Chapter-1

Introduction to
Digital Computer

Prof. M. S. Godase 1
Review Topics
Concept of Digital Computer
Types of Software System Software /
Application Software / Utility Software
Compilers, Interpreters, Assemblers, Linker,
Loader.

Prof. M. S. Godase 2
What is Computer?
An electronic device that can automatically accept
and store input data, process them, and produce
output results by interpreting and executing
programmed instructions.
Digital Computer
The digital computer is a digital system that performs
various computational tasks.
The word digital implies that the information in the
computer is represented by variables that take a limited
number of discrete values.
Digital computers use the binary number system, which has
two digits: 0 and 1. A binary digit is called bit.

Prof. M. S. Godase 3
Characteristics of Computers
Automatic: It carries out a job without any human intervention.
Speed: It can perform several billion (109) simple arithmetic
operations / second.
Accuracy: It performs every calculation with same accuracy.
Diligence: It is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
Versatility: It can perform wide variety of tasks.
Memory: It can store huge amount of information and can recall any
piece of stored information whenever required.
No I. Q.: It cannot take its own decisions and has to be instructed
what to do and in what sequence.
No Feelings: It cannot make judgments based on feelings and
instincts.

Prof. M. S. Godase 4
Computer Generations
Generation in computer talk provides a framework for the growth of
computer industry based on key technologies developed.
First Generation (1942-1955)
These computers were manufactured using vacuum tube as electronic switching
device.
These vacuum tube computers could perform computations in milliseconds and
were known as first generation computers.
Programmers wrote instructions in machine and assembly languages.
Examples: The Mark I Computer, The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC),
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC), The Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), The Universal Automatic
Computer One (UNIVAC I), etc.
Second Generation (1955-1964)
These computers were manufactured using transistors.
More powerful, more reliable, less expensive, smaller and cooler to operate.
Example: IBM 1400 series
HLLs like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL and SNOBOL and batch operating
system emerged during second generation.
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Computer Generations
Third Generation (1964-1975)
These computers were manufactured by using ICs (Integrated Circuits).
IC technology was also known as microelectronics technology because it
made it possible to integrate larger number of circuit components (transistors,
resistors and capacitors) into very small (5 mm square) surface of silicon,
known as chip.
Initially 10-20 components were integrated on a single chip known as SSI
(Small Scale Integration).
Later on up to 100 components were integrated on a single chip known as MSI
(Medium Scale Integration).
HLLs like PL/1, PASCAL and BASIC.
Development of Minicomputers (PDP-8 Programmed Data Processor) also
took place in this generation. Example: IBM 360 Series
Fourth Generation (1975-1989)
Integration of over 30,000 components on a single chip known as LSI (Large
Scale Integration), followed by
Integration of one million components on a single chip known as VLSI (Very
Large Scale Integration), led to creation of Microprocessor.
Development of Personal Computer (PC), Examples: Apple II, IBM PC.
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Computer Generations
Fifth Generation (1989-Present)
VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) resulting in
production of microprocessor chips having 10 million electronic components.
Increase in capacity of main memory and hard disk continued in 5th
generation.
Most popular programming language in 5th generation is JAVA.

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Classification of Computers
Modern computers are classified into 4 types Micro computers, Mini
computers, Main frame computers and Super computers.
Micro computers
These are low cost, small, digital computers.
CPU, a memory unit, an I/O devices, etc.
Word length lies in the range 8 32 bits.
PSR (Processing Speed Range) 12 MIPS (Millions of Instructions / Second).
Have a wide range of applications such as general purpose calculation,
Industrial control, fuel injection of car, office automation, etc.
All personal computers are the micro computers.
Mini computers
More powerful than micro computers, word length 32 bit.
Uses Motorola 68030 / 68040 as CPU. Uni-processor or Multi-processor.
PSR 10 to 30 MIPS.
Supports up to 64 or even 100 terminals.
Used for payroll application, accounting and scientific computation.
Examples: IBM AS400 / 360, VAX 8842 (Virtual Address Extension), Wipro
S - 68030V and S 68033V.
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Classification of Computers
Main frame computers
More powerful than Mini computers.
Word length may be 40, 60 or 64 bits.
PSR 300 to 1000 MIPS.
Used in research organizations, large industries, banks and Airline / Railway
reservations.
Examples IBM 4300 series, IBM 308X series, IBM 3090 series, etc.
Super computers
More powerful than Main frame computers.
Word length 64 96 bit.
PSR 400 to 10,000 MIPS.
Super computers are mainly designed to maximize FLOPS (Floating point
Operations / Second) rating. FLOPS rating more than 1 Giga FLOPS
More than one CPU & parallel processing.
Used in weather forecasting, weapon research & development, Rocketing and in
atomic, nuclear & plasma physics.
Examples: CRAY MP/4, X MP/24, X MP/48, ETA 10 (by Control Data
Corporation), PARAM 2000/10,000 (by CDAC Pune), etc.
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Basic Functions of Computer
Inputting: it is the process of entering data and instructions into a
computer system.
Storing: it is the process of saving data and instructions to make
them readily available for initial or additional processing as and when
required.
Processing: performing arithmetic operations or logical operations
on data to convert them into an useful information is known as
processing.
Outputting: it is the process of producing useful information or
results for a user, such as printed report or visual display.
Controlling: directing the manner and sequence in which the above
operations are performed is known as controlling.

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Basic organization of Computer system

Four basic functional units of digital computer system are Input

unit, Output unit, Storage unit and Central processing unit.
Input unit: an input unit performs inputting operation and carries out
following functions
It accepts instructions and data from outside world.
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Basic organization of Computer system
It converts instructions and data in computer acceptable form, units are called as
input interfaces.
It supplies converted instructions and data to the storage unit for storage and
further processing.
Output unit: an output unit performs outputting operation and
carries out following functions.
It accepts the produced results, which are in coded form.
It convert these coded results to human acceptable form, units are called as
output interfaces.
It supplies the converted results to outside world.
Storage unit: A storage unit performs storing operation and carries
out following functions.
It stores data and instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.
It also stores final results of processing before system releases them to an output
unit.
Storage units are of two types Primary (main) and Secondary (auxiliary)
memory. Prof. M. S. Godase 12
Basic organization of Computer system
Central Processing unit (CPU): it performs processing and
controlling operations. The two components of CPU are Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): It is designed to perform four basic
arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply and divide) and logic operations
such as less than, greater than and equal to.
Control Unit (CU): It acts as central nervous system for other components. It
manages and coordinates the operations of all other components.

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Types of Software
Software: Computer Instructions or data, anything that can be stored electronically
is Software.
A sequence of instructions written in any language understood by a computer is
called as a Computer program.
The term Software refers to a set of computer programs, procedures and
associated documents (flowcharts, manuals, etc.) describing the programs and
how they are to be used.
A Software package is a group of programs that solve a specific problem, for
example word processing package may contain programs for text editing, text
formatting, drawing graphics, spell checking, etc.
Hardware: Hardware is one that is tangible. The storage devices (Hard disk, CDs
etc.,), mouse, keyboard, CPU and display devices (Monitor) are Hardware.
Types of Software:
System software
Application Software
Firmware and
Utility Software
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Types of Software
System Software: system software is a set of one or more programs,
which controls the operation and/or extends the processing capability
of a computer system.
It makes the operation of computer system more effective and efficient.
It helps hardware components to work together and provides support for the
development and execution of application software.
Some of the most commonly known types of system software are operating
systems, programming language translators, utility programs, performance
monitoring software and communications software.
Examples: Operating Systems (DOS, Windows, Unix, etc.), Compiler,
Interpreter, Loader, Linker, etc.
Application Software: application software is a set of one or more
programs, which solves a specific problem or does a specific task.
Examples: Payroll processing, Examination result processing, Railway / Airline
reservation and computer games software, etc.
Firmware: firmware is a software substituted for hardware and
stored in a ROM of the computer.
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Types of Software
Firmware: firmware is a software substituted for hardware and
stored in a ROM of the computer.
For example: computer system architect might decide not to use special
electronic circuit (h/w) to multiply two numbers, but instead of this write
instructions (s/w) to cause the machine to accomplish the same function by
repeated use of circuits designed already to perform addition.
This software is stored in ROM and is executed whenever computer system has
to multiply two numbers.
Utility Software:
Utility software is a type of system software designed to help, analyze,
configure, optimize and maintain the computer. A single piece of utility software
is usually called as a utility or tool.
Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure operates.
Examples of utility software: Disk cleaners, Disk defragmenters, Registry
cleaners, Network monitoring tools, etc.

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Compilers, Interpreters, Assemblers, Linker, Loader

Source

Translator Object

Linker

Loader

Executable

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Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters, Linker, Loader
Assemblers: Translates assembly language program into machine
code.
Translate mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents.
Assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels.
The assembler can also process assembler directives.
Assembler directives (or pseudo-instructions) provide instructions to the
assembler itself. They are not translated into machine instructions.
Example: START (specify name and starting address for the program).
END (indicate the end of the source program).
Working of the Assembler: Programmer write a program using a sequence of
assemble instructions called as source code / program.
These instructions are specified to the assembler program which
translates a source code into machine code.
The output of the assembler program is called as object code or program.
Example of Assembler - Flat Assembler (FASM)

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Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters, Linker, Loader
Compliers: A program that changes source code (high level
language) to object code that can be executed by a machine.
Compiler checks syntax of the program.
It checks at a time all the instructions of the program.
It translates source code to object code and saves it as a disk file (.obj).
Linker then takes multiple object modules and combine them together to create
an Executable program (.exe).
Primary reason of compiling source code is to create an executable program.
Examples of Compiler based language: C, C++, JAVA, etc.
Steps used by compiler are as follows
1. Lexical analyzer: it detects the errors where the characters in the source
file do not form any token of the language (keywords - int, while).
2. Syntax analyzer: it detects violations to the rules of the language
(var1=var2 +).
3. Semantic analyzer: it detects the constrcts that have no meaning
(var1=array1 + proceduce1).
4. Intermediate code generator: generates an intermediate representation of
the sorce program.
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Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters, Linker, Loader
Compliers: A program that changes source code (high level
language) to object code that can be executed by a machine.
Steps used by compiler are as follows
5. Code optimizer: improves the intermediate code to produce a faster
running machine code in the final translation. (optional)
6. Code generator: generate the target code, usually re-locatable machine
code, which can be loaded at any location R in memory. The re-locatable
code is contained in the object file (.obj). It contains machine language
instructions (only bits 0s and 1s).

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Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters, Linker, Loader
Interpreters: A program that translates and executes the instructions
written in high level language line-by-line or unit-by-unit.
No linking, No object code generated, source statements are executed line-by-
line. Steps used by interpreter are as follows
Read a source line.
Parse line / translate line.
Do what line says allocates a space for variables, executes arithmetic
operations, etc.
Go back to step 1.
Examples of Interpreter based language: PHP, JavaScript, BASIC, etc.
Compilation advantages: faster execution, single file for execution, it can do
better diagnosis of syntax and semantic errors, since it has more information
than interpreter (Interpreter only sees one line at a time), it can optimize code.
Compilation disadvantages: harder to debug, takes longer time to change source
code, recompile and re-link.
Interpreter advantages: easier to debug, faster development time.
Interpreter disadvantages: slower execution time, no optimization of code, need
all of source code available.
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Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters, Linker, Loader
Linker: A linker or link editor is a program that takes one or more
objects generated by compilers and assembles them into a single
executable program.
Linkers can take objects from a collection called as a library. The objects are
program modules containing machine code and information for the linker.
Linker takes care of arranging the objects in a programs address space.

Loader: A loader is the part of an operating system that is

responsible for loading programs into memory, preparing them for
execution and then executing them.
It is a part of the OSs kernel and usually is loaded at system boot time and
stays in memory until the system is rebooted, shut down, or powered off.
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