovert?
Eight Marks
Fifteen Marks
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UNIT 4
Definition:
Group is a composition of two or more freely interacting individuals who share a common
identity & purpose.
Group Dynamics: The social process by which people interact with each other in small groups is
called group dynamics.
Forming: In this stage, the members of the group do not have any clear idea & they try
to get acquainted with other members of the group.
Storming: Each member of a group have begun to feel comfortable enough with their
new environment to take some risks in revealing more of their personalities. It involves
conflict of the members ideas. It is also called as the phase of struggling forward.
Norming: This phase is otherwise called as Becoming Personal. In this stage where the
group is formed & structured completely. Members will begin to take responsibility for
resolving conflicts or problems & strengthening friendships.
Performing: This phase is otherwise called as working together. In this stage, the group
is mature enough to attend to its own needs both in terms of task & relationship matters.
Decision making & problem solving will be shared within the group.
Note: If the groups are formed temporarily, then another stage follows.
Adjourning/Transference: The group spread widely after the group activity is
completed. Members of the group must be able to transfer the things which they have
learned about themselves & being in a group back to their regular lives.
Need/Reasons for Formation of Group:
* Similar Likings
* Interpersonal & work related behaviours are exhibited.
* Increased Intellectualy
* Motivation
* Reduced Conflict & better communication
* Safety Needs
Types of Groups:
Group differ based on the size, the flow of authority & communication.They are
discussed as follows:
Work Group: A group of people working together. Ex: Mechanics i a Sears Auto Center.
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Formal & Informal Groups: A number of people assigned to specific task form a formal
group.
o Standing task Group/ Command Group: The foreman or chief executive & his
group of subordinates constitutea command group who exercises formal authority
over subordinates.
o Task Group: Itis a temporary formal group that is created to solve specific
problems.
Informal Group: Members of this group belong to various divisions or sections
irrespective of their jobs. By joining the group, individual can reduce insecurity increase
his/ her status or enjoy regular company of others.
An Interest Group: It is made up of individuals who adopts to achieve an objective of
mutual interest.
A Friendship Group: is formed to satisfy the needs of belongingness & security.
A Reference Group: The group is formed foe the purpose of forming opinions or making
decisions.They are based on factrs such as race,gender, politics, religion, social class,
educational level, professional & the like.
Open & Closed Group: In open group, members keep changing new members joining &
existing ones leaving the group.
A closed group maintains a relatively stable or constant membership & enable them to
use long term planning.
Equilbrium: It refers to the process to bring back the state of balance & stability from
imbalance & instability.
In Groups & Out groups: The groups to which we belong are in- groups & groups to
which we do not belong are out- groups.
Ethnocentrism: It means that ones own group is the best & the other is to be judged on
its terms. One can be ethnocentric about ones community, state, social class or even
race.
Meaning of Group Cohesiveness: Group Cohesiveness means the extent to which the
members are attatched towards each other.
Types of Groups:
Groups differ based on the size, the flow of authority & communication.They are
discussed as follows:
a) Work Group: Agroup of people working together.Ex: Mechanics in a sear auto centre
b) Formal & Informal groups: A number of people assigned to a specific task form a
formal group.
a. Standing Task Group/ Command group: The foreman or chief executive & his
group of subordinates constitute a command group who exercises formal
authority over subordinates.
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b. Task Group: It is a temporary formal group that is created to solve specific
problems.
Informal Group: Members of this group belong to various divisions or
sections irrespective of their jobs. By joining the group, individual can reduce
insecurity increase his / her status or enjoy regular company of others.
c) An Interest group: It is made up of individuals who adopt to aceive an objective of
mutual interest.
d) A Friendship Group: is formed to satisfy the needs of belongingness & security.
e) A Reference Group: The group is formed for the purpose of forming opinions or
making decisions. They are based on factors such as race, gender, politics, religion,
social class, educational level, professional & the like.
f) Open & Closed group: In open group, members keep changing new members joining
& existing ones leaving the group.
A closed group maintains a relatively stable or constant membership & enable them
to use long term planning.
Equilbrium: It refers to the process to bring back the state of balance & stability from
imbalance & instability
g) In groups & Out groups: The groups to which we belong are in- groups & groups to
which we do not belong are out-groups.
Ethnocentrism: It means that ones own group is the best & the other is to be judged on
its terms. One can be ethnocentric about ones community, state, social class or even
race.
SMALLGROUP
In a small group, the numbers of group members are restricted up to 5.Small groups are
constantly in contact with each other & share common ideas to accomplish the given
tasks.
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Reasons/ Motives for Joining Group
A) Proximity, Interaction & Influence: Informal groups seem to form among those who
are in close proximity. Behaviour of individual influences that of others, they are
likely to form a group.
B) Security: To reduce insecurity of employees wwhich explains about Trade unions.
C) Esteem: Individual may gain esteem through group membership.So that employee or
an individual can develop close relationship provides opportunities for recognition &
praise.
D) Affiliation: Individuals may look for other members who share common hobbies or
common backgrounds.
E) Power: Leadership of an informal group helps an individual to exercise power over
group members.
F) Identity: Grouphelps to understand ourselves throughthe behaviour of others towards
us.
G) Huddling: It helps the executives to deal with emerging matters & reduce the amount
of surprises or confusions.
Group Development:
Mutual Acceptance
Communication & decision making
Motivation & Productivity
Control & Organisation.
Reasons for formation of Informal Group:
Identity
Information
Releases Frustrations.
Generation of New Ideas
Reduces Insecurity
Determinants of Group Behaviour
It can be broadly categorized into three. They are:
External Conditions
Group Members resources
Group Structure
I) External Conditions:
Group is a sub system of formal organisations. Elements of orgaanisation will have their
influence on a group. They are discussed as follows:
a) Organisation Strategy: Strategy outlines the organisations goals & the means for
attaining these goals.It is set by top management in collaboration with low level
managers.
b) Authority Structure: It describes about who reports to whom, who makes
decisions & formal relations between groups.
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c) Formal Regulations: Organisations createrules, procedures, policies & other forms
of regulations to shape the behaviour of employees.
d) Organisational Resources: It includes such as tools, equipments, facilities & work
methods & procedures are short in supply were group members are likely to
compete with another to access them.
e) Procurement of personnel: The organisation would hire employees who will
determine the type of people who constitute the group.
f) Performance appraisal & reward system: Reward system helps the employee to
contribute towards group effectively. Employees could be rewarded based on the
evaluation or assessment of a performance.
g) Organisational Culture: Every organisation has a culture that defines standards of
acceptable & unacceptable behaviour for employees.
II) Group Members Resources:
a) Abilities: Performance of group could be assessed by the relevant task &
reasoning abilities of its individual members.
b) Personality characteristics: There is a positive relationship between
personality traits & group attitudes & its behaviour.
III) Group Structure: Group structure has significant impact on group behaviour & its
performance.
a) Leadership: The leader is responsible for the direction & goal accomplishment
of the group. Leadership is the ability of a manager to influence subordinates
to work with confidence.
b) Role:
a. Task Oriented Role: An individual who helps the group to reach its
goal is task oriented role.
b. Relations Oriented role: Employees who are supportive in nature play
relations oriented role.
c. Self Oriented Role: At the expense of group, employees do things for
themselves play self oriented role.
c) Group Size: The ideal group size is between five &seven members. Less than
5 members result in fewer people to share responsibilities & more personal
discussion with respect to problem solving group. Satisfaction increases as
group size approaches 5 & decreases thereafter.
More than 7 members in a problem solving group result in fewer opportunities
to participate & there would be tendency to split into sub groups. Turnover &
absenteeism also increase with group size.
d) Group Norms: They are a set of beliefs, feelings, & attitudes commonly
shared by group members.It are also referred as rules or standards of
behaviour that apply to group members. The sources for formation of norms
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are past experiences, primacy or first behaviour pattern that emerges in a
group, a critical incident in an organisation, etc.
e) Group Tasks:Group performance depends on the types of tasks such as:
a. Time Frame: It refers to the time required by the group for task
completion.
b. Task Requirements:
i. Routine
ii. Complex
c. Task Objectives:
i. Production Task
ii. Problem Solving Task
f) Status Congruence: Status may be defined as a social ranking within a
group.When there is a agreement between group members on the level of
status of individual members is known as status congruence
g) Group Cohesiveness: It is the degree to which members are attatched to &
motivated to remain part of a group.
Sources of Cohesiveness are interaction, co-operation, shared goals, attitudes & values,
group size,etc.
Consequences of Group Cohesiveness:
Increased Morale
Increased Productivity
Improves communication.
Conformity & Influences.
Group Think: It refers to a condition in which all members of a group tend to think alike.
Factors Determining Group Success:
Organisation Structure: Work groups form a part of the larger organisation. It is affected
by organisations design, culture & systems.
Organisation Culture: It effects on organisational behaviour, effects of value, system,
norms, etc which would help the groups to operate in that culture.
Task Design & Technology: The methods & machines used to perform the groups task
will affect the structure of group & its functions.
Autonomy given to work Groups: The independent power given to the groups helps to
design their own work & also to increase the productivity.
Rewards & Recognition: It helps the group to identify & strengthen its members.
Training & Consultation: Group members need to learn both technical job requirements
& how to work with others.
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Two Marks:
1. Define group.
2. What is self directed team?
3. What is task group?
4. What is group dynamics?
5. What is small group?
6. What is group cohesiveness?
Eight Marks:
1. Explain the functions of Small group?
2. Describe the formation of group.
3. Examine the factors determining group successes.
4. Discuss the reasons for joining a group.
Fifteen Marks:
1. Examine the determinants of Group Behaviour.
2. Explain the group life cycle.
Leadership:
Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in managerial operations. It
provides direction, guidance, and confidence to the employees and helps in the attainment of
goals in much easier way. In business and industrial organizations, managers play the role of
leader and acquire leadership of subordinates, their efforts towards the achievement of
organizational goals and activate the individuals of an organization to make them work.
Leadership influences behavior of the individuals. It has an ability to attract others and potential
to make them follow the instructions. Individuals can be induced to contribute their optimum
towards the attainment of organizational goals through effective leadership. Leadership acquires
dominance and the followers accept the directives and control of a leader. Leadership provides
direction and vision for future to an organization.
DEFINITION
Leadership is the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates to perform their duties willingly,
competently and enthusiastically for achievement of groups objectives.
According to Keith Davis, Leadership is the process of encouraging and helping others
to work enthusiastically towards objectives.
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According to Peter Drucker, "Leadership means the lifting of man's visions to higher
sights, the raising of man's performance to higher standard, the building of man's personality
beyond its normal limitations".
Thus, leaders are people who are able to influence the behavior of others without
recourse to threats or other forms of force towards the individuals. Leaders are the people who
are accepted by the other individuals, as a superior person to them.
FEATURES OF LEADERSHIP
Importance of Leadership
The following points can judge the importance of leadership:
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A leader must be able to build up a high morale among the individuals of the
organization.
A leader should motivate his people to achieve goals.
A leader should try to raise the morale of the individuals and should maintain ethical
standards among the individuals.
A leader should act as a link between the work groups and the forces outside the
organization.
Management takes rational and logical decisions while leadership takes decision on
expectations of the followers. Leadership has an emotional appeal while management
acts on rationality.
The management establishes relationship through a lawful authority while leadership
establishes relationship through power.
Managers have formal authority but the leaders have no such authority.
All leaders are not managers and all managers are leaders.
Management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities
of others to attain the organizational objectives. Leadership on the other hand, is a
process of influencing the behavior of the people to attain their assigned tasks. A
successful manager must possess both the managerial and leadership qualities.
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
Autocratic or Authoritarian
In this type of leadership, there is a complete centralization of authority in the leader, i.e.,
authority is centered in the leader himself. He has all the powers to make decisions. He uses
coercive measures and adopts, negative method of motivation. He wants immediate obedience of
his orders and instructions. Any negligence on the part of subordinates results in punishment.
There is no participation from the subordinates in decision-making. A leader thinks that he is the
only competent person in the organization. According to Edwin B. Filippo, there are following
three types of leaders in autocratic:
1. Hard Boiled or Strict Autocrat: Leader, under such type uses negative influence and
expects that the employees should obey his orders immediately. Non-compliance of his
orders results in punishment. He makes all decisions and does not disclose anything to
anyone. He is quite rigid on performance.
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2. Benevolent Autocrat: Benevolent autocrat leader uses positive influences and develops
effective human relations. He is known as paternalistic leader. He praises his
employees if they follow his orders and invites them to get the solutions of the
problems from him. He feels happy in controlling all the actions of his subordinates.
3. Manipulative Autocrat: Leader, under such type is manipulative in nature. He creates a
feeling in the minds of his subordinates and workers that they are participating in
decision-making processes. But he makes all decisions by himself. Non-compliance of
his orders also results jn punishment.
Democratic or Participative
Democratic or Participative leadership is also known as group centered or consultative
leadership. In this type of leadership, leaders consult their groups and consider their opinion in
the decision-making process. Leaders encourage discussion among the group members on the
problem under consideration and arrive at a decision depending on their consent. Participation or
involvement of the employees in the decision-making process is also rewarded. Exchange of
ideas among subordinates and with the leader is given encouragement. Leaders give more
freedom to their group members, who feel that, their opinions arc honored and they are given
importance. It develops a sense of confidence among subordinates and they derive job
satisfaction. It improves quality of decision as it is taken after due consideration of valued
opinions of the talented group members.
The demerit of this type of leadership is that it takes more time to arrive at a decision, as
a lot of time is wasted while taking the views from the employee. It is, therefore, very time
consuming.
Bureaucratic
This type of leadership emphasizes the rules and regulations of an organization. The behavior of
a leader is determined by the rules, regulations and procedure to be followed under his
leadership. The leader and the subordinates both follow these rules and regulations. Therefore,
there is no difference between the management and the administration in this type of leadership.
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The employees, themselves cannot do anything in this regard. It is the rules that determine their
performance.
Manipulative
This type of leadership manipulates the employees to attain their assigned tasks. A manipulative
leader is quite selfish and exploits the aspirations of the employees for his gains. He knows very
well the needs and desires of the employees but he does very little to fulfill them. Due to such
attitude, he has to face the hatred of the employees at times.
Paternalistic
The paternalistic leadership believes in the concept that the happy employees work better and
harder. It maintains that the fatherly altitude is the right one for better relationship between the
manager and the employees. Everyone within the organization should work together like a
family.
Expert Leadership
The expert leadership emerged as a result of complex structure of modern organizations. This
type of leadership is based on the ability, knowledge and competence of the leaders. He handles
the situation skillfully with his talent. The employees feel relieved as they are working under a
person who is expert and can handle the situation without any problem.
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
A number of theories and approaches to study leadership have been developed. There are
broadly three theories of leadership.
Trait Theory
Behavior Theory
Contingency Theory
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(a) Trait Theory
This theory of studying leadership is taken into consideration to analyze the personal,
psychological and physical traits of strong leaders. The assumption made in this theory was that
some basic traits or set of traits differentiates leaders from non-leaders. For example, the
leadership traits might include intelligence, assertiveness, above average height, self-confidence,
initiative and understanding of interpersonal human relations. The existence of these traits
determines the importance of leadership. Possession of these traits helps the individuals to gain
possession of leadership. Since all individuals do not have these qualities, only those who have
them would be considered potential leaders.
All the traits are not identical with regard to essential characteristics of a leader.
Some traits may not be inherited, but can only be acquired by training.
It does not identify the traits that are most important and that are least important for a
successful leader.
It does not explain the leadership failures, in spite of the required traits.
It has been found that many traits exhibited by leaders are also found among followers
without explaining as to why followers could not become leaders.
It is difficult to define traits in absolute terms.
Thus, the trait theory has been criticized for lack of conclusiveness and predictability.
The behavioral theory assumed that effective leaders behaved differently from ineffective
leaders. It also identified the need of consistency of behavior of good leaders. This theory can be
more clearly understood with the help of following case studies.
The Michigan Studies: Researchers at the University of. Michigan, led by Rensis Likert,
began studying leadership in the late 1940s. Depending on broad discussions with both
the managers and sub-ordinates, the Michigan studies identified two forms of leadership
behavior. They are discussed as below:
Job-centered leadership behavior : The first was called job-centered leadership
behavior, which focuses on performances and efficient completion of the assigned
tasks. A job-centered leader interacts with group members to explain task
procedures and oversee their work.
Employee centered leadership behavior: The second behavior was identified as
employee centered leader behavior, which focuses on, high performance
standards to be accomplished. This can be done by developing a cohesive work
group and ensuring that employees are satisfied with their jobs. Thus, the leader's
primary concern is the welfare of the ordinates. The Michagan researchers
thought a leader could show signs of one kind of behavior, but not both.
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The Ohio State Studies: At about the same time, a group of researchers at Ohio State
also began studying leadership. The Ohio State leadership studies also identified two
major kinds of leadership behaviors or styles, which are as follows:
Initiating-structure behavior: In initiating-structure behavior, the leader clearly
defines the leader-subordinate roles so that everyone knows what is expected. The
leader also establishes formal lines of communication and determines how tasks
will be performed.
Consideration behavior: In consideration behavior, the leader shows concern for
subordinates feelings' and ideas. He attempts to establish a warm, friendly and
supportive.
The most obvious difference between Michigan and Ohio State studies is that the Ohio
State researchers did not position their two forms of leader behavior at opposite ends of a single
continuum. Rather, they assumed the behaviors to be independent variables, which means that a
leader could exhibit varying degrees of initiating structure and consideration at the same time i.e.
a particular leader could have higher ratings on both measures, low ratings on both or high
ratings on one and low on the other.
The Ohio State researchers found that a leaders behavior remains consistent over a
period of time, if the situation also remains same. But the researchers could not come up with
one best combination of behavior suitable to all the situations. The researchers used to believe
that the leaders in possession of both types of behavior are most effective. However, their studies
at International Harvester found that leaders rated highly on initiating structure behavior have
higher performing but dissatisfied sub-ordinates, whereas leaders rated highly on consideration
structure had lower-performing sub-ordinates who showed signs of higher satisfaction.
Most experts now agree that no single set of traits or behaviors appears to be common to
all good leaders. The universal approaches to leadership can help managers examine their own
leadership characteristics and match them against the traits most commonly identified with good
leaders. In order to understand the full complexity of leadership, contingency theory is to be
studied.
The main assumption of contingency theory is that the behavior of an appropriate leader varies
from one situation to another. The motive of a contingency theory is to identify key situational
factors and to specify how they interact to determine appropriate behavior of a leader
The three most important and widely accepted contingency theories of leadership are as
follows:
The LPC theory: The first contingency theory of leadership is Fred Fielder's Least
Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Model. Fielder identified two types of leadership: task-
oriented and relationship-oriented. Fielder believes that a leader's tendency to be task-
oriented or relationship oriented remains constant. In- other words, a leader is either task-
oriented or relationship-oriented while leading his group members. Fielder used the Least
Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale to measure the type of leadership. A leader is asked to
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describe characteristics of the person with whom he or she is least comfortable while
working. They can do this by marking in a set of sixteen scales at each end, by a positive
or negative adjective. For example, three of the scales Fielder uses in the LPC are:
The leader's LPC score is (hen calculated by adding up the numbers below the line checked on
each scale. A high total score is assumed to reflect a relationship orientation and a low score, a
task orientation by the leader. The LPC measure is controversial because researchers disagree
about its validity. This is because some of the LPC measures show whether the score is an index
of behavior, personality or some other unknown factor.
According to Fielder, the contingency factor favours the situation from the leader's point
of view. This factor is determined by leader-member relations, task-structure and position-power,
which are discussed as below:
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When the situation includes good relations, high structure and strong power, a risk-
oriented leader to lie most effective. However, when relations are good but task structure is low
and position-power is weak, LI relationship-oriented leader is considered to be most effective.
A final point about LPC theory is that, Fielder argues that any particular-type of
leadership, which is measured by the LPC is inflexible and cannot be changed. In other
words a leader cannot change his behavior to fit a particular situation. Fielder's
contingency theory has been criticized on the ground that LPC measure lacks validity and
that the assumption about the inflexibility of the leader's behavior is unrealistic.
The path-goal model of leadership was introduced by Martin Evans and Robert House. Path-goal
theory says that a leader can motivate subordinates by influencing their expectations. Leaders
can motivate sub-ordinates by making clear what they have to do to get the reward they desire.
The path-goal model assumes that leaders can change their style or behavior to meet the
demands of a particular situation. This model identifies four kinds of leader behavior: directive,
supportive, participative and achievement-oriented. According to this model managers can adjust
their behavior to include any four kinds of leadership behavior mentioned above. For instance,
while leading a new group of sub-ordinates, the leader may be directive in giving guidance and
instructions to them. He may also adopt supportive behavior to encourage group cohesiveness, to
look after their needs and ensuring that they get the rewards and benefits. As the group becomes
more familiar with the task and as new problems are taken into consideration, the leader may use
participative behavior by which he can participate with employees in making decisions and take
their suggestions as well. Finally, the leader may use achievement-oriented behavior to
encourage continued high performance of sub-ordinates.
Environmental characteristics are factors, which are beyond the control of subordinates.
It includes task structure, the primary work group and the formal authority system. For instance,
when structure is high, directive leadership is less effective than when structure is low. Sub-
ordinates do not usually need their boss to repeatedly tell them how to do a routine job.
According to the path-goal theory, these environmental factors can create uncertainty for
employees. A leader who helps employees reduce such uncertainty can motivate them. The
figure 14.1 shows the path goal model of leadership.
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Leaders do not always have control over environmental factors, but the theory emphasizes that
leaders can use the control they want, to adjust the environment and to motivate sub-ordinates.
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model was first introduced by Vroom and Yetton in 1973 and was
revised by Vroom and Jago in 1988, This model has a much less focus than the path-goal theory.
It helps a leader to determine the extent, to which employees should participate in the decision-
making processes,
The VYJ theory argues that decision-effectiveness is best judged by the quality of
decision and by the acceptance of that decision on the part of employees. Decision acceptance is
the extent to which employees accept and are loyal to their decisions.
To maximize decision effectiveness, the VYJ theory suggests that leaders adopt one of
five decision-making leaderships. The appropriate leadership depends on the situation. As
summarized in the following table, there are two autocratic types of leadership, which are AI and
All, two consultative types of leadership, which are CI and CII and the other one is group GII.
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Decision-Making Styles in the VYJ model
Moreover, one of each is to be used when the decision has to be made quickly because of
some urgency and the others arc to be used when the decision can be made more slowly and the
leaders wants to use the opportunity to develop subordinates' decision-making abilities.
The VYJ model was criticized because of its complexity. Computer software has been
developed to aid leaders in defining the situation, answering the questions about the problem
attributes and developing a strategy for decision-making participation.
Although the VYJ model is too new to have been thoroughly tested, evidence so far
indicates that this model can help leaders to choose the most effective way to include the sub-
ordinates in decision-making.
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OTHER CONTINGENCY APPROACHES
In addition to these three major theories, there are other contingency models or theories
developed in recent years. The other models are as follows:
Vertical Dyad Linkage Model: This model stresses the .fact that leaders actually have
different kinds of working relationship with different subordinates. Each manager-
subordinate relationship represents one vertical dyad. The Vertical Dyad Linkage model
suggests that leaders establish special working relationships with some subordinates
based on some combination of respect, trust and liking. These people constitute the in-
group. Other subordinates remain in the out-groups, who receive less of leader's time
and attention. Those in the 'in-group' receive more of the manager's time and attention
and are better performers. Research shows that people in the in-group are more
productive and more satisfied with their work than out group members.
Life Cycle Model: The life cycle model suggests-that appropriate leader behavior
depends on the maturity of the followers. In this context, maturity includes motivation,
competence and experience. The model suggests that as followers become more mature,
the leader needs to move gradually from high to low task orientation. Simultaneously, the
leader's employee-oriented behavior should start low, increase at a moderate rate and then
decline again.
Many leaders are familiar with the life cycle theory because it is both simple and logical.
However, it has received little scientific support from researchers.
The new perspectives that have attracted attention are the concepts of substitutes for leadership
and transformational leadership.
The existing leadership theories and models try to specify what kind of leaders behavior is
appropriate for different situations. They do not take into consideration, the situations where the
leadership is not needed. The substitute concept identifies the situations where the characteristics
of the subordinates, the task and the organization replace leaders' behaviors. For example, when
a patient is admitted to an emergency room in a hospital, nurses, doctors and attendants act
immediately without waiting for directive or supportive behaviors of leaders in an emergency
ward.
Several characteristics of the sub-ordinate may serve to replace or change .the behavior of
the leaders. For example, employees with much ability and experience may not need to be told
what to do. Similarly, a strong need for independence by the sub-ordinate may result in
ineffectiveness of leaders behavior.
Characteristics of the task that may substitute the leadership include, the availability of
feedback and intrinsic satisfaction. For example, when the job is routine and simple, the
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subordinate may not need direction. When the task is challenging, the subordinate may not need
or want support.
Transformational Leadership
Leadership Skills
There is now recognition in both leadership theory and practice of the importance of skills, how
leaders should behave and perform effectively. Although there are many skills, such as cultural
flexibility, communication, HRD, creativity, and self-management of learning, the research-
based skills identified by Whetten and Cameron seem to be most valuable. Their personal skills
model, involving developing self-awareness, managing stress and solving problems creatively;
the interpersonal skills model, involving communicating supportively, gaining power and
influence, motivating others and managing conflict, are especially comprehensive and useful.
Finally, the widely recognized organizational behavior .techniques such as, training, job design
and leaders can also effectively use behavioral management.
Communication is one of the most frequently discussed dynamics in the entire field of
organizational behavior. In practice, effective communication is a basic prerequisite for the
attainment of organizational goals. Therefore, communication is considered to be the most
important and most effective ingredient of the management process. Interpersonal
communication is fundamental to all managerial activities. All other management functions
involve communication in some form of directions and feedback. Thus, effective management is
a function of effective communication.
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DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
In modern society, the term communication is frequently and freely used by everyone,
including members of the general public, organizational behavior scholars, and management
practitioners.
Objectives of Communication
Managements depend upon communication to achieve organizational objectives. Since managers
work with and through other people, all their acts, policies, rules, orders and procedures must
pass through some kind of communication channel. Also there must be channel of
communication for feedback. Accordingly, some of the purposes of communication are:
To discourage the spread of misinformation, ambiguity and rumors, which can cause
conflict and tension.
To foster any attitude, that is necessary for motivation, cooperation and job satisfaction.
To develop information and understanding among all workers. This is necessary for
group effort.
To prepare workers for a change in methods of environment by giving them necessary
information in advance.
To encourage subordinates to supply ideas and suggestions for improving the product or
work environment and taking these suggestions seriously.
To improve labor management relations by keeping the communications channels open
and accessible.
To improve social relations among workers by encouraging intercommunication. This
would satisfy the basic human need for a sense of belonging and friendship.
Importance of Communication
Interpersonal roles require managers to interact with supervisors, sub-ordinates, peers and others
outside the organization. Thus, for co-ordinated action, communication is necessary.
Communication transforms a group of unrelated individuals into a team that knows what its
goals are and how it will try to reach them.
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Communication allows people to co-ordinate with each other by providing them with a
way to share information. The first type of information that needs to be shared is what the goals
of the organizations are. People need to know-where they are heading and why. They also need
directions for their specific tasks.
On any given day, a manager may communicate for all the purposes described above.
Communication goes up, down and across the levels of the hierarchy of an organization.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The figure 13.2 presents a general view of the communication process, as a loop between the
source and the receiver. In the simplest kind of communication, both the sender and the receiver
perform the encoding and decoding functions automatically.
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Source or Sender
The communication cycle begins when one person called the sender wants to transmit a fact,
idea, opinion or other information to someone else. A manager, for instance, might call the
research department to send the latest information on a particular market.
Encoding
The second step is to encode the message into a form appropriate to the situation. The encoding
might take the form of words, facial expressions, gestures, physical actions and symbols such as
numbers, pictures, graphs etc. Indeed, most communication involves a combination of these. The
encoding process is influenced by the content of the message, the familiarity of the sender and
receiver and other situational factors.
Transmission
After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or
medium. Common channels or media in organizations include face-to-face communication using
the media of sound waves, light, letters and reports.
Decoding
The person to whom the message is sent, called the receiver interprets the meaning of the
message through the process of decoding. This process may be simple and automatic, but it can
also be quite complex. Even when you are just reading a letter, you may need to use all your
knowledge of the language, your experience with the letter-writer and so on. If the intended
message and the received message differ a great deal, there is a communication gap and
misunderstanding is likely to follow.
Receiver
The receiver can be an individual, a group, or an individual acting on behalf of a group. The
sender has generally little control over how the receiver will deal with the message. The receiver
may ignore it, decide not to try to decode, understand it or respond immediately. The
communication cycle continues when the receiver responds by the same steps back to the
original sender, which is called the feedback.
Noise
In the communication process, noise takes on a meaning slightly different from its usual one.
Noise refers to any type of disturbance that reduces the clearness of the message being
transmitted. Thus, it might be something that keeps the receiver from paying close attention such
as someone coughing, other people talking dosely, a car driving by etc. It can be a disruption
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such as disturbance in a telephone line, weak signal due to bad weather etc. It can also be internal
to the receiver such as tiredness or hunger or minor ailments, which may affect the message.
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
There are mainly three primary methods of communication in an organization, which are written,
oral, and non-verbal. These methods of communication are often combined. Considerations that
affect the choice of method include the audience whether it is physically present, the nature of
the message, and the lost of transmission. The figure 13.3 given below shows various forms each
method can take.
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organizational rules; operations manual describe how to perform tasks and respond to work-
related problems. As such, they represent attempts to make communication more efficient and
information more accessible. A performance appraisal form is an example.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication, also known as face-to-face communication is the most prevalent form of
organizational communication. It may be in the form of direct talk and conversation between the
speakers and listeners when they are physically present at one place or through telephone or
intercom system conversation. Where one-way communication is required, then oral
communication may include public address system. Informal rumour mill or grapevine is also a
popular form of oral communication. It is most effective for leaders to address the followers via
public address system or audio-visual media. Oral communication is particularly powerful
because the receiver not only hears the content of the message, but also observes the physical
gestures associated with it as well as the changes in tone, pitch, speed and volume of the spoken
word. The human voice can impart the message much more forcefully and effectively than the
written words and is an effective way of changing attitudes, beliefs and feelings, since faith, trust
and sincerity can be much better judged in a face-to-face conversation rather than in written
words.
Advantages
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Organizational Communications
More or less or a different meaning might be conveyed by manner of speaking, tone of
voice and facial expressions.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
A written communication is put in writing and is generally in the form of instructions, letters,
memos, formal reports, rules and regulations, policy manuals, information bulletins and so on.
These areas have to be covered in writing for efficient functioning of the organization. It is most
effective when it is required to communicate information that requires action in the future arid
also in situations where communication is that of general informational nature. It also ensures
that everyone has the same information.
Advantages
Some of the meaningful communication is conveyed through non-verbal ways. Even some of the
verbal messages are strengthened or diluted by non-verbal expressions. These non-verbal
expressions include facial expressions and physical movement. In addition, some of the
environmental elements such as building and office space can convey a message about the
authority of the person. According to Tipkins and Mc-Carter, facial expressions can be
categorized as:
Interest-excitement
Enjoyment-joy
Surprise-startle
Distress-anguish
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Fear-terror
Shame-humiliation
Contempt-disgust
Anger-rage
Physical movements or body language is known as "kinesics". A handshake is probably the
most common form of body language and tells a lot about a person's disposition. Other examples
of body language are tilting of head, folding of arms or sitting position in a chair.
Our facial expressions can show anger, frustration, arrogance, shyness, fear and other
characteristics that can never be adequately communicated through written word or through oral
communication itself. Some of the other body language symptoms are shrugging our shoulders
for indifference, wink an eye for mischief or intimacy, tap our fingers on the table for impatience
and we slap our forehead for forgetfulness. As far as environmental elements are concerned, a
large office with luxurious carpeting and expensive furniture conveys a message of status, power
and prestige such as that of a chief operating officer. On the other hand, a small metal desk on a
corner communicates the status of a low ranking officer in the organizational setting.
Accordingly non-verbal actions have considerable impact on the quality of communication.
Communication Networks
A communication network is the pattern of information exchange used by the members of a
group.
When the members of a group communicate mostly with the group leader, a wheel network
develops. When the members of a group are on different levels/of the organization's hierarchy, a
chain network is developed. Members of a task force or committee often develop a circle
network of communication with each person communicating directly to the other members of the
task- force. Informal groups that lack a formal leader often form an all-channel network that
everyone uses to communicate with everyone else. Figure 13.4 shows Wheel Communication
Network. Figure 13.5 shows Chain Communication Network.
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Figure 13.6 shows Circle Communication Network. Figure 13.7 shows All Channel
Communication Network.
The following factors influence the formation of communication patterns within small
groups:
1. Type of Task: If the task of the group is simple, a chain or wheel network is used. For
hard tasks, all channel networks arises.
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2. Environment: Environment including the group's seating arrangement and meeting
place also affects communication patterns. For instance, if members always sit around a
table, then circle network arises.
3. Group Performance Factors: The group performance factors like group's size,
composition, norms and cohesiveness also affect the' formation of communication
networks. For instance, it is much easier to have an all-channel network in a group of
eight than in a group of eighty.
Managers must make use of all these characteristics and tendencies to help groups
communicate and work most efficiently. A manager, who sees that a wheel network is forming
around an experienced, trusted employee might not interfere with the process. If an assertive but
irresponsible employee becomes the hub of such a wheel, the manager may need to take action.
If the manager relies on a group to help make decisions, the manager may encourage silent group
members to speak in order to get the desired decisions.
Although interpersonal and group forms of communication pertain even at the broadest
organizational levels, they do not sufficiently describe the paths of all messages transmitted in
organizations. Individuals can send and receive messages across whole organizational levels and
departments by means of vertical communication or the informal communication network. Non-
verbal communication is also important and can be a part of interpersonal, group and
organizational communication.
Vertical Communication
Vertical communication is the communication that flows both up and down the organizational
hierarchy. This communication typically takes place between managers and their superiors or
subordinates.
Upward Communication
Downward Communication
Downward Communication consists of messages moving down the hierarchy from superiors to
sub-ordinates. The content of downward communication often includes directives, assignments,
performance feedback and information that the superior thinks are of value to the sub-ordinate.
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Transactional Communication
Wenburg and Wilmont suggest that instead of communication being "upward" or "downward"
which is inter-communication, it should be "transactional" communication, which is mutual and
reciprocal because, "all persons are engaged in sending and receiving messages simultaneously.
Each person is constantly sharing in the sending and receiving process and each person is
affecting the other". In the transactional process, the communication is not simply the flow of
information, but it develops a personal linkage between the superior and the subordinate.
Informal Communication
Another term for informal communication network is the grapevine. Informal networks are
found in all organizations. It is in the form of gossip in which a person spreads a message to as
many other people as possible who may either keep the information to themselves or pass it on to
others. The content of gossip is likely to be personal information or the information about the
organization itself.
Managers should have some control over the informal network. For example, the
grapevine in an organization may be carrying harmful information, false information or
politically motivated information. When these kinds of rumors are being spread, managers may
need to intervene. They can hold open meetings and objectively discuss the issues that are being
informally discussed already. They may also issue a clearly worded memo or report stating the
facts and thereby help minimize the damage that the informal network can do.
Managers can also obtain valuable information from the grapevine and use it for
decision-making.
One that has become especially popular is informally labelled as "management by wandering
around". The basic idea is that some managers keep in touch with what is going on by wandering
around and talking with people such as sub-ordinates, customers, dealers and any one else
involved with the company in any way. This will give managers, new ideas and a better feel for
the entire company.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
The communication must be interpreted and understood in the same manner as it was-meant to
be sent by the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired result and a communication
breakdown will occur. There are certain external roadblocks to effective communication. In
addition, there are personal factors, which affect communication.
Some of the organizational barriers and some of the interpersonal barriers to effective
communication are discussed below:
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Noise Barriers
Noise is any external factor, which interferes with the effectiveness of communication. The term
is derived from noise or static effects in telephone conversation or radio wave transmission. It
may cause interference in the process of communication by distraction or by blocking a part of
the message or by diluting the strength of the communication. Some of the sources contributing
towards noise factor are:
Poor Timing
A message sent on poor timing acts as a barrier. For instance, a last minute communication with
a deadline may put too much pressure on the receiver and may result in resentment. A message
must be sent at an appropriate time to avoid these problems. Hence the manager must know
when to communicate.
Inappropriate Channel
Information must be meaningful to the employee and should be precise or to the point. Too little
or too much information endangers effective communication. Ambiguity in use of words will
lead to different interpretations.
Physical Distractions
Any physical distractions such as telephone interruptions or walk-in visitors can interfere with
the effective face-to-face communication process.
Organizational Structure
Communication may be blocked, chaotic or distorted if the channels are not clear or if there are
bottlenecks. Hence the organization structure should be such that the chain of command and
channels of communication are clearly established and ithe responsibility and authority are
clearly assigned and are traceable.
Information Overhead
Overload occurs when individuals receive more information than they are capable of processing.
The result could be confusion or some important information may be laid aside for the purpose
of convenience.
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Network Breakdown
Network breakdown may be intentional or due to information overload and time pressures under
which a communication has to be acted upon. Some factors contributing to such disruptions are:
Interpersonal Barriers
There are many interpersonal barriers that disrupt the effectiveness of the communication
process and generally involve such characteristics that either the sender or the receiver can cause
communication problems. Some of these are:
Filtering
Semantic Barriers
These barriers occur due to differences in individual interpretations of words and symbols. The
words and paragraphs must be interpreted with the same meaning as was intended. The choice of
a wrong word or a comma at a wrong place in a sentence can sometimes alter the meaning of the
intended message. For example, a nightclub advertisement sign, "clean and decent dancing every
night except Sunday", could lead to two interpretations. First, that there is no dancing on
Sundays and second, that there is dancing on Sundays, but it not clean and decent.
Perception
Perception relates to the process through which we receive and interpret information from our
environment and create a meaningful word out of it. Different people may perceive the same
situation differently. Hearing what we want to hear and ignoring information that conflicts with
what we know can totally distort the intent or the content of the message. Some of the perceptual
situations that may distort a manager's assessment of people resulting in reduced effectiveness of
the communication are:
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A manager may perceive people to belong to one category or another as stereotypes,
rather than unique and distinct individuals. For example, he may perceive women to be
less efficient managers.
A manager may make total assessment of a person based on a single trait. A pleasant
smile may make a positive first impression.
A manager may assume that his subordinate's perception about things and situations are
similar to his own.
This perception limits the manager's ability to effectively respond to and deal with individual
differences and differing views of work situations.
Cultural Barriers
The cultural differences can adversely affect the communication effectiveness, specially for
multi-national companies and enterprises.
Sender Credibility
When the sender of the communication has high credibility in the eyes of the receiver, the
message is taken much more seriously and accepted at face value. If the receiver has confidence,
trust and respect for the sender, then the decoding and the interpretation of the message will lead
to a meaning of the sender. Conversely, if the sender is not trusted, then the receiver will
scrutinize the message heavily and deliberately look for hidden meanings or tricks and may end
up distorting the entire message. Similarly, if the source is believed to be an expert in a particular
field then the listener may pay close attention to the message, and believe it specially if the
message is related to the field of expertise.
Emotions
The interpretation of a communication also depends upon the state of the receiver at the time
when message is received. The same message received when the receiver is angry, frustrated or
depressed may be interpreted differently than when he is happy. Extreme emotions are most
likely to hinder effective communication because rational judgments are replaced by emotional
judgments.
Multi-meaning Words
Many words in English language have different meanings when used in different situations.
Accordingly, a manager must not assume that a particular word means the same thing to all
people who use it. Hence, the managers must make sure that they use the word in the same
manner as the receiver is expected to understand it, otherwise it will create a barrier to proper
understanding of the message.
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Feedback Barriers
The final source of communication barrier is the feedback or lack of it. Feedback is the only way
to ascertain as to how the message was interpreted.
It is very important for the management to recognize and overcome barriers to effective
communication for operational optimization and this would involve diagnosing and analyzing
situations, designing proper messages, selecting appropriate channels for communicating these
messages, assisting receivers of messages in correct decoding and interpretation and providing
an efficient and effective feedback system. Some of the steps that can be taken in this respect are
as follows:
2 Improve Listening Skills: Good listening habits lead to better understanding and good
relationships with each other. Some guidelines for effective listening are:
Listening requires full attention to the speaker. Do not let your mind wander or be
preoccupied with something else, otherwise you will not be able to grasp the
meaning of the message in its entirety.
The language used tone of the voice and emotions should receive proper attention.
Listen for feelings in (he message content and respond positively to these
feelings.
Ask questions to clarify any points that you do not understand clearly and reflect
back to the speaker, your understanding of what has been said.
Make sure that there are no outside interruptions and interference during the
course of conversation.
Do not prejudice or value the importance of the message due to your previous
dealings and experiences with the sender or your perceptions about him, positive
or negative.
Do not jump to conclusions before the message is over and is clearly understood.
Summarize and restate the message after it is over to make sure about the content
and the intent of the message.
3 Develop Writing Skills: Clearly written messages can help avoid semantic and
perception barriers. A well-written communication eliminates the possibility of
misunderstanding and misinterpretation. When writing message it is necessary to be
precise thus making the meaning as clear as possible so that it accomplishes the desired
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purpose. Some helpful hints in written communication are suggested by Robert Degise
as follows:
Keep words simple: This will reduce your thoughts to essentials and the
message will be easier to understand for the receiver. The message will be lost
if the words are complex and do not lend to a clear single meaning.
Do not be boggart down by rules of composition: While the rules of grammar
and composition must be respected, they should not take priority over the
ultimate purpose of the communication.
Write concisely: Use as few words as possible. Do not be brief at the cost of
completeness, but express your thoughts, opinions and ideas in the fewest
number of words possible.
Be specific: Vagueness destroys accuracy, which leads to misunderstanding of
the meaning or intent of the message. Accordingly, be specific and to the point.
4 Avoid Credibility Gaps: Communication is a continuing process and the goal of the
communication is complete understanding of the message as well as the creation of
trust among all members of. the organization. Accordingly, the management must be
sincere and should earn the trust of the subordinates. Management should not only be
sensitive to the needs and feelings of workers but also its promises should be supported
by actions. According to the studies conducted by J. Luft, openness and an atmosphere
of trust builds healthy relationship and closes credibility gaps, thus contributing to
communication effectiveness.
Sense of Timing
The message should not only be timely so that the decisions and actions can be taken in tie and
when necessary, but also the timing of the message and the environmental setting in which the
message is delivered and received is equally important.
Integrity
The communication must pass through the proper channels to reach the intended receiver.
The communication flow and its spread must avoid bypassing levels or people. When these
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concerned levels are omitted or bypassed, it creates bickering, distrust, confusion and conflict.
Accordingly, the established channels must be used as required.
Take the receivers interests into account, and then the receiver will be more responsive to
the communication. The management must clarify any part of the communication that may be
necessary and must encourage comments, questions, and feedback. The management must
always be helpful in carrying out the intended message of the communication.
Mode of Delivery
While delivering the communication, avoid negative statements like, "I am not sure it will
work", but be confident and definitive. The success of the communication also depends upon the
tone of the voice if the communication is verbal, expressions and emotions exhibited,
attentiveness to the receiver and so on. The written communication should be polite and
unambiguous.
All communications need a follow-up to ensure that these were properly understood and carried
out. The response and feedback to the communication should determine whether the action to the
communication has been prompt, appropriate and accurate.
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Two Marks
1. Define leadership
Eight Marks
Fifteen Marks
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UNIT 5
Definition:
According to E.R Hilgard, learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a
result of a prior experience.
Change in behaviour: Learning involves a change in behaviour. This change can either be
a positive change or a negative change.
Change must be permanent: All the changes do not reflect learning-To constitute
learning. Change should be relatively permanent. Temporary changes do not constitute
learning.
Change must take place as a result of experience, practice or training: The change in
behaviour must be as a result of some practice, experience or training. A change due to
any disease or physical ailment will not be learning.
The cause must be reinforced, if this is not done, the behaviour may gradually disappear.
Learning should be reflected in the behaviour & not just in thoughts & attitudes.
Learning varies according to the difficulty of the task, ability of the individual & physical
factors.
Early successes increase chances for effective learning.
It results from stimulation through the senses.
Theories of Learning:
There are basically four theories which explain how learning occurs.
Classical Conditioning: This is based on the fact or reality that an event (Stimulus) that
does not initially result in a response, gradually acquires the capacity to initiate that
response when repeatedly paired with an event (stimulus) that can initiate such response
or reaction. Such responses are usually involuntary.
Consequences Here we come across 4 terms namely conditioned stimulus, unconditioned
stimulus, conditioned reflex & unconditioned reflex. the above terms can be explained
through an example.
Ex: Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist conducted an experiment on a dog & tried to
relate the dogs salivation & the ringing of a bell. When Pavlov presented the dog with a
piece of meat, the dog started salivating. Then he withheld the presentation of meat &
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merely rang a bell. This time there was no salivation. Later Pavlov linked the meat & the
ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at
the sound of the bell, even though no food was offer. Thus the dog had learnt to respond
to the bell.
Here the natural unlearned response is called unconditioned reflex & the event which
created it is called unconditioned stimulus. On the other hand, the learned response is
called conditioned reflex & the event which created it artificially is called conditioned
stimulus.
Operant Conditioning: It is also called instrumental conditioning. The relationship
between behaviour & consequences are emphasized. Here the behaviour of an individual
is influenced by the consequences. The behaviour will repeat if the consequences are
favourable & will not repeat if the consequences are unfavourable. This theory is based
on the law of effect. This states that there is probability of repetition of the operant
behaviour & this behaviour entirely depends on the consequences.
Differences between classical & operant conditioning.
There are 2 vital differences between classical & operant conditioning. In classical
conditioning, a stimulus is given to get or elicit a response whereas in operant
conditioning, the response depends on the consequences. Classical conditioning is based
on involuntary responses whereas operant conditioning is upon voluntary responses.
In classical conditioning the responses does not have any relation in the consequences
whereas in operant conditioning, the response or behaviour is influenced by the
consequences.
Classical Conditioning:
* Responses are reactive. Its the reaction to a stimulus.
* Emphasises on involuntary responses.
* The stimulus can be a sound, object, persons, etc.
Operant Conditioning:
* Responses are reactive. Its the reaction well ahead of a consequence.
* Emphasizes on voluntary responses.
* The consequences may relate to office, work social setting, etc.
Cognitive Theory: Here learning is treated as a cognitive process. According to this
theory, people are active participants in how they learn. According to this theory, firstly
people use their past learning & experiences as a basis for present behaviour. Secondly,
based on this, they make choices about their behaviour & lastly, people identify or
recognise the consequences of their choices.
Social learning (Observation learning): This emphasize on the ability of an individual to
learn by observing others. This is also known as vicarious learning. A learner acquires
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tactical knowledge & skills through vicarious learning. This may include learning from
parents, teachers, peers, bosses, etc. This also involves 4 steps:
* Attention process: People learn form a model only when the models are capable of
capturing the attention of the person who is learning.
* Retention process: A models influence will depend upon how well the individual
remembers the models action.
* Reproduction process: Here the watching or the observation is converted to doing.
* Reinforcement Process: Individuals will be motivated to show the modelled behaviour
only if rewards are provided.
Determinants of Learning:
The important factors that determine the learning are motive, stimuli, response,
reinforcement & retention.
Motives/Drives: They are certain goals that an individual attempts to achieve. Motive
prompts people to action. They determine the general direction of an individuals
behaviour.
Stimuli: They exist in the environment in which a person lives. They help in extracting a
specific response from a person.
Responses: The various stimuli generate responses in individuals. This may either be in
the physical form or in terms of attitudes or perception. This response is also called
behaviour. This response can either be positive or negative.
Reinforcement: It is a primary condition of learning. This is anything that tends to induce
repetitions of the behaviour. Reinforcement will result in the repetition of any behaviour.
Retention: The learned behaviour should be retrieved according to the needs. Retention
means remembering learned behaviour overtime. The learning which is forgotten is
called extinction.
Principles of Learning:
Motivation: Without any motivation or motives, learning does not take place. People
learn only to realise some motives or drives.
Reinforcement/ Punishment/Extinction: Reinforcement is used to repeat desirable
behaviour while punishment & extinction are employed to minimise undesirable
behaviour.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement strengthens desirable behaviour. There are 2 types of
reinforcements namely positive reinforcement & negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement enhances behaviour by presenting positive reinforcers such as
food, water, money, status, etc. Positive reinforcers can either be primary (basic needs) or
secondary/ conditioned reinforcers.
Negative reinforcement enhances behaviour by removing unpleasant events that preceeds
a desired behaviour. This will increase the likelihood that the desired behaviour will
occur.
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Schedules of reinforcement: Reinforcement needs to be properly scheduled. Schedules
of reinforcement will determine when the reinforcers should be applied. When the
reinforcers should be applied. When reinforcement is administered continuously, its
called continuous reinforcement, otherwise its called partial reinforcement.
Partial reinforcement schedules:
*Fixed Interval: In this type of schedule a fixed amount of time has to elapse before
reinforcement is administered .In the beginning of the learning process, only a short
interval is required & later it can be increased. Ex: Wages.
* Variable Interval: Here the reinforcement is administered at random times that cannot
be predicted by the employee. Ex: Surprise visit, Surprise test.
*Fixed Ratio schedule: Here after a fixed number of responses are got from the
employees, a reward or reinforcement. The exact number of responses are fixed is
administered. Ex; Piece rate pay system.
* Variable Ratio Schedule: This is similar to fixed ratio schedule except that the number
of responses required before reinforcement is not fixed. Ex: Telephone sales persons on
commissions.
Punishment: Punishment is the attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable behaviour. It
is used in 2 ways- to apply punishers following an undesirable behaviour. The other way
to punish a person is to withhold a positive consequence. Sometimes punishments can
result in some negative outcomes.
Extinction: An alternate to punishing is extinction. This refers to the weakening of
behaviour by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced. The reason behind this is that
if a behaviour is not followed by reinforce, it weakens.
Whole versus Part learning: In whole learning, a whole job is learnt at one go whereas
in part learning, the job is broken into several parts & each part is learnt. In part learning,
the individual must learn the part & the ability to combine the different parts into one
whole job.
Learning curves:
Disorganisation of learning
fatigue
Plateau
Organisation of learning
Initial Spurt
End Spurt
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* Initial Spurt: In the beginning of the learning process, the learners exhibit a lot of
interest & enthusiasm. Hence the most important topics to be communicated are taught
here.
* Learning Plateau: At some point in the learning process, there is a flattening in terms of
improvement.Jumping from one plateau to another is called organisation learning.This
happens when the learner discovers a new method of performing task. Then there is
disorganisation of learning which results in a fall in performance.
* Fatigue: This happens when there is overload of information or stimulus or when the
learned is tired or bored of learning.
* Endspurt: When the training session comes to an end, the learner realises this & there is
again an interest & effort to learn more.
* Meaningfulness of material: There is a definite relationship between learning &
meaningfulness of the subject learnt. The more meaningful the subject & the better is the
learning process.
Learning Styles: It refers to the ability of an individual to learn. There are basically 4
learning styles. They are:
* Accommodator: An accommodator learns by doing & feeling. He/she learns primarily
from hands- on experience.
* Diverger: He learns by observing & feeling. Takes time & analyses many alternatives.
* Converger: He learns by doing & thinking. He uses practical information to learn.
* Assimilator: He learns by observing & thinking.
Learning Process:
Learning can be defined as a change in behaviour acquired through experience.
Drives: Drive is the basic for motivation. It can be physiological or psychological. Physiological
drives are related to human body & psychological drives are related to the brain. Both respond to
stimuli & are interdependent.
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Ex: A person wishes to purchase perfume. Here, drive is to purchase.
Cues: Cues is a stimuli that draws attention of an individual. Sensory organs receive cues in
environment. Strong cues provide direction to human motive while weak cues are ignored.
Generalisation occurs when same cue is present but in a new way. The more the relatedness of
the cues, they are more likely to generalize the characteristics for retention. Ex; A person is
attracted towards the fragrances of perfume (stimuli) & he wishes to purchase it.
Response: Any action or reaction shown by the individual to the stimuli is response. Response
may be in the physical form or in terms of attitudes or perception or may be either positive or
negative. Ex: A person is attracted towards the fragrance of perfume (stimuli) & he wishes to
purchase (drive), & accordingly if he is satisfied with the cost & other factors(positive
reinforcement), he purchases it. He learns to link the stimuli & response to the environment &
consequently learning has taken place.
Hence, learning is a continuous process. It has the ability to respond adequately to a situation that
may or may not have been encountered. Learning is not restricted to the school days but it is a
lifelong process.
Reinforcement strengthens the response preceding it & induces repetitions of the response.
Positive Reinforcement: It is a reward for a desired behaviour. The reward should be such which
stimulates desired behaviour & strengthens the probability of repeating such behaviour in future.
Positive reinforcers can be primary or secondary. Those reinforcements which have direct
beneficial consequences are known as Primary reinforcements. Ex: Food, clothing & shelter.
Secondary reinforcers also bring benefits but have different meaning for different individuals.
Ex: Pride, Recognition, etc
There are few conditions for the positive reinforcement to be effective. They are:
The rewards should be matched with the needs of the employees because all
individuals have different motivations for performance.
The greater the degree of performance of the employee, the greater should be
reward.
The timing of the reward is also very important & it should not be delayed.
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Ex:1) Manager may like his subordinates to come in formal clothes to the work place & he may
criticise individuals who dress informally or casually. To avoid criticism, the employee may
dress well to keep the manger happy. Thus, they are engaging in desirable behaviour to avoid an
unpleasant consequence.
2) Holding back the incentive for not achieving the sales target.
Steps in OB Mod:
Measurement: After the critical behaviours of the employees have been identified
the next step for the manager is to measure the frequency of the critical behaviour.
If the frequency is within the acceptable limit, it requires no action but if it
exceeds the acceptable limits, then it requires immediate action.
Limitations of OB Modification:
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Organisational Rewards System:
Intrinsic rewards: They are the satisfiers that the employees get from the job itself.
These rewards include pride in ones work, having a feeling of job
accomplishment, being member of a team, etc.
Membership/seniority-based rewards
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Internal equity: To ensure that employees feel their pay is fair when compared to
how much others in the firm are paid.
External equity: To ensure that employees feel their pay is fair when compared to
how much people in other firms are paid.
Disadvantages
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employees exaggerate duties
Competency-based rewards
Skill-based pay
Advantages
Disadvantages
Employees are rewarded on the basis of pay linked with performance rather than to seniority or
membership.
Advantages:
Disadvantage:
A) Expensive
Job design:
Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
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Job design is defined as the process of deciding on the content of a job in terms of its duties &
responsibilities, on the methods to be used in carrying out the job, in terms of techniques,
systems & procedures & on the relationships that should exist between the job holder & his
superior, subordinates & colleagues.
Two Marks
1. Define is Learning?
7. Define OB Mod.
9. What is extinction?
Eight Marks
Fifteen Marks
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Unit 6
ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
There is number of factors both internal & external which affects organisational
functioning. They are:
External Forces: The organisations do not have any control over the
variables in such an environmental. They are:
* Marketing Conditions: They are no more static. They are in the process of
change as the customer taste & preferences change rapidly & frequently.
Internal Forces:
* Nature of the work force: It has changed over a period of time. The profile
of workforce is also changing fast. Organisations have to modify transfer &
promotion policies in order to respond to the changes as younger generation
of workers are loyal to their careers.
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* Change in managerial Personnel: Old managers are replaced by new
managers which are necessitated because of promotion, retirement, transfer
or dismissal. These changes will lead to important changes such as
allocation of work to individuals, lack of co-ordination among various
departments, etc.
Individual level change: It may take place due to changes in job assignment,
transfer of an employee to different location on the changes in the maturity
level of a person which occurs. Over a passage of time.
* Planning for change: It involves identifying the need for change & the
areas of change.
Change results from the pressure of both internal & external forces in the
organisation.
The change in any part of the organisation affects the whole of the
organisation.
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Change may affect people, structure, technology & other elements of the
organisation.
CHANGE PROCESS:
Diagnosing the problems: For diagnosing the problem various tools can be
adopted by the management such as interviews, questionnaires,
observation& secondary data, etc. It helps to analyse regarding employee
turnover productivity of the organisation & necessary change can be
introduced.
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Follow up on the change: Management has to evaluate the effects of the
change & should ensure that the change continues to be implemented.
Resistance to Change:
Change Agents: They are the persons who initiae & manage change in the
organisations.
Individual Resistance:
* Economic Factors: Workers may fear that the change will lead to
unemployment. Reduce opportunities for bonus or incentive pay, etc.
* Psychological Factors: Workers may be of the fear that the new jobs will
bring boredom & monotony as a result of specialisation brought by new
technology.
* Social Factors: The change will bring a fear in the minds of people
because there is generally dislike for new adjustments, breaking present
social relationships, etc.
Group Resistance:
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* Group Think: When all the members of a group think in a similar, it
becomes difficult to bring about a change.
Organisational Resistance:
Management has to take the following steps to implement the change successfully.
They are:
Cautions & slow introductions: The management should not introduce any
change suddenly. Change must be introduced in sequential parts if possible
results must be reviewed & required adjustments must be made.
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Career planning & development: Change should plan for careers of
employees, possibilities to move the employees to the higher levels &
develop them.
OD has emerged in response to needs primarily because of the inadequacy of training and
executive development programs and secondly due to fast pace of change itself. Change occurs
in technology, marketing, human values, attitudes, relationships, social system, organizational
climate, culture, etc. which management has to meet effectively through a systematic and
planned change effort. OD has emerged to help the planned change for organizational
effectiveness.
Warren G Bennis defines OD as a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs,
attitudes, values and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new technologies,
markets and challenges and the dizzying rate of change itself.
OD is not a separate discipline but it draws heavily from other disciplines like
psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OD
1. OD focuses on the whole organization to assure that all parts of the organization are well
coordinated.
2. OD uses one or more change agents who stimulate and coordinate the change within the
group. Some organizations employ change agents while some others have their own
change agents within their organization.
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3. OD is concerned with problem solving approach as it seeks to solve the problems rather
than merely discussing them.
GOALS OF OD
OD broadly aims at improving the organizational effectiveness and job satisfaction of the
employees. These goals can be attained by humanising the organizations and encouraging the
personal growth of individual employees. Specifically operational goals of OD are:
To encourage the people who are at the helm of affairs or close to the point of actual
action to make the decisions regarding their issues through collaborative effort.
To increase the level of individual and group responsibility in planning and execution.
Benefits of OD programs:
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Benefits of OD include performance improvements, job specification and self change.
Contributes to the change in behaviour, values, attitudes, perceptions, etc. by enabling the
employee to understand about themselves and others in the group and organization. This
results in self change of the employees.
Limitations of OD programs:
Top management is normally busy with strategy formulation and as such may not
concentrate and support the efforts of OD.
Selecting and appointing third party consultants may not produce results as third party
consultants may not have long run commitment in the organization.
Behavioural change in the employees may not result in improvement in the profits as
profits are determined by external factors also.
PROCESS OF OD PROGRAM
The OD phases are many and complicated and take long time to complete the process. they take
minimum of 1 year and sometimes continue indefinitely. There are different phases to OD
process but the typical process consists of :
1. Initial diagnosis: If executives recognize that there are inadequacies within the
organization which can be corrected by OD activities, it is necessary to find out the
professional and competent people within the organization to plan and execute OD
activities. If not, services of outside consultants are to be taken. The consultants adopt
various methods including interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, analysis of
documents and reports for diagnosing the problem
2. Data collection: Survey method is used to collect the data and information for
determining organizational climate and identifying the behavioural problems
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3. Data feedback and confrontation: Data collected are analysed and reviewed by various
work groups formed for this purpose in order to mediate in the areas of disagreement or
confrontation of ideas or opinions and to establish priorities.
4. Selection and design of interventions: The interventions are planned activities that are
introduced into the system to accomplish desired changes and improvements. At this
stage, suitable interventions are to be selected and designed
6. Action planning and Problem solving: Groups prepare recommendations and specific
action planning to solve the specific and identified problems by using the collected data.
7. Team building: The consultants encourage the employees throughout the process to form
into groups and teams by explaining the advantages of the teams in the OD process, by
arranging joint meeting with the managers, subordinates, etc.
9. Evaluation and Follow-up: The organization evaluates the OD programs, find out their
utility, develop the programs further for correcting the deviations and /or improved
results. The consultants help the organization in this respect.
All steps should be followed by the organization in order to derive full range of OD benefits.
Organisational Techniques/Interventions:
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* Team Building: It is a process of diagnosing & improving the
effectiveness of a work group with particular attention to work
procedures & interpersonal relationship within it. It helps to increase the
effectiveness of teams which will also improve the organisations overall
effectiveness.
* Training: The mangers learn about grid concepts & how they are
applied, in week long seminars.
Structural Techniques:
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* Job enlargement:
* Job Enrichment
* Management by Objectives: Both the subordinate & superiors sit & set
together their goals.
Strategic Interventions:
Virtual Organisation:
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Two Marks
7. What is MBO?
Eight Marks
FIFTEEN MARKS
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II SEM BBM EXAMINATION MAY 2011
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
102
II SEM BBM EXAMINATION MAY 2012
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
103
II SEM BBM EXAMINATION MAY 2005
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
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