Chapter 3: Cellular System

Design Fundamentals
3.1 Cellular Concept & Frequency Reuse
3.2Channel Assignment Strategies
3.3Handoff Strategies
3.4Interference and System Capacity
3.5Trunking and Grade of Service
3.6Improving Coverage and Capacity in
Cellular Systems

1
 3.1 Cellular concept & frequency reuse
1. Cellular concept & frequency reuse
Early mobile systems could not do
frequency reuse.
Demand for mobile services is increasing in
public.
Government regulatory agencies could not
allocate enough spectrum.
Early radio systems must be restructured to
achieve high capacity.
2
C
Cellular concept
concept::
Service region is divided into cells.
Replace a single, high power transmitter with many
low power transmitters.
Each low power transmitter covers only a small cell.
BS

Early wireless system 3

On the other hand

Available spectrum is divided into channels

and

all channels are organized into groups

4
E
Each BS is allocated a group of channels
channels..
N
Nearby BS
BSss are assigned
different groups of channels
channels..
In
In such a way, a ll channel group
all groupss are
assigned to a relatively small number of
neighboring BS
BSs.s.

Nearby N cells which collectively use all

available channel groups is called a cluster
cluster..

5
 Service region is divided into cells.
How to organize cells into clusters?

G C

F D

A cell E

A cluster of 7 cells
6
 Channel assignment B

G C
A cell in a cluster is assigned
A
a group of channels.
F D
Adjacent cells in the cluster E
are assigned different groups
of channels
channels..

All the cells in a cluster are of different

channels. This makes the interference
between cells minimized.
7
 How to reuse frequencies?
The coverage area of a BS is limited to within
the boundaries of a cell.
The same group of channels may be reused
in different cells
separated by distances large enough to
keep interference level within tolerable limits.
Cells using same channel group are called
co-channel cell.

8
7 cells
(A,B,C,D,E,F,G) A cell covered
compose a cluster. by a BS

B A cluster is
G C replicated.
A A channel
group is reused
F D
in 2 clusters.
E

Copy the cluster in this way,

the frequency can be reused. 9
By
By systematically spacing BS
BSss and their
channel groups,
available channels are distributed
throughout the service area.

C
Channel groups may be reused as many
times as necessary
necessary..

IInterference between co
co--channel BS
BSss may
be kept below acceptable levels.

10
2. Cell shape
Entire service region should be covered
without leaving gaps or creating
overlap ping and with equal area
overlapping area,,
there are three sensible geometric shapes :

square,,
a square
an equilateral triangle
triangle,,
a hexagon
hexagon..

11
Given distance r between the center of a
polygon and its perimeter points,
the hexagon has the largest area.
r

Cell shape Equilateral triangle square hexagon

Cell area 1.3r2 2r2 2.6r2

12
 Advantages of using a hexagon cell shape

If
If hexagon is used, tthe
he fewest number of
BSs are needed to cover a service region
region..

T
The hexagon closely approximates a
circular radiation pattern
pattern..

A
An omnidirectional BS antenna and free
space propagation form a circular radiation
pattern.

13
3. Frequency reuse & system capacity

14
3. Frequency reuse & system capacity

channels
Channels in a group (cell)
in a cluster

S =k N

Cell
Cellss in a cluster

S is a measure of a cluster capacity.

15
If
If a cluster is replicated M times, total
number of duplex channels C is

C=MkN=MS (3.2)

C is a measure of system capacity

capacity..

S
System capacity C
is directly proportional to M.

16
The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is
given by 1/N.

Each cell within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of

the total number of available channels.
1/N

If
If N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant,
more clusters is required and hence more
capacity is achieved.

17
 A larger cluster size N leads to weaker
co-channel interference.
The smallest possible value of N is
desirable to maximize capacity.

18
4. The distance between co-channel
cells.

To tessellate the geometry of

hexagon,, the number of cells per
hexagon
cluster, N, can only have values
which satisfy
N = i2 + ij +j2 (3.3)

where i and j are non_negative integers.

19
Clusters of different size N

N= 3 j= 1 i= 1 N= 4 j= 2 i= 0 N= 7 j= 2 i= 1 N= 9 j= 3 i= 0

N= 12 j= 2 i= 2 N= 13 j= 3 i= 1 N= 19 j= 3 i= 2
20
To
To find the nearest co-channel cells, do the
following:

Move
Move i cells along any chain of hexagons;

Turn
Turn 600 counter-clockwise and move j
cells.

21
Distance between
co-channel cells
a

c
b

22
Fig. 3.2 Locating co-channel cells. N = 19 (i = 3, j = 2).
The distance between two
adjacent co-channel cells can be
calculated by the cosine law:

2 2 2
c = a + b 2ab. cos C

23
Example3.1
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a
particular FDD cellular telephone system which uses
two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex
voice and control channels, compute the number of
channels available per cell if a system uses
(a)four_cell reuse,
(b)seven _cell reuse, and
(c) 12_cell reuse.
If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to
control channels, determine an equitable distribution
of control channels and voice channels in each cell
for each of the three systems.
24
Solution

Given:
Total bandwidth =33 MHz
Channel bandwidth =25kHz*2 simplex channels
=50kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels

(a) For N = 4, total number of channels available per

cell = 660/4=165 channels
(b) For N = 7, total number of channels available per
cell = 660/7=95 channels
(c) For N = 12, total number of channels available per
cell = 660/12=55 channels
25
A 1MHz spectrum for control channels implies that
there are 1000/50=20 control channels out of the 660
channels available.

To evenly distribute the control and voice channels,

simply allocate the same number of voice channels
in each cell wherever possible.

Here,the 660 channels must be evenly distributed to

each cell within the cluster.

In practice, only the 640 voice channels would be

allocated, since the control channels are allocated
separately as 1 per cell.
26
(a) For N=4,we can have 5 control
(a)For
channels
and 160 voice channels would be
assigned to each cell.
20/4=5,
640/4=160

In practice, each cell only needs a single

control channel.

Thus, one control channel and 160 voice

channels would be assigned to each
cell.
27
(b) For N=7, 4 cells with 3 control channels and 92
voice channels, 2 cells with 3 control channels and
90 voice channels, and 1 cell with 2 control channels
and 92 voice channels could be allocated.In practice,
however, each cell would have 1 control
channels,and 3 cells would have 92 voice channels.

(20+160)/7=[(3**4+92
(20+160)/7=[(3 4+92**4)+(3
4)+(3**2+90
2+90**2)+(2 1+92**1)]/7
2)+(2**1+92

In practice, each cell would have one control

channel, 4cells would have 91 voice channels and 3
would have 92
640/7=(91**4+92
640/7=(91 4+92**3)/7

28
(c) For N=12,we can have 8 cells with 2 control
channels and 53 voice channels,and 4 cells
with 1 control channel and 54 voice channels
each.In an actual ystem,each cell would have 1
control channel,8 cells would have 53 voice
channels,and 4 cells would have 54 voice
channels.

640/12=(53*8+54*4)/12

29
 3.3 Channel Assignment Strategies

For
For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum,
a frequency reuse scheme is required
required..

The
The scheme should be consistent with the
objectives of increasing capacity and
minimizing interference.
Channel
Channel assignment strategies can be
classified as either fixed or dynamic
dynamic..

30
 Fixed channel assignment strategy

E
Each cell is allocated a predetermined
set of voice channels.

31
A
Av ariations of fixed assignment
variations
strategy::
strategy
borrowing strategy
strategy..

A
A cell is allowed to borrow channels
from a neighboring cell.

MSC
MSC supervises borrowing procedures
and ensures the channel borrowing
does not interfere with any of the calls
in progress in the donor cell.
32
 Dynamic channel assignmentDCA
DCA

When
When a call is made, the MSC allocates a
channel to the BS following an algorithm on
request.

MSC
MSC only allocates a channel that is not in
use in the cell or any other cell which falls
within the minimum restricted distance of
frequency reuse.

TD-SCDMA
TD-SCDMA uses DCA.
33
 3.4 Handoff Strategies
Handoff:
Handoff: As a ann MS moves into a different
cell while a conversation is in progress,
the call is transfer red to a new channel
transferred
belonging to the new BS BS..

34
H
Handoff operation involves
involves:: identifying
a new BS
BS,, and allocating the voice and
control signals to the channels of the
BS..
new BS

H
Handoff requests prioritize over call
initiation requests.

35
Requirements
Requirements for processing handoff
Handoff must be performed successfully;
Handoff must be as infrequently as
possible;
Handoff must be imperceptible to the users.

To
To meet these requirements,
a handoff threshold must be specified.

36
 Threshold is determined based on the
minimum level for acceptable voice quality at
the BS.
Pr handoff =Pr minimum usable+
is a margin.

cannot be too large or too small

small..
too large, unnecessary handoffs may occur
occur..
too small, call may be lost.

37


38
 In deciding when to handoff, two
points must be ensured:

1. The measured signal level is not

due to momentary fading

2. The MS is actually moving away

from the serving BS
BS..

39
Received
Received signal level measurement

BS
BS monitors signal level for a period to
decide if a handoff is necessary
necessary..

The
The ttime
ime length needed to decide if the
handoff is necessary depends on the
MS speed.

If
If the slope of the short_term average
level is steep, the handoff should be
made quickly
quickly..
40
Dwell time::

The time over which a call may be

maintained within a cell
cell,, without handoff.

Dwell time is governed by a number of

factors:

propagation,
interference,
distance between MS and BS,
and other time varying effects.

41
Handoff in First Generation cellular

Signal
Signal strength are measured by BSs
and supervised by MSC.

42
Handoff in 2G cellular system

In
In 2G
2G,, MAHO is used
used..
MS
MS measures signals from surrounding
BS
BSss and reports the results to the
BS..
serving BS
MAHO
MAHO enables a handoff operation
much faster
faster..
MAHO particularly suited for
microcellular environments where
handoffs are more frequent.
43
intersystem
intersystem handoff
The
The handoff from a BS to the BS controlled
by a different MSCs.

44
3.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs

Guard channel:: A fraction of the total available

channels in a cell is reserved exclusively for handoff.

D
Disadvantage
isadvantage:: reducing the total carried
traffic.
Queuing
Queuing is another method to decrease the
probability of forced termination of a call
due to lack of available channels.

45
3.4.2 Practial Handoff Considerations

How to support users with different

velocities
velocities..

High speed MS
MSss constantly being
passed between small cells
cells,, can make
MSC quickly become burdened
burdened..

Pedestrian users may never need a

handoff.

46
Umbrella cell is used to provide
large coverage to high speed MS
MSss
while providing small coverage to
MS
MSss at low speeds
speeds..

47
48
 Cell dragging

Occurs when there is an LOS radio

path between an MS and the BS
BS..

As the MS move
movess away from the BS
at a very slow speed,
the average signal strength
does not decay rapidly.

49
In
In First Generation systems, the typical time
to make a handoff is about 10s.

This
This requires that the value for be on
the order of 6 dB and 12dB.

In
In 2G
2G,, a handoff typically requires only 1 or
2s.
is usually between 0dB and 6dB.

50
N
Newer cellular systems ha s the ability
has
to make handoff decisions based on a
wide range of metrics other than signal
strength.

51
The
The co_channel and adjacent channel
interference levels may be measured
at the BS or the MS

T
This information may be used with
conventional signal strength data to
provide a multi_dimensional algorithm
for determining when a handoff is
needed.

52
 CDMA uses soft handoff
The handoff does not means a physical
change in assigning channel, but a different
BS handles the radio task.

By simultaneously evaluating the signals

from an MS at several neighboring BS,
the MSC may decide which version of the
MS signal is the best.
MS

This allows the MSC to make a soft decision.

53
Chapter 3: Cellular System
Design Fundamentals
3.1 Cellular Concept & Frequency Reuse
3.2Channel Assignment Strategies
3.3Handoff Strategies
3.4Interference and System Capacity
3.5Trunking and Grade of Service
3.6Improving Coverage and Capacity in
Cellular Systems

54
 3.
3.44 Interference and System Capacity

Interference is the major limiting

factor in the performance of cellular
systems.

Interference is a major bottleneck in

increasing capacity and is often
responsible for dropped calls.

55
Interference
Interference causes cross talk on voice
channels.

On
On control channels,
interference leads to missed and
blocked calls due to errors in the
digital signaling.

56
Sources
Sources of interference include

another MS in the same cell,

a call in a neighboring cell,

other BSs in the same frequency band,

any noncellular system which

inadvertentlyleaks energy into the
cellular frequency band.

57
Two
Two major types of system-generated
cellular interference are
co_channel interference
and ACI.

ACI
ACI is the interference resulting from
signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal.

58
The
The interference due to out-of-band users is
even more difficult to control.

Out-of-band
Out-of-band interference may result in
receiver front end overload or
generates intermittent intermodulation.

TRs
TRs from competing cellular carriers are
often significant sources of out-of-band
interference.

59
3.
3.44.1Co
.1Co--channel Interference & System
Capacity

Co_channel interference comes from

co_channel cells.

Co_channel
Co_channel interference can
cant be
combated by simply increasing the
SNR.

C
Co_channel cells must be physically
separated by a distance to provide
sufficient isolation.
60
 3.
3.44.1 Co_channel Interference &
System Capacity

C
Co_channel interference is a function
of the cell radius R
and the distance D
between the nearest co_channel
cells.

61
For
For a hexagonal cell shape,
co_channel reuse ratio Q is

Q = D / R = 3N (3.4)

A
A small Q provides larger capacity
capacity..
A
A large Q improves the transmission
quality.

62
 1
Q = D / R = 3N
D
1
1 1
R
r

1
11
1 2
1 3 4 5 1
6 7 1
1 1
1
1

63
64
65
 Let i0 be the number of co_channel cells.
The SIR for a n MS receiver which monitors a
an
forward channel can be

S S
= i0 (3.5)
I
I
i =1
i

Ii :interference from ith co_channel BS

BS..

66
T
The average signal strength decays as
a power law n of the distance.

The
The average received power P r at a
distance d from Tx is

Pr = P0(d/d0)-n (3.6)

P0 : power received at a reference point

point..
d0 : reference distance from T x.
Tx.
67
Let
Let Di the distance of the i th interferer
from the MS
MS,,

the
the received power at a given MS due
to the i th interfering cell will be
proportional to (Di)-n.

68
If
If transmit power of each BS is equal
and n is the same,

S/I for a
ann MS can be approximated as

S/I = R -n/ (Di)-n (3.8)

69
Considering only the first layer of
interfer ing cell
interfering s,
cells,
if all the interfering BS
BSss are equidistant
from the desired BS and Di=D,
(3.8) simplifies to

n n
S ( D / R) ( 3N )
= = (3.9)
I i0 i0

70
S/I
S/I is relate
relatedd to the cluster size N,
which in turn determines the system
capacity.

For
For some frequency reuse plans
(e.g.,N=4), the closest interfering cells
vary widely in their distances from the
desired cell.

71
F
For N=7 and the MS at the cell
boundary, the S/I for the worst case
can be closely approximated as

S/I=R-n/[2(D-R)-n+2(D+R)-n+2D-n] (3.10)

This can be rewritten in terms of the

co_channel reuse ratio Q, as

S/I=1/[2(Q-1)-n+2(Q+1)-n+2Q-n ] (3.11)

72
Example 3.2
If a
ann S/I ratio of 15dB is required for
satisfactory forward channel performance of a
cellular system,
what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster
size that should be used for maximum
capacity if the path loss exponent is (a)
n=4,(b) n=3
n=3? ?
Assume that there are 6 co_channel cells in
the first tier, and all of them are at the same
distance from the mobile. Use suitable
approximations.
73
Solution
(a) n=4
N=7..
First,consider N=7
Using Equation(3.4), the co_channel reuse
ratio
D/R=4.583.
Using Equation(3.9),the S/I ratio is given by
S/I=(1/6)**(4.583)4=75.3=18.66dB
S/I=(1/6)
Since this is greater than the minimum
required S/I, N=7 Can be used.

74
 (b) n=3
N=7.. Using Equation (3.9) , the
First, consider N=7
S/I ratio is
S/I=(1/6)**(4.583)3=75.3=12.05dB <15dB
S/I=(1/6)
So a larger N is needed
needed..
The next possible N N==12, (i=j=2).
The corresponding co_channel ratio is
D/R=6.0
Using Equation(3.3),the S/I ratio is
S/I=(1/6)**(6)3=36=15.56dB
S/I=(1/6)
Since this is greater than the minimum
required S/I,N=12 is used.
75
3.
3.44.2 Channel Planning for Wireless Systems

Eq
Eq
Eq..(3.9) is a rule of thumb for
determining the appropriate frequency
reuse factor and separation between
adjacent co_channel cells.
Cellular
Cellular systems seldom obey the
assumption of (3.9). So Channel
planning is much more difficult in
practice.

76
C
Channels are made up of control
channels and voice channels.

A
About 5% of the entire mobile spectrum
is devoted to control channels,while the
remaining 95% is dedicated to voice.

Generally
Generally control channels are not
allowed to be used as voice channels
and vice verse.

77
F
Frequency reuse strategy for control
channels is different and generally
more conservative than for the voice
channels.

The
The cluster size for control channel is
generally larger than that for voice
channel.

78
For
For CDMA, cluster size N=1, frequency
reuse is not required generally.

But
But still some sort of limited frequency
reuse is required in the place where
propagation conditions are particularly
ill-behaved.

79
In
In a CDMA system
system,, a single 1.25 MHz
radio channel carries the simultaneous
transmissions of the single control
channel with up to 64 simultaneous
voice channels
channels..

80
The
The CDMA system has a dynamic, time
varying coverage region
region..
This region varies depending on the
instantaneous number of users on the
CDMA channel.

This effect is called a breathing cell

cell..

81
3.
3.44.3 Adjacent Channel Interference

ACI:
ACI: Interference resulting from
signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal
signal..

A
ACI results from imperfect receiver
filters which allow nearby frequencies
to leak into the passband.

82
ACI
ACI can be particularly serious if an
adjacent channel user is transmitting in
very close range to a receiver,
while the receiver attempts to
receive a BS on the desired channel.

This
This is the near_far effect.

A
ACI can be minimized through careful
filtering and channel assignments.
83
Chapter 3: Cellular Concept__System
Design Fundamentals
3.1 Cellular Concept & Frequency Reuse
3.2Channel Assignment Strategies
3.3Handoff Strategies
3.4Interference and System Capacity
3.5Trunking and Grade of Service
3.6Improving Coverage and Capacity in
Cellular Systems

84
 Trunking theory

Trunking
Trunking theory is the theory that
studies how a large population could be served
by a limited number of servers.

This
This theory is useful in the design of a
cellular system.

85
 3.
3.55 Trunking and GoS
T
Trunking allows a large number of users
to share the relatively small number of
channels in a cell
by providing access to each user, on demand,
from a pool of available channels
channels..

E
Each user is allocated a channel on a per call
basis,,
basis
and upon termination of the call, the
previously occupied channel is immediately
returned to the pool of available channels
channels..

86
Trunking
Trunking exploits
the statistical behavior of users

so that a fixed number of

channels may accommodate a
large, random user community.

87
There
There is a trade-off between
the number of available channels
and
the likelihood of a user finding
that no channels are available during
peak calling time
time..

88
 Some special words
Erlang
Erlang is a dimensionless quantity
used to measure the time utilization of
single or multiple channels.

An
An Erlang is the unit represent ting the
representting
amount of traffic intensity carried by a
channel that is completely occupied.

A
A radio channel that is occupied for 30
minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs
of traffic.
89
 Some special words
GOS
GOS is used to define the performance of a
trunked system
system..

GOS
GOS is a measure of the ability of a user to
access a trunked system during the busiest
hour..
hour

GOS is the likelihood a call is blocked, or

the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay
greater than a certain queuing time
..

90
Some
Some definitions
Set-up
Set-up time
time:: The time required to allocate a
trunked radio channel to a requesting user.
Blocked
Blocked call
call:: Call which cannot be
completed at time of request due to
congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.
Holding
Holding time
time:: Average duration of a typical
call.

91
Traffic
Traffic intensity
intensity:: The average channel
occupancy measured in Erlang
Erlang..

Load
Load
Load:: Traffic intensity across the entire
trunked radio system, measured in Erlang.
Request
Request rate
rate:: The average number of call
requests per unit time.

92
The average ttraffic
raffic intensity offered by each
user equal
equalss to call request rate multiplied by
holding time.

Average traffic Average holding

time per user
intensity per user

A u = H (3.13)

Average call
requests rate

93
For
For a system containing U users, the
total offered traffic intensity A is

A = UAu (3.14)

94
IIn a C channel
channels s trunked system,
if traffic is equally distributed among
channels,
the traffic intensity per channel Ac, is

UA U
Ac = (3.15)
C

95
O
Offered traffic is not neccessarily the traffic
carried by the system
system..

T
The maximum possible carried traffic is the
total number of channels C, in Erlangs.

AMPS
AMPS is designed for a GOS of 2% 2%,, impl
implyying
that 2 out of 100 calls will be blocked during
the busiest hour
hour..

96
 Two types of trunked systems.

blocked calls cleared .

Its GoS is given by Erlang B formula.

Blocked Calls Delayed .

Its GoS is determined by Erlang C
formula.

97
blocked calls cleared .

Every user who request a service is

assumed there is no setup time
and the user is given immediate
access to a channel if one is available.

If no channels available, the user is

blocked and is free to try again.

98
Precondition:
Precondition:
Calls arrive as determined by a
distribution,, there are an infinite
Poisson distribution
number of users a nd
nd::
and
(a) There are memoryless arrivals of requests,
all users, including blocked, may request a
channel at any time;
(b) Holding time is exponentially distribut ed
ed;;
distributed
(c) Available channels in the trunking pool are
finite..
finite

99
Erlang B formula giv es the probability that a
gives
call is blocked
blocked..
It is a measure of the GOS for a system which
provides no queuing for blocked calls.

C
A C!
Pr [blocking ] = C k = GOS (3.16)
A
k = 0 k!

Erlang B formula provides a conservative

estimate of the GOS.
100
trunking efficiency 101
Blocked Calls Delayed .

If a channel is not available

immediately, the call request may be
delayed until a channel becomes
available.

The GOS of tthis

his type of trunking is
defined as the probability that a call is
blocked after waiting a specific length
of time in the queue
queue..
102
 In this case, tthe
he likelihood of a call
not having immediate access to a
channel is determined by the Erlang C
formula
formula::

c
A
Pr [delay > 0] = C 1 k
(3.17)
c A A
A + C!(1 )
C k = 0 k!

103
 If no channels are immediately available the call is
delayed, and the probability that the delayed call is
forced to wait more than t seconds is given by the
probability that a call is delayed, multiplied by the
conditional probability that the delay is greater than t
seconds.The GOS of a trunked system where blocked
calls are delayed is hence given by
Pr[delay >0] =Pr[delay >0]Pr[delay >t/delay >0]
=Pr[delay >0]exp(-(C-A)t/H) (3.18)
The average delay D for all calls in a queue system is
given by
D =Pr[delay >0]H/(C-A) (3.19)
where the average delay for those calls which are
queue is given by H/(C-A).
104
105
106
 To use Fig
Fig..3.6&3.7 we should do as follows.
3.6&
locate the number of channels on the top
portion of the graph.
Locate the traffic intensity of the system on
the bottom portion of the graph.
Blocking probability Pr [blocking] is shown on
Pr[blocking]
the abscissa of Fig
Fig..3.6,
Pr[delay >0
>0]] is shown on the abscissa of Fig
Pr[delay>0 Fig..3.7.
With two of the parameters specified, it is easy
to find the third.
107
Example3.4
How many users can be supported for
0.5% blocking probability for the
following number of trunked channels in
a blocked calls cleared system? (a)1,
(b)5, (c)10, (d)20, (e)100. Assume each
user generates 0.1 Erlangs of traffic.

108
Solution
First we can do like this:
From Table3.4,
find the total capacity in Erlang for
the 0.5% GOS for different numbers of
channels.
Use A=UAu to obtain the total
number of users that can be supported
in the system.
109
Second we can do like this:
(a) Given C=1, Au=0.1, GOS=0.005
From Fig
Fig..3.6, we obtain A=0.005.
Therefore, total number of users,
U=A/Au=0.005/0.1=0.05users.
But, actually one user could be supported
on one channel.
So, U=1.

(b) Given C=5, Au=0.1, GOS=0.005

From Fig
Fig..3.6, we obtain A=1.13.
Therefore,total number of users,
U=A/Au=1.13/0.1=11users.

110
(c) Given C=10, Au=0.1, GOS=0.005
From Fig
Fig..3.6, we obtain A=3.96.
Therefore,total number of users,
U=A/Au=3.96/0.1=39users.
(d) Given C=20, Au=0.1, GOS=0.005
From Fig
Fig..3.6, we obtain A=11.10.
Therefore,total number of users
U=A/Au=11.1/0.1=110users.
(e) Given C=100, Au=0.1, GOS=0.005
From Fig
Fig..3.6, we obtain A=80.9.
Therefore,total number of users,
U=A/Au=80.9/0.1=809users.
111
Example3.5 An urban area has a population of 2
million residents.
Three competing cellular system
systemss (A, B and C)
provide service in this area. System A has 394
cells with 19 channels each, B has 98 cells with
57 channels each, and C has 49 cells, each with
100 channels. Find the number of users that
can be supported at 2% blocking if each user
averages 2 calls per hour at an average call
duration of 3 minutes. Assuming that all the
systems are operated at maximum capacity,
compute the percentage market penetration of
each cellular provider.
112
Solution System A
Given: GOS=2%=0.02
Number of channels per cell used, C=19
Traffic intensity per user,Au=H=2*(3/60)=0.1Erl
For GOS=0.02 and C=19,from the Erlang B chart,
total carried traffic, A=12 Erl.
So, the number of users can be supported per cell is
U=A/Au=12/0.1=120
Since there are 394 cells,the total number of users
that can be supported by System A is
120*394=47280
113
System B
Given: GOS =2% =0.02
Channels per cell used, C=57
Traffic intensity per user, Au=H=2
H=2**(3/60)=0.1Erl
For GOS=0.02 and C=57,from the Erlang B chart,the
total carried traffic, A, is obtained as 45 Erl.
So,, the number of users that can be supported per
So
cell is U=A/Au=45/0.1=450
Since there are 98 cells,the total number of
subscribers that can be supported by System B is
450**98=44,100
450

114
System C
Given: GOS =2%=0.02
Number of channels per cell used, C=100
Traffic intensity per user, Au=H=2
H=2**(3/60)=0.1 Erl
Erl..
For GOS=0.02 and C=100,from the Erlang B chart,
the total carried traffic, A, is obtained as 88 Erl.
So ,the number of users that can be supported
So,the
per cell is U=A/Au=88/0.1=880
Since there are 49 cells,the total number of us ers
users
that can be supported by System C is equal to
880
880**49=43,120

115
The
Then n, total number of us ers that can be supported
users
by the 3 systems are
47,280 +44,100
47,280+44,100 +4
+44,100+4
+433,120=134,500 users
Since there are 2 million residents and the total
number of us ers in s
users ystem A is 47280, the
system
market penetration of A is
47,280/2,000,000=2.36%
Similarly, market penetration of System B is
44,100/2,000,000 = 2.205%
and the market penetration of System C is
43,120/2,000,000=2.156%
The market penetration of the 3 systems combined
is 134,500/2,000,000=6.725%

116
Example3.6 A city of 1300 square miles is covered
by a system using a 7_cell reuse pattern. C ell
Cell
radius is 4 miles and the city is allocated 40MHz of
spectrum with a full duplex channel BW of 60kHz.
A GOS of 2% for an Erlang B system is specified.
If the offered traffic per user is 0.03 Erl
Erl.., compute
(a) the number of cells in the service area, (b)
(a)the the
(b)the
number of channels per cell, (c) traffic intensity of
(c)traffic
each cell, (d) the maximum carried traffic, (e)
(d)the the
(e)the
total number of users that can be served for 2%
GOS, (f) the number of MS
(f)the MSss per unique channel,
and (g) the theoretical maximum number of users
(g)the
that could be served at one time by the system.
117
Solution
(a) Total coverage=1300 miles, cell radius=4 miles
miles..
The area of a cell (hexagon) is 2.5981R2,
each cell covers 2.5981
2.5981**(4)2 = 41.57 sq.mi.
Total number of cells Nc =1300/41.57=31cells.
Nc=1300/41.57=31cells.
(b) Channels per cell C=40,000/(60
=40,000/(60**7)=95
(c) C=95, and GOS=0.02
GOS=0.02.. From Erlang B chart,
the traffic intensity per cell is
A=84 Erls/cell
(d) Maximum carried traffic= Nc
Nc**A =31
traffic=Nc =31**84=2604 Erls
118
(e) Given traffic per user=0.03 Erls
Total number of users=Total traffic / traffic per user
=2604 /0.03=86,800 .
(f) Number of MSMSss per channel=
=number of users/ number of channels =
users/number
=86,800/ 666
86,800/666 =130 MS
666=130 s/channel.
MSs/channel.
(g) Theoretical maximum number of served MS
MSss is
the number of available channels in the system(all
channels occupied)=C
occupied)=C**Nc=95
Nc=95**31=2945 users,
which is 3.4% of the customer base.

119
Example3.7
A hexagonal cell within a 4_cell system has a radius
of 1.387 km. A total of 60 channels are used within
the entire system. If the load per user is 0.029
Erlanga, and =1 call/hour, compute the following
for an Erlang C system that has a 5% probability of
a delayed call:
(a) How many users per square k m will this systems
km
support?
(b) What is the probability that a delayed call will
have to wait for more than 10 s?
(c) What is the probability that a call will be delayed
for more than 10 seconds?

120
Solution
Given: Cell radius, R=1.387 km
Area covered per cell is 2.598
2.598**(1.387)2=5 s
sqq km
Number of cells per cluster=4
Total number of channels =60
Therefore,number of channels per cell=60/4=15 .
(a) From Erlang C chart,for 5% probability of delay
with
C=15,traffic intensity=9.0 Erl
Erlss.
Therefore,number of users
=total traffic intensity/traffic per
user=9.0/0.029
=310 users=310 users/5 sp km=62 users/sq km

121
(b) Given =1,holding time
H=Au/ =0.029 hour=104.4seconds.
Probability that a delayed call will have to wait
longer than 10s is
Pr[delay>t/delay]=exp(-(C-A)t/H)
=exp(-(15-9.0)10/104.4)=56.29%
(c) Given Pr[delay>0] =5%=0.05
Probability that a call is delayed more than 10
seconds
Pr[delay>10]=Pr[delay>0]Pr[delay>t/delay]
= 0.05
0.05**0.5629=2.81%

122
Trunking efficiency is a measure of the
number of users which can be offered a
particular GOS with a particular
configuration of fixed channels.The way in
which channels are grouped can
substantially alter the number of users
handled by a trunked system.

123
Chapter 3: Cellular Concept__System
Design Fundamentals
3.1 Cellular Concept & Frequency Reuse
3.2Channel Assignment Strategies
3.3Handoff Strategies
3.4Interference and System Capacity
3.5Trunking and Grade of Service
3.6Improving Coverage and Capacity in
Cellular Systems

124
 3.6 Improving Coverage and Capacity in
3.6
Cellular Systems

T
Three ttechniques
echniques are used to expand
the capacity of cellular systems
systems::
cell splitting,
sectoring,
coverage zon ing.
zoning

125
3.
3.66.1 Cell Splitting

Cell
Cell splitting is the process of
subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells
cells..
This
This increases the number of the times
that channels are reused so that
system capacity is increase d.
increased

S
Smaller cells were added in such a way
as to preserve the frequency reuse
plan of the system.
126
3.6.1, Cell splitting
Edge-excited cells as an
example.

127
New BS
BSss are ad ded
added

the area served by a single BS is

reduced

and the number of channels per unit

area are increased
increased..

128
The
The radiu
adiuss of a new cell is half that of
the original cell
cell..

Transmit
Transmit power of new BS s can be
BSs
found by setting the received power Pr
at the new and old cell boundaries
equal to each other.

This
This is to ensure the frequency reuse
plan for the new microcells behaves
exactly as for the original.
129
R

BS1

BS2
R/2

130
 transmit powers transmit powers
of larger cell BSs of smaller cell
BSs

Pr[at old cell boundary] Pt1R-n

Pr[at new cell boundary] Pt2(R/2)-n

R

BS1

BS2
R/2
131
Take n=4 and set the received powers
equal to each other, then

Pt1
Pt 2 = or Pt 2 ( dB ) = Pt1 (dB ) 10 lg 16
16

Transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB

to maintain the S/I requirement.

132
Cell splitting in a central excited cell

133
Practical problems
Not all cells are split at the same time.
It is difficult to find real estate situated
for cell splitting.
High speed and low speed users must
be simultaneously accommodated.
Umbrella cell approach is commonly
used.
Therefore, there are different cell sizes
in the same region.
134
Practical problems
Channels in the old cell must be
broken down into 2 channel groups
groups,,
one is used for the smaller cell reuse
requirements and
the other is used for the larger cell.

The larger cell is usually dedicated to

high speed users so that handoffs
occur less frequently.
135
Practical problems
Two channel group sizes depend on
the stage of the splitting process.

When cell splitting is completed, all

cells are small cells.

Antenna down tilting is often used to

limit radio coverage of newly formed
microcells.
136
 Fig..3.9. Assume each BS uses
Example 3.8 Consider Fig
60 channels, regardless of cell size. If each
original cell has a radius of 1km and each
microcell has a radius of 0.5km, find the
number of channels contained in a 3km by 3km
square centered around A under the following
conditions; (a)without the use of microcells; (b)
when the lettered microcells are used; (c) if all
the original BS s are replaced by microcells.
BSs
Assume cells on the edge of the square to be
contained within the square.
137
138
Solution
(a) without the use of microcells:
A cell radius of R= 1km implies that the sides of
R=1km
the larger hexagons are also 1km in length.To
cover the 3km by 3km square centered around
BS A, we need to cover 1.5km(1.5
1.5km(1.5RR) toward the
right ,left, top,and bottom of BS
From Fig
Fig..3.9, this area contains 5 BSs.
BSs.
Since each BS has 60 channels, the total number
of channels without cell splitting is
5 * 60=300 channels.
139
(b) With the use of the microcells
microcells,, The total
number of BSs in the region is

5+6=11.

The total number of channels is

60**11=660
60 11=660..

This is a 2.2 times increase in capacity

compared to case (a).

140
(c) If all the BS
BSss are replaced by microcells:
There are a total of 5+12=17 BSs in the
square region under study.
The total number of channels will be equal to
17**60=1020 channels.
17
This is a 3.4 times increase in capacity
compared to case (a).
Theoretically, if all cells were microcells
having half the radius of the original cell, the
capacity increase would approach four.
141
3.
3.66.2 Sectoring

Sectoring increase
increasess SIR by directional
antennas so that the cluster size may
be raduced and the D/R ratio is
decreased..
decreased

142
 A cell is partitioned
into six 600 sectors
A cell is partitioned into
three 1200 sectors

143
144
The
The factor by which the co_channel
interference is reduced depends on the
amount of sectoring used.

When
When sectoring is employed,
the channels used in a parcticular
cell are broken down into sectored
groups,,
groups
each group is used only within a
particular sector.
145
Assuming
Assuming N=7N=7,, for 1200 sectors, the number
of interferers in the first tier is reduced from
6 to 2
2..

Out
Out of the 6 co_channel cells, only two cells
have sectors with antenna patterns which
radiate into the center cell.

The
The resulting S/I is 24.2 dB
dB,, which is a
significant improvement over the
omnidirectional case
case,, where S/I was 17dB.

146
P
Penalty for capacity improvement from the
shrinking cluster size
size::

an
an increased number of antennas at each
BS,, and
BS

a
a decrease in trunking efficiency due to
channel sectoring at the BS
BS..

Since
Since sectoring reduces the coverage area
of a particular group of channels, the
number of handoffs increases.

147
Example 3.9
Consider a cellular system in which an average call lasts
two minutes,and the probability of blocking is to be no
more than 1%.Assume that every subscriber makes one
call per hour,on average.If there are a total of 395 traffic
channels for a 7 cell reuse system,there will be about 57
traffic channels per cell.Assume that blocked calls are
cleared so the blocking is described by the Erlang B
distribution.From the Erlang B distribution,it can be
found that the unsectored system may handle 44.2
Erlang or 1326 calls per hour.
Now employing 1200 sectoring, there are only 19 channels
per antenna sector(57/3 antennas).For the same
probability of blocking and average call length,it can be
found from the Erlang B distribution that each sector
can handle 11.2 Erlang or 336 calls per hour.
148
Since each cell consists of three sectors,this provides a
cell capacity of 3
3**336=1008 calls per hour,which
amounts to a 24% decrease when compared to the
unsectored case.Thus, sectoring decreases the
trunking efficiency while improving
the S/I for each user in the system.
It can be found that using 60 0 sectors improves the S/I
even more.In this case,the number of first tier interferers
is
reduced from six to only one.This results in S/I=29 dB
for a seven-cell system and enables four_cell reuse.Of
course,
using six sectors per cell reduces the trunking efficiency
and increases the number of necessary handoffs even
more.If the unsectored system is compared to the six
sector case,the degradation in trunking efficiency can
be shown to be 44%.(The proof of this is left as an
exercise.)
149
3.
3.66.3 Repeaters for Range Extension

Repeaters are often used to provide such

range extension capabilities.
Repeaters simultaneously send signals to
and receive signals from a serving BS
BS..
Upon
Upon receiving signals from a BS forward
link,the repeater amplifies and reradiates the
signals to the specific coverage region.
R
Received noise and interference will be also
reradiated on both the forward and reverse
link.
150


151
GSM

152
153
3.
3.66.4 A Microcell Zone Concept

Sectoring
Sectoring increases number of
handoffs.
This results in an increased load on
the switching and control link elements
of the mobile system.

Microcell
Microcell zone gives a better solution
than sectoring
sectoring..

154
In
In the microcell zone schem,
Each of the 3 zone sites are
connected to a single BS and share the
same radio equipment.

Multiple
Multiple zones and a single BS make
up a cell.

As
As aann MS travels from one zone to
another within the cell,
it retains the same channel.
The BS simply switches the channel
to a different zone site.
155
A
A given channel is active only in the
zone in which the MS is traveling,
hence BS radiation is localized and
interference is reduced.

C
Channels are distributed in time and
space by all 3 zones and are reused in
co_channel cells in the normal fashion.

156
Each Tx/Rx
covers a zone.
3 zones form a
cell.
157
158
Advantage
Advantagess of micro zone cell fashion:
microzone
CCo-channel interference is reduced
reduced,,
while the cell maintains a particular
coverage radius.
Decreased
Decreased co
co--channel interference
improves the signal quality
quality,,
Decreased
Decreased co
co--channel interference
also leads to an increase in capacity
without the degradation in trunking
efficiency caused by sectoring.

159
L
Let each individual hexagon represents
a zone,each group of three hexagons
represents a cell.
The
The zone radius Rz is approximately
equal to one hexagon radius.
T
The capacity of zone microcell system
is directly related to the distance D
between co_channel cells, and not
zones.

160
For
For a Dz/Rz value of 4.6,
Co_channel reuse ratio,D/R =3
=3,, (R=2Rz).
ratio,D/R=3
Using
Using Q=D/R=3
D/R=3,, we have N=3.
Q=D/R=3
Th
Th
Thee reduction in cluster size from N=7
to N=3 amounts to a 2.33 times
increase in system capacity completely
based on the zone microcell concept.

161
For
For the same S/I requirement of 18 dB,
zone microcell provides a significant
increase in capacity.

The
The exact worst case S/I of the zone
microcell system can be estimated to
be 20 dB
dB..
In
In the worst case,
the zone microcell system provides a
margin of 2dB over the required SS//I ratio
while increasing the capacity by 2.33 times
over a conventional N=7 system using
omnidirectional antennas.

162
S/I=R-4/[2D-4+2(D+R)-4+2(D+2R)-4] (3.10-a)

S/I=1/[2Q-4+2(Q+1)-4+2(Q+2)-4 ] (3.11-b)

163
 Brief Summary
of zone microcell system
Cell splitting allows an orderly growth
of the cellular system.

Sectoring uses directional antennas to

further control the interference and
frequency reuse.

Zone microcell concept distributes the

coverage of a cell and extends the cell
boundary to hard
hard--to
to--reach places.
164
C
Cell splitting increases the number of BS s,
BSs,
sectoring
sectoring and zone microcells rely on BS
antenna placements to improve capacity by
reducing co_channel interference.

Cell
Cell splitting and zone microcell do not
suffer the trunking inefficiencies
experienced by sectored cells,

Cell
Cell splitting and zone microcell enable BS
to oversee all handoff chores related to the
microcells, thus reducing the computational
load at the MSC.
165
 Chapter Summary
1. Basic concepts presented: cellular,
frequency reuse, handoff, trunking,
frequency planning.
2. System capacity is a function of many
variables: frequency reuse factor,
receiving SIR, and trunking efficiency.
3. Frequency reuse is the basic method in
designing a cellular system. The more
times the cluster is replicated, the larger
the system capacity will be.
166
4. To increase capacity, SIR must be
improved. Cell splitting, sectoring, and
the zone microcell technique are all
approaches to improve capacity by
increasing SIR.

5. Trunking efficiency is a measure of the

number of users which can be served
with a particular GOS. It is substantially
altered by the way in which the channels
are grouped.
167
 Problems

Page 97
3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.7,

3.10, 3.27*, 3.28*

168
 The End
of Chapter 3

169