CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 1/32

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Stiffness

(Displacement) Method

Learning Objectives
To define the stiffness matrix
To derive the stiffness matrix for a spring element
To demonstrate how to assemble stiffness matrices into
a global stiffness matrix
To illustrate the concept of direct stiffness method to
obtain the global stiffness matrix and solve a spring
assemblage problem
To describe and apply the different kinds of boundary
conditions relevant for spring assemblages
To show how the potential energy approach can be used
to both derive the stiffness matrix for a spring and solve
a spring assemblage problem

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

This section introduces some of the basic concepts on which

the direct stiffness method is based.
The linear spring is simple and an instructive tool to illustrate
the basic concepts.
The steps to develop a finite element model for a linear spring
follow our general 8 step procedure.

1. Discretize and Select Element Types - Linear spring

elements
2. Select a Displacement Function - Assume a variation
of the displacements over each element.
3. Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain
Relationships - use elementary concepts of equilibrium
and compatibility.
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The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

4. Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations -

Define the stiffness matrix for an element and then
consider the derivation of the stiffness matrix for a linear-
elastic spring element.

5. Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global

or Total Equations and Introduce Boundary
Conditions - We then show how the total stiffness matrix
for the problem can be obtained by superimposing the
stiffness matrices of the individual elements in a direct
manner.

The term direct stiffness method evolved in reference to

this method.

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

6. Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom (or

Generalized Displacements) - Solve for the nodal
displacements.

7. Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses - The

reactions and internal forces association with the bar
element.

8. Interpret the Results

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 3/32

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

1. Select Element Type - Consider the linear spring shown

below. The spring is of length L and is subjected to a
nodal tensile force, T directed along the x-axis.

f1x f2x

Note: Assumed sign conventions

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

2. Select a Displacement Function - A displacement

function u(x) is assumed.

u a1 a2 x

In general, the number of coefficients in the displacement

function is equal to the total number of degrees of freedom
associated with the element. We can write the
displacement function in matrix forms as:

a
u 1 x 1 x 2 1
a2 2 x 1
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 4/32

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

We can express u as a function of the nodal displacements
ui by evaluating u at each node and solving for a1 and a2.

u( x 0) u1 a1

Boundary Conditions
u( x L ) u2 a2L a1

Solving for a2:

u2 u1
a2
L
Substituting a1 and a2 into u gives:

u u1 x x
u 2 x u1 1 u1 u2
L L L

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

In matrix form: x x u1
u 1
L L u2

Or in another form:
u
u N1 N2 1
u2

Where N1 and N2 are defined as:

x x
N1 1 N2
L L
The functions Ni are called interpolation functions
because they describe how the assumed displacement
function varies over the domain of the element. In this case
the interpolation functions are linear.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 5/32

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

u a1 a2 x

x x u1
u 1
L L u2

u
u N1 N2 1
u2

x
N1 1
L
N1 N2 1
x
N2
L

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

3. Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain

Relationships - Tensile forces produce a total elongation
(deformation) of the spring. For linear springs, the force
T and the displacement u are related by Hookes law:
f1x f2 x

T T

T k

where deformation of the spring is given as:

f1x T
u(L ) u(0) u2 u1
f2 x T
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 6/32

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

4. Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and

Equations - We can now derive the spring element
stiffness matrix as follows:

Rewrite the forces in terms of the nodal displacements:

T f1x k u2 u1 f1x k u1 u2

T f2 x k u2 u1 f2 x k u1 u2

We can write the last two force-displacement relationships

in matrix form as:

f1x k k u1

f2 x k k u2

The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

This formulation is valid as long as the spring deforms
along the x axis. The coefficient matrix of the above
equation is called the local stiffness matrix k:
k k
k
k k

5. Step 4 - Assemble the Element Equations

and Introduce Boundary Conditions
The global stiffness matrix and the global force vector
are assembled using the nodal force equilibrium equations,
and force/deformation and compatibility equations.
N N
K K k ( e ) F F f ( e )
e 1 e 1

where k and f are the element stiffness and force matrices

expressed in global coordinates.
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The Stiffness (Displacement) Method

6. Step 6 - Solve for the Nodal Displacements

Solve the displacements by imposing the boundary

conditions and solving the following set of equations:

F K d F Kd

7. Step 7 - Solve for the Element Forces

Once the displacements are found, the forces in each

element may be calculated from:

T k k u2 u1

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Consider the following two-spring system shown below:

where the element axis x coincides with the global axis x.

For element 1: f1x k1 k1 u1

f3 x k1 k1 u3

For element 2: f3 x k 2 k 2 u3

f2 x k 2 k 2 u2
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 8/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Both continuity and compatibility require that both elements

remain connected at node 3. Element number

u3(1) u3(2)

We can write the nodal equilibrium equation at each node as:

F1x f1x (1) F3 x f3 x (1) f3 x (2) F2 x f2 x (2)

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Therefore the force-displacement equations for this spring

system are:
F1x k1u1 k1u3 F2 x k 2u3 k2u2
Element 1 Element 2
F3 x k1u1 k1u3 k2u3 k 2u2

In matrix form the above equations are:

F1x k1 0 k1 u1

F2 x 0 k2 k 2 u2 F Kd

F k k k1 k 2 u3
3x 1 2

where F is the global nodal force vector, d is called the

global nodal displacement vector, and K is called the
global stiffness matrix.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 9/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Assembling the Total Stiffness Matrix by Superposition

Consider the spring system defined in the last example:

The elemental stiffness matrices may be written for each

element.
For element 1: For element 2:
u1 u3 u3 u2
k k1 u1 k k 2 u3
k (1) 1 k (2) 2
k1 k1 u3 k 2 k 2 u2

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Write the stiffness matrix in global format for element 1 as

follows:
1 0 1 u1 f1x
(1)

k1 0 0 0 u2 f2(1)x

1 0 1 u3 f3(1)x
For element 2:

0 0 0 u1 f1x
(1)

k 2 0 1 1 u2 f2(1)x

0 1 1 u3 f3(1)x
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 10/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Apply the force equilibrium equations at each node.

f1(1)
x
0 F1x
(2)
0 f2 x F2 x
f (1) f (2) F
3x 3x 3x
The above equations give:

k1 0 k1 u1 F1x
0
k2 k 2 u2 F2 x

k1 k 2 k1 k2 u3 F3 x

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

To avoid the expansion of the each elemental stiffness

matrix, we can use a more direct, shortcut form of the
stiffness matrix.
u1 u3 u3 u 2
k k1 u1 k k 2 u3
k (1) 1 k (2) 2
k1 k1 u3 k 2 k 2 u2
The global stiffness matrix may be constructed by directly
adding terms associated with the degrees of freedom in k(1)
and k(2) into their corresponding locations in the K as
follows: u u u
1 2 3

k1 0 k1 u1
K 0 k2 k 2 u2

k1 k2 k1 k2 u3
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 11/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Boundary Conditions

In order to solve the equations defined by the global

stiffness matrix, we must apply some form of constraints or
supports or the structure will be free to move as a rigid body.

Boundary conditions are of two general types:

1. homogeneous boundary conditions (the most common)
occur at locations that are completely prevented from
movement;
2. nonhomogeneous boundary conditions occur where finite
non-zero values of displacement are specified, such as the
settlement of a support.

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Consider the equations we developed for the two-spring

system. We will consider node 1 to be fixed u1 = 0. The
equations describing the elongation of the spring system
become:
k1 0 k1 0 F1x
0
k2 k 2 u2 F2 x

k1 k 2 k1 k 2 u3 F3 x
Expanding the matrix equations gives:
F1x k1u3

F2 x k2u3 k2u2

Solve for u2 and u3
F3 x k 2u2 k1 k 2 u3
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 12/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

The second and third equation may be written in matrix form

as:
k2 k 2 u2 F2 x
k k k u F
2 1 2 3 3x

Once we have solved the above equations for the unknown

nodal displacements, we can use the first equation in the
original matrix to find the support reaction.

F1x k1u3

For homogeneous boundary conditions, we can delete the

row and column corresponding to the zero-displacement
degrees-of-freedom.

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Lets again look at the equations we developed for the two-

spring system.
However, this time we will consider a nonhomogeneous
boundary condition at node 1: u1 = .
The equations describing the elongation of the spring
system become:
k1 0 k1 F1x
0
k2 k 2 u2 F2 x


k1 k 2 k1 k 2 u3 F3 x
Expanding the matrix equations gives:
F1x k1 k1u3 F2 x k2u3 k2u2

F3 x k1 k1u3 k2u3 k2u2

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 13/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

By considering the second and third equations because

they have known nodal forces we get:

F2 x k2u3 k2u2 F3 x k1 k1u3 k2u3 k2u2

In matrix form the above equations are:

k2 k 2 u2 F2 x
k k k u F k
2 1 2 3 3x 1

For nonhomogeneous boundary conditions, we must transfer

the terms from the stiffness matrix to the right-hand-side force
vector before solving for the unknown displacements.

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 1

Once we have solved the above equations for the unknown

nodal displacements, we can use the first equation in the
original matrix to find the support reaction.

F1x k1 k1u3
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 14/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

Consider the following three-spring system:

The elemental stiffness matrices for each element are:

1 3 3 4

1 1 1 1 1
k (1) 1000
3

k (2) 2000
1 1 3
1 1 4

4 2

1 1 4
k (3) 3000
1 1 2

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

Using the concept of superposition (the direct stiffness

method), the global stiffness matrix is:
Element 1

1000 0 1000 0
0 3000 0 3000 Element 3

K
1000 0 3000 2000

0 3000 2000 5000
Element 2

The global force-displacement equations are:

1000 0 1000 0 u1 F1x

0 3000 0 3000 u2 F2 x

1000 0 3000 2000 u3 F3 x

0 3000 2000 5000 u4 F4 x
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 15/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

We have homogeneous boundary conditions at

nodes 1 and 2 (u1 = 0 and u2 = 0).

The global force-displacement equations reduce to:

1000 0 1000 0 u1 F1x

0 3000 0 3000 u2 F2 x

1000 0 3000 2000 u3 F3 x

0 3000 2000 5000 u4 F4 x

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

Substituting for the known force at node 4 (F4x = 5,000 lb)

gives:

3000 2000 u3 0
2000 5000 u 5,000
4

Solving for u3 and u4 gives:

10 15
u3 in u4 in
11 11
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 16/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

To obtain the global forces, substitute the displacement in

the force-displacement equations.
F1x 1000 0 1000 0 0
F 0 3000 0
2x 3000 0


F
3x 1000 0 3000 2000 10 11
F4 x 0
3000 2000 5000 15 11

Solving for the forces gives:

10,000 45,000
F1x lb F2 x lb
11 11
55,000
F3 x 0 F4 x lb 5,000lb
11

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

Next, use the local element equations to obtain the force in

each spring.
For element 1: f 1000 1000 0

1x
10
f3 x 1000 1000 11

The local forces are: 10,000 10,000

f1x lb f3 x lb
11 11

A free-body diagram of the spring element 1 is shown below.

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 17/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

Next, use the local element equations to obtain the force in

each spring.
For element 2: f3 x 2000 2000 10 11

f4 x 2000 2000 15 11

The local forces are: 10,000 10,000

f3 x lb f4 x lb
11 11

A free-body diagram of the spring element 2 is shown below.

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 2

Next, use the local element equations to obtain the force in

each spring.
For element 3: f 3000 3000 15

4x 11

f2 x 3000 3000 0

The local forces are: 45,000 45,000

f4 x lb f2 x lb
11 11
A free-body diagram of the spring element 3 is shown below.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 18/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 3

Consider the following four-spring system:

The spring constant k = 200 kN/m and the displacement

= 20 mm.

Therefore, the elemental stiffness matrices are:

1 1
k (1) k (2) k (3) k ( 4) 200 kN / m
1 1

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 3

Using superposition (the direct stiffness method), the global

stiffness matrix is:
Element 1 Element 2 Element 3 Element 4

200 200 0 0 0
200 400 200 0 0

K 0 200 400 200 0

0 0 200 400 200
0 0 0 200 200
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 19/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 3

The global force-displacement equations are:
200 200 0 0 0 u1 F1x
200 400 200 0 0 u2 F2 x

0 200 400 200 0 u3 F3 x

0 0 200 400 200 u4 F4 x

0 0 0 200 200 u5 F5 x

Applying the boundary conditions (u1 = 0 and u5 = 20 mm)

and the known forces (F2x, F3x, and F4x equal to zero) gives:
400 200 0 0 u2 0
200 400 200 0 u3 0

0 200 400 200 u4 0

0 0 200 200 0.02 F5 x

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 3

Rearranging the first three equations gives:

400 200 0 u2 0
200 400 200 u 0
3
0 200 400 u4 4

Solving for u2, u3, and u4 gives:

u2 0.005 m u3 0.01m u4 0.015 m

Solving for the forces F1x and F5x gives:

F1x 200(0.005) 1.0kN

F5 x 200(0.015) 200(0.02) 1.0kN

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 20/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 3

Next, use the local element equations to obtain the force in
each spring.
For element 1: f1x 200 200 0

f2 x 200 200 0.005

f1x 1.0kN f2 x 1.0kN

For element 2: f2 x 200 200 0.005

f3 x 200 200 0.01

f2 x 1.0kN f3 x 1.0kN

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 3

Next, use the local element equations to obtain the force in
each spring.
For element 3: f3 x 200 200 0.01

f4 x 200 200 0.015

f3 x 1.0kN f4 x 1.0kN

For element 4: f4 x 200 200 0.015

f5 x 200 200 0.02

f4 x 1.0kN f5 x 1.0kN
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 21/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 4

Consider the following spring system:

The boundary conditions are: u1 u3 u4 0

The compatibility condition at node 2 is:

u2(1) u2(2) u2(3) u2

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 4

Using the direct stiffness method: the elemental stiffness

matrices for each element are:
1 2 2 3 2 4

k k1 k k 2 2 k k3
k (2) 2
1 2
k (1) 1 k (3) 3
k1 k1 2 k 2 k 2 3
k 3 k3 4

Using the concept of superposition (the direct stiffness

method), the global stiffness matrix is:
1 2 3 4

k1 k1 0 0 1

k k k 2 k 3 k k 3 2
K 1 1 2

0 k 2 k2 0 3

0 k3 0 k3 4

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 22/32

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 4

Applying the boundary conditions (u1 = u3 = u4 = 0) the

stiffness matrix becomes:
1 2 3 4

k1 k1 0 0 1

k k k 2 k 3 k 2 k 3 2
K 1 1
0 k 2 k2 0 3

0 k 3 0 k3 4

The Stiffness Method Spring Example 4

Applying the known forces (F2x = P) gives:

P k1 k 2 k3 u2

P
Solving the equation gives: u2
k1 k 2 k3

Solving for the forces gives:

F1x k1u2 F3 x k2u2 F4 x k3u2

CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 23/32

Potential Energy Approach to Derive Spring

Element Equations
One of the alternative methods often used to derive the
element equations and the stiffness matrix for an element is
based on the principle of minimum potential energy.

This method has the advantage of being more general than

the methods involving nodal and element equilibrium
equations, along with the stress/strain law for the element.

The principle of minimum potential energy is more adaptable

for the determination of element equations for complicated
elements (those with large numbers of degrees of freedom)
such as the plane stress/strain element, the axisymmetric
stress element, the plate bending element, and the three-
dimensional solid stress element.

Total Potential Energy

The total potential energy p is defined as the sum of the

internal strain energy U and the potential energy of the
external forces :
p U
Strain energy is the capacity of the internal forces (or
stresses) to do work through deformations (strains) in the
structure.

The potential energy of the external forces is the capacity

of forces such as body forces, surface traction forces, and
applied nodal forces to do work through the deformation of
the structure.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 24/32

Total Potential Energy

Recall the force-displacement relationship for a linear

spring:
F kx
The differential internal work (or strain energy) dU in the
spring is the internal force multiplied by the change in
displacement which the force moves through:
dU Fdx kx dx

Total Potential Energy

x
1 2
The total strain energy is: U dU kx dx kx
L 0
2

The strain energy is the area under the force-displacement

curve. The potential energy of the external forces is the
work done by the external forces:
Fx
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 25/32

Total Potential Energy

1 2
Therefore, the total potential energy is: p kx Fx
2
The concept of a stationary value of a function G is shown
below:

dG
0
dx

The function G is expressed in terms of x.

To find a value of x yielding a stationary value of G(x), we
use differential calculus to differentiate G with respect to x
and set the expression equal to zero.

Total Potential Energy

We can replace G with the total potential energy p and the

coordinate x with a discrete value di. To minimize p we first
take the variation of p (we will not cover the details of
variational calculus):
p p p
p d1 d 2 ... dn
d1 d 2 d n

The principle states that equilibrium exist when the di define

a structure state such that p = 0 for arbitrary admissible
variations di from the equilibrium state.
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 26/32

Total Potential Energy

Total Potential Energy

To satisfy p = 0, all coefficients associated with di must be

zero independently, therefore:

p p
0 i 1, 2,, n or 0
d i d
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 27/32

Total Potential Energy Example 5

Consider the following linear-elastic spring system subjected

to a force of 1,000 lb.

Evaluate the potential energy for various displacement

values and show that the minimum potential energy also
corresponds to the equilibrium position of the spring.

Total Potential Energy Example 5

The total potential energy is defined as the sum of the

internal strain energy U and the potential energy of the
external forces :

p U U
1 2
kx Fx
2

p
The variation of p with respect to x is: p x 0
x
p
Since x is arbitrary and might not be zero, then: 0
x
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 28/32

Total Potential Energy Example 5

Using our express for p, we get:

1 2 1
p kx Fx 500( lb in ) x 2 1,000lb x
2 2
p
0 500 x 1,000 x 2.0 in
x
If we had plotted the total
potential energy function p
for various values of
deformation we would get:

Total Potential Energy

Lets derive the spring element equations and stiffness

matrix using the principal of minimum potential energy.
Consider the linear spring subjected to nodal forces shown
below:

The total potential energy p

1
p k u2 u1 f1x u1 f2 x u2
2

2
Expanding the above express gives:

p
1
2

k u22 2u1u2 u12 f1x u1 f2 x u2
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 29/32

Total Potential Energy

Lets derive the spring element equations and stiffness

matrix using the principal of minimum potential energy.
Consider the linear spring subjected to nodal forces shown
below:

Recall: p p
0 i 1, 2,, n or 0
d i d
Therefore:
p k
2u2 2u1 f1x 0
u1 2
p k
2u2 2u1 f2 x 0
u2 2

Total Potential Energy

Lets derive the spring element equations and stiffness

matrix using the principal of minimum potential energy.
Consider the linear spring subjected to nodal forces shown
below:

Therefore: k u1 u2 f1x

k u1 u2 f2x

In matrix form the equations are:

f1x k k u1

f2 x k k u2
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 30/32

Total Potential Energy Example 6

Obtain the total potential energy of the spring system shown

below and find its minimum value.

The potential energy p for element 1 is:

1
p(1) k1 u3 u1 f1x u1 f3 x u3
2

The potential energy p for element 2 is:

1
p(2) k2 u4 u3 f3 x u3 f4 x u4
2

Total Potential Energy Example 6

Obtain the total potential energy of the spring system shown

below and find its minimum value.

The potential energy p for element 3 is:

1
p(3) k3 u2 u4 f2 x u2 f4 x u4
2

The total potential energy p for the spring system is:

3
p p( e )
e 1
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 31/32

Total Potential Energy Example 6

Minimizing the total potential energy p:

p
0 k1u3 k1u1 f1x (1)
u1

p
0 k3u2 k3u4 f2 x (3)
u2

p
0 k1u3 k1u1 k 2u4 k 2u3 f3 x (1) f3 x (2)
u3

p
0 k 2u4 k 2u3 k3u2 k3u4 f4 x (2) f4 x (3)
u4

Total Potential Energy Example 6

In matrix form: k1 0 k1 0 u1 f1x

0 k
k3 u2
3 0

f2 x
(2)
k1 0 k1 k 2 k 2 u3 f3 x f3 x
(1)

0 k3 k 2 k 2 k3 u4 f4 x f4 x
(2) (3)

Using the following force equilibrium equations:

f1x (1) F1x

f2 x (3) F2 x

f3 x (1) f3 x (2) F3 x

f4 x (2) f4 x (3) F4 x
CIVL 7/8117 Chapter 2 - The Stiffness Method 32/32

Total Potential Energy Example 6

The global force-displacement equations are:

1000 0 1000 0 u1 F1x
0 3000 0 3000 u2 F2 x

1000 0 3000 2000 u3 F3 x

0 3000 2000 5000 u4 F4 x

The above equations are identical to those we obtained

through the direct stiffness method.

Homework Problems

1. Do problems 2.4, 2.10, and 2.22 on pages 66 - 71 in

your textbook A First Course in the Finite Element
Method by D. Logan.

End of Chapter 2