A Study of Navajo Symbolism (1956) PDF

UNIVERSITY
OF FLORIDA
LIBRARIES
PAPERS
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VOL. XXXII, NO. 3
A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
FRANC JOHNSON NEWCOMB

STANLEY FISHLER
AND
MARY C. WHEELWRIGHT
LINE DRAWINGS
BY
LLOYD MOYLAN
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.SA.

PUBLISHED BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM
1956
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PAPERS
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VOL. XXXII, NO. 3
FRANC JOHNSON NEWCOMB

STANLEY FISHLER
AND
MARY C. WHEELWRIGHT
LINE DRAWINGS
BY
LLOYD MOYLAN
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.

PUBLISHED BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM
1956
PRINTED BY THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRINTING OFFICE
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
CONTENTS
PART I: NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND Owl-raised-Ute 56
PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS, THE PICTURE WRITING 60
by Franc Johnson Newcomb i CONCLUSIONS 73
REFERENCES 79
PREFACE 3
THE NAVAJO SAND PAINTING .... 4
PLACE AND NUMBER PART III: NOTES ON CORRESPOND-
7
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE OF COLOR ... 13
ING SYMBOLS IN VARIOUS PARTS
GREAT POWERS OF EARTH, SKY, OF THE WORLD, by Mary C. Wheel-
wright 81
WATER, AND THE UNDERWORLD . . 20
SKY SYMBOLS, STARS AND COMETS . . 24
WIND, RAIN, HAIL, CLOUDS, MIST, NOTES ON CORRESPONDING SYMBOLS
LIGHTNING ARROWS, AND RAINBOW 28 IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD . 83
ANIMALS AND TRACKS 31 Deer and horns of power 84
SYMBOLISM OF PLANTS, SEEDS, AND Dontso 86
POLLEN HERB INFUSIONS 35 Feather and other abstractions 88
CEREMONIAL COSTUMES, MASKS AND Ethkav-nah-ashi and Asvins 89
ARTICLES 39 Bear constellation of seven stars 00
BODY PAINTING AND PICTURE WRIT- Ritual similarities between Navajo concepts
ING 44 and others 90
Notes on parallel svmbols and rites in India,
PART II: NAVAHO PICTURE WRIT- Tibet and ancient Persia 91
ING, by Stanley A. Fishier 49 Tibet 92
India 93
INTRODUCTION 51 REFERENCES 99
AN ORIGIN LEGEND FOR CURING SOR- PRONUNCLATION 100
CERY 55 NASAL SOUNDS 100
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LINE-CUT FIGURES
PART I: NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND Fire poker 10
PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS, Four sacred plants 10
by Franc Johnson Newcomb Static cloud giving nourishment to tree . . 11
1. from E. to W. is rainbow (fe-

Straight bar . Three sprigs of tree carried bv sand painting
male) and N. to S. zig-zag bar is lightning figures 11
(male) Cloud dropping rain on earth n

:. Oblong symbols of houses of various powers Sun or moon svmbol 13
in Hail Chant Father Sky 14
3. The path of life is shown as a cornstalk cross- Evil blue star 16
ing a white field Dark world 16
4. Cross symbolizing fire Bear 17
5. Border representing variety of trails con- Squirrel 17

nected by black land below the horizon . . . Guardian rainbow 17
6. Central dwelling place and homeland . . . Mountain god wearing four blankets of fire 17
7. Place of emergence Mother Earth (left) and Father Sky (right) 19
8. Lake Cloud power 21
9. Prayer stick Serpent 21

CONTENTS
*5- Home of snake people 21 Fire god carrying fire stick and traveler's
26. Moon shadows or phases 21 bread 40
27- "Jalth," the frog 21 Pollen Boy on the face of the sun 43
28. Turtle 21 Corn Maiden on the face of the moon ... 43
29. Horned toad 21 Butterfly 44
30. Gila monster 21 Kehtahns 44
3 1 - "Teoltsodi," water monster 22 Chart of hero's journey 46
3*- "Tabasteen," otter 22 Symbolic writing 47
33- "Tchah," beaver 22 Life and death cross 47
34- "Kahtsen," alligator 22 Crossing rivers 47
35- Big fish 22
36. Sky symbols 24

37- Comet or shooting star 25
PART II: NAVAHO PICTURE WRIT-
Star
ING, by Stanley A. Fishier
38. 25
39- Star 25
40. Clouds carrying hailstones 27
4'- Clouds carrying stars 27
COLOR PLATES
42. Turkey 27 I-XII following 72
43- Eagle 27
44. Bat 27
45- Small bird 27 PART III: NOTES ON CORRESPOND-
46. Thunder bird 27 ING SYMBOLS IN VARIOUS PARTS
47- Rain cloud 27 OF THE WORLD, by Mary C. Wheel-
48. Dancing figures 27 wright
49- Feather showing direction of movement . . 29
50. Dragon fly 29
LINE-CUT FIGURES
5i- Dontso 29
52- Lightning 29
Serpents 29
1. a, b, c, d, Four versions of Dontso. e, f, g, h.
53-
Guard Ancient Chinese calligraphic symbols for
54- 29
55- Mirage 30
Cicada, (e-h, courtesy Metropolitan Mu-
56. Curved serpent guard 30
seum of Art) 87
57- The sun's medicine bag 30 2. Gold symbol from Colombia in British Mu-
58. Bear constellation 32 seum 87
59- Buffalo 32 3. Jade circle from British Honduras in British

60. Whirling circle tvpifving means of locomo- Museum 87
tion 32 4. Symbol associated with Ka 87
61. Porcupine 32 5. Squash blossoms and fertility symbol of Na-
62. Mountain lion 32 vajo necklaces 91
63. Deer 32 6. Derivation of words from pre-Sanskrit ... 94
64. Goat or deer or antelope 32 7. Ethkay-nah-ashi figures bottom at 95
65. Rabbit 33 8. Design on wall with Perusha on top .... 95
66. Coyote 33 Idealized form of man
9. 95
67. Badger 34
68. Star cross 34
69. Wolf tracks 34 HALF-TONE PLATES
70. Bear tracks 34
71- Eagle or hawk claws 34 PLATE I. a. Horned god. Chinese bronze Ku-
72- Willow square used in Yehbechai ceremony 36 ang ceremonial vessel, owned by Mrs. Eugene
73- Medicine bags hanging from wrist .... 36 Meyer, Washington, DC
b, Wooden monster
74- Kehtahns 36 head from Ch'angsha, south central China, 4th
75- Yucca 36 century b.c. (Photo, courtesy of the British
76. Corn in Blessing Chant representing the tree Museum.) following 88
of life 37
77- Sunflower 37 PLATE II. Antlered mask from the Hopewell
78. Beganaskiddy, carrier of seeds, with his cere- Mound, Ohio. (Photo, courtesy of the Chi-
monial cane and horns of power 40 cago Natural History Museum.)
CONTENTS
PLATE III. from Ch'angsha,
Antlered altar silver,from Persia, 19th century, owned by Miss
China, owned by Mr. John Hadley Cox, Wash- Susan Dwight Bliss, New York, b. Crystal
ington, D.C. chrysalis of insect from Spiro Mound, Okla-
homa. (Photo, courtesy of the University of
PLATE IV. a, Antlered human head of steel and Oklahoma Museum.)
UNIVERSITY OF FLORI PA.,
3 1262 07311 264

A SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF THE FORM OF NAVAJO CEREMONIES
ALL ceremonies
or of bodily
fears
are for healing, either of
ailments, and each is a
medicine man's direction and is produced by
each painter holding a particular colored sand
communal affair paid for by
the patient's rela- in his hand and pouring it in a delicate stream
tives. A medicine man
consulted as to what
is between thumb and first finger.
ceremony is required and often uses divina- When complete, the painting is blessed with
tion to decide the matter. When this and the pollen and prayer, and the patient sits on it
location are settled, and also whether a com- and is treated by the assistant, who first presses
plete ritual or a short one should be used, the the figures of the painting himself, then
hogahn is selected or built and medicine arti- presses them to the body of the patient. The
cles are collected, such as herbs, rocks to crush patient also drinks a decoction of the painting
into colored sands, fuel, and persons to help and afterwards inhales incense. In a complete
the ritual. It begins by the lighting of the fire ceremony there are usually four days of sand
in the hogahn, and for four days in a com- painting rites; each day after the treatment
and participants take a
plete ritual the patient of the patient the painting is destroyed. Some-
sweat bath and emetic to cleanse themselves, times the body of the patient is painted with
and ceremonial offerings are made for the the great symbols, which ends the rite of heal-
Powers to be invoked. In the evening while ing.
prayers are sung, a rite of the untying of This ends the ceremony except where there
knots in woolen cords which are pressed to is a public ritual dance.
the patient's body and limbs, may typify the A more complete account of the ceremonies
loosening of tensions in the patient. and ritual is given inVolume I of the Navajo
There are several forms of these such rites, Series published by the Museum of Navajo
as passing the patient through a line of hoops Ceremonial Art. There are at least eight
placed outside the hogahn on four consecutive major ceremonies, and many many others, and
days while prayers are said. As he passes at the Museum there are over four hundred
through, a covering is progressively removed,
sand paintings recorded.
which typifies a process of recreating him into
health again. Mary C. Wheelwright
The sand painting rite begins after the puri-
fication and is made embody the powers to
to Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art
be invoked. The painting is made under the '955
PART I:
NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS

AND RITUAL OBJECTS
by
Franc Johnson Newcomb
PREFACE
by
Mary C. Wheelwright
HAVE known Mrs. Franc J. Newcomb and respected Klah's integrity and fineness, so
I for twenty years and am so thankful that was willing to obey his condition of record-
she has been persuaded to put down her inti- ing; that is, that she should memorize the
mate knowledge of the sand paintings, their paintings but never take notes or draw at the
symbols, meaning, and the ritual connected ceremonies. She was particularly interested in
with them. recording the paintings, and later, when we
She came from Wisconsin to the Navajo worked together, we divided the task so that
Country in 1914, living at Fort Defiance as a I recorded the ritual and myth. At first it was
teacher, and after her marriage, coming to a all we could do to put down what we saw,
trading post (Nava, now called Newcomb, but gradually during many years and dealing
New Mexico) 65 miles north of Gallup on the with the many medicine men recommended
road to Shiprock, New
Mexico. In those days to us by Klah, the idea of the meaning of it
there were no
surfaced roads in rainy all came to us both, and I urged her to open
weather the roads were nearly impassable to others her unique knowledge acquired
and her life was definitely of pioneer quality. through thirty-five years. Others have studied
On a camping trip in 1920 I stayed at the carefully the racial and social Navajo system
Nava trading post, having just seen my first of life, but no one has lived with the Navajos
Navajo ceremony, and I asked many questions and studied their painted symbols as has Mrs.
and found both Air. and Mrs. Newcomb really Newcomb. Meeting so many medicine men,
interested in the Indians' ceremonies which she, through her knowledge, made them real-
was most unusual, as few traders at that time ize that she was qualified to obtain what in-
took any interest in them. They were very formation they could give her.
fond of Hasteen Klah, one of the most re- When a noted medicine man died, and his
spected of the medicine men, who lived nearby relatives realized that they were not sure of
and who was also fond of the Newcombs. I details of the paintings, they asked Mrs. New-
urged Mrs. Newcomb to make a study of the comb to help them. Only last year she found
Indian religion as she could draw well and at a Mountain Chant ceremony that the medi-
had such a wonderful opportunity through cine man was using a painting that she had
Klah's friendship to understand and possibly helped to recreate, and he spoke of the fact
record the religion, which had never been to her.
done except by Washington Matthews During my efforts to record the ritual and
twenty-five years before. He was an Army
myths I began to be fascinated with the funda-
mental similarity of these to the myths in
doctor situated on the Reservation and during
other religions over the world. During my
seven years made a superb record of one cere-
travels and reading I had noted these, so in
mony, Night Chant or Yehbechai, among
the
Part III of this book I have added my con-
others. But through Klah we found that there
tribution extending the scope of this study to
were at least eight major ceremonies practised
include wider horizons.
by the Navajo people. I have not attempted any complete study of
Klah was, fortunately, willing to answer these universal symbols, but felt it would be
questions and finally invited Mrs. Newcomb useful to publish them here, suggesting and
to see a ceremony, at which time he gave a hoping that others will be inspired to carry
Blessing Chant over her. She felt, as I did, this study further, for in my opinion they
that there was an enormous amount to learn point to a common source.
THE NAVAJO SAND PAINTING
TO BECOME acquainted with the sym-
bolism which accompanies all Navajo re-
left of
is filled
The hollow which held the old fire
it.
with adobe clay and tamped solid.

ligious ritual, it is necessary to spend long Young men, who are acting as helpers,
hours in the ceremonial hogahn observing the bring blankets filled with clean wind-blown
symbols of the sand painting, the designs on sand to serve as background for the painting.
wooden plaques, bone whistles, gourd or hide This adobe-colored sand is then spread smooth
rattles, and many other decorated articles. In with oak weaving battens and is ready for the
the ceremonial hogahn the medicine man, the painters to begin. Three of the basic sand
painters, and the helpers are nearly always colors are obtained by crushing and grinding
men, although there is no taboo against women the red, white, and yellow native sandstone.
acting in these capacities. Blue is the charred root of the rock oak ground
In almost every Navajo ceremony, whether with white sand, and black is obtained by
great or small, the painting and use of colored grinding charcoal with dark sand. A near
symbols plays an important part, and, as the relative of the patient sits near the north wall
pigment for these ritualistic designs is e;ener- to grind these colors with stone and metate,
ally five colors of sand, they are called "sand then places each color on separate slabs of
paintings." Up to recent times there were bark. Grinding the sand is considered an un-
no copies of sand paintings or other ceremo- lucky task which only a relative or a close
nial designs made in permanent form, the only friend will undertake. After this work is fin-
records being held in the minds of the medi- ished, the medicine man will say a prayer for
cine men. The painters who spread the col- the grinder and sprinkle pollen over his hands
ored sands under their guidance are men who and arms to banish evil effects.
have already been initiated into this particular Each painter is supplied with five slabs of
riteand who know the procedure, but it is bark holding the "paint" they are to use. If
the medicine man who directs sand painting, the medicine man is using one symbol more
line for line, and color for color. If the painter powerful than any of the others, it will be
makes a mistake either by drawing an incor- placed in the center, and very often he makes
rect line or using the wrong color, it is never this design to start the painting. Then he sits
erased. The painter simply picks up a hand- on folded blankets or sheep pelts with all of
ful of background sand and covers the error his medicine bundles, prayer sticks, rattles,
until it does not show, then proceeds to lay bowls, and pollen bags piled against the west-
the correct line or color. ern wall.
The ceremonial hogahn, in which the sand After the central design is completed, the
paintings will be made, is always built so the painters move back, smoothing the sand and
earthen floor approximates a circle. The roof adding other symbols to the east, south, west,
opening or smoke hole is a rectangular open- and north, as well as in the semi-directions. A
ing in the roof to admit light and provide guardian symbol is usually drawn around
ventilation. The doorway, which always faces three sides, and this is sometimes a rainbow or
the east, is covered with thick blankets and a flash of lightning, bars of light, or even a
kept tightly closed during all ceremonial pro- curved snake. The unguarded side is always
cedure. During the rites and the chanting, toward the east, and here two small guard
which take place at night and in the early symbols are usually drawn. Four, eight,
morning, the fire pit is located in the center twelve, or anv numeral of four prayer sticks
of the floor directly beneath the smoke hole. are erected at equally spaced intervals around
In preparation for a large painting, this fire the outside of the painting; bowls are filled
pitis moved east of the center to a position with herb infusion and placed inside the
about three feet inside the door, and people guards at the northeast, and all is in readiness
entering must go either to the right or to the for the ritual.
NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS: NEWCOMB
Now and the women bring
a pause occurs, sand painting to stand before or beside the
baskets of bread fresh from the adobe ovens, patient.
pans of mutton stew, melons, coffee, and The various healing rites which he performs
sugar. The men group about the food, cut- during this part of the ceremony are accom-
ting the meat with their own knives and dip- panied by intermittent chanting started by the
ping the stew with the crusty bread. When medicine man and carried through by the
the women have taken away the remains of chorus. There is the ritual of pressing medi-
the dinner, the medicine man opens a buck- cine bundles to the body of the patient, the
skin bag of pollen and, carefully stepping on drinking of herb infusion, and other symbolic
the background sand, takes pinches of the rites.The rite most closely connected with
yellow powder to bless each symbol. With a the symbols depicted on the sand painting is
circular motion of his hand he dusts the pol- the pressing of sand to the patient's head,
len over the guards, and ends with a motion body, and limbs. To begin this, the medicine
of tossing some through the opening in the man pours the few remaining drops of herb
roof. Throughout this pollen blessing rite the mixture over the palms of his hands, then
medicine man intones a low prayer. presses his palms to the heads of all the sand
When the medicine man is again seated on symbols and transfers the colored sand to the
his blankets a helper steps outside the door head of the patient. His hands are next
and calls loudly, "The ceremony is about to pressed to the neck and chest of each design,
begin." and then to the neck and chest of the patient.
This is a signal for the patient, accompanied This procedure continues until it is completed
by a sponsor, to enter the hogahn closely fol- at the soles of the patient's feet, when the
lowed by the women of the patient's family medicine man raises his hands, palms upward,
and all others who wish to be present at the toward the smoke hole with a gesture of dis-
healing rites.Before entering the hogahn, the missal.
patient has been handed a basket of corn meal; The last act in this series of healing rites is
white for a man, yellow for a woman. He the fumigation. Live coals are placed in front
holds this basket in the curve of his left arm, of the patient and also in front of any member
and the medicine man directs him in scatter- of the audience who has paid for a bit of
ing meal on each symbol following the same healing. The powder which medicine the
sequence as the pollen blessing. But this corn man sprinkles over these coals mixture of
is a
meal is in the nature of a gift and is not accom- aromatic sumac, bird feathers, water pollen,
panied by either prayer or chant. The patient and dust from a gopher hole. A blue sweet-
is offering this food to the forces represented smelling smoke arises, over which the patient
by the sand symbols. and other participants stoop to inhale as much
Then the patient sits near the door to re- as possible before it disappears. This rite is
move shoes, clothing, and jewelry; a man wears symbolic of internal and mental healing, and
only his shorts or gee-string, but a woman re- to banish the fear of having the ailment re-
moves only her shoes, velvet blouse, and jew- appear. It also protects the patient from pos-
elry. When ready, the patient is helped to his sible overpowering effects of the rites.
feet and the medicine man leads him to the A bundle of eagle wing feathers is held out
place he is to sit on the sand painting. This to the patient to help him to his feet and then
is generally west of the central symbol and is used to brush the colored sands from his
always facing the east. body before he steps off the painting. He
The medicine man returns to his seat, picks then gathers his clothing and jewelry in his
up his rattle, and starts the rhythm. There blanket and walks to the men's quarters.
are usually several men who sit near the medi- After the patient leaves the ceremonial ho-
cine man to assist with the chant, and a few gahn, all members of the audience are at lib-
may have rattles. When the correct number of erty to enter the painting from the east and
prayer songs have been chanted, the medicine pick up and apply the colored sand to any
man sets aside his rattle and walks onto the part of their bodies where there is an ache or
a bruise. the ailment is a headache, then
If and goats. During these blessing rites, a sand
the sufferer picks up sand from the heads painting is drawn just outside the corral gate,
of the various symbols and applies it to his and the animals are driven over it. The medi-
own head; if he is afflicted with rheumatism cine man follows and sprinkles a little pollen
of back, arms, hands, or lower limbs, then into the hoof prints of the animals. To gain
sand is selected from those parts of the painted blessing for crops, a small sand painting is
characters to cure these aches. sometimes made in the center of a field about
By the time have finished using the magic
all to be planted.
sands, the designs are thoroughly blurred and Other outdoor paintings are those used in
the colors are mixed with the dull background trance rites during which the medicine man
sand. The medicine man then walks onto the seeks to diagnose some unusual ailment. If he
painting and, with a feather tipped wand, care- is then the painting will be made
a star gazer,
fully destroys every vestige of the symbolism. at night, and will consist of one or more stars
Helpers scrape the loose sand into blankets painted on a dark background, but if he is a
and carry it to the north, where it is piled in "sun gazer," the ceremony will be held at high
a sheltered place to be redistributed over the noon, and the main figure in the painting will
earth by the wind. be the sun.
The majority of all sand paintings are made Although the sand painting is used mainly
and used inside some type of ceremonial struc- for healing for blessing, and for the banishing
ture and are for the purpose of banishing; evil of evil influences, these uses are frequently
influences, as well as securing blessing, heal- combined with other purposes. With a little
ing, and peace of mind for human beings. added ritual and the accompanying prayers,
There are occasions where they are made out- a baby or a group of babies may be chris-
side, and sometimes above, a ceremonial struc- tened, boys or young men may be initiated,
ture (fig. i). In the Night Chant, a sweat a child may be adopted, or any spiritual dis-
house is built in each of the four directions, turbance adjusted. So we find the sand paint-
and each is completed with a sand painting ings, with their amazing variety of stylized
over its top. In late winter the Navajo often symbols, occupying a major place in the re-
hold a ceremony to bless their flocks of sheep ligious ceremonialism of the Navaio.
PLACE AND NUMBER
THE establishing of a definite locale is one

of the first objectives of any Navajo
blue land of summer is also drawn
and the cloud house of Estsan-ah-tlehay
tangle,
as a rec-
myth, legend, sand painting, or religious rite. (Changing Woman) is painted as a white
All of these have their beginnings at certain square.
places where the immortals are said to have In many of the myths, the elements, animals,
met and instructed the earth people. Even insects, birds, and other forms of life are per-
today the selection of a place in which to hold sonified or characterized as having human at-
a major ceremony is influenced by the myth's tributes. All of these are spoken of as living
description of a site favored by the gods. The in certain places where their sphere of influ-
myth may start by mentioning the place where ence is greatest. Many are said to possess
the hero, or his parents, or possibly his clan homes of four, eight, or twelve rooms piled
were living at the time the story began. one above the other or spread to the four
In the myth explaining the Hail Chant, the directions. The ownership of this home is
opening phrase is, "There was a family of five sometimes determined by the tracks or foot-
living in a place called Kloditzen." Four of prints placed on it, or just in front of the
these people remained there but the fifth, be- doorway.
ing the hero of the lengthy tale, left his home There is an indefinite land or plane of exist-
and journeyed far to meet strange people and ence situated between the earth and the sky
immortals.He visited the home of Winter which is occupied by such elements and forms
Thunder who became his enemy and sought of life as move between the two. This is in-
to destroy him with white lightning; this home habited by the rain, the mist and fog, the small
is described in detail. He also visited the winds, birds, insects, moths, winged seeds, and
homes of the frog people, of the "Dontso" the leaves and tips of trees. The shape of this
messengers, and of the four Summer Thun- land is rectangular but all of its inhabitants
ders. All of these localities are illustrated by are in some manner characterized by the tri-
sand paintings used during the Hail Cere- angle and the number three. Clouds have
mony, and each place is represented by a three sides as do arrows, leaves, insect's wings,
rectangle, the color of which indicates its bird's tails, Nilth chizzie (Little Wind), Pollen
direction. Each oblong house is outlined with Boy and Corn Bug, and many more figures
four colors excepting a door which faces the (see figs. 80 and 81).
center. A wind symbol is placed in each door- When the myth centers around the place
way (fig. 2). . where the immediate ceremony is being held,
In this Hail Ceremony, the land of night is the sand painting will often show the tradi-
made in the form of a rectangle, although in tional features of that setting. One sand pic-
some sand paintings it is drawn as a diamond. ture, made during the Mountain Chant, shows
Its inhabitants are the sun, the moon, the the circle of cedar branches which enclose the
Milky Way, the stars, sun spots, comets, ceremonial ground. It also shows the central
northern lights, and lightning. None of these fire symbolized by a large red cross, outside
are considered gods in their elemental form, of which is a yellow circle and this is the
as all were placed in the sky by the first im- space reserved for the dancers (fig. 4). A
mortals, but the spirits which control them circular space marked with blue and red in-
have untold power for both good and evil. dicates the protected space reserved for the
In the Blessing Ceremony, the land of the audience.
Spirit Givers an oblong topped by
(fig. 3) is Location, described by the tale and shown
a square, all of which is covered with white on the sand painting, lends character to the
corn meal. This is outlined with yellow pol- ceremony, plays an important part in deter-
len, and the figures painted on the white back- mining the number of ritualistic events, and
ground are of colored meal or pollen. The generally indicates which group of immortals
n
or spirit forces are to be invoked. When in a great many sand paintings, and are used
the symbol or symbols representing place, or to represent rain shaft guards, horizon bound-
home, or mountain, or lake are placed in the aries, long ranges of distant mountains, col-
middle of a sand painting, the figures which umns or pillars of stone, and bodies of tall
point in the semi-directions belong to that immortals, stalks of plants, or bars of light or
symbol. The figures which He toward the darkness. Increasing the length or accenting
cardinal points represent the immortals or the height or width of a symbol adds to its
powerful forces expected to arrive at the cere- significance in the sand painting, and to its
mony coming from the four directions. The power in the rites of healing. Sometimes a
border around the picture may represent the figure which is painted very tall for a male
trails they are traveling (fig. 5). patient, is shortened and widened when the
The number 4 symbolizes stability and bal- patient is a woman.
ance, and is typifying homeland or
static, Ritualistic objects which are long and slim,
field, or a known locality. There seems to be such as canes carried by the Hashje-hogahn
but slight distinction in the symbolic use and and by the Beganaskiddy, 1 are counted as sep-
meaning of the oblong and the square. Both arate "beings" with spiritual powers of their
are said to represent the land or dwelling own (fig. 9). Ladders, flutes and fire pokers
places of spirit forces, immortals, elements, are a few of the objects which gain importance
people, or animals (fig. 6). But in writing the with length and have spirit-controlled voices
descriptions of many sand paintings, I have to guide parts of the ceremony or human ac-
noted that the square is more often spoken of tions whenever the need arises (fig. 10). A
as a "house" or an immediate locale while the long, black, horizontal bar outlined in white
rectangle represents the whole sphere of in- may mean the dark earth just under the sur-
fluence or the habitat of some particular face, and may be scattered with various colors
group. In either case, it was said to be a of seeds. Or it may mean night, and then
known area with definite boundaries. The there will be stars painted on it. This is an-
Navajo homeland is supposedly square, cor- other way of indicating a certain place or
nered by the four sacred mountains. This is a locality.
small and well-known area when compared The symbology of number as used in the
with the rectangles representing the sky, the Navajo sand painting is explained at length
spirit world, or the land of summer. in Reichard's Navajo Religion, Volume I. Of
Four squares, one above the other, are sym- the even numbers, 4 or one of its multiples is
bols of a four-story dwelling and probably employed most frequently in laying down
came from the pueblo community houses. A patterns which are expected to meet the ap-
black square or circle in the center of a sand proval of the gods. Some students of ethnol-
painting is generally explained as being the ogy believe that 4 is the number which sym-
underneath-land or place of danger where the bolizes this present earth and everything we
sun does not enter. The circle can be a symbol find here.
of the place of emergence through which all A fundamental quality of any Navajo re-
living things ascended to this present world ligious symbol is the plural character of every
(fig. 7). The story says that water followed spiritual power or elemental force. The hero,
the ascending people not far behind so now who had three broth-
killed the evil monsters,
this place is a bottomless lake. Black, yellow, ers with separate abilities and life histories;
blue, or white squares placed in the center may but Klah remarked, "They are really all one
also represent stars and are regarded as being 2
person."
the homes or habitat of immortals and power- The God is sometimes pictured as four
Fire
ful spirit forces who can be persuaded to personages standing side by side or coming
come to the assistance of human beings if the from the four directions. The Sky is often
right prayers are chanted and the correct sand divided into four segments with a definite
paintings made (fig. 8). symbol for each. The number of divisions
Parallelograms or long bars are to be found granted to each great power depends on the
1
House God and Humped-back God. 2
Similar to the forms of the gods in India.
I. I
Figs. 8 i i. 8. Lake. 9. Prayer stick. 10. Fire poker. 11. Four sacred plants.
type of ceremony and the size of the sand every part of creation, usually one an active
painting, and can be two, four, five, eight, or and the other a passive form, not in opposition
sixteen. to each other but complementing each other's
Every sand painting emphasizes the cardinal powers, such as he-rain and she-rain, crooked
points, the four corners of the earth where lightning and arrows which are dangerous;
stand the four sacred mountains, four parts of or straight lightning and arrows which are
the day, and four seasons in the year. There guarding Sky Father and Earth Mother.
are four or eight sacred plants (fig. 11), four East and south directions are beneficent, the
water monsters, four thunderers, and four, east being the masculine in character and
eight, or twelve prayer sticks erected around south the feminine. The west and north are
the border of the painting after its completion. less beneficent, the north being masculine,
It would take several chapters to list all of west feminine. The southern and western
the places where four is of ceremonial impor- colors of blue and yellow are considered
tance. Human existence has been divided into feminine showing characteristics of warmth,
four stages, and everyone is expected to have growth and fertility. The north and east col-
four ceremonies held for them before they ors of black and white are considered mascu-
die. One fact brought to my attention by a line and are more abstract, consisting of the
medicine man when he wished to emphasize white or the spirit life, and the darkness of
the importance of "4" was nature's use of that dormant life. In this as in other forms of the
number and its multiples. Corn is a sacred symbology, the active and passive forces are
plant in Navajo lore and ceremony, and he united to form the perfect symbol.
showed me a "perfect ear" which had twelve This is accented in the tales of the warrior
rows of kernels along the cob and four equally twins who are supposed to be dual personal-
perfect kernels at the tip. ities; one went forth to accomplish dangerous
The number next in importance is "2". One feats while the other remained at home to
of the most interesting elements in their re- guard the spiritual power of his brother. An-
ligion is the duality which is found in almost other myth tells of two monster birds who
nested on the peak of Shiprock and brought
small children as food for the two fledglings
in the nest. The sun and the moon are twin
powers in the sky and, although both are con-
sidered masculine in gender, the sun plays the
dominant role, while the moon, although of
equal importance, is less aggressive. Father
Sky and Mother Earth are twin creations and,
when placed in the same sand painting, are al-
ways shown as being the same size and the
same shape, but bearing different colors, de-
signs, and potentials.
There are two guards placed before the
door when a ceremonial lodge is symbolized
in sand, and two guardians at the east of many
sand paintings. There are two "talking keh-
tahns" and two "spirit givers." Estsan-ah-
tlehay, the Earth Woman, and Yolthkai-estsan,
the White Shell Woman who represents
water. These are a few of the instances which
emphasize the importance of the number "2"
in Navajo ceremony and sand painting. Figs. 12-13. I2a - Static cloud giving nourishment to
More difficult to evaluate is "1" as a sym- tree. Three sprigs of tree carried by sand
12b. paint-
bolic numeral. Many lone figures which may ing figures. 13. Cloud dropping rain on earth.
be used for complete sand paintings are still
associated with companions or with groups of with blue sand, lies on this huge symbol while
similar symbols. The blue-faced sun is often the prayer chant and the rites take place.
used in a minor ceremony, but the white-faced Then the medicine man actually drags the
moon is considered its companion. Mother victim away from the monster and the paint-
Earth may be used as the design for a healing ing is destroyed.
or blessing ceremony, but Father Sky is Many of the legendary monsters vanquished
needed to complete the symbology, as one by Enemy Slayer were solitary evil doers, and
does not exist without the other. when one was destroyed there were no others
There is one great coiled serpent which to trouble the inhabitants of the earth. Among
represents the latent powers of the under- these were the great giant on Mt. Taylor,
world, but because of his twelve coils and his whose blood ran down the valleys and turned
twelve house markings, he becomes a sum of into lava rock; the monster Elk at Black Lake,
four. There is one large whirling wind sym- the Rolling Stone, the Eyes-that-kill and the
bol that has no companion which is edged with Kicking Rock. From these and other in-
forty-eight knives which promise death to all it would seem that "1"
stances, is a number
who venture near; and there is one evil black more often connected with evil forces than
star which foretells illness and misfortune to with those of a beneficent nature. It may be
all who chance into its influence. There is that, in Navajo myth and symbolism, a lone
also a monster serpent who "swallows his object or force such as the cyclone represents
victim alive" or so surrounds him with evil something abnormal, or perhaps a rebel such
that misfortune follows his every act. as the black star who became an enemy of
A very unusual ceremony is sometimes held society and is greatly feared. The tornado is
for a person who has been bitten by a snake shown singly with lightning arrows, and when
or is thought to be the victim of snake magic. in milder form carrying wild plants.
The sand painting for this ceremony depicts a As a set and unvarying number for many
large blue serpent about six feet long and three things "3" (figs. 12, 13) is used in various rites
feet wide. The patient, liberally sprinkled and sand paintings. Triangles are active,
squares are Triangles are used in bird
static. The next four days and nights seek to bring
symbols, rain, cloud, and wind, or monsters. the power of healing which is the main object
There are always three roots for every plant, of the ceremony. The ninth day and night
three tips on a stalk of corn, three sides to a stage the grand finale with many visitors and
rain cloud, three tassels on each side of a danc- all of the ritualistic dancing.
ing kilt, and three bindings for an arrow. The number "13" is not a ceremonial one
Five and three are often inter-changeable. and whenever it is mentioned it seems to be
Five stalks of growing plants may be reduced connected with something evil. If a sand
to three without changing the symbolism, the painter accidentally places thirteen feathers
group of arrows carried in the right hand of on Talking God's headdress, the whole figure
each Flint Boy may be either three or five. is covered with background sand and then re-
Arrow points held upright show movement. drawn correctly.

Clouds are pictured in tiers of three, five or The Navajo calendar lists thirteen months,
seven. the extra one being the last ten or twelve days
Ceremonies lasting three days and three of October and a few days of November.
nights contain the same prayers, rites, and During odd month no new tasks may be
this
symbols as those of five-day duration. In started or old ones completed, no ceremonies
other groupings, "5" seems to be a combina- may be held, no games or festivities indulged
tion of four and one, four of these objects, in, and all travelers must halt their journeys
persons, or times being of ordinary value but until the next month arrives. The name for
the fifth exhibiting extraordinary characteris- this month is Gahnji, meaning "the divided
tics. Examples of this are four dancers and one," and is said to belong to the coyote. Its
one medicine man; four people at Kloditsin ascendant star is the coyote star which we call
plus one son who became a prophet; and four the Dog Star, and under this omen hunters
days of unhurried rite and ceremony preced- are supposed to prepare their weapons, masks,
ing the fifth which brings the religious, social, buckskin clothing, and amulets to be ready to
and festive activities to a climax. Feathers are take part in the winter hunting or "animal"
usually placed in groups of five, with rare ceremonies.
groupings of three or two, and sometimes The story of the Bear Maiden cites another
twelve. instance where thirteen is of evil significance.
Although we find them occasionally "6", The myth deals with twelve brothers and one
"7" and "11" are seldom essential to Navajo sister who could change into a bear at will,
myth, rite, or sand symbol: "8" and "12" are and then used her evil magic against her own
multiples of four, and "10" is simply two fives. brothers. It would be impossible to state that
"9" is the number of days and nights required any one number was a constant symbol for
by all of the greater ceremonies, but this can good or another constant as a representative
be divided into four plus four plus one. The of evil, but odd numbers predominate when
first four days and nights are for the propitia- there is mention of evil from antagonistic
tion of the immortals, the elements, the earth, sources, and even numbers are usually found
and any other forces that might cause trouble. where benefits and blessings are expected.
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE OF COLOR
COLOR occupies an important place in and other red mountain berries to powder,
and blue was obtained by crushing the dry
Navajo symbolism. Its use is mandatory
in most designs made for healing or for initia- petals of lupine or larkspur. Charcoal dust
tion ceremonies, but not for the small figures mixed with a heavier base has always supplied
frequently drawn for exorcism, and the tiny black paint and powder. The symbols painted
symbols used in picture writing are seldom for certain ancient ritesstill use these unusual
made in color. The significance of the color pigments.

of any particular symbol is second only to its Paint made from native clays softened with
shape and its size. The shape of the figure water has always provided the color medium
which is being drawn tells the object or force for the prayer sticks and the designs on drum,
it represents and the color tells of what it is rattle, and mask, and also for face and body
made, the direction from which it came, and paintings. These are of the five conventional
something of the power it carries. colorings excepting when gray ashes or brown
For example, the shape of the sun symbol is adobe is added. As the use of clay paint is
round like the sun. Its mask is blue, the mate- common to all North American Indians, it is
rial being turquoise, with heat and light being quite certain to antedate the use of dry sand
the attributes of the blue coloring (fig. 14). or other dry pigments, and probably estab-
lished the basic use of five colors.
In his book, The Night Chant, A Navajo
Ceremony, Washington A-latthews says that
in the rites and sand paintings of the Night
Chant and of several other healing ceremonies
the cardinal points are thus symbolized
white to the east, blue to the south, yellow to
the west, and black to the north. In the myths
and in nearly all day paintings, the zenith is
associated with blue. In rites which stem from

the underworld or place of danger and in
Fig. 14. Sun or moon symbol. ceremonies for the banishment of evil, black
is placed in the east, white in the north, while
Whether the religious symbols of the Na- yellow and blue remain unchanged. A mixture
vajo were always painted in several colors is of colors which makes a reddish pink, is some-
times used in the north.
impossible to .say, but we do know the pig-
ments used to make the earliest designs were He also writes of the law of contrasts in
not colored sands. In early days there seems which a blue surface is outlined or tipped with
to have been a taboo against using material,
yellow, a yellow surface edged with blue, a
or body, of Mother Earth in this manner; even white surface with black, and a black surface
at the present time the correct prayers must
with white. 3
be said before the stones can be ground into This generalization is just the first step in
paint. It is possible that pollen was the first
recording the symbolic placement of color
in the Navajo sand painting and does not cover
pigment to be used for ceremonial purposes
and, if so, the earliest colors were yellow, the many variations which are demanded for
white, and a soft red. These were closely fol- specific purposes.There are occasions when
lowed by, or perhaps contemporary with, the the color arrangement does not follow any
use of white, blue, yellow, and red corn meal. established rule. A
symbol of great power,
Red was also obtained by grinding rosehips such as that of the sun, will take precedence
some colors are considered masculine, others femi-
'Another sign of the duality of symbolism is that nine.
'3
'4 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
over other symbols and will occupy the
all
position of honor, no matter what its color

may be. If this is placed in the center, then
the usual sequence of colors surround it, but
when there is to be no central design, then
this powerful symbol is placed in the east. So
we find that although the sun is blue, it is
always given a central or an eastern position.
There is another law which governs many
sand paintings, and that is the law of opposites;
or a better term might be "twin powers." For
example, when the blue sun is painted in the
east, the white moon is always in the west,
and when the black wind occupies a southern
position, the yellow wind will be placed in
the north. Still other factors which determine
color sequences are the season in which the
ceremony is being held or the natural color
of the object being represented such as brown
otter fur or the gray of the badger. Another
determining factor is the nature of the illness
the medicine man is seeking to cure. There Fig. 15. Father Sky.
are no generalizations which will cover the
entire subject of color sequence, but each cere-
mony has certain established rules which can are given white bodies, white masks, white
be listed as basic. head feathers and kilts, and white hands. All
There are a few of the smaller paintings but the hands are outlined with the red life
which employ just two or three colors with line and little more is added excepting the
one predominating. The moon mask is always black slits for eyes and mouth and a few dots
white, that being the color of the shell from of pollen. The most powerful headdresses
which it was made. There is generally a yel- worn by any of the immortals belong to these
low line of blessing across the chin, and a red two figures and to House God and Talking
border for the life symbol. Here we find the God. All four are identical and each contains
color being determined by the material from twelve white eagle feathers tipped with black
which the object was formed, but that was and divided by the red life line showing that
not the only reason the white mask was given the feathers were taken from live eagles. This
to the moon. is a tall headdressand points upward to indi-
White is the color of purity and of the cate spiritual knowledge and power. The up-
spirit, and also it is a symbol of coldness, of raised hands of these four figures, and of many
gives
O DO
distance, and of pre-dawn light. The moon
no heat and its light is no greater than
that of pre-dawn; therefore, the mask it wears
represents these qualities.
others, are always white as they are said to
bring healing and spiritual blessing.
Awhite square or rectangle (fig. 15) will
often represent a spirit land located above this
Winter thunder is always spoken of as be- earth and held in place by cloud columns at
ing a white thunder bird, but this is seldom each corner. A
white circle or oblong in the
made any sand painting for fear of bringing
in north will symbolize the cold mountains in
too much cold to the Navajo country. that direction; if placed in the east they repre-
Two of the most powerful symbols ever sent the cold light of pre-dawn.
drawn into a sand painting are the Ethkay- The significance of white as a color symbol
nah-ashi, or Spirit Givers (see fig. 3).* These can be either good or evil, as the medicine man
and Articles," and Part III, sections dealing with

*
See chapter on "Ceremonial Costumes, Masks Ethkay-nah-ashi.
NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS: NEWCOMB '5
or the ceremony require. The painting of the Jasper is the yellow stone from which cere-
great white serpent which coils twelve times monial knives are crudely fashioned, and lucky
around the earth, proved to be too powerful is the medicine man who has chanced to find
for good results

the patient died. On the a perfect arrowhead or a spear point of pre-
other hand, the background for all Hozhonji historic workmanship, but beads or ornaments
(Blessing) rites is a mat of white corn meal fashioned of this stone are never worn by the
indicating a sacred or spirit land; and again Navajo. Pifion resin is sometimes ground with
we find that the upper bar on the forehead the yellow sand to brighten its coloring, and
of many of the masks worn by the immortals it is often melted and applied as a salve for
is white. cuts and sores.

Yellow is a color of spiritual blessing and I have mentioned white as being the spiritual
also immediate physical well-being, and seems color but, in many ways, blue is thought of
to carry fewer ills, along with the good, than as being just as sacred and possibly more pow-
any of the other four. It gains its importance erful as a positive force for good. The sun,
from the use of yellow pollen as a medium which is one of the most important figures in
with which to banish evil influences and to all symbolism, wears a mask of blue turquoise;
secure peace of mind along with many other the blue dome of the sky speaks of warmth
blessings. Yellow sand does not possess the and summer vegetation; in several sand paint-
power of pollen, but its color significance is ings corn, the most valued food plant, is
the same although it is never used as a substi- painted blue edged with white. The bluebird
tute. A familiar symbol is the little yellow is spoken of as a symbol of prosperity, health,
pollen boy, shaped like a wind elf, carried on and happiness; while the blue pine-martin and
the face of the sun, or the moon, or the cloud all blue mountain flowers are held sacred. A
and bringing the blessing of fertility. string of turquoise beads will bring the power
Yellow is the color of the female wind and of the sun to protect its wearer, and the blue
of the ripened harvest and the soft autumn clouds bring the summer rains.
rain. The mountains of the west and the As white is the color of cold and snow, blue
western sky are painted to represent the late is the emblem of warmth and rain. Tohnenilli,
afternoon sunshine and the evening of life. the water carrier, wears a robe of blue and the
Paintings of the two birds of mid-summer, Diginnih, or holy people of the Night Chant,
the canary and the meadow lark, are made wear blue masks. Blue corn, blue mountains,
with yellow sand, and yellow feathers from blue cloud columns and figures dressed in blue
live birds are used in making prayer sticks and generally occupy a southern position on the
kehtahns for offerings. sand painting. The corn bug and the corn
In marking the masks and in painting the maiden, symbols of food, are nearly always
patient's face, a broad yellow stripe is always blue in color while bread or mush made of
drawn across the chin to show that the ôds blue corn meal is considered sacred food.
as well as the patient have been fed with food It would seem that the color blue always
mixed with pollen. Yellow corn meal mush indicated some beneficent object or force, but
is the ceremonial food for the women as it this is not the case. There is a blue star (fig.
indicates fertility, while white corn meal is 1 6) which wanders about and shoots people
prepared for the men. A yellow circle on the with magic arrows to cause fevers and mental
eastern side of the painting may represent the aberration; also there is a great blue serpent
basket of sacred corn meal sprinkled with which is blamed for epidemics and lingering
pollen, but if the circle is placed in the west illnesses.
it is the symbol of mountains at sunset. Green sand is a pigment not often used at
A yellow square or rectangle west of the the present time, but in the first ritualistic
center will represent the home or land of the symbols green leaves were crushed and, later,
immortals who live in that direction. Yellow rocks stained with copper were scraped to
blossoms, feathers, pitch, stones, and fur all are obtain a green paint. Klah explained that
thought to have medicinal properties which green sand was not considered necessary for
may be used for ceremonial purposes. present-day paintings because at a distance the
i6 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
by itself is not considered evil unless it is
cloudy, windy and moonless; then it is said

to be filled with evil spirits, and the birds,
animals, or people who
hunt or travel about
on such thought to be their serv-
a night are
ants. Owls, night hawks, coyotes, rats, mice,
crickets, moths, whip-poor-wills, and badgers
are classed with witches. If one of these is
drawn into a sand painting its color is either
Fig. 6. Evil blue star. Fig. 17. Dark world.
i
black charcoal or gray cedar ashes, both of
which have been through fire.
mountains, the trees, and the shrubs appear to Gray is a color seldom used in a major sand
be blue, therefore, blue and green were con- painting made for an ordinary healing cere-
sidered the same color. mony, but there are various shorter rites for
Color is never an abstraction in Navajo the purpose of warding off evil influences that
symbolism, and black carries more significance do use gray ashes to draw symbols. If a Nav-
than other colors because of its varying char- ajo has injured a coyote, or a badger, or
acteristics. Just as we associate black with weasel, or any other night prowler and the
death and with garments of mourning, so do act has been followed by an accident or bad
the Navajo associate death, the underworld luck, he concludes that the animal has turned
(fig. 17), a dark night, an evil deed, or any its evil influence against him and his house-
place of danger with this color. Black wind, hold. Then a medicine man who knows the
black lightning, and black hail are all deemed correct ceremony is hired, and often he makes
destructive forces and are pictured wearing a symbol of the animal with gray ashes. Small
black clothing and masks. Even the feet and sketches of gray ash are also used in some
hands of these characters are black. The great trance rites.
black serpent of the underworld, the black Red is a color of fierce power which is sel-
Gila monster, and the king horned toad are dom, if ever, used as the main color or back-
evil forces to be propitiated. ground of a sand painting. In places where a
All colors are credited with dual character- major symbol might logically be expected to
istics, and black is no exception. find the We be red, there is a compromise of mixed colors
black thunder speaking in the loudest voice, called "ditsos," which appears on the paint-
and black clouds bringing the greatest rain- ing as a dusky pink. This is used in the north
fall, which is a much prayed-for blessing. A in lieu of a red thunder bird, it is used as the
black square in the center of a sand painting color of serrated arrows sent forth by the
may represent the place of emergence into northern lights, for special medicine bundles,
this world, the dark underneath land, or the and to indicate thunder reverberations. Only
home of under-earth dwellers. A black circle three ceremonies use this particular color, but
in the same position might be a mountain or in the Mountain Chant it is used in nearly all
mountain cave, or it may stand for a deep lake the larger paintings. A somewhat lighter shade
with a constant supply of water. of pink, made from a mixture of red and white
Black mountains usually stand at the north sand, is for the masks of the mountain gods
or the east and are considered guards or walls and indicates tanned weasel hide, also the
between the Navajo and their enemies. They uppermost star is pink.
are a beneficent power which provides springs, Red occupies an important place in the
lakes, fire wood, obsidian, herbs for healing, color symbolism of all Navajo sand paintings,
mountain sheep, and other food animals, and as it represents the life principle of animals
the feathers of the magpie. and humans as well as immortals. It may also
The blanket of night is pictured as a mat designate the symbol which causes death.
of black sand decorated with patterns of Many animals are drawn with a red and blue
white stars and also the sun and the moon. line from the mouth to the heart (fig. 18),
It is outlined in white morning light. Night which represents the breath and the circula-
NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS: NEWCOMB 17
Figs. 18-21. 18. Bear. 19. Squirrel. 20. Guardian rainbow. 21. Mountain god wearing four blankets of fire.
tion.There is a heart symbol which often of the red star will bring illness or bad luck.
shows four beats of the heart. Animal skins Another role this color plays in the painting
used for medicine bags usually have a red is that of guardian. The rainbow (fig. 20)
line along the back to show where the knife which frequently guards the painting on three
slit the hide (fig. 19). Nearly all masks and sides is red and blue, divided and edged with
many figures are outlined in red to indicate white. The beneficent blue is generally drawn
the life and power within. The figures of the on the inside and the militant red is placed on
sun and the moon are always outlined in red. the outside. The red and blue sun rays follow
Red pollen is often sprinkled on and above the same pattern as do the red and blue spots
the sketches of animals and birds. on wrists, knees, and ankles, and other rain-
On the other hand, a red arrow, or one bow spots and arcs used as protection.
tipped with red, is the symbol of a poisoned There are a few sand paintings in which
point which is capable of causing death. When red is the predominant color and these deal
the tongue of a serpent is yellow it is harm- with fire, the red wind, or the red ant people.
less, but if the tongue is red it represents a A red cross represents a blazing fire, and the
snake whose bite is deadly poison. The red larger the cross in proportion to the rest of
dot or cap on a serpent's head shows where the painting, the greater the significance of
it carries its poison. The red arrow-shaped the fire. In one painting of the Mountain
caps worn by the Flint Boys and the Warriors Chant, the mountain gods each wear four
indicate their privilege and power to slay their blankets of fire, one above the other, to em-
enemies. Contact with red wind or a glimpse phasize the height of the leaping flames on
8
1 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM

the night of the fire ceremony (fig. 21). In north star is pictured with a red cross in its
this same painting the four sacred mountains center, and this is called "the camp fire of
are covered with red sand to indicate the fire the sky." It is impossible to list all the places
potential of the trees and vegetation growing where any individual color can be used, but
on their slopes. In the paintings belonging to this gives a fair outline of the significance of
the Red Ant Chant, many of the figures in- each wherever it may be used on the sand
eluding the horned toad are painted red. The painting.
GREAT POWERS OF EARTH, SKY, WATER,
AND THE UNDERWORLD
IN THE Navajo Creation Myth there is a each section of these horns indicates their
detailed account of how this earth and the power to maintain the earth and the sky in
sky were formed, and how their physical space without wings or other visible means of
characteristics and their inhabitants were support. Stars and comets sometimes take the
created. diamond form, but are not given horns as their
The first things used as combined symbols triangular points carry them through space.
on sand paintings were described as being very In the Blessing Ceremony a cloud power
large and few in number, the numerical pat- has a diamond-shaped body marked with dia-
tern for each type mentioned seeming to be monds of all the sky and earth colors. He has
one, two or four. I have termed these "mon- white arms and his tail ends in the "kose-
sters" because their extent and spiritual power scheen" (fig. 23), a column of triangular
was so great as to exceed the comprehension clouds. He is the author of cloud bursts and
of human beings. heavy, destructive rains. The thunder bird is
The two mentioned first in the myth are another of these great powers (fig. 46).
Father Sky and Mother Earth (fig. 22), and The following symbols show their use as
the sand-painted symbols of these two follow types of forces rather than individuals by not
the details of the written description. The showing feet and paws, but cloud symbols
main body of each is in the form of a diamond instead. On the surface of the earth, serpents
or, less frequently, a rectangle. Either form (fig. 24) are frequently symbolized as dia-
indicates an extensive place or sphere of in- mond-shaped monsters with blue necks, ar-
fluence, and this shape is used in nearly every row-shaped heads, and tails bearing rattles,
symbol that depicts unusual force. and they represent the connection with the
The earth and sky figures have arms in the water under the earth. If personalized, they
shape of bows and pollen hands which carry wear brown earth masks, red arrow caps indi-
turquoise and white shell bowls eternally filled cating death-dealing power. They are also
with food and water. The legs are arcs or drawn with arms and legs, a cloud dancing-
angles ending in pollen feet. After being kilt, fetish pouch and pendant medicine bun-
shaped, the earth was spread with all kinds of dles. They generally carry bows and arrows.
vegetation which at a distance appeared to be In either delineation, the bodies are divided
blue, and the four sacred cultivated plants are into five sections by four sets of four parti-
shown growing from a central lake of pure colored lines which reflect cloud colors, and
water (also the place of emergence). The from which hang shell beads representing rain.
sand painting of Father Sky shows the sky The upper section of this monster includes
covered with darkness marked with stars, the the head, neck, arms and chest; the next four
Milky Way, the sun, the moon, and bars of sections, although rhomboid in shape, are con-
white dawn light. The necks of both Earth sidered in the same category as rectangles
and Sky are blue columns crossed by four red meaning place or sphere of influence. On each
stripes, and the masks are formed by four col- is the rectangular home of the snake people
ors of clouds with black charcoal marks for with a deer track pointing toward the house
eyes and mouth. A prayer feather, or bundle, (fig. 25). This symbol also carries the signifi-
is tied to the top of each mask with cotton cance of swift movement in a certain direc-
cord, and horns are attached to the sides. tion; it may stand for physical swiftness of
These horns are half black for night time and the deer, the wind, an arrow, or even directed
half blue for the day. White lightning on thoughts or desires. On each side stand curved
1
Figs. 23-30. 23. Cloud power. 24. Serpent. 25. Home of snake people. 26. Moon shadows or phases. 27. "Jalth,'
the frog. 28. Turtle. 29. Horned toad. 30. Gila monster.
Figs. 31-35. 3 1 . "Teoltsodi," water monster. 32. "Tabasteen," otter. 33. "Tchah," beaver. 34. "Kahtsen," alligator.
35. Big fish.
symbols variously called moon shadows, or and messenger of the Gila monster, who sel-
possibly phases of the moon (fig. 26). 5 dom ventures away from his dark home. The
"Jalth," the frog, is pictured in the form of second sight of the trance rite called the
a monster and used as a guardian symbol (fig. "Shaking Hand" is attributed to the power of
27). The same class
turtle (fig. 28) is in this the Gila monster.
with the frog, as both are amphibious and Water monsters included "Teoltsodi,"
divide their time between land and water. Water Monster, who has control of the ocean
The dark, underneath world is symbolized (fig. 31), tidal floods, gulfs and bays: Tabast-
by two monsters, the horned toad and the een, otter (fig. 32), who governs the waters of
Gila monster. The horned toad (fig. 29) wears rivers, creeks and any flowing streams; Tchah,
armor of arrow points and carries lightning beaver (fig. 33), whose domain includes lakes,
arrows in both hands and feet. His body and ponds, and all fresh water behind dams. Kaht-
his head are diamond-shaped. In sand-painted sen, alligator (fig. 34), rules over swamps and
pictures of the Gila monster (fig. 30) the marshes, also stagnant water back into bays
angles of the diamond are rounded so the and lagoons and is represented as a long ob-
body is fatly oblong; he is marked with gold long with oval head and extended snout. His
and black stripes, then dotted with various arms are black crossed with white.
colors, especially red, to denote the glitter of Water Monster (fig. 31) is pictured as a
his scales. The horned toad is the protector large white diamond with smaller diamond
6
Like Yin and Yang symbol in the East.
NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS: NEWCOMB -3
head, white arms, and legs ending in cloud tured something like frog, only they have fins
and water symbols. He carries all colors of and fish tails, and their hind legs bend in the
rain in his tail. Otter (fig. 32) is either a dia- opposite direction.
mond or a plump oblong with a diamond- Another abstract power is Niholtso, the
shaped head, and his four legs end in white tornado, with rain bows and arrows shooting
paws with claws. He is brown in color, with from him, and a rainbow ending in seed plants
rainbow spots along his sides. above him.
Another water monster is the big fish (fig. These symbols of abstract powers, whose
35) that swallowed "Nilthtsa-eshki" (Mois- size and power is considered unlimited, are
ture Boy) and carried him to the land below generally included in sand paintings used for
the waters of the lake. There are four of these exorcism or diagnosing, and less frequently
fish shown in each painting, and they are pic- on those employed for restoration.
SKY SYMBOLS, STARS AND COMETS
IN A land so dominated by the sky with its
continuous changes of color and mood, it
is not surprising that almost all Navajo medi-

cine men of the older generation spent much
time in the study of sky lore. From Laughing
Doctor, who was the greatest Yehbechai chan-
ter of whom we have record, and from Scar-
face, who was equally famed as chanter of
the Male Mountain Chant, Klah learned a
wealth of sky and seasonal lore, a part of
which I was privileged to record.
In nearly Yehbechai, Shooting Chant,
all
and Mountain Chant sand paintings we find

the white sky symbol placed in the east as
this is the color of the first rays of light after
the darkness of night. Blue sky is given a
position in the south to represent mid-day;
the yellow sky of sunset is placed in the west,
and the black night sky in the north. The
shape of each of these sky symbols is rec-
tangular or rhomboid, and each is outlined in
opposite color. When a triangle is added
its
it represents all the clouds that

to this symbol,
may move across the sky at this time of day
(fig. 36). Quite frequently we find twelve
feathered medicine bundles attached to the
top of each sky or cloud symbol, and these
can be interpreted as rays of magic power.
Each medicine bundle is tipped with an arrow
point or peak which indicates movement in a
certain direction. On the white sky symbol,
a raven and a yellow-shouldered blackbird
are often shown, because birds are considered
sky people. On this we also find the blue
figure of a mountain goat, which belongs to
the sky because its white fleece is symbolic
of the soft white clouds of spring and early
summer. Two yellow birds, the canary and
the flicker, belong to the blue sky of mid-day,
and the bluebird and the pine-martin are
sketched on the yellow evening sky. In all
of these we find the parallelogram (or rhom-
boid) symbolizing a place where something
lives.
On the symbol of the night sky, we find
patterns of stars, the sun and the moon, the Fig. 36. Sky symbols.
Milky Way sometimes referred to as the high-
M
way across the heavens. Even on the black When star symbols are enlarged and a few
mat of the night sky, the sun and the moon used for the entire design of a sand painting
are drawn as twin symbols. They are always without the night background, they are sel-
round, usually wearing horns and sometimes dom made in the form of a cross. The sand
a circlet of feathers, and are always accom- paintings made during the rites of the Star
panied by rainbow spots or bars. There are a Ceremony emphasize stars as the main sym-
few occasions where the slim arc of the new bols, and may consist of only one star sur-
moon is used, but the shape of the sun symbol rounded bv its attributes and assistants. The
never changes. Horns, when added to any shape of this large staroften square and a
is
symbol, indicate extraordinary powers as they human figure representing the Fire God, or a
do in many other religions. Flint Boy, or one of the Twins may be im-
posed on its surface. So again we find the
square used as a place where something lives.
I have never seen a star in the shape of a
rectangle, but the larger ones are often dia-
mond-shaped and carry figures of the black
Fie. 37. Comet or shooting star.
Comet (fig. 37) or shooting star symbols

are seldom placed in any sand painting used
for healing or restoration to normal well be-
ing. This is because they are considered to
be an abnormal phenomenon acting contrary
to established laws. They are sometimes used
when the object of the ceremony is to banish
bad dreams or dissipate evil influences. These
symbols take the form of star faces trailed by
long streamers of light. Fig. 39. Star.
Fire Gods. Klah explained that these stars

were their homes where they went after they
had finished making this earth and the people
who were to inhabit it. He also said they
were very far away and, therefore, must be
very large to be seen from our earth. So the
diamond takes the quality of something very
large whose extent and potentialities are un-
Fig. 38. Star.

known.
Another shape in which stars are sometimes
drawn is a square with points of light added
On the black background of the night sky, (fig. 39), and a third is the double triangle
ordinary stars are made in the form of crosses, which gives the star six points. The five-
the larger of which carry dots of red in their pointed star found in many present-day paint-
centers to indicate light or fire (fig. 38). Small ings is a later development possibly adopted
stars are simply white dots scattered very from the stars in our flag.
thickly along the Milky Way and around the The Star Chant is one of the few Navajo
major constellations, but less frequently over ceremonies in which the sand paintings are
the remainder of the sky. made at night. This is necessary, for the stars
2 6 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
made with colored sand must be lighted and were shaped by the seven immortals who cre-
given spiritual power by the star shine of a ated the first world. They were made from
particular star, which looks down through the the pieces of material remaining when the
opening roof of the medicine hogahn.
in the sun and the moon were made. First Woman
If the sand painting consists of five stars, laid them out in patterns on the earth, then
the largest is placed in the center, and the Fire God and Coyote climbed a lightning lad-
other four stand at the cardinal points. This der to place them in the sky. As each was
central star represents the largest star to be put in its proper position, it was given a spark
seen through the roof opening while the cere- of fire or spirit light, and it was also given a
mony is in progress, and the healing rites are path which it must follow. The pole star was
supposed to be completed before this star dis- to remain stationary as a guide for travelers,
appears from view, as this is the one being in- for wandering tribes, and for those who might
terceded with in behalf of the patient. It may become lost on the desert or in the mountains.
also be the one that is selected for a star gazing Each constellation formed the pattern of a
rite. symbol, and established some law for the earth
In the Star Ceremony there are not many people. They truly believed that their rules
sky maps such as we find in the Hail Chant for living were written in the stars. Also
and in the Shooting Chant, nor are there any every form of life mentioned in the old leg-
real constellation groupings. Each medicine ends had its symbol in the stars. Men, the
man chooses one or more that he believes he snake, the lizard, the Gila monster, the butter-
can influence, and then directs his ceremonial fly, the turkey, the eagle, the swallow, the
prayers and rites toward that particular one bear, the coyote, the porcupine, the badger,
or group of stars. and even the measuring worm had its own
The original legend tells us that the stars group of stars.
Figs. 40-48. 40. Clouds carrying hailstones. 41. Clouds carrying stars. Turkey.
42. 43. Eagle. 44. Bat. 45. Small
bird. 46. Thunder bird. 47. Rain cloud. 48. Dancing figures.
WIND, RAIN, HAIL, CLOUDS, MIST, LIGHTNING
ARROWS, AND RAINBOW
SYMBOLS representing either the four on the eagle (fig. 43) with a hooked
its tail,
which are
quarters of the sky, or those beak, the woodpecker with a crest, the bat
rectangular or diamond-shaped maps of the (fig. 44), the owl, and the duck are very easily
sky, are never placed on any sand painting in recognized; and the hummingbird has butterfly
a position which connects them with earth wings signifying their constant motion. Small
symbols. The onlyexception to this rule is birds such as the bluebird, the canary and the
the circle representing the peaks of the four wren are differentiated by their coloring.
sacred mountains, which in ceremonial termi- These small birds are generally drawn with a
nology means "reach the sky." These circles triangle for a body, arched or bent wing sym-
may also represent four pillars of light sup- bols, round head with two eyes and a beak, a
posed to hold the sky in place. triangularly shaped tail, and legs bent at right
In between this sky land and the earth there angles ending in bird claws (fig. 45).
is a sphere that accounts for perhaps a fourth The thunder bird symbol (fig. 46). is not a
of all Navajo symbolism. In this classification true bird design, but composed of various
is
we find all the elements: rain, hail, wind, basic characters which combine to create a
clouds, mist, and mirage. Wealso find all symbol of unusual power. The body of the
winged creatures: birds, butterflies, flies, bugs thunder bird is a rectangle indicating a definite
that fly, feathers, and winged seeds. Another place or sphere of activity, the lower limbs are
group of symbols belonging to this category the builders "7" which hold the body above the
consists of arrows, darts, lightning, sun rays, "feet," which are the cloud and earth symbols.
rainbow, medicine rattles, and even the leaves The wings form a bow for which the body
on trees and shrubs. This symbolism seems to would be the arrow. The is diamond-
tail
include everything that lives or moves between shaped containing lines of wind and rain, and
sky and earth, or has the power to lift itself bordered by a pink line representing thunder
or be lifted any distance above the earth. reverberations. From the feet there is flash
Cloud and storm symbols are nearly always lightning, and under the wings hang rain bun-
triangular in shape, and may consist of just dles accompanied by lightning. The neck is
one, or as many as twelve, triangles placed one the usual blue column with four red lines, and
above the other. Each triangle of the painting the mask is determined by the ceremony being
may carry a symbol that designates the type held. The headdress is topped by one or more
of ceremony being held. arrow points, indicating the power to kill. A
In the Hail sand painting each cloud carries thunder bird is never drawn with the head of
a diamond-shaped hailstone (fig. 40). In the a bird.
star painting, each cloud carries a cross repre- Water Horse (Kahilth-klee) is made much
senting a star (fig. 41 ). When the peak of the like thethunder bird, excepting in his sketch
triangle points toward the central design of the "wings" change to arms, and his mask is
the painting, the clouds are rising from that equipped with horns which are indicative of
central symbol which may be a lake, a his power to travel through space even
mountain top, or even a star. above the sphere of the thunder bird or the
Bird forms do not seek to depict an accu- cloud and storm triangles.
rate sketch of any one particular bird, and yet When the base of the cloud or storm is
to the nature-trained eye of the Indians, or to toward the center, it indicates descending
the ornithologist, every bird design carries storm or rain (fig. 47). A symbol used by the
some line or feature which gives the symbol Zuni shows a cloud with rain falling from its
a definite name. The swallow is shown with base. This same symbol is employed by the
a forked tail, the turkey (fig. 42) with stripes Navajo as a white kilt for dancing figures (fig.
28
ft
V
Figs. 49-54. 49. Feather showing direction of movement. 50. Dragon fly. 51. Dontso. 52. Lightning. 53. Serpents.
54. Guard.
48); the tassels at the corners indicate rain, and beetle, the butterfly, the cicada, and other
the jingle of the deer toes fastened to the flying insects are drawn with straight bodies,
tassels and to the belt and bag repre-
fetish masked faces, and with the legs, arms, and
sents the patter of rain drops. Direction is wings making long slim triangles (fig. 51). The
shown by the legs and feathers on the heads ability tomove through the air seems to de-
(% 49) pend on wings and is indicated by upper arms
Wind symbols are also drawn in the form and upper legs. For feet, they have either the
of triangles, especially when associated with claws of a bug or "kosescheen" (cloud) sym-
rain or moisture. And here, too, the design bols.
may consist of one or many triangles. But Light rays, straight lightning, rain bars, and
wind is often shown with points coming to- mild wind often take the form of straight
gether, while clouds or storm never are given lines of four different colors attached to major
this position. The power of the wind is that symbols or placed at the cardinal point to act
of lifting and carrying things through the air, as guards. Jagged lightning (fig. 52), war
of searching for information through crevices arrows, crooked wind, and serpents (fig. 53)
and small openings, even entering the ear to are drawn with five sections and four obtuse
influence thought. Like every other element angles. They also are attached to, or carried
it can be either beneficial or harmful; and as by, some main figure in the sand painting, and
it is an ever-present force in Navajo daily life, indicate power to move swiftly in more than
a vast amount of ceremonialism dedicated to one direction. All of these can be extended to
its control has developed. act as guards around one central figure, or
Little wind, Nilth chizzie, is an informer around the whole sand painting (fig. 54).
who guides the prophets in their search for Various plants and vines have this same an-
knowledge. He is more or less the same sym- gular shape, and in a few instances are classed
bol as the "Dontso" (Messenger Fly), who also with the arrows and medicine bundles that
takes the part of informant and guide. The act as guards. Also in the Blessing Chant and
"Dontso," the dragon fly (fig. 50), the corn Prayer writing, the straight or angled yellow
Figs. 55-57- 55. Mirage. 56. Curved serpent guard. 57. The sun's medicine
bar ending in a cross denotes continuance of the feathers of the birds belonging to those
life. mountains, but when it is painted with a mask,
The blue, red and white rainbow symbol is arms, kilt, and legs, it receives the name of
generally a three-quarter arc with mask, arms, Mirage Woman.
legs and kilt, frequently termed the Rainbow When the curved figure of a serpent is used
Goddess, although it really is hermaphroditic; as the guardian symbol (fig. 56), it often rep-
the red stripe representing the warlike guard- resents the line of the horizon where the land
ianship of the male, and the blue stripe denot- seems to meet the sky. Many guardian sym-
ing the more peaceful protection of the female. bols belong in this in-between sphere. The
Sometimes in ceremonies connected with vege- sun's medicine bag (fig. 57) made of red deer
tation, a line of pollen is drawn in the rain- hide and holding the sacred stone pipe and the
bow. The mirage symbol may be an arcalso bit of rock crystal with which to call down
encompassing three sides of the sand picture, the sun, belongs to sun ray. The bat which
or it may be long bars dotted with every color carries a medicine bag filled with pollen, the
of sand available, representing a mixture of "Dontso" fly which has no eyelids, lightning
mist and dust (fig. 55). If it reaches from arrows, blue birds, arrow snakes, and feathered
mountain to mountain, it is decorated with medicine bundles are all in this classification.
ANIMALS AND TRACKS
SYMBOLS of the animals depicted in sand lower part of the symbol from nose to tail,
paintings of various ceremonies can be di- from the tall grass and
to indicate the pollen
vided into three classes. First, we list the ani- other vegetation through which he runs.
mals, insects, worms, and other earth dwellers In other versions his symbol is personified
who contributed knowledge, power, or mate- with a striped or a brown mask, representing
rial to the prophets while they were
gifts mist or dust. In this form he is given arms
studying and collecting the prayers, ritual, with hands which carry the whirling circle
and symbolism that combine to create even (fig. 60), but he still has the hind legs, hooves,
the lesser ceremonies. Second, we have the and tail of a buffalo, also the divided hump.
animals whose flesh could, by permission of The arc which guards a painting containing
the gods, be used for food. Third are the buffalo symbols is usually the many-colored
animals, insects, and worms whose influence mirage, because at a distance the moving herds
is always evil. were almost lost in dust and mist.
The bear is drawn both as an earth and as The Navajo have no legends or ancient
a sky symbol. In the first he is a stocky figure recipes to indicate they ever ate buffalo meat.
with blunt head, humped shoulders, small ears, They did send hunting parties into buffalo
thick legs, grizzly mane, feet ending in claws, country, after holding the correct hunting
center bar of red and blue that turns back ceremonies, to kill buffalo. These men may
above his rump, and a red symbol of his heart have eaten the meat while there, and thus
from which a double line of red and blue acquired much strength and magic power, but
travels up his neck and out through his nose the parts of the buffalo they brought home
to end in a couple of white dots. This repre- were those the medicine man desired for use
sents his blood stream and his breath. in ceremonies: the horns, the tails, as much
When made as a symbol of the Bear con- of the hide from the shoulders as they could
stellation, the body is the same, but the legs carry, the hearts which would be dried and
and nose end in the "kosescheen" or cloud ground into powder, the skin from the nose,
symbol (fig. 58), and he carries five red feath- and several other portions which represented
ers on his back. His symbol is considered very buffalo magic.
powerful as are all humpback figures. The The porcupine (fig. 61) is another hump-
shape of the back signifies great carrying backed symbol that is used in the Mountain
power. He is most frequently placed as a Chant and in the Feather Chant. His magic
guard or as a "scare" medium, but in several is connected with his unusual armor
the
sand paintings belonging to the Mountain thick pads on the soles of his feet, his sharp
Chant, his symbol is employed as the main teeth, and horny nose. He taught the Navajo
theme. His color is generally black or blue, to eat the buds of the spruce tree for healing,
but when several are used in one sketch thev and how to make armor from hides glued to-
take the colors of the four sacred mountains. gether with pihon pitch. Porcupine meat is
I have never been present at a painting where never used as food.
the bear was personified or given a human The mountain lion (fig. 62), the leopard,
mask. The Navajo never eat the flesh of a the lynx, the wildcat, and badger are symbol-
bear or of his cousin, the woodchuck. ized either as animals or as personages who
The buffalo (fig. 59) is another large animal wear animal masks. In the Bead Chant they
whose size and strength are symbolized in are shown bearing gifts of medicinal herbs.
many paintings, especially those of the Shoot- In other ceremonies they are depicted as mes-
ing Chant. His rump and shoulders form two sengers or informers. The wolf is in this same
humps, and he has a stiff mane and short- category. None of these are food animals.
tasseled tail. His legs bend inward and end Water animals such as the mink, the otter,
in split hooves. A yellow line outlines the the beaver (fig. 33), and the muskrat are some-
3* A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
Fig. 65. Rabbit. Fig. 66. Coyote.
times killed ceremonially to obtain fur and It is customary for the hunters to save the
other parts for use in various rites, but are horns, and later these are blessed and used in
never used for food. Their types are in- various ceremonies. They are also ground up
cluded in many sand paintings where water and used in infusion, and sprinkled on hot
is indicated. coals for incense or as a fumigant."
The most important food animals are the There two rodents which the prophets
are
deer (fig. 63) and the antelope, for these were allowed sources of food. These are the
as
the most abundant in Navajo country. Elk rabbit (fig. 65) and the prairie dog, and at
and mountain sheep were also hunted as game the present time these furnish the Navajo with
animals, but were more difficult to procure. about the only wild meat they have. I asked
Sand paintings which are made for the hunt- Billy Yazi how it happened the Navajo could
ers are those made for blessing of food, seeds, eat prairie dog and not gopher or woodchuck.
and reproduction and carry symbols of all the He answered, "The prairie dog and rabbit
live on grasses, leaves, and roots just the same
game animals. The bodies, legs, and hooves
as the deer and the antelope, so their flesh is
of the deer, antelope, elk, and mountain goat
good to eat." A conventionalized sketch for
(fig. 64) are all made the same, the body be-
both of these is to be found in sand paintings
ing a long rectangle with rounded corners, the
of several ceremonies.
slim legs bending inwards ending in split
The third class of animals consists of coy-
hooves. The deer's head is carried high, with
otes, foxes, wolves, dogs, badgers, weasels,
fairly long ears and spreading antlers; its color pack rats, mice and all animals, bugs or insects
is generally blue. The yellow antelope has a that live on carrion or act as scavengers. The
smaller head, straighter neck, and the antlers myths belonging to the various ceremonies
point forward. The elk is black with longer often mention one or more of these, and the
antlers and longer The gray goat's horns
tail. coyote (fig. 66) is the protagonist of many
curve backward. The mountain sheep is tales. But in the sand painting, their sketches
white, not as slim as the others, and along his or symbols are rarely used. The Coyote Chant
back are curls of wool. His horns are thick has four paintings showing the coyote and
at the base and coiled to a peak at the tip.

one with the badger, while the diagnosing
"Rite of Listening" uses both the coyote and
These pictures of food animals are not sym-
the dog. These sketches are made of cedar
bols of abstract powers, but simply stylized
ashes and charcoal, used during the trance
sketches of the actual animal. They all have
rite; then the ashes and sand are scraped onto
their own type of magic which each carries
a paper, carried to the north, and placed under
in its horns. Sketches of the heads of these
a bush.
four animals are made to show that the immor- The badger (fig. 67) is not considered as
tals often appeared disguised in this head mask. evil as the coyote but still it is said that "only
Such masks were also worn by hunters when "See section on "Deer and Horns of Power" in
stalking deer or antelope. Part III.
##0
67
*
Figs. 67-71. 67. Badger. 68. Star cross.
witches eat the flesh of the badger." Sketches

of him or his pelt are to be found in the Star
Chant, the Bead Chant and the Female Moun-
69. Wolf tracks. 70. Bear tracks. 71.
70
7'
Eagle or
or what lived on a certain mountain, or walked

hawk
in a certain direction, then tracks of that per-

son, animal, or bird will be drawn in the
claws.
tain Chant. Weasel and squirrel are used in proper position. These track symbols are con-
sand paintings as medicine bag symbols, and sidered as powerful for exorcism as the sketch
as part of certain masks and dance costumes. of the person, animal or bird would be. Those
Rats, mice, skunks, and crickets are night ani- most often used are the pollen tracks of the
mals and are too thoroughly in league with immortals, star crosses of the sky forces (fig.
the forces of evil to be used in any sand paint- 68), rainbow spots, human footprints, the
ing. prints of wolf, bear, cougar, eagle, and hawk
When a sand painter wishes to show who paws and claws (figs. 69, 70, 71).
SYMBOLISM OF PLANTS, SEEDS,
AND POLLEN HERB INFUSIONS
THE earliest plant symbolism used in con-

nection with Navajo ritual and sand
head and bound to the neck with cord spun
from wild cotton.
painting seems to be that of plants growing in Rattles are made of gourds or of skins with
or near water. An ancient and now obsolete lightning arrows and stars pricked on them.
form of the Night Chant called "Tohe Klehje" On the sand paintings most of the figures carry
emphasizes this fact. Klah informed us that small medicine bags attached to their wrists
in this ceremony all knots used to bind prayer by cords of rainbow (fig. 73).
sticks and were tied under
ritualistic articles A medicine man may possess four, eight, or
water. The Water Chant, in which water twelve prayer sticks which he keeps with his
pollen and water plants are used ritualistically, other permanent equipment, and as long as
is one of the earliest Navajo ceremonies, only these are used with the correct rites and pray-
parts of which are still remembered by Nav- ers, and occasionally blessed with a pollen
ajo medicine men. blessing, they continue to gain power. For
Willow is the wood generally used for the this reason, an older medicine man often sells
base of all prayer sticks, and the pollen from or trades a few of his prayer sticks to a neo-
the catkins is gathered in the spring to use in phyte who is studying his ceremony, after
blessing rites. Withes of willow are used in the student has learned the prayers and ritual.
the water chant in place of the yucca strands If a ceremonial article is given away or stolen,
employed in the releasing rite or other evil it loses all of its sacred significance. It also
dispelling ceremonies. When a Navajo sheep loses its power if it is picked up by a dog or
herder fell into a flooded arroyo and was pushed around by any other animal. In a cere-
nearly drowned, Big Man Begay, who was mony Dejoli Begay had erected four prayer
the medicine man chosen to hold the restora- sticks and a beaver collar outside the door of
tion ceremony, asked me to send to the ocean the ceremonial hogahn; then he went inside
for long strands of kelp and three other vari- to supervise the sand painting. A couple of
eties of seaweed. In a certain rite the sheep sheep dogs came along and carried away two
herder patient was bound in a net made of of the prayer sticks and the beaver collar.
this seaweed; then at the proper moment in When the attendants discovered what had
the ritual, he was gradually released. This in- happened, the ceremony ended abruptly and
dicated that he had escaped the anger and the medicine man, the patient, and the guests
power of the water. hurried to their homes.
Wands of willow (fig. 72), growine at the Dejoli Begay was very disgruntled because
edge of water, are sjathered and dried several he had not only lost two prayer sticks and a
days before they are to be used. The sections valuable beaver pelt, but his whole ceremony
cut from these wands to make prayer sticks had lost favor in the minds of his friends and
(see fig. 9) must have no branches and must the community. He must now pay a medicine
be free of all blemish. The bark is peeled off, man from some other section of the reserva-
one end is sharpened and painted white to be tion to hold a ceremony of exorcism to dispel
inserted into the ground. The other end is the evil influences causing his ill luck in order
shaved flat on one side, then painted white to restore his prestige as a medicine man.
with black dots for eyes and mouth. If there Other water plants of ceremonial impor-
are eight sticks being prepared, two will be tance are those of the cane and reed family.
painted white, two yellow, two blue, and two "Lukatso" generally refers to the bamboo
black. Then turkey and eagle down and which is often mentioned in the legends, but
shredded herbs are tied to the back of the is seldom used in present day ceremonies.
J5
3<5 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
kehtahns are placed on some eminence and
left as gifts for the immortals, so new ones
must be made for each ceremony.
Cane is also used for making the cloud altar
for the Tsilthkehje Nahtohe, Mountain Chant,
and for the rainbow altar used in the nine-day
Wind Chant. The Fire God's staff in which he
carried fire from one place to another was
made of cane or bamboo.
Mountain vegetation is next in importance,
and can hardly be separated from water sym-
bolism because of the mountain lakes and
rills which make much of the growth pos-
sible, so I mention only dry land plants. The
spirit power of trees is given due recognition
in almost every Navajo ceremony, and espe-
cially in all those thatculminate with a Fire
Dance. In the rites which
feature tree magic,
the whole tree is never cut down or killed,
but tip ends of branches pointing east, west,
south, north and upward are cut off with a
flint arrow point, after a short prayer has
been chanted and the tree blessed with pol-
len. Before each ceremony, a special assist-
Figs. 72-75. 72. Willow square used in Yehbechai cere- ant, or the medicine man's neophyte, is sent
mony. 73. Medicine bags hanging from wrist. 74. Keh- to the mountains to obtain the green branches,
tahns. 75. Yucca. twigs, wands for hoops, and all fresh material
that is to be used. Nearly every tree has some
"Luka," or cane which grows in the
grass, ceremonial significance. Spruce and cedar are
marshy ground at the edges of mountain lakes most important, but pinon, juniper, oak, pine,
and swales is the material gathered for making mountain ash, aspen, wild cherry, and aromatic-
most of the sacred cigarettes or kehtahns. sumac all have some place in the rites.
Every fall in early September I motored with A great many of the herbs used for herb
Klah to Cottonwood Pass Lake where he would infusions, powders, incense, and fumigants are
wade ankle deep into the mud to cut armfuls gathered on the mountain side. The medicine
of cane grass, reeds, gather bulrush pollen, man generally gathers these at certain sea-
dig water hyacinth roots, and to pick up what- sons, then dries and stores them so as to have
ever duck, grebe, or crane feathers might be a sufficient supply at all times.
lying about. In this one trip he generally The desert does not produce many plants
gathered enough mountain lake material to for ceremonial use. Certain combinations of
last until we made the same trip a year later. desert weeds and shrubs are boiled to obtain a
An occasional trip to the San Juan River sup- powerful emetic, and the fruits of the cactus
plied him with additional water symbolic ma- and yucca are sometimes added to the cere-
terial. monial "cake."
In making kehtahns (fig. 74) from the hol- The one desert plant that is indispensable to
low cane grass, a perfect specimen is cut into Navajo ceremonial procedure is the yucca
prescribed lengths, some an inch long; others (fig. 75). The root furnishes the soap to make
may be two or even three inches. These are the suds for all ceremonial bathing; the long
painted with ceremonial designs and then leaves furnish strands and twine for much of
filled with shreds of native tobacco, bluebird the tyings and bindings. The sharp points
and canary feathers, and then sealed with tree act as awls and needles for sewing, and the
pollen moistened with sacred water. These juice is the sticky substance used to moisten
the clay paint so that it will stick to the

plaques, the cane, and the masks and body.
Of the cultivated plants, corn takes prece-
dence above all others (fig. 76), and there is
no ceremony that does not use some symbol

of corn. Corn pollen (tradadeen) is one of
the sacred elements; corn meal ground by a
w
virgin is a ceremonial food; and two perfect
ears of corn, bound together, are symbolic of
physical and spiritual life.
The pollen from bulrushes is brownish-
vellow and is called water pollen (Toh-bith-
tradadeen) and, according to Washington
Matthews, this was the first pollen to be used
in Navajo ceremonies. It is still gathered and
carefully stored in every medicine man's bun-
dle, to bless the sand symbols, the kehtahns,
and the patient when the water spirit has been
angered and must be propitiated. Water lily
pollen is quite rare, but very powerful for
this same purpose. Another water pollen
greatly prized by the Navajo medicine man is
the yellow deposit sometimes seen along the
water line of lake or ocean. At one time Klah
desired a supply of this "ocean pollen" (Tohn- Fig. 76. Corn in Blessing Chant representing the tree
tyelige) so I wrote and explained his desire to of life. Fig. 77. Sunflower.
Mr. North Duane of Santa Barbara. He

watched the beach for some time before he were strung on deer sinew to be carried on
found the yellow scum on the sand; then he long journeys. This was called "traveler's
sent Klah a pint of the yellow powder mixed bread."
with the sand and Klah was greatly pleased. Sunflower pollen is still used, but generally
jMr. Duane took some to a botanist who in- is mixed with pollens of other yellow flowers
formed him that the yellow substance was such as the goldenrod. It is given the general
not really pollen but minute algae that come name of "bihadadeen." The seeds are still used
from deep sea plants when the water had been in ceremonial foods and as a cure for stomach
greatly disturhed. disorders. Mountain pollen is blue in color,
Sunflower (fig. 77) pollen was used in the and is a combination of the pollen and the
Vehbechai and in the Hozhoni-Ba'ahd (Fe- crushed petals of several mountain flowers
male Beauty Chant) before corn pollen came such as the lupine, larkspur, hairbell, and
into general use. It was considered a powerful asters. It is used in blessing the fields, the
life-giving principle evidenced in the tale of seeds, and the flocks. Tree pollen is also used
the Bat Woman, who walked through a field in these same rites.
of sunflowers with a basket of feathers, and To make pollen especially powerful for
when the sunflower pollen touched the feath- certain rites, it is sprinkled over birds or ani-
ers they turned into birds. In an ancient form mals or insects. My
daughter had a young
of the Yehbechai four types of sunflowers northern mockingbird and a medicine man
were pictured in the sand paintings along with asked permission to sprinkle a couple of
sketches of immortals who wore black masks. ounces of pollen over it. We
placed a clean
The meat from sunflower seed was ground white paper in the cage to catch the pollen,
with grass seed and deer tallow, molded into which later was used in a ceremony held for
small flat cakes, then baked between hot a child with a speech defect. Pollen through
stones. These were highly nutritious, and which a lizard has walked is used in child
J8 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
birth, eagle pollen is cure for sore eyes, and
a place about a half mile further on where the
owl pollen corrects poor hearing. All of these telegraph poles and wires were strewn in a
are called "life pollens" because they have tangle and the fence posts and wires were flat
gained power from living creatures. to the ground. To the south of us, a high
Pollen is the element which brings peace butte displayed a raw gash that resembled a
and plenty, long life, and security. An inci- fresh landslide.
dent which occurred several years ago will The strangest thing about it all was Klah's
illustrate the confidence every medicine man supreme confidence in his ability to turn dan-
places in his particular mixture of pollens. Mr. ger away from us, and we must have shared
Newcomb and I, accompanied by Klah, were a measure of that faith as we made no move
motoring along Highway 66 near Baca, New to retire to a safer distance.
Mexico, when we noted a dark cyclone col- One day Klah and I rode up the mountain
umn twisting its way from the north to cross as far as the car could go and then walked
our route perhaps a mile in front of us. Stop- some distance up a steep slope to the base of
ping the car we all stood in front of it to a huge mass of rock that capped the eminence.
watch the progress of this unusual phenome- Here Klah placed his open palms flat against
non, when its wavering course changed and the smooth surface of the rock and muttered
it seemed to be headed directly toward us. a low prayer that took about five minutes.
Klah opened his pollen bag, which he al- Then he opened his pollen bag and sprinkled
ways carried with him, and took a small pollen up and down the rock, also in a circle,
amount of pollen in his hand. Then he walked which indicated a blessing for the whole
about, picking a bit of every kind of plant or mountain and everything on it. After this he
shrub to be found on the mesa, adding the began his search for the things he wished to
bits to the pollen in his hand. When he had take home. It seemed to me that he asked
the plants he wanted, he put the whole hand- permission to gather the herbs and branches,
ful into his mouth and chewed it into a paste at the same time thanking the mountain spirit
which he spat as far as he couldtoward the for its gifts.
approaching menace. The root of the bulrush (Tralth) is used as

We
could barely hear the low chant of some medicine for burns from lightning or forest
prayer which evidently was the accompani- fires. The root is ground and boiled to make
ment of this rite. Strange to say, the black a tea to absorb the poison in the stomach or
column changed into an hourglass shape, then bowels, which are distended from the poison
parted in the middle with the lower cone of the burns.
whirling away to the south and the upper half The seeds of the everlasting pea (nah-oli-
merging with the dark clouds over head. ilth-tai leaves like the bean) are sometimes
When we finally decided the danger was placed inside the medicine rattle along with
past and continued our journey, we found a beans, corn, and melon seeds to call for rain.
*
CEREMONIAL COSTUMES, MASKS AND ARTICLES

EVERY Navajo religious ceremony is con- and then he will wear or carry articles that
ducted by a medicine man (or a medicine represent the spiritual powers of these person-
woman) who has spent years memorizing the ages. In a certain rite of the Yehbeehai, Klah
correct prayers, rites, herbs, and symbolism; would don a blanket of white unwounded
also the sequence of ritual which belongs to buckskin and wear the Hashje-altye (Talking
that particular ceremony. This religious lore God) mask. In the Mountain Chant Hatrali
when duly recognized and accepted by his Nez wore an otter neck piece to which was
contemporaries, is his most valuable asset, and tied a reed flute and many small shells. Yohe
he becomes one of the most important men of Hatrali had a white and a blue bead, and also a
his community. Although he may be com- fair-sized medicine bundle tied to his scalp lock
paratively wealthy, owning many sheep and so that it dangled over his forehead; Hasteen
much silver and turquoise jewelry, his dress, Beahle wore a cap of eagle breast feathers while
when acting as master of ceremonies, is no he performed the healing rites of the Eagle
more elaborate or symbolically decorated than Ceremony; Dejoli Begav, followed by two as-
that of other men who are simply helpers or sistantsmasked as buffalo, led his line of dancers
spectators. The esteem and respect he receives around the central fire, chanting and whirling
from other members of his tribe stem from the bullroarer, as his salute to the fire. Each
the spiritual knowledge and power he has one of these medicine men selected the most
acquired and not from his personal wealth. powerful symbol from his medicine parapher-
(See figs. 78 and 79.) nalia to use in the ceremony and transmit its
Some of the older medicine men in our power to the patient for his healing.
vicinity considered their possessions a handi- Yehbeehai masks are made of white buck-
cap to their chosen vocation. Klah divided skin painted with symbols and trimmed with
more than a thousand sheep, many ponies, and feathers, hair, fur, twigs, or beads to represent
a few among his nieces,
cattle his mother, and the various immortals mentioned in the myths.
his sister. Then he put all of his extra robes, The shape of each mask is rectangular or
buckskins, silver, and turquoise into a stout round with a flattened base, both representing
wooden chest and stored it at our trading post. the "place" where that spirit dwells. A white
Hasteen Beahle, the Eagle Chanter, gave all of mask often represents clouds, blue may sym-
his property to not saving even one
his sons, bolize rain, yellow is generally pollen or fer-
horse on which to ride as he went from cere- and black may
tility, be black clouds or night
mony to ceremony. sky. Nearly all masks represent something
A Navajo medicine man never dresses in above the earth. These are the permanent
weird costumes to dance and shout around the masks belonging to the medicine man who
patient to frighten the evil spirits away. His conducts the Yehbeehai ceremony. He also
role is that of a priest who knows the correct uses temporary masks which are destroyed
rites, prayers, symbols, and methods of peti- during the rites, and these are made of spruce
tioning the immortals and the great forces of twigs, yucca leaves, or bulrush leaves.
the earth and sky in behalf of those who are All ceremonial masks are held in great rev-
ill body or in spirit. His power is symbol-
in erence and also a certain amount of fear by
ized, not by costume, headdress, or mask, but the Navajo people, as they are supposed to
in the various articles he carries in his medi- contain the spiritual life and powers of the
cine bundles, and in the herbs and pollens he immortals they represent. It is believed that
has gathered for the ceremony. their influence can bring great blessings if
During the rites of healing, the medicine they are treated with respect and handled
man may act as the representative of some with the proper prayers and ceremony, but if
Yeh, or Hashje, or other immortal who is sup- used incorrectly they can cause great disaster.
posed to carry out this part of the ceremony, Two other masks belonging to the Yeh-
39
Fig. 79. Fire god carrying fire stick and traveler's

bread.
Navajo. Father Berard Haile pictures these

masks as being round with flattened bases, one
white and the other yellow. Tied to the masks
and lying around them are articles and small
medicine bundles.
Klah describes these Ethkav-nah-ashi masks
as being round, of white buckskin, bordered
by the red life line and crowned by twelve
eagle tail feathers. A line of yellow corn
pollen marks the chin, the necks are blue, and
in sand paintings the bodies are white with a
red outline. They wear no ornaments and
carry no bundles or symbols of power as they,
in themselves, represent the essence of inde-
structible spiritual life. Their gift to the pa-
tient or to the initiate is a portion of their
own bodies, which loss immediately replaces
itself.
Klah said, "They never become less power-

ful, they could give their substance all away
Fig. 78. Beganaskiddy, carrier of seeds, with his cere- and still be there just the same." They are too
monial cane and horns of power. powerful, and have not been used because no
one dares to use them.
bechai ceremony are those of the Ethkay-nah- Some years ago Mr. Newcomb heard that
ashi,or Spirit Givers. These are very rare and an aged woman living on the other side of
their whereabouts or the name of their owner the Carrizo Mountains had in her keeping some
is seldom disclosed to white people, as they medicine articles the Navajo referred to as
are said to possess the greatest magic power Ethkay-nah-ashi. Mary Wheelwright asked
accredited to any medicine article used bv the us to find her and see if these articles could
be obtained for the Museum of Navajo Cere- a medicine man now dead, could be referred
monial Art. Taking Clyde Beahle as an inter- to by that name.) Our interpreter learned
preter, we drove as far as we could find a that sacred collection had belonged to
all this
road and then walked several miles to locate the Laughing Doctor, Nah-cloi Hatahli, who
the cluster of hogahns where she lived. For was said to be the greatest Yehbechai chanter
a time she refused to talk to us or to answer and who was Klah's instructor.Also he was
our interpreter's questions. However, they the one from whom Washington Matthews
were very poor and when we offered her obtained the material for his book, mentioned
twenty-five silver dollars, she admitted having heretofore, entitled The Night Chant A
a large box filled with medicine articles; but Navajo Ceremony.
no man must ever see or touch them until A that emphasizes the fear in which
tale
they were again being used by a medicine these Ethkay-nah-ashi masks are held, was
man. She explained that women were always told to me by Haskie Wood of Crown Point.
the caretakers of these sacred things. He said that when he was a young man the
I was permitted to enter the hogahn and government employed him as interpreter for
sat quietly on the north side while she and her Superintendent Stacher at the Crown Point
daughter held a purification ceremony which Navajo Agency. One fall a great many Navajo
concluded with the pollen blessing for the sheep owners and farmers came to the agency
hogahn, herself, her daughter, and me. Then to complain that a certain man was bewitch-
she opened a goat hide covered box and took ing the children and also causing sickness to
out some of the whitest and most beautifully spread among the sheep and cattle of all those
tanned buckskins I had ever seen. Under who refused to pay him tribute in money,
these were several bundles of medicine articles jewelry, or sheep.
rolled in clean unbleached sheeting and pieces The superintendent called all the men of
of buckskin. As each article came to view, that district who
had any knowledge of these
she blessed it with corn pollen and intoned occurrences to meet at the agency on a certain
the correct prayer. The largest of these rolls day. Then he sent his policemen to bring in
contained twelve or more masks for use in the the man accused of witchcraft, and also to
Yehbechai ceremony. bring all of his magician paraphernalia. When
A bundle wrapped in several layers of all were in the assembly hall, with the super-
coarse cloth and a final layer of white buck- intendent and his interpreter behind the desk,
skin was opened, and disclosed two masks and the accused man at its side, the box of
with the top eagle feathers turned down so magic articles was placed on a stool in front
as to completely conceal the faces. The old of the desk.
woman lifted them out of the box and held More than a hundred Navajo men and a
the feathers upright so I could see the masks, few of the agency's white employees stood
as she fed then) white and yellow corn meal, in the main part of the room, and several were
and blessed them with yellow corn pollen. asked to testify before the superintendent and
Both masks were of beautiful soft, white buck- the assembled Navajos. When they had fin-
skin, not hard and dried as many of the other ished their accusations, the prisoner was asked
Yehbechai masks I had seen. One was somewhat he had to say in his own defense. He
what yellow from the dust of the yellow corn said that he was not a wizard or "Chindi"
meal which was scattered around its mouth. person as his accusers claimed, but he did
Both had wisps of red hair tied around the have powerful magic bundles that would do
upper portion and both were marked with anything he asked, and he had used these to
yellow pollen along the chins. Turquoise, frighten his neighbors into giving him sheep
white shell, stone pipes, decorated sticks and and goats. He claimed that he had never
other small medicine articles lay under the harmed any of the children, but every time
masks. I was informed that these were the anyone was ill they blamed him.
things the Navajo called "Ethkay-nah-ashi." Then the superintendent asked some of
(Later I learned that all stored medicine arti- the Navajo men to come up and open the
cles and properties which had been used by box but no one came, as all were afraid to
4- A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
untie the knots. The superintendent asked of the deer or the antelope; the group repre-
Haskie Wood if he was afraid to open the senting the Mountain Chant will have pink
box and he said, "Yes, I am afraid, but I will stripes of weasel hide to which are attached
open it just the same." When he had it open many cane splints, weasel tails, feathers, bright-
he saw two white masks and white buckskin colored yarn, beads, and small medicine
rolled to resemble arms and legs. Several of bundles.
the other Navajo men and most of the white In the Bead Chant, the animal masks are
people came to look into the box, but the evidently made from their own hides which
Navajos took one look and then went away have been dried, shaped and then slits cut for
very fast. The superintendent ordered the eyes and mouth. These animals include the
box tied up again and asked some of the white mountain lion, the wolf, fox, badger, lynx,
employees to carry it to the furnace room and and wildcat. I have heard that years ago the
watch until it was completely burned. Then character who takes the part of the bear in
he told the Indians to go home and that he the "scare ceremony" wore a bear mask and
did not care to hear of any more witchcraft. a bear robe. But this often frightened the
I have no complete description of those patient too badly, so now he is dressed in a
Ethkav-nah-ashi masks and I have never heard blanket of spruce twigs which seems to sym-
of another set on that part of the reservation. bolize the bear's pelt.
The masks and costumes belonging to the The only bird to be accorded a mask and
Yehbechai are frequently borrowed by the rated among the immortals is the thunder bird.
medicine men of the male Hozhoni (Beauty This figure is shown in the Shooting Chant,
Chant) and also by the Coyote Chanter. in the Water Chant, the Feather Chant, the
The Feather Chant includes many of the Hail Chant, and in the Wind Chant sand paint-
same Yeh (gods) as the Yehbechai and when ings. His mask is rectangular and may be the
they hold a nine-night ceremony they have pink of northern lights, the white of summer
masked dancers, but they add masks for every clouds, brown of earth material (these brown
type of game animal found in the Southwest masks are supposed to be made of buffalo
and a few birds and water animals. In this hide) or it can be marked with the four bars
ceremony they use masks of deer, antelope, of light. Where a symbol serves in so many
elk, and mountain sheep; strips of pelts of the different ceremonies, there are many varieties
porcupine, weasel, prairie-dog, otter, beaver, of decorations on these masks, but I have
and muskrat; and feathers of various birds. never seen a dancer impersonating a thunder
Part of the ceremony seems to be dedicated bird.
to rites for the reproduction of all forms of The Wind Chant has so many variations,
wild life. with wind spirits characterized by different
The animal masks are made from the hide patterns, that it is difficult to describe any
from the animals' heads with the ears and the particular mask. The immortals who are peti-
horns still attached. They are hood-type masks tioned to come to this ceremony are generally
and are to be worn over the heads of the given rectangular masks of brown earth ma-
impersonators. The legend speaks of hunters terial; masks given to personifications of trees,
wearing animal-head masks while stalking cactus, serpents, and healing herbs are of the
their game. same color and material. But when the medi-
The only times I have ever seen animal cine man uses a different theme, all of these
masks worn atNavajo ceremonies has been can wear striped masks. The Messenger Fly
on the last nights of the Mountain Chant cere- (Dontso) is a familiar figure in this ceremony
mony (Tsilthkehji) when medicine men from and generally wears a white mask. The mask
every type of ceremony bring their groups to for the rainbow is either white or brown.
salute the fire. The Yehbechai medicine man The Nilthtsa-eshki or Little Wind Spirit,
often has two dancers masked to represent also the Pollen Boy
80) and the Corn
(fig.
big horn sheep; the Nahtohe chanter (Shoot- Maiden (fig. 81) are among the few figures to
ing Chant) will bring two masked as buffalo; be made entirely of one color. The Pollen
the mask for the Feather Chant will be either Boy is yellow from the soles of his feet to
Fig. 80. Pollen Boy on the face of the sun. Fig. 81. Corn Maiden on the face of the moon.
the tip of the prayer feather on top of his ment. In their right hands they carry rattles
head. His hands, his kilt, his medicine pouch, or three twigs of the rattle pod weed which
and even the strings which tie this pouch to are called the "wind's voice," and represent
his waist, are yellow. He is not outlined in the sound made by the wind as it travels about
an opposite color; he is simply a spirit force the earth.
masked and entirely wrapped in pollen. The The sun is always pictured with a round
Corn Maiden is the same, only her color is mask of blue turquoise; the mask worn by the
blue. moon is of white shell; that worn bv the male
The hourglass figures which represent the wind is a round of obsidian, while the female
tornados and the little whirlwinds are much wind mask is made of yellow jasper. After
the same as the Pollen Boy and the Corn these four colors have been griven to the fig-
Maiden, in the fact that they have faces, ures on the sandpainting, additional masks of
hands, and feet, also kilts the same color as stripes in four cloud colors are often painted
their bodies. The explanation of this is the
over them to protect the patient and the
same as that for the Pollen Boy, only these spectators from the full power of the symbols.
are clothed in the colors of light from the
The mask given to the rainbow is generally
four directions.
white, but its color varies with the type of
Any figure representing light or direction is
ceremony in which it is being used. It is a
always outlined with its opposite color, and
guardian symbol used in day ceremonies and
these wind symbols are no exception. They
have two powers which the Pollen Boy has never at night, therefore it never wears a
not: they can move through space and thev black mask. The lightning seldom wears a
can create a sound. So they are pictured with mask but is headed by an arrow point. In
wind arrows on their heads, in their left hands one or two cases it is made with a brown or
and under their feet. These indicate move- a white mask.
BODY PAINTING AND PICTURE WRITING
THE Navajo myth

as
speaks of the butterfly
being the first character or "person"
or the cigarette-shaped containers of offerings
(fig. 83), and wooden kehtahns and for sketch-
to make use of body paint as an attraction. ing the designs on masks, rattles, and altar
His brilliant colors are still considered in the plaques as well as for body design.
same class as "paint" because they are not Only a medicine man or a helper who has
permanent and may be rubbed off to be used been initiated into this particular ceremony is
as butterfly pollen. This pollen is thought to permitted to do the actual painting. Each de-
possess a special type of magic, very powerful sign painted on mask or body is a symbol of
and somewhat evil, and never to be used in some power or quality that is possessed by or
ordinary ceremonial procedure. It may be bestowed upon the individual who is to act
employed as one of the ingredients in a pow- the part of the particular immortal whose
dered mixture used to cast spells over enemies assistance is needed. Medicine men ordinarily
or to bewitch certain persons. The Navajo wear no paint, but when they don a mask to
who gathers this pollen is more apt to be represent one of the gods, thev are often
termed a sorcerer than the one who uses it. marked with his insignia.
The butterfly is never a beneficent power (fig. The symbols painted on masks generally in-
82). dicate something above the earth. Nayenez-
gani's black mask is marked with white light-
ning. Fire God's mask has seven stars. Talk-
ing God wears a mask of white dawn light,
and Zah-dolth-jah's mask has the new moon
on the forehead with the full moon for the
mouth. Body designs typify extraordinary
bodily or physical powers. Lightning patterns
on the lower limbs and arms denote speed
and strength in lifting or carrying; rainbow
dots or bars indicate spiritual protection; yel-
Fig. 82. Butterfly. Fig. 83. Kehtahns.
low and blue markings are symbolic of rain,
pollen and other blessings.
Just as grinding the colored sands to make A different type of body painting is that of
a sand painting or the weaving of willow and the dancers in the Fire Ceremony of the
reed into baskets are considered unlucky oc- Mountain Chant, and also of the dancers on
cupations, the mixing of earth colors into the exhibition night of the Yehbechai. This
paint is also a perilous procedure. Only the painting has no particular form of design but
medicine men may mix ceremonial paint with the entire body and face of each dancer is
impunity. As one Navajo friend informed daubed with white clay to represent the Nakai
me, "A medicine man knows all the prayers who were evidently credited with possessing
and he knows the proper way to mix it, so a whiter skin than the average Navajo. Black
it does him no harm." markings are used on the face. It is not nec-
The correct procedure seems to be the plac- essary for a medicine man to apply this paint,
ing of hard chunks of red or yellow ocher, and the dancers usually spend some time dec-
blue indigo, white clay, or black charcoal on orating each other before entering the danc-
a concave stone, then adding a little sticky ing arena.
yucca juice and water, carefully dripped from Just as the colored sands which have been
the end of a quill or a sliver of yucca leaf that used to make the designs in a sand painting
is to be used as the paint brush. This same are considered sacred and remain powerful
type of paint is used to decorate the kehtahn for healing purposes, so the clay paints which
44
are scraped or washed off the bodies of the his information concerning Navajo ceremo-
impersonators or off the dancers still possess nial lore. At this time he was instructing three
magic powers and are carefully gathered, young men in the rites, prayers, and legends
dried, and stored in medicine pouches to be of this chant. At unoccupied intervals in the
used in another ceremony. ceremony, he medicine lodge telling
sat in the
The painting of the patient's body on the stories, reciting parts of the prayers, and oc-
last day of the Wind Chant is one of the most casionally singing or humming short measures
important healing rites. In this ceremony the of the chant. In his hand he held a small
face is also painted. The Apache Wind ver- prayer stick and once in a while he would
sion places a black wind spiriton the chest of mark a design in the clay of the hogahn floor.
the patient and an identical blue figure on his I memorized as many of these designs as I
back. Four sets of blue- and black-angled possibly could and later sketched them on
wind trails spring from these central symbols paper. Iasked Hasteen Klah for an explana-
to meet on the shoulders and under the arms. tion of their meaning and he said, "That is
Then a designated number of black or blue the way Hasteen Tso teaches his students the
circles and half-circles (which represent the prayers that belong to his ceremony." I still
changes of the moon) are stamped on the have the sketches I made and note that his
forehead, the cheek bones, and scattered pro- prayer writing emphasizes the stone knife, the
fusely across the chest and back, but all are serrated arrow point, the cross representing
counted and placed in a symmetrical pattern. fire, the flint mountain, and the jagged light-
The arms are marked with lightning arrows ning. It was only a fragment of the prayer
with the point in the palm of the hand. The and I have not been able to get more of it.
lower limbs each show a serpent with the tail Some years later Nahtohe Hatrali, medicine
pointing upward, four angles in the body, man for the Hozhoni Chant (male beauty
and the head drawn on the bis; toe. When chant), which I attended as a visiting student
the body painting is completed, a prayer bead and a contributor toward the expense, at-
with small medicine bundle is tied to the tempted to teach me the first day's prayer.
scalp lock with cotton cord stiffened in white This dealt with the hero's journey and all of
clay. The patient wears this paint for four the sacred places mentioned in the myth, and
days or until it becomes blurred and starts stated where each rite and each sand painting
falling off. was originated. It took more than an hour to
In another form of the Wind Ceremony, recite, but was not too difficult when he had
the blue sun painted on the chest of the
is drawn me a chart to follow. The first symbol
patient and the white moon on the back, the placed in the east was the Hahjeenah or emer-
lines coming from these are of four colors. gence shape to bring the people up to this
When the patient is a woman, the blue Corn earth. Then followed forty-one symbols of
Maiden and the yellow Pollen Boy are often mountains and places of different shapes and
used as fertility symbols. The purpose of sizes. The seventeenth design was a mountain
painting the body of
the patient is to transfer called "Chizzie-hulth-gezzie" and here the first
to him, through these symbols, the strength sand painting was made. Again there was a
and spiritual power of the elements depicted. pause at the twenty-third mountain, "Tsoll-
The inner force or spiritual strength must be tsilth," which was blue, and here the sec-
restored before physical healing can be as- ond sand painting was spread. Again they
sured. Body painting occurs in Shooting moved on past several mountains and mesas
Chant, Star and Red Ant Chants also. and arrived at number thirty-three, a moun-
The symbols used for recording prayers tain "Tzilth-doh-kidji" which was
called
and for memorizing ritualistic procedure are white with a black lake. The sand painting
not entirely different from those used in sand that was made here is still called by that name.
paintings and in clay decorations. At number thirty-nine there was a mountain
My
first knowledge of Navajo prayer writ- called "Tilth-kayje-hozhoni" and here the last
ingwas acquired at a Bezh (knife) ceremony sand painting was made. Then they came
conducted by Hasteen Tso who was noted for back to the "Hahjeenah" symbol and here the
EAST
Fig. 84. Chart of hero's journey (see text).
trail went inside the first circle of symbols depicting symbols of places, houses, hills, and
and began with a house of four square rooms, flat mesas, springs and rivers where rites were
spotted, blue, yellow and white. It continued performed and where herbs or articles to be
and again went all the way around the earth used in the ceremony were collected. The
*
^vV
ended at the northeast corner and the last
trail tempting to memorize the Apache form of the
two symbols were "Sahah-nahray-ahtzeel" Wind Chant. He too had picture symbols
and "Bekay hozhon ahtzeels." All the Nav- representing the rites, and the articles used in
ajo men to whom I showed this
medicine the rites, as well as the pictured prayers. He
chart 84) assured me that it never before
(fig. had attended school at St. Michaels, and his
had been given to or used by a white person. recordings showed the influence
of this
The chart I had was the one for the first type of education. The picture writing was
day and listed all of the sacred places in the sketched with pencil and then filled in with
ceremonial myth. The second day's prayer the five basic colors. All of the prayers and
followed the same course, but the symbols rites he had drawn in that particular notebook
were of the sacred elements, clouds, rain, dawn were those belonging to the cleansing cere-
light, and so on; instead of the mountains and mony of the sweathouse.
places. The upright line of the cross to the Navajo
The third day the theme for the prayer means and the crossing line death (fig.
life
was sentient things, the immortals, the first 86). Oneof their greatest symbols is of the
people who held the ceremony, the hero, the crossing of the two great rivers (fig. 87), the
animals and birds who gave assistance along female river rising in the west and flowing east
the way. The fourth day's prayer included then turning south crossed by the male river
all of the rites, sand paintings, and the order flowing from north to south and turning west.
of ceremony as it would be carried out from It is my opinion that all prayer pictures were
that time on. All of these prayer charts were written in spiral form before the advent of
made in five colors. government schools and the influence of the
Thenext prayer writings I acquired were printed page. At this period all cultivated
from Hasteen Nez's nephew who was study- fields were planted in widening spirals, begin-
ing the "Tsilthkehji" (Male Mountain Chant) ning at the eastern center and ending just
under the direction of his uncle. This young before reaching the last position at the outer
man had two notebooks filled with picture rim. Picture writing began with the first de-
writing 85) and, as he had attended gov-
(fig. sign on the outer rim at the east and made two
ernment school, he marched his figures along or four coils toward the center, bringing
straight lines and kept them fairly well pro- power from every direction to one locality.
portioned. He
had symbolic writing not onlv Father Berard Haile has published an ac-
for the prayers, but for every rite and every count of pictured prayers from one chant,
article used in the ceremony. His first design and in the Peabody Museum publication of
was of the ceremonial hogahn, then the brush Navajo Creatio?i Chants there is a study of
shelter for the men and the women's hogahn. Navajo music and prayer writing by David
After that the symbols followed the sequence McAllester.
of the rites, prayers, and sand paintings. He In closing I wish to emphasize that all Nav-
had the record of the ceremony as complete ajo symbolism is a form of picture writing
and far more accurate than any ethnologist which carries a message to the audience as
could have written it. He used no color but well as to the actors taking part in the religious
occasionally had shaded, or dotted, or striped rites, and this picture writing is only used for
certain figures to give them special character. memorizing religious material. The meaning
spent the whole afternoon copying from
I of each symbol is expressed first by its shape
his notebooks and writing the meaning and and size; second, by its color; third, by its
names, first in Navajo and then in English. place on the sand painting, ceremonial article,
But it was much too long for me to complete or person; and fourth, by the signs and sym-
in one day and I did not go back the next, bols which surround it.
although this was the only opportunity I ever There has been much written describing
had of recording a ceremony in picture writ- Navajo symbolism but I hope this material
ing. adds a little to the information that has been
My last contact with picture prayers was in made available to the student of Navajo reli-
Arizona through a young man who was at- gious lore.
PART II:
NAVAHO PICTURE WRITING

by
Stanley A. Fishier
INTRODUCTION
WHILE doing work in 1950, in the
field the gods. There are some singers who have
Tuba Arizona, area, I became
City, such knowledge and rapport with the pan-
acquainted with the informant who made pos- theon of gods that they feel safe in transcend-
sible the viewing of many of his "treasures." ing usual procedure and speaking of such mat-
Sacred "horses" and "sheep"; a ceremonial ters during other times of the year. The first
axe, presumably owned by Monster Slayer; a thunder of the year heralds the awakening of
bullroarer; and other sacred paraphernalia, these gods, and supposedly no information
over a period of time passed in review. The should be given until the following winter.
informant then spoke of ceremonies in his The copy was hurriedly finished and the other
possession, painted upon cloth. These were muslin sheets put away, and no further in-
finally unfolded and shown to me. Upon eight formation was gained from them. The cloth
muslin cloths, each approximately 18 by 36 which was copied bore the picture writing in
inches, were painted in watercolor or in this paper, while the remaining seven muslin
colored pencils pictographs for use in various sheets still remain uncopied in the possession
ceremonies. Explaining the use of the cloth, of the informant. The following day the in-
the informant chose one of the ceremonies, the formant described most of the symbols, plus
first, and using it mnemonically, traced with what the ceremonies were primarily con-
his right index finger along the symbols upon cerned with. No further information has been
the cloth singing the verses appropriate to the gained since that time.
particular section of the symbol. Theinformant, John Yazzi, 3 was a respected
With the assistance of the informant's four singer knowing the Blessing Way, the Up-
sons, the author was allowed to copy one of ward Reaching Way
and many other minor
the cloths upon a large white sheet of paper and major ceremonies and ceremonials. 4 The
with colored pencils. Within three hours, when position held by the informant was reflected
the copy was almost finished, the first thun- in the many activities of his lifetime. During
der storm of spring occurred. This is a prob- his early married life he primarily depended
lem the field worker encounters in gaining upon farming and sheep raising for the sup-
any information of a ceremonial nature from port of his family. Silver work and work as
the Navaho. Only during the winter when a singer, both of which he learned in early life,
certain of the "gods sleep" do many of the helped to supplement his income. As he be-
singers and curers 2 feel safe in discussing re- came older and prospered, he married two
ligious beliefs without fear of punishment by more women, setting up an independent neo-
1
1 am most grateful for the suggestions and criti- I was in the field. One often forgets the assistance
cisms of Father Berard Haile, Dr. Clyde Kluckhohn, given by librarians in a paper of this kind, so I would
Dr. Douglas Oliver, Dr. Evon Z. Vogt, Miss Mary C. like to express my appreciation to Miss Margaret
Wheelwright, and Dr. Leland C. Wyman. I would Currier, Miss Betty Tooker, and other members of
especially like to express here my thanks to Father the staff at Peabody Museum Library. Lastly go my
Berard. For many years he has assisted students in- thanks to my wife who willingly gave much of her
terested in the Navaho and this kindness he has ex- time to check tedious references and to correct errors
tended to me. I would further like to express my
in the manuscript.
appreciation to Mary C. Wheelwright and the Pea- - A singer is differentiated from
a curer in that he
body Museum for the opportunity to have this ma-
must know at least one complete chant (Kluckhohn
terial published. Mrs. Niel Zierler copied the rough
and Wyman, 1940, p. 15).
drawings and made them into recognizable forms. 3
Mrs. Natalie Stoddard has given much help and as- This is not the true name of the informant, but
sistance in the processing of the manuscript for pub- any qualified student may obtain it through the Pea-
lication. Acknowledgments would not be complete body Museum, Harvard University.
* A
without mentioning my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Philip ceremony is for the carrying out of a single
L. Fishier, and my brother and his wife, Dr. and Mrs. specific function, while a ceremonial is a number of
Kenneth O. Fishier, who gave much assistance while ceremonies (Haile, 1938b, pp. 10-12).
5'
local family settlement, contrary to the usual been their attitude toward the reproduction
Navaho As the years went
matrilocal type. and permanent recording of dry paintings, and
by, silver work became more important to the like. This change is one indication among
him and then declined again as his eyesight many of the rapidity with which accultura-
became poor. He believed this loss of sight tional processes are occurring among The
due to a violation of the mother-in-law taboo People. A prominent singer in the Pinedale,
early in his married life. New Mexico, region has been seen to refresh
His sons were taught to do silver work and his memory while making sand paintings by
this they continue to do. A reduction in the referring to an ordinary paper notebook in
number of sheep during the government stock which he had made sketches of sand paintings. 6
reduction program decreased drastically the de- There exist several factors influencing the
pendence on this as a supplement to his liveli- utilization of picture writings as "memory-
hood. Income from farming and ceremoni- joggers." One such factor, which is recog-
als was now of great importance. In 1947, nized as having occurred in the past by many
the informant and his sons approached a white of the Navaho, is that of a "growing" Navaho
trader with a plan to establish a trading post religion. It has been lon^ believed that much
in the rather isolated area in which they lived. of the religious and ceremonial life of the
With the financing and guidance of the gov- Navaho has been influenced by the Pueblo
ernment and the trader, a large rectangular people. Many informants have believed that
stone trading post was built. In 1950, only during and since the time of the incarceration
one wife still lived, but the children of all of the Navaho at Fort Sumner in 864, Navaho
1
three wives lived in an extended family settle- religion has grown much because of associa-
ment consisting of one stone building and four tion with other tribes. 7 Within recent years a
hogans. Needless to say, the informant was decreasing number of Navaho have not had
an exceptional Navaho. the inclination, attitude, or time to study ade-
The existence of picture writing among quately the complicated ceremonial rituals.
present-day Navaho gives rise to a number of School now takes up the time that young boys
interesting speculations as to the origin, use "should" be using to learn long tedious verses.
and importance of such devices. There existed Orientation toward American white values
no published evidence until i95o, of any pic- r>
has taken away much of the interest formerly
ture writing of the type herein described. shown in the fulfilling of needs by group and
There do exist, however, in various publica- family participation in ceremonies and cere-
tions, some references to picture writing hav- monials. This is not to say that the religion
ing been used by the gods, for the use of re- of the largest North American Indian group is
cording prayer stick or other designs for use being given up en masse. The majority still
in ceremonies, or for other purposes. Unless retains its beliefs and still spends a large per-
these devices, prior to this time, were kept centage of its income and time on ceremonies
well hidden for a number of years, which they and ceremonials. 8 The veterans, although at
may well have been, it may be presumed that times outwardly greatly acculturated, still
picture writing of the type described here is "respect" the old peoples' beliefs. And due to
a relatively new by the Navaho.
acquisition a large number of factors having to do with
The use of a permanent method to record economics, social contact and religion, the
ceremonial knowledge is quite a change from vast majority of off-the-reservation Navaho
the usual attitude and procedure of the Nav- return often to visit friends and relatives and
aho. While the majority of the Navaho have to take part in various religious activities. New
always been reticent in discussing religion in goals have taken the place of older ones with
some of its manifestations, even stronger has the influence of movies, newspapers, radios,
5
Haile, 1950, p. 256. "Kluckhohn, 1938, p. 364, states that one-fourth to
Leland C. Wyman, personal
8
communication, one-third of the total time of the men and one-fifth
March, 1954. to one-sixth of the time of the women is involved in
* This was how the Chiracahua Wind Way was religious activity among the Navaho at Ramah, New
acquired (Haile, 1938b, p. 640). Mexico.
INTRODUCTION: FISHLER 53
travel, education, and contact with other bers and a few close friends, was in some ways
peoples. fraught with danger. The attitude that a
The changes in Navaho life since 1941 have upon memory, that it
singer should rely only
been great, yet will not compare with the was dangerous to keep ceremonial knowledge
changes that will transpire within the next in permanent form which could be viewed
few years as contemplated plans materialize during the wrong time of the year, and other
for more and better roads, schools and hospi- factors, made it possible that such action
tals, raised economic and health levels, and as would offend the gods. However, rationaliza-
off-the-reservation employment, contact and tion upon the
part of the informant, the belief
living take place. These changes have already that ceremonial knowledge would protect
been felt in all aspects of social, economic and him and that these were not really exact dupli-
religious life. cates of dry paintings, allowed the informant
Economic difficulties were met by the in- to diverge from the accepted procedure. The
formant in the building of a trading post with appearance of picture writing of this type
the assistance of a son who was a veteran. clearly indicates a change in attitude and
Religious conflict was met
another way.
in values due to acculturation, as some influences
He realized that his sons could not and wouid changed certain outlooks on religious and
not learn his ceremonials and ceremonies. In ceremonial belief.
order that this knowledge not be lost from The use of exoteric symbols in this manner
the tribe and so his grandsons would know is merely an extension of the use of such sym-
what the old Navaho believed, he had the bols in other aspects ofNavaho ceremonialism.
author record a version of the creation myth. 9 This again indicates the great influence which
The decrease in the number of practising Navaho religion and symbolism have had
singers and the loss of some ceremonies and upon Navaho daily life. Many of the symbols
ceremonials 10 has influenced the recording of such as the War Twins, clouds, arrows, moun-
some material. It is difficult to describe the tains, thunder, bear, bi? snake, wind, corn,
complexity of dogma and belief and the tre- pumpkins, and so on, are drawn in a style
mendous body of ceremonial lore found among similar to those in dry paintings, some weav-
the Navaho. The amount of knowledge is ing, basketry, prayer sticks and sacrificial fig-
limited that even the best singer can acquire urines. The esoteric symbols are of equal in-
in his lifetime. 11 There are thousands of verses terest, yet unfortunately not enough is known
to each newly acquired ceremony and some to explain the reasons, if there are any, for
ceremonies are not often done. My informant depicting subjects in certain manners. Some
met his need by an innovation. Making use of esoteric symbols are undoubtedly influenced
exoteric Navaho symbols, inventing esoteric by general ceremonial symbolism, but other
ones, and adding the use of English numbers, material cannot be derived in this manner.
he set down in a permanent medium some of For instance, sa/ah na-ydi and bikeh xozq
the important and key parts of ceremonies (Plate XI, 8-10) make up a very complex
seldom practised by himself. Here then he bodv of knowledge, extremely esoteric, which
had his "memory-jogger," not ideographic individual singers will divulge only in old
writing with symbols representing words as age. 12
such, but with symbols which denoted the The knowledge of these beings or concepts,
key concept in a verse or series of verses upon sa/ah and bikeh xozg, gives great
na-yai
which he could look prior to a ceremony to power and through possession one may live
recall the content and sequence. to old age and gain happiness. These two rep-
Such an action, known only to family mem- resent more of a concept than actual gods
"Fishier, 1953. Kluckhohn, 1938, p. 38).

I0
Wyman and Kluckhohn, 1938, pp. 5-7, list 9 '- Haile, 1947, pp. 17, 19-20. The spellings of
obsolescent or extinct ceremonials of a possible 58. native words used in this article follow the phonetic
11
Kluckhohn and Wyman, 1940, p. 15, state that system of Father Berard in "Prayer Stick Cutting in a
the largest number of ceremonials a singer will likely Five Night Navaho Ceremonial of the Male Branch
know is 6 to 7 out of a listed 58 (Wyman and of Shootingway."
with forms and they are never represented in rialhere points to possible future orientation
dry paintings. 13 There is some indication that work, such as the curing of witchcraft.
in field
the symbols, as portrayed here, outwardly Father Berard believes that all the ceremonies
follow accepted belief. That is, sa'ah na-yai are inherently good, but that it is only the
in one way can be conceived as being a dis- way which they are used that makes them
in
15
tinct concept having certain values and attri- evil. For example, any of the ceremonies for
butes as against the distinct values and attri- curing may be diverted from their inherent
goodness, by placing a red dot at the ankle
butes of bikeh xozq. However, these two are
or wrists of the represented person, pointing
always conceived of as being closely inter-
the red in the rainbow toward the individual
related and linked, 14 as indicated in the draw-
instead of away, or a number of other ways
ing. Because knowledge about these two con-
in order to witch a person. This is done to
cepts or beings is so esoteric, no information literally make you a ghost, i.e., the Ghost
could be gained in plates XII, 5, 11, and XI, Way ritual. At the moment we are concerned
8-10, as to what the individual symbols meant, with the symbols and what they mean. It is
except that as a composite they represented hoped that the sketchy representation as to
Long Life and Happiness, respectively. ceremonial detail and the mere inferences
These picture writings are representative of given in reference to the symbolism will be
many Navaho ceremonies. Some of the mate- supplemented in future work.
'
Haile, personal communication, December, 1953.
'Haile, 1947, p. 17.
Haile, personal communication,
''
December, 1953.
AN ORIGIN LEGEND FOR CURING SORCERY
DURING the explanation of the symbols low him and find him chips of wood; and on
ceremony, a myth was told
in the first the second and following days the number of
by the informant which he stated to be an men increases and from these nine men, eight
origin legend. This is curious, for no story of whom are made from wood, are derived
similar to the one recorded in the following the Ute Indians.
pages is recorded as a complete origin legend. Father Berard, in an unpublished manu-
There is a short episode in the myth of the script, 10 has also recorded a story similar to
Mountain Chant which has some points of that of Matthews. The significant differences
11
similarity to the legend given by John Yazzi are as follows: owl took the boy
the male
(Wheelwright, 1951, pp. 10-11). And there back to the badger hole; each time the boy
are some recorded as trickster or coyote began to start to find his relatives he heard
stories. noises in his trachea, ears, nose,
or his skin
As is generally known, trickster cycles ap- prickled and/or he had bad dreams, which
pear over a large part of North America. The were to be the types of warnings the future
first portion of this myth is rather similar to Earth People were to have; Coyote's son did
those both inside and outside the area of the not meet the ash, torch, mano and metate,
Plains and the Southwest. The general theme bush, the yuccas, bear, big snake, thunder and
is that the trickster feigns death and returns in wind; and the boy killed his mother and
disguise to seduce his daughter. In the sur- father. Another unpublished version has been
rounding areas the following groups possess recorded by Leighton. 12 The story is essen-
such myths: Southern Paiute, 1 Southern Ute, 2 tially the same except Coyote is not the "hero"
Northern Shoshoni, 3 Jicarilla Apache, 4 Mono, 5 and the boy is taken back by the father and
and Walapai. 6 The origin myth of the Jicarilla mother. It is Father Berard's belief 13 that this
Female Shooting Way is similar to the gen- story which tells of witchcraft was utilized
eral theme of the myth recorded here. 7 as an explanation of the origin of a ceremony.
Schmerler 8 claims that although this tale is He bases this on two factors: the activities
found among the Navaho and White Moun- described within the story take place during
tain Apache, they are rare in the Southwest. post-emergence time which dates it so it can-
This is not so, for published and non-published not be classed as an origin legend, and the
material exists on the Navaho alone, 9 but coyote in this story is not the Trotting Coyote
much of this has come to light since the of the pre-emergence period.
article was written. There are several actions within the folk
The one version published similar to the tale that denote association with witchcraft
one here was written by Matthews in 1885. to the Navaho, which explains why they
The motif is different only in the following might have believed the story to be an origin
points: the mother lives away from her daugh- legend. Incest and witchcraft are closely as-
ter due to the mother-in-law taboo; the mother sociated, and suspicion of one automatically
discovers the deception; the raised child kills leads to suspicion of the other. 14 Dyk 15 de-
two children unrelated to him; warriors fol- scribes the Navaho attitude toward such an
'Lowie, 1924, p. 172. incest. Haile, n.d., and Kluckhohn, 1944, p. 22, fn.
s
Lowie, 1924, p. 28. 10
Haile, 1929.
"Lowie, 1909, p. 248. 11
Father Berard's version is much longer and more
* Opler, 1938, p. 280.
6
detailed than the one described here. It is still unpub-
Kroeber, 1901, p. 268.
lished so only a few of the important differences will
"Kroeber, 1954, p. 266.
7 be pointed out.
Kluckhohn and Wyman, 1940, pp. 156-57.
"1931, p. 196.
"Leighton, 1940.
13
"Dyk, 1945; unpublished material in the Ramah Haile, personal communication, December, 1953.
14
files at Harvard University. There did exist, at one Kluckhohn, 1944, p. 15.
16
time, a chantway to cure people who had committed '945-
55
act asone of classic horror, and body contact mony existed in all the details elaborated here,
and talk about sex in the presence of a for- and that later this myth was conveniently at-
bidden sex partner is tabooed. Only a person tached to give it prestige, is possible but not
with the power of a witch could send a probable.
shadow among people. It is also believed that It is possible that a ceremony did exist
only a witch would visit deserted or burned which had a number of similarities to an ex-
hogans. isting folk tale. The informant, versatile as
There are several possible explanations for he might have attached the myth and elab-
is,
the occurrence of the "origin legend," one of orated the missing details into the ceremony.
which may be that this is a tale of some an- Or an extreme possibility is that to an exist-
tiquity. Information concerning witchcraft is ing myth was attached a whole complete cere-
often difficult to gain. In spite of the thou- mony originated and invented by the inform-
sands of articles and books on the Navaho, ant. Haile 16 states that a man tried to popu-
unknown material is still frequently brought larize a ceremony he gained while dreaming in
to light. It is then possible that this is esoteric a cave. He died shortly after this and his
knowledge because of its association with sudden demise settled his claim of communion
witchcraft and incest and thus known to few. with the gods. While the informant is an
The between the explanations, ac-
associations exceptional individual, itis more probable
tivitiesand objects in the myth itself and the that he elaborated on a ceremony already in
various symbols represented in the ceremonial existence, rather than originating a new one,
are too close to be accidental. That the cere- if choice need be made between these.
OWL-RAISED-UTE
Coyote had a daughter and liked her very As the family left Coyote, this son looked
much, but not as he should have liked a back. He said to his mother and sister, "My
daughter. One day he decided to marry her father has jumped off that pile of wood."
so he told his wife and daughter that when The wife and daughter said, "Don't ever say
he died, a man would come to marry his that about father. You aren't supposed
your
daughter. This stranger would look just like to say that." After Coyote jumped off the
Coyote. When Coyote finished telling this wood, he ran around to where his family was
to his family, he began acting as if he were staying. As he came up to them, he said,
very sick and soon got sicker and sicker. At "Where is my nephew? Did he die? What
last, he didn't eat anything and was about to did he say about me when he died?" He kept
die. He told them this, "Gather together some asking questions until Coyote's wife said, "I
wood and put me on top of it. Then start a was told that if I was to get a son-in-law he
fire from the four directions and go off and would be just like Coyote."
leave me, but do not look back!" Coyote said, "I will take care of you people
After Coyote said this, his wife and daugh- from now on. I am going to be your own
ter began to gather wood. As Coyote had re- son-in-law." Then Coyote married his own
quested, they placed him on the wood and daughter. A little while later Coyote went
started the fire from the four sides. This is out and got soapweed to make some soap suds.
how the Paiute, Utes and Walapai learned to Coyote had a form like we have. All of this
burn their dead. It is not the same with us, happened before the people turned into ani-
for we just burn the hogan instead of the dead. mals. Coyote, who was supposed to have
We were not given this to do and were told burned on the fire, had a wart on the back of
not to do such things. One of Coyote's sons his neck. As Coyote had his hair washed his
was the dirtiest and the worst one of his sons, daughter saw the wart on his neck. Later she
for he never washed or kept himself clean. told her mother, "This man seems like my
16
Haile, 1940, p. 359.
AN ORIGIN LEGEND FOR CURING SORCERY: FISHLER 57
father." The mother replied, "That not

is each of the hogans. The ceremonial pot
the only person like that. Many people have turned into an old woman. The stirring stick
warts." But she went and looked at Coyote turned into a girl. The bowl turned into a
and finally recognized him. middle-aged woman. The dipper turned into
Shortly after this, Coyote's new wife had a a young girl. The metate turned into a very,
baby and she threw him into a badger hole. very old woman. The mano turned into a
Coyote went back to the badger hole so he very young girl (8-10). The old worn out
could eat the baby, for he knew whose child brush turned into an old woman. The Broad
it was. In the hole lived an old male and a Yucca turned into a man of 35; the regular
female owl who had no children. When Coy- Yucca turned into a woman of about 35; the
ote arrived, the female owl told Coyote he Yeibichai Yucca turned into a boy of 20 and
could not eat the baby. The old man asked the Horn Yucca into a girl of about 17.
if he and his wife could raise the child and As Coyote's son traveled along from one
Coyote agreed. The old owls raised the baby hogan to another, the first hogans were very
until he was a man about twenty years old. old, but now they were getting newer and
From the time Coyote's son was a baby he newer. The Yucca People were not found in
slept with the grandmother owl and the old the hogans, but the bov met them as he trav-
man became jealous, for he never had a chance eled along. The Wide or Broad Yucca said
to sleep with his wife. to him, "I was to have killed you, but I will
One day the wind whispered in the boy's not. There are people ahead of you. That is
ear and said: "If you stay here the owl will where you are going." Each of the Yucca told
kill you. You have a home and a mother and him this.
brothers and sisters. You have to go home." When he met the Bear, the Bear told him
The boy then started off to find his home, as the same as the Yuccas. Then he met Big
the wind had directed him. When he got to Snake, the Thunder and the Wind. After the
where he was born he found the ruin of an boy met theWind, the Little Holy Wind
old hogan. As he approached the ruin he saw who was taking care of him said and whis-
a black poker (see plate I, C, 6) which had pered in his ear: "Your grandfather Owl took
been thrown away by the people who had hair, spit, dirt from vour arms, body and legs,
lived there before. As he got closer to the your feces and urine, your footprint and your
poker, he winked his eye and the poker turned shadow he used them for witchcraft. That
into a person. The poker turned into an old is why all those things happened to you. You
man. The poker said, "My grandson, I was to must be careful of yourself and watch for
have killed you, but I will not kill vou. There witchcraft. Build a small hogan just like a
is another old hogan out there. That is where sweat bath. Don't make room for the owl or
vou are going." he will kill you. Just make enough room for
The boy continued on until he came upon yourself. Build a fire in front of the hogan
another old hogan. Here he found some ash for the rocks."
and as he winked his eye the ash turned into The boy did as he was told and built a
a person
an old woman. She said, "My hogan. He got inside of the sweat hogan to-
grandson, I was to have killed you, but I will ward the back at sundown and soon he heard
not. There is a hogan out there. That is the two owls coming toward him. Each owl
where you are going." The boy continued on gave four hoots when they got to the little
until he reached still another hogan. Inside hogan. Then the grandfather owl said "Where
this hogan, was a torch thrown away by the do you think you are going, my grandson?
former inhabitants. As Coyote's son winked Let us go back home." The boy refused to
his eye, the torch turned into a boy and all q-o with the two owls.
happened as before. These people did not kill The wind whispered to the boy and the
the boy for he had power; besides he had done boy took out five stones (white shell, tur-
nothing and they did not want to kill him. quoise, oyster shell, jet and red rock) as a
Each time he traveled on, he met something gift to the owls. When they received the qift,
different which had been thrown away from the owls said no more and left. They had
come had received
to kill him, but after they when they were alone and he was not around,
giftsthey just left Coyote's son without speak- "Let us him, for if he stays very long he
kill
ing to him. After they were gone, the boy will cause witch trouble." The wind heard
started out to find his brothers. He came to this and told the boy, "Within four days they
a canyon and below the cliff he saw them. will try to kill you. This is what I want you
The wind said to him, "These are your broth- to do. Make four bows and four quivers full
ers and sisters." The boy sat down and of arrows. Hide them in the earth. Put them
watched them for they were having a good in a row and hide them away from each other.
time. When the shadow hits noontime you are to
Before the time of this boy, there were no start your battle."
shadows. Shadows came from the winds them- The boy started to work on these things so
selves as they turned into shadows. The wind he could finish them within four days. When
said, "There are things that will happen. I he had finished, the wind said, "There will be
will go down there and see what is going on." gambling in the open. Do not go near where
So the boy sent this shadow out to find what they are doing this. Practise shooting and
his brothers and sisters were doing. The don't play with them. They will come after
shadow comes from wind
a person's breath or you. At noon kill one of them with your
or air. It is the air that comes out of your bow." There was a stick standing up to tell
body. The shadow will follow along by your when it was noon. His brothers had to kill
side as you walk. The shadow was black and him at noon in order to succeed. They did
like any shadow nowadays. The shadow cannot like him because before he came among
not be divided from the body, but witches them they had no shadows. They hated him
can project their shadows. These people are because he had powers of a witch and caused
those who walk on the wrong side of the them to have shadows.
road those who are witches. Before it was noon, one of his brothers
Whenthe wind returned in the evening he rushed and chased after him, but the boy
told the boy that there was to be a meeting. killed him. He killed as many of them as he
The boy went to the meeting and went into could and when he ran out of arrows he broke
the hogan. He sat down on the south side his bow and dropped it. He ran to where he
of the doorway. The boy was the only one had hidden his second bow and quiver of
there with a shadow. After a few days the arrows. After he had used all of these, he
people said, "There is someone who sits there dug up his third set of bow and arrows and
every evening. Let us find out who he is." ran around the people killing them until all
The people asked the boy to come to the these arrows were gone. He ran up to his
center of the hogan. He found that the last bow and arrows. After he dug up his
woman sitting there was his mother. He told fourth set, he ran around the group, flexing
them where he came from and told them all his bow and playing like he was going to
of the experiences he had had. He told them shoot. A few minutes to twelve, the boy said,
that he had been born in that first hogan. "I wish I could shoot the Sun." He turned
Nowadays women without fathers for their his bow upward and then down to where his
children might throw them away because of fat brother was sitting on his heels and shot
what this woman did to her son. him through the throat, above the collarbone.
This boy was Coyote's child, but Coyote's The boy ran away, for now he had only
daughter married again and had children from four arrows left. He then blew down the Sun.
a second husband. The boy's brothers and He had the power to do these things because
sisters did not know him and his mother acted of the people he had met and overcome in his
like she did not recognize him either. They journey. He received his power from over-
did not treat him or act toward him like a coming these beings, for all of these people
brother. After he finished his story, they said, gave him some of their power. Nearby the
"He is some kind of a person. He is not our camp of his brothers and sisters, was a cliff
brother." Still he stayed near the hogan for wall. The boy shot two of his arrows into a
a while. Finally, one day the brothers said crack in the wall and there appeared a pine
AN ORIGIN LEGEND FOR CURING SORCERY: FISHLER 59
and an evergreen tree and up these he escaped. thewood and a sing was held over the wood
It was a very high cliff. The people could and the wood turned into men, as before.
not see him for now he had power. He later They built a fire by a road and all gathered
built a fire and cut a stick from some hard oak together like they do at a girl's dance today.
that was growing around his new camp. After The fourth day they started off to the Ute
he finished cutting the stick, it turned into a country to a place called Ute's Canyon or
person. Ute's River. These people are now the Utes.
The next day Coyote's son and his new They are at this place today.
companion moved on and made a new camp. This story branches off before the time
The second night the boy cut two more sticks, Coyote started on his adventures. There were
built a fire and stayed there for the second many coyotes at this time. There is a sing
night. The third day, they moved to another from the finishing of the Coyote stories. The
camp. The third night allwent out and gath- Feather Stories or Gambling Story with a sing
ered many twigs. The bark was taken off of goes along with this story (?).
THE PICTURE WRITING >
WITCHES cause sickness by all of these the medicine

bows and arrows, pokers,
things: manos, metates, brushes, yucca, bowls, and other things. This ceremony was
and the others. 2 A witch might take a piece used a long time ago when the Twin was
of an arrow feather, dirt from a feather or a picked up by the bird. The Twin said, "This
piece of sinew, or similar things owned bv a will be used by the Future People."
person, and bury it near ghosts or in a burial
ground. If anything personal is taken from
Plate I, B
you, a witch can make you sick, for any of This ceremony is the same as I, A, except
these things can be used for witchcraft. If that in addition, a song goes along with the
you are sick and yucca is used, it can be taken prayer. The first song starts from the begin-
by a stranger or anyone else, to cause sickness ning of the ceremony. Another song goes
to you or the medicine man who worked on from the bird to the black cloud. A third
you. Witches are people on the left side song goes from the bird to the witch. This
while most of the gods and people are on the is how the witchcraft g;oes back to the witch.
right side by doing good and helping people." 1. This represents the starting of the first
song. It starts from the beginning.
Plate I, As 2. Monster Slayer. This is the First War
i. Thunder. The red beneath his wings Twin as also represented above. From the
represents his power. beginning, the song goes to the figure of the
2. Monster Slayer. This shows when he Twin and then to the Bird.
was taken to Shiprock by the Giant Eagle as 3. Thunder. The song sequence is from
he called, "I'm the War Twin," and, "I'm the I, B, 1, to the Twin, to the Thunder, to the
Thunder." Flint circle of protection, and
Arrows, to the
3. "Thunder pick me up." (This repre- then to the clouds. As the Thunder takes off,
sents the picking up of the Twin by the he holds the Twin by his hair.
Eagle.) "Pick me up, I'm ready to go." 4. Flint Lightning. The black flints and
"Flying off."
4. lightning protect the Twin, and follow the
5. "Flying one place (or wiggling wings), Twin and the Thunder into the cloud. The
going up into the air. I am trying to see where Twin says, "Four Black Flints with lightning
I am." around me."
6. "Flying away with the Monster Slayer 5. Protection Circle. The circle around the
on the bird." bird and the Twin is the protection given bv
All of these represent you, as the one who is the lightning and the flint. "Circle around
sick. This ceremony is the prayer used for me."
the sick person. Medicine is taken from where 6. The white spot is the opening in
Cloud.
lightning strikes a rock or tree. A
gift is given the cloud. The song goes to the clouds and
of obsidian (jet). Plants are picked around to the witch again. The bird flies to the cloud
where the lightning has struck, which makes to hide the Twin from witchcraft. The sig-
strong medicine. These are given to the pa- nificance of the yellow above the clouds the
tient and he is told to wash all of his goods in informant refused to say.
1
material on the ceremonies below has been
The
left mostly as it was interpreted and then tran- does not indicate they are each to be considered as
scribed by the author. Changes were made only to one whole ceremony which can be done only in its
clarify meanings, as understood by the author. The complete form.

2
direct quotations were carefully interpreted and are KIuckhohn, 1944, pp. 89-91, gives some of the
those things thought to be of especial importance by material used by witches.
3
the informant or represented actual stanzas within Father Berard, in a personal communication in
the songs and prayers themselves. The numbering of December, 1953, believes this first ceremony to be
ceremonies in plates I and II was for convenience and possibly connected with the Red Antway.
60
.
THE PICTURE WRITING: FISHLER

7. Lightning. This is sent from the bird wanted. 8 Witches can do this with snake bites,
to the witch. too.
8. The
singer. This represents the singer 1. Two. The "2" means this is the second
who turn represents sa/ah na-yai bikeh
in ceremony used.
xozq in attacking witchcraft. The red line 2. Man-God. This represents the Man-
represents the witchcraft, and the red ball the God.
blood coming from the victim. The long red a. From his head is a flint feather which
line represents, "As the song goes to sing it goes out to kill the witch.
away." Red is the color of danger, war and b. From his right shoulder goes one
sorcery, 4 but it can be used to denote protec- lightning for protection.
tion. 5 c. This represents what the god holds in
The singer. The circle represents the

9. his hand
a club of flint and lightning.
singer. The rays are sa/ah nagoa binaxozf-l. 6 d. This represents the lightning which
10. Witch. This is the witch. The witch comes from his body.
is by the lightning and begins to bleed. He
hit e. This is the lightning from his knees.
back or retreats from the lightning.
falls f. From the god's toe comes lightning.
Lightning protection.
1 1 3. Witch. This is the witch with the red
"The people who are witches do not like designating his power or witchcraft.
me for I can cure those who are victims of 4. A bow.
witches and I can cause the witches to be a. The string of the bow.
killed in turn." b. The back of the bow.
c. This represents, "A long time ago
Plate I, C: Fire Medicine. when the gods were created."
Hogan. This shows a hogan and a spe-
1. 5. Lightning Arrow. If a witch came to
cialprayer is used in case a hogan burns down, your camp he could take a feather from your
a person burns to death, or anything else is arrow for use in witchcraft. These witches
burned
medicine bag, prayer sticks, or take the bow outside somewhere. The objects
other things. Unless this prayer is used, all of from four onward, the singer uses in a Five
the clans will have sickness because of witch- Night Sing to cure sickness.
craft. 7 6. Poker. The poker is hidden so that the
a. These are the causes of the sickness. witch will not find it and make the sick person
b. This was said to represent nothing. die. Any of these from the bow to the yucca
c. This is the outline of the hogan. can be sung over by a witch to make people
d. This is anything inside the hogan, die. These objects were used for a Five Night
person or goods, that could be burned. Sing.
e. This is the fire. The black is the ash 7. Torch. The torch made out of cedar
is
and the red and yellow is the flame. (actually juniper) bark and wrapped as tightly
In the song, "e" should face toward the east as possible and tied with bark. Used in this
during the ceremony, but it may face the way, it will last a month. Long ago these
other directions. were used as matches.
8. Ash. If a witch found some ash from a
Plate I, D dead person's hogan, he could use it to cause
witch drew lightning on a hogan, light-
If a people to die. Any of the other objects can
ning would strike the corn field, the house, also be used in this way. Even things that you
children or animals
whatever the witch have touched can be taken and given to a
*Reichard, 1950, pp. 198, 200. 953- P- 44-

fn -
s
Reichard, 1950, p. 199. Kluckhohn, 1944, p. 17, 7
Kluckhohn and Wyman, 1940, p. 57, note a sepa-
states that all of his informants denied red as being rate ceremony similar to this one, which is called
associated with witchcraft. Fire Medicine.
8
'Although this term is similar to sa'ah na-yai, Haile, 1950,p. 195, suggests that perhaps it is
which is to live to old age, it means the fear of dying merely the thought behind the action which is the
before your time
with witchcraft implied. Fishier, important thing in witchcraft.
. .
6i A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM

c'j-di-or buried in a graveyard. That is why flint clothing.Black Bear, get up before me
such people have to later have sings held for with your black flint cap." The bear will hear
them. this prayer, for the wind will tell him.
9. Ceremonial pot. This is a ceremonial 19. Serpent or Big Snake. On his back are
pot with a stirring rod. The stirring rod is two boxes. The first represents his home.
made of Black-Four-Leaf-Bush. The inverted V's are the tracks of the deer
10. Bowl. This is a bowl made of clay. and antelope. The red spot on the forehead
Dipper. This is a dipper made from a
1 1 of the Big Snake is a whistle, like the one at
gourd. No ceremonials are done over pots or Tuba. 10 This makes the earth move. Accord-
dippers (?). ing to the story (i.e., the informant's story),
A4ano and metate of a man. There is
12. the Big Snake stays inside his hole and "sucks
no ceremony over these either (?). people to him." u The deer or other animals
13. Brush. This is used to brush off the may be a long way off and the Big Snake will
metate, after the corn is ground. This brush draw them closer and closer until they go
is made from a grass. faster and finally run to the Big Snake. There
Broad Yucca. The red part represents
14. is a Big Snake near Fort Defiance. It is over
the red roots of the Broad Yucca. three feet long and has the power to eat ani-
15. Ordinary or slender yucca. The blue mals whole. When he eats a deer, he gets big
part represents the blue roots of the ordinary enough to swallow him. The colors beneath
yucca. Big Snake represent the snakes of the four
16. Yeibichai Yucca or Yucca of the gods. directions. He, too, guards the Sun's house.
The red part represents the red roots of the 20. Thunder. This is Thunder. Beneath
yeibichai. his arms (red) is his power. He also guards
17. Horn Yucca. The blue part represents the Sun's house and he is now a god. Beneath
the blue roots of tin, Horn Yucca. the Thunder are the colors of the main Thun-
18. Bear. 9 He has a red mouth for as he ders of the four directions.
gets angry he opens his red mouth. This is the 2 1 The Wind. This is the Wind or Tor-
ordinary bear which guards the Sun's house. nado. He, too, is a guardian at the Sun's house.
The bear is now a god, for he has been Beneath this god are the colors which repre-
changed. Beneath the Black Bear are the col- sent the gods of the four directions. Above
ors of the bears of the four directions: black, the head of this god are two triangles which
gray (or blue), yellow, and white. Witches show him to be the Wind and which repre-
will say that the Black Bear will go and bite sent the clouds. A witch will say, "Tornado
people, hurt them or kill them. singer may A pick that manup."
pray to this bear for protection from witches. 22. You. This represents you!
He will say: "Big Black Bear, at the eastward, a. Your hair. 12
with the bear pollen, lying over there, I will b. Your face and your eyelashes, or dirt,
give you this gift for my protection (turquoise spittle or any water used to clean your face.
and rust, a specular iron ore). Here is my c. This is your arm and the dirt which
gift to you for your power. A
witch told me comes from it.
that the bear will bite me, but this will not This is your body and legs and the
d.
happen. Black Bear, get up before me for dirt from them.
my protection. Black Bear, get up before me e. This is your waste
urine and feces.
with your black flint shoes. Black Bear, get f. This is your footprint.
up before me with your black flint stockings. g. This is your shadow and a witch could
Black Bear, get up before me with your black steal it from you.
Some readers may notice that there are details in make the pictographs similar.
10
the representations of the bear, big snake, thunder, At Tuba City, Arizona, is a government heating
and others, which vary from one ceremony to the and power plant which has a steam whistle.
next. This is the way in which they were represented "Hill, 1938, pp. 113-17.
in the informant's original drawings and it has no "These hairs should actually number only 7 in-
significance other than that no effort was made to stead of 11.
.
THE PICTURE WRITING: FISHLER 63
All of these things can be taken and used by 29. Big Red Star Coyote's Star. 14 This
a witch to make a person ill and sick. star is seen only during the summer. Big Red
23. These are all of the things combined Star is a god, for when a witch says something
which can kill you. The various colored lines will happen to someone due to this star, it will
represent everything that can be used. The happen. He, too, must block the witch be-
circle represents the earth everything on cause of this ceremony.
the earth. The yellow cross represents noth- 30. Red North Star. This star is evil. He,
ing. Because of these things a witch may
13
too, must block the witch.
pray that you be killed by anything a horse, 3 Black North Star. He is our friend for
1
rock, sheep and so on. Many colors are used he helps us. There are these two north stars:
because the witch can use anything to make one good and one evil, but both live in heaven
someone sick. and not on the stars themselves, for they are
24. Witch (red). gods.
This means that he is crying because
a. Curing Bear, a good bear. Now as we
32.
of what has been done to him with this cere- travel back (i.e., from the first line to the
mony. Big Snake was beaten by this power second and right to left), we start to cure the
(the ceremony). patient. The Black Bear is first and the Blue
b. The songs and prayers go from the Bear is second. In the sincr the reverse is true,
head to the toes, and the witch's power goes for you sing to the Blue Bear first and the
back to his heart or has been reversed on him Black Bear second, saying as before (plate
(the usual order of sequence has been reversed I, D, 18): "Big Blue Bear to the eastward, etc.,
to nullify the witchcraft and to send it back etc."

to the witch). 33. Curing Big Snake. He is of two colors,
c. "A long time ago when a witch used which are represented as before. The tongues
this power on me and now it goes into his and the red color represent the power to swal-
heart." low witchcraft as is shown above.
d. The circle represents the power that Curing Thunder. He is
34. also of two
has been encircled or turned back to him (the colors and is the same as above.
witch). 35. Wind. He is of the two colors and is
25. The witch has died and gone far the same as the others. Only two Curing
under the north pole to the "c'j-di-" land. Bears, Big Snakes, Thunders and Winds are
26. The prayer goes: "Witchcraft went used, instead of four, because sometimes peo-
behind the red world and red heaven." ple pray only to one god or two instead of
a. Red Heaven. all This has been done from the begin-
four.
b. Red Earth. ning. These are sung in the Opposite ways so
c. The entrance or door. that the power of the witch will be reversed
The witch is blocked in and no longer can back to him; so that he will die instead of his
use his power. victim.
27. This is the witch Coyote who comes 36. Mirage Stone. The lines represent
up in front of the witch to block him. The what the lines actually look like in the real
witch and Coyote ordinarily are friends, but stone. These are actually gods and are prayed
because of these songs and prayers, Coyote to, as arethe Bear, Big Snake, Thunder, the
must block the witch. Wind and other gods: "Black Mirage Stone,
28. Squeaking Pinyon Jay. He is a friend get up before me, etc."
of witches. He also must block the witch be- 37. Mirage Stone Powder. He is also a god.
cause of the songs and prayers (i.e., because He is prayed to, as are the others, to stop
of this ceremony Squeaking Pinyon Jay is witchcraft.
forced to fight against the witchcraft). 38. Emergence Upward-Reaching-Way. 15
"The informant was very emphatic about this. jority of the following ceremonies are hypothetical
" Haile, 1947, p. 8. and not actually known. Father Berard, Dr. Wyman
"This is a small ceremony which may be given and the author agree as to these names being possibly
separately. The names which are given for the ma- (Continued on p. 64.)
a. The ladder or cane coming from the Plate II: Branch of the Big Starway.
earth, which ended all revelations. 16
These figures represent certain gods:
b. The dark circle is the hole of emerg-
1. Monster Slayer. Above his head is dark-
ence.
ness.
c. The yellow represents the pollen used
2. Dawn. The yellow represents the sun-
to pray over the hole of emergence. "Even
light.
today, we (the informant and author) could
3. Sun.
go and pray over this and give pollen for our
good health." 4. Moon.
5.This is the North Star. Big Dipper. 17
a.
39. Black Owl. He is a god and is a fortune
Big Star (Scorpio). There is a Black
6.
teller who tells you what will happen in the
future.
and a Blue Big Star: "Black and Blue Stars
Blue or Gray Owl. This whole
down toward the south." 18
40. cere-
mony called Owl-Raised-Ute, or 7. Little stars, black and blue, or slim first
is it is some-
times Two-Days-with-the-Owl story.
called
one (part of Orion). 19 "Little black and blue
There are few singers who know this. starsdown toward the south."
8. a. Black Big Star is in the southeastern
41. Gifts. These are gifts which are given
to the Owl nowadays in return for what he
heavens. 20
tells:
b. Grav (dark) Big Star. 21
2-
a. Turquoise. c. Blue Big Star is in the northern skies.
b. White Shell (bead). d. Yellow Big Star is in the southern

c. Oyster Shell. skies.
Biack Obsidian (jet).

d. e. White Big Star, "igniter of thunder,"
e. Gray Obsidian. is near the center of the skies.
There are prayers said over all of these, as f. Silver (red?) Big Star, "igniter of flash
before. lio;htnin;," is in the southwestern skies.
(Continued fro?n p. 63.) not have to be exact replicas to fulfill their purpose.
the right ones, based upon the descriptive material "Haile, 1947, p. 7, notes that this star represents
within each ceremony. Father Berard Haile, 1938a, First Man, who was the author of witchcraft, in
pp. 640, 641, has pointed out that an entire ritual mav human form. The number of stars represented here
be shared in common by several chantways. The are fewer in number than actually exist, but some
popular and strong ceremonials grow as the weaker similarities are found. In the drawing, the constella-
ones are absorbed into the repertory of the stronger tion Hyades, lacking two stars, is an addition to
one. This apparently also accounts for the extinction Orion. Although lacking these two stars, the drawing
of chantways. Added to this difficulty of identifica- is very similar to Tozzer's (1908, p. 31) rattle marking
tion is the problem of chants having two or more nomenclature, rather than the actual appearance, but
names, besides an occasional nickname. Hyades is more similar to the actual appearance of
"This refers to White Shell Woman or White the stars. Haile's data do not agree with Tozzer and
Bead Woman going to the west, at which time the he believes Hyades and Pleides are assigned to Orion
gods said they would not be in direct contact with due to ritualistic significance.
the Earth Surface People any longer. Fishier, 1953, "The drawing of Orion, Scorpio and Ursa Major
p. 92. follow the Navaho custom of representing human
17
Haile, 1947, p. 4. In this drawing, by the inform- parts, feet, arms, head, etc., in Haile, 1947, p. 7. How-
ant, there are less stars than actually exist in the Big ever, the drawing here, follows Tozzer's drawings,
Dipper, but the pattern is such that the Big Dipper 1908, p. 31, more than they do Haile's.
30
as a part of Ursa Major is recognizable. Dr. Vogt, in Haile, 1947, p. 8. Little has been published on
a personal communication, has reminded me of sev- the Big Starway. Without more information it is diffi-
eral factorswhich may influence the apparent differ- cult to tell whether this ceremony is a part of it or
ences between the description by my informant and not. Many names of the constel-
similarities exist, the
those represented by Father Berard, Dr. Tozzer, and lationsand other stars, with the exception of Gray
the actual positions. Those Navaho who do know Star;Thunder; Big Snake; Wind Bear; Big Star;
heavens differently from one an-
star lore, divide the one of the War Twins; and the use of five stanza
other, with few representations being
as they actually songs.
exist in the heavens.Also to fulfill the purpose of the 'This star is not noted in Haile, 1947.
picture writing the ones made by my informant did '
Haile, 1947, does note the stars in 8c, d, e, f.
.
g. This is said to represent nothing. and silver Bears. The red on his back repre-
h. This represents the five stars,
Five. sents the power of the Bear.
with (above numbers a, c, d, e, f).
five stanzas 20. Monster Slayer.
i. This is the singer; as he sings he uses a. "Big Star above his head."
these figures. He sings: "I am a Black Big b. "Lightning from his head."
Star, War Twin, etc." c. "Lightning from his hand."

j. Seven Stars (Pleiades). 23 d. "Lightning from his knee."
k. These colors represent the colors of e. "Lightning from his feet."

the stars. 21. Hand of the Twin. This holds his
This represents the five stanzas used shield.

9. a.
in this ceremony. 22. These are the same and are used as pro-
b. This represents the same star as above,
tection by the Twin. The Twin said, "Power
Black Big Star. holding the shield in front of me," i.e., a pro-
tection shield.
c. Monster Slayer.
23. This is the name of it (?).
Thirteen.
10. Blue (green) Star. This has five stanzas.
"Enemies falling away," and, "Enemies
24.
These are the same as above.
dying from witchcraft."
1 Yellow Star. This also has
1 five stanzas.
25. Shield of Protection. This is as in
12. White Star. The White Star has five
number 22. This means, "The red (witch-
stanzas.
craft) will bounce off the shield." The cere-
13. Pronged Star. This has five stanzas up mony itself is the shield, which deflects danger,
in the sky. 24
evil or witchcraft.
14. This has five stanzas.
Silver Star.
26. Beginning of ceremony. This shows
15. The informant claimed this represented the beginning of the ceremony and the end.
nothing, but is used merely to tell the order Hogan. This represents the hogan
27.
of the verses. One at first might wonder at where the ceremony is to take place. The
this, but a similar explanation of its purpose
singer symbolically goes out to the east, where
was given at the end of the ceremony (num- the first red dot is shown, and prays. He then
ber 26). goes out to the south and prays; goes to the
16. Wind. This is the Wind with all five west and prays and then goes out to the north
stanzas telling about the black, blue, yellow, twice and prays. The five stanza prayer of
white and silver Wind. "9" is used when to the east, at the red dot.
17. This is the Thunder with
Thunder. To the north are used the stanzas of "10" on
five stanzas telling about the black, blue, yel- the red dots. On the west is used "11" and on
low, white and silver Thunders. the north are used the prayers of "12" and
18. Big Snake. This is the Big; Snake with "i3-"
five stanzas telling about the black, blue, yel- The red in the diagram represents witch-
low, white and silver Big Snakes. craft or the evil spirits against the sick person.
19. Bear. This is the Bear with five verses Numbers 14 and 15 are used at the hogan also,
telling about the black, blue, yellow, white as are 23 and 26, which are the same. The
*"
Haile, 1947, p. 9. The informant specifically
mentioned seven stars, but of course, only six are isbecause verifications can be made only during cer-
visible in the skv. Upon the cloth were eight stars. tain months and the tendency is to find the figure
The informant followed the distribution of the actual represented in star groups, so a larger area must be
representation, as is shown in Tozzer, 1908, p. 31, included in order to accommodate all of the stars.
but with two additional stars. Nor does the inform- The informant follows Tozzer's belief, of eight stars
ant's distributionfollow that used on the mask of the without the additional five of Haile's, 1947, p. 11, to
Black God as shown in Haile, 1947, p. 3. The differ- complete the Pleiades, Haile, 1947, p. 12.
ence may be explained in several ways: ( ) extensive 1
24
This is also called White Star, but differs from
knowledge of star lore is not esoteric; (2) miscopying the above, which is probably the morning or evening
on part of the author; (3) accurate reproduction by star. Haile, 1947, p. 7. Although the number five is
informant is not important since symbols are mnemo- rather ambivalent in that it can be associated with
nic; (4) ceremonial restrictions. Father Berard Haile, the practice of witchcraft, it is as often used in the
1947, p. 11, adds that difficulty in identifying the star curing of witchcraft. Reichard, 1950, pp. 244-47.
.

black dots represent the singer battling the This represents the First or Second Twin,
witchcraft. The red lines represent the action with lightning and flint from his head, shoul-
and thoughts of witchcraft by a witch. The ders, hand, knee and foot. As you pray to the
dark lines represent the action and thoughts Bear, you say, "I am the First War Twin,
of the singer to counteract the witchcraft. etc." As you pray to the Big Snake, you say,
Since there are two thoughts or actions, two "I am the Second War Twin." Praying to the
prayers are used against the witchcraft. To Thunder, you say, "I am the First War Twin,"
the north are two dark lines. In case there is and praying to the Wind you say, "I am the
trouble and the first prayer does not work, Second War Twin."
"14" is used to supplement the ceremony. All 12. Singer. This shows the singer acting
of this is done while all the prayers are being as the War Twin, shooting lightning: "Pro-
said. tection of lightning and flint around me."
The good people and the good singers like 13. Colors of Bears. These are the four
these ceremonies, one and two, for they de- colors of bears: black, gray (blue), yellow and
stroy evil. white.
These four represent the four light-
14.
25
Plate III nings. The flint, added to these which the
This ceremony is something like the one Twin has, makes five stanzas in all.
with Thunder (Ceremony I), but the Bear 15. Big Snake. This is the Big Snake of
is prayed to here. four colors.
1. Bear. This is the bear, "All of the Bear." 16. Home. This is where the Snake lives.
2. Mountain. This is the mountain by a. Cliff.This is a cliff or- rock wall.

Fort Defiance, c'osgai white spruce
the b. Singer. This is the singer.
Chuska Ranê. This where the War Twins 17. Thunder. This is the Thunder of four
spent the night with the bear. Afterwards the colors.
Twins said, "This will be used in future times," 18. Clouds. These are Clouds where the
i.e., the information gained while with the Thunder sôes for protection from witchcraft.
bear. The Thunder and the Clouds always go to-
3. Sun. gether.
4. East. This line represents the east, where 19. Wind. This is the Wind of the four
the Sun comes up. "Under, toward the east, colors.
a Black Bear lying. I need your protection."
5. Witch. Plate IV: Blessing Way.
6. Power. This is the power of the witch Sometimes person will learn too much or
a
and what he thinks. gain too much power. He may get stiff when
7. Connecting the witch. This line is from he is beincj sung over or when he is hearing
the witch: "As he cries." stories. He may get anxious or worry over
8. Suffering. "The witch as he suffers." stories and thus get sick. When this happens,
9. Dying. The witch and as he
dies, ". . . this ceremony is held.
finally dies because of the power of this cere- 1. Talking God. On his head are "live"
mony." There are many verses to this cere- eagle feathers.
mony as the witch suffers, cries, and finally 2. Black Mountain. This is Pelado Peak, to
dies. the east.
10. Gifts. These are the gifts of the white 3. Corn Pollen. Inside the mountain is corn
shell, turquoise, oyster shell and jet given to pollen.
the Bear, Big Snake, Thunder and the Wind, 4. Doorway to Mountain. This is the trail
for their help and power. Blue pollen 26 is or doorway of the mountain. The mountain
also given, so as to not let the witchcraft take is like a hogan and one can go in or out. The
place. pollen shown is that used during the ceremony
1 1 The First Twin or the Second Twin. inside the hogan.
26
This chantway is unrecognized, but it is not a
part of the Blessing Way. w Wyman and Harris, 1941, p. 32.
.
5. Pollen Footprint. This is the pollen foot- 6. Wind. The Wind of four colors or
print of the person who is sick. directions.
6. Pollen Fingerprints. These are the pol-
len fingerprints of the person who is sick.
Plate VI 20
These pollen prints are made from pollen dur- If a is hurt under the heavens or on
person
ing the ceremony. the earth, there is a ceremony which can be
7. Pollen Sitting Print. This is a pollen held to cure him. If a person has Mirage Rock
sitting print made during the ceremony. in his medicine bag and it is broken, he must
8. Pollen Trail. This is like a trailgoing give a gift before he can fix it. If you get
any place home, on a trip, hunting or any- hurt in the horizon where there is a mirage,
where. a gift of the five (white shell, turquoise, oyster
9. Long; life. This is sa/ah na-yai: "I am shell, jet and red stone) will cure you. If a
immortal (have long life) until the time I will singer knows such prayers he can cure a sick
die of old age." person from these causes.
This connects the two together, sa/ah
a. 1. Earth. This is the earth. Inside the earth
na-yai and bikeh xozq. are twelve colors, but only four need to be
10. Happiness or bikeh xozq. used in this ceremony. Beneath the earth are
1 1This is also part of bikeh xozq. the four colors. The things inside the earth
After this ceremony is done over vou, all are plants, trees, flowers
just to show that
people will be friendly and no one will witch this represents the earth. 30
you. 27 2. Heaven Black. This is the Black Heaven.
The informant stated that there was no special
Plate V reason for the red or yellow around heaven.
This is a short ceremony for protection 3. Mirage Rock. This is Mirage Rock with
against witchcraft. The singer may pray to all the four colors: Black Mirage Rock, Blue,
protect himself or to protect the patient. The Yellow and White Mirage Rock. The yellow
patient can decide whether he wants this and black lines show this to be Mirage Rock.
prayer or not during a ceremony. 28 4. Mirage God. You can pray for help:
1. Sun. "Black Mirage, rise before me so no enemy
a. The lines represent the direction, east. will see me. Can you see anything beyond
2. Gifts. These are gifts which are given me?"
to the Bear, Big Snake, Thunder and the A
gift of the five must be given to the
Wind. earth or heaven for help and protection.
3. Bear. This is the Bear and the colors
beneath represent bears of the four directions: Plate VII: A Self-Protection Prayer. 31
the Black Bear of the east, the blue one to the Witch. This is the witch and the red
1.
south, yellow to the west and the White Bear coming from him is his pow er or thoughts. r
to the north. 2. Shield. This is the shield of the singer

4. Big Snake. This is the Big Snake with the power of the singer or the actual cere-
four colors. mony: "Stand your shield before me."
5. Thunder. The four colored Thunders 3. Shields. The arrow is the power of the
are represented here. witch and the four vertical lines represent
27 28
The above representation of the concept of Alterations may be made in the order of com-
Long Life and Happiness is an interesting and com- ponent ceremonies, for these may be reversed in their
plex one. Why
or how the informant used such order as to the need of the patient. Kluckhohn and
symbols to represent these ideas cannot be answered, Wyman, 1940, p. 21.
29
for as Father Berard Haile states, 1947, p. 17, these This could be Lifeway for injuries, but there is
two are never reproduced in sand paintings. These nothing in the symbols to suggest it.
two may be discussed separately, but as shown in the 30
In a sand painting by Oakes, 1943, p. 30, the
diagram they are thought of as intimately linked. colors similarly are spotted and represent the seeds
Note Fishier, 1953, fn, p. 12, for additional informa- of the earth.
tion. Father Berard discusses some aspects of this, 31
This may be Wind Way, Shooting Way or Up-
Haile, 1947, pp. 16-29. ward Reaching Way.
four shields. The witch tries to get his power should never say a bad word while you have
through these shields, but he cannot penetrate this medicine for it is like saying a bad word
them. This shield is of four verses, just like against your medicine. If you should drop
ceremony II, 21 and 22. your bag you would go to "c'j-di-" in a few
4. Monster Slayer. This is the First War days. But if you had this ceremony to use
Twin who has flints covering him like clothes. when you dropped it, you would be all right.
Beneath him are the colors of the flints. This "Live longer, deathless forever; happiness and
First War Twin's first name represents the peaceful." You can also use this ceremony in
Sun (i.e., he is the child of the Sun). The other ways if you were to suffer on a
black color makes it possible to remember the mountain or to be hurt on the top of a moun-
name and which god goes with the stanza. tain, this ceremony could be used.
5. Born for Water. This is the Second War 1. sisna-zini. This mountain is Pelado
Twin's name. Peak: 33 "Black Mountain, black; Black Moun-
6. Changing Grandchild. This is the First tain, blue; Black Mountain, yellow; Black
War Twin. Mountain, white." 8*
Beneath the mountain
7. Raised in the Ground. The Second War are the four colors which are within the
Twin got his name from being raised in the mountain and all the others do not count (i.e.,
ground on top of the mountain. the other twelve). These colors also represent
8. Black Flint. This is the black flint that the stanzas.
the First Twin, Monster Slayer, wears. 2. co-zit. This mountain is Mount Taylor:
9. Blue Flint. This is the blue flint that "Blue Mountain, black; Blue Mountain, blue;
Born for Water wears. Blue Mountain, yellow; Blue Mountain, white."
10. Yellow Flint. This is the yellow flint 3. do-ko'osli-d. This is San Francisco
Changing Grandchild wears. Peak: "Yellow Mountain, black; Yellow
11. White Flint. This is the white flint Mountain, blue; Yellow Mountain, yellow;
Raised in the Ground wears. Yellow Mountain, white."
4. dibenca. This is Hesperus Peak: "White
Plate VIII: Blessing Way. Mountain, black; White Mountain, blue;
Many singers have been making Mountain White Mountain, yellow; White Mountain,
Soil Medicine. They do ceremony wrong
the white."
and these singers cannot fix them correctly. All four mountains are actually black, but
Mirage Rock horses and sheep are in it.
32
You within each there are other colors so that the
82
This Mountain Medicine or Mountain Soil, was Father Berard Haile, 1938b, p. 42, points out that
gathered from the six Navaho sacred mountains with while Matthews and the Franciscan Fathers identified
the correct prayers and songs. The informant re- the northern mountain with the San Juan, he believes
ceived some of this medicine, along with a Blessing this to be Hesperus Peak. My informants, while using
Way story, which he claimed to be six hundred vears the name Black Belt Mountain or sisna-zini for the
old, with the completion of his apprenticeship. The eastern mountain, identified this mountain as Pelado
bag of Mountain Medicine protects vour property Peak. Father Berard, 1938b, p. 66, identified this as
and helps to hold onto it
even your wife. It also Blanca Peak, while Sleight, 195 1, p. 394, believes the
keeps your land moist and helps you gain everything eastern mountain to be Pelado. It may be of interest
you want. The bag gained more power because it to mention the drawing of the six sacred mountains
had been owned by powerful singers. in plate XI. Sisna-zini, as most authors have interpreted
M For a number of years, a controversial question it, has a horizontal black belt through its center, plus
has been the exact boundary of Navaho country, ac- its being a pointed mountain. This is of interest since
cording to the four sacred mountains. There exist the photographs of the Jemez Range, in which Pelado
good reasons for this confusion, besides those given Peak is found (Sleight, 1951, p. 391), is an elongated,
by Sleight, 1051, in that many of the Navaho do not rather level, range of mountains.
know and that there are many interchangeable names. 31
The usual color order of the holy mountains is
On ten different occasions lists of from four to eleven white, blue, yellow and black. Matthews suggested,
sacred mountains were gained by the author. All and Reichard, 1950, p. 221 agreed, that the sequence
versions agreed on Mount Tavlor and San Francisco of white, blue, yellow and black have to do with
Peak or Mountains. Some disagreement occurred good, while black, blue, yellow and white occur
about the northern mountain. Two designated it as where there is danger. Reichard, pp. 221-40, goes
Navaho Mountain, while the rest used interchange- into all the varying color sequences and their rami-
ably Big Sheep Mountain or San Juan Mountains. fications.
four verses or stanzas also have the colors of cloud is yellow cloud pollen. This pollen is
black, blue, yellow and white. The yellow gathered after it has rained. You go to a lake
which surrounds the mountains is Mountain and at the edge gather the pollen lying on top
Pollen. This comes from plant and tree pollen. of the water. This is all kinds of pollen
5. Black Rock. This is a black rock or from trees, plants, rocks, and other things.
stone. If a person were working with stones If it were cloudy and you became blind, if
or rocks, or fell from a cliff or rock and was you were to catch a cold from a rainstorm,
hurt, this ceremony would be used. Some- or if you have a heart attack when it is storm-
times a person will dream of falling into a ing, or if you were almost drowned this
canyon, and not be able to get out, or falling ceremony would be used to cure you. The
off a rock; in all these cases, this ceremony is pollen gained from the water must be used
used to cure. only on those who have been scared by such
6. Blue Rock. This is blue or wreen rock things, but not really hurt. Again there are
or stone. four stanzas of four colors.
7. Yellow Rock. 2. Female Cloud. This is a female black,
8. White Rock. blue, yellow, and white cloud. If you were
The colors beneath the rocks represent the in a fog and became sick from this or if you
colors of the verses: "Black Rock, black; Black were to get sick from the rain or snow in
Rock, blue," etc. The yellow surrounding the the wintertime, this ceremony would be used.
rocks is rock pollen
there may be a rock 3. Water Weeds. These are Water Weeds
under a tree and in this way you can get rock with the four colors with four stanzas below.
pollen. Pollen can thus be gathered from all If a person were to drink water with Water
of these six mountains and used during the Weeds in it, he would get a sickness in the
ceremony. If a flat rock were used in a cere- stomach. Water Pollen would have to be
mony and it were broken, this ceremony gathered, lying on top of the water near sea-
would have to be used to repair it. weed, and used in the ceremony.
9. Plants. This represents all the plants 4. Water. This is water any water upon
which grow all over the earth. Some plants the earth. If a person dreams he drowns in
have needles, poison or burrs. If a person the ocean, or a person almost drowns and he
sleeps or steps on one of these, he might get is rescued, you have to use this ceremony
sick. If he did, he would have to have this within four days or on the fifth day he will
ceremony. The yellow represents the pollen be dead. If he bleeds from the nose, there is
gathered from good plants. Beneath the plant nothing that can be done. If the man has been
are the four verses represented in color, as in the water four days and has no nose bleed,
above. he is not dead yet. After he is pulled out, a
10. Trees. This represents all kinds of trees. gift must be given of five pieces of stone to
A young tree should not
be cut because of the water and a prayer is said. He is then
the gods or spirits dwelling within it like uncovered to see if he is still bleeding and
the bear spirit in the pinvon tree. Cutting if he is, there is no hope. If he is not bleeding
trees will make you sick. If a person were more stanzas are sung and soon he will be all
hurt by carrying a post or some wood, or if right. If this prayer does no good, another
a tree fell on you or you tripped over some prayer is said to the Thunder and he cures the
wood, or if you were to climb up into a tree sick person. If you had a chance to swim with
and eat all of these things could cause sick- a girl and have intercourse with her in the
ness. Then this ceremony would have to be water, you would get sick and this ceremony
done. Again there are four colors, represent- would have to be held over you.
ing the stanzas. The remainder is the same as
the above. Plate X: Blessing Way
1. Talking God. This represents the Talk-
Plate IX Water Way.
:
ing God. In the Yeibichai the man taking the
Male Cloud. The vertical lines coming
1. place of Talking God, may tear his mask, or
from the bottom are rain. Over the top of the clothes or sack, or he may cough in the mask
or he may
put the costume on wrong or he woman and is in your pocket,
the pollen bag
may hear a yei (god) at night. 35 If any of you have ceremony done. Or if you were
this
these things happen, he will get sick and if praying for a patient and you drop the bag,
the Yeibichai chant is held over him and it this ceremony is done.
does no good, then this song is used. 6. Corn Beetle. Beneath her are the four
2. Calling God. The same things may hap- colors. She raises all the plants but would not
pen at the Yeibichai with the man taking be able to without Pollen Boy. These two are
Calling God's place. He might also become inseparable and these two are used together
blind for not performing correctly or his in ceremonies. The gift of the five stones in
mouth might become crooked as punishment the corn field are for the Corn Pollen Boy and
for something he did or should not have done. Corn Beetle Girl. In all cases there must be
3. Cedar Tree. This represents a young four stanzas as in previous ceremonies. To get
cedar tree. When you go to a cedar tree to pollen from Corn Beetle, pollen shaken from
is
pray you use the prayer of the Talking and her, corn pollen is
i.e., placed on a corn
Calling Gods. The five colored stones are left and then used. Pollen Boy represents
beetle
as a gift for the favor asked. The reason you Long Life and Corn Beetle Girl represents
do this is because the young cedar tree is Happiness.
Talking and Calling God.
4. Corn Field. This represents a corn field. Plate XI: Blessing Way or
If there is no cedar tree you can do the same
Upward Reaching Way.
as above (number 3) in a corn field. As you If a person gets sick and becomes stiff, this
enter the corn field you can motion with your ceremony is used. There are rtany songs and
hand toward a tree on a distant mountain and prayers used.
this will bring the tree to the corn field. If a 1. Earth. This represents the earth. The
person were to give away too many things, informant stated that the green had no spe-
carry too many things (commit an excess of cific meaning. If someone were to get stiff
any kind) he might get sick and this ceremony this song, "Earth," is sung and a massage given
would have to be used. If intercourse were to to the parts that are stiff.
take place in the corn field, sickness would 2. Patient and the Singer. This represents
result. In this last case, in addition to the the patient and the singer. "I am the god (any
songs and prayers, a sand painting must be god) who stands in the earth."
made of Pollen Boy and Corn Beetle for a 3. "He is moving (or
rising) with me."
cure. 36 4. "He up with me."
(the god) got
In of these ceremonies, a part of the cere-
all 5. "Carry me along and take me home."
mony may be used on one specific sickness, 6. "Coming back soon to my home."
but all of this portion must be used or the 7. "He is going back with me. He sits
person will not be cured. down with me. He is starting to tell stories to
a. Tassels. use (in the ceremony). He has finished telling
Ears of corn.
b. the stories to me."
Roots.
c. 8. "I am Long Life."
d. Leaves. 9. "The Two go together (Long Life and
37
5. Pollen Boy. This is Pollen Boy with the Happiness)."
four colors beneath. If you were to lose your 10. "I am Happiness."
pollen bag or if you have intercourse with a 11. Heaven. "I am the god who stands in
36
Such mistakes in the Night Chant are believed
to cause blindness, warping, crippling, or twisted horizontal bar the same as the horizontal bar on a
mouths. Reichard, 1950, p. 94. swastika, while Happiness is represented by a swa-
It would be interesting to know the motivation

36
Most of Hill's (1938, p. 56) informants believed stika.
that intercourse did no harm to the corn. One in- behind the picturing of these concepts in such a man-
formant believed such acts to anger the holy beings ner. Since the completion of the manuscript, Dr. Mc-
and they would cause trouble. Allester has informed me that although he did not
87
McAUester's (n.d.) informant, has portrayed check this point specifically, there was no implication
Long Life as being either a cross or a cross with the that these formed a traditional set of symbols.
THE PICTURE WRITING: FISHLER 7'
the heaven." The red is for remembering what This is where the person, any person,
a.
the picture is. stands to do the prayer and songs.

12. "Mother Mountain." b. "Good pathway in front of me, I will
13. "Mother Water," which can be any go by that."

water or waves. c. "Good pathway behind me, I will go
14. "Pelado Peak," horizontal Black Belt by that."
Mountain. As each of the six mountains are d. "Good pathway under me, I will go
said and as each of the other gods are spoken by that."
of, you say, "I am the god who stands inside e. "Good pathway on top of me, I will
the heaven (or inside the earth or mountain, go by that."
etc.)." This is repeated from two to ten times. "All things around me will be good."
f.
15. "iMount Taylor." "My thoughts will be good forever

g.
16. "San Francisco Peak." The mountain (sa/ah na-yai). I will talk pleasantly (bikeh
looks like the drawing. xozq)."
17. "Hesperus Mountain," or Big Sheep These make up part of the Good Way
Mountain. (Blessing Way). As you go from the earth,
18."Huerfano Mountain or Reversible gods, mountains, and other things, you say,
Mountain or Mountain Around Which Mov- "I am the god who stands inside heaven, etc."
ing Was Done." The cross means that you
can look at the mountain from all sides and
it still looks that same way from any direction.
Plate XII : Blessing Way
19. "Gobernador Knob." The Navaho This is a Blessing Way song used to wash
name is that of 66-1'fj- and this is the reason a patient's hair. This ceremony is called,
for the Lorraine Cross in the center. "This-is-when-they-created- (or layed out)
First Man brought up all six mountains from Corn Beetle Girl."
below, after the flood began. It was Crown 1. Corn field.
Point (Gobernador) and Reversible Moun- a. Corn field outlines.
tains that were hogans and where the gods, in b. The corn.
the beginning, talked of making the various 2. Layed out. "This is the way it has been
animals. 38 layed out." The gods put
her inside the corn
20. Mirage Rock. tassel. Talking God wanted to see if she could
21. Mirage Rock Powder. This is actually make a sound and that was why he was there.
a powder. The small lines represent the 3. Corn Beetle Girl. When she was layed
powder. out, number 2, this song was sung:
22. Plant Mirage. This represents the mi- a. "Her pollen feet."
rage of plants. b. "Her pollen legs."
Mirage Water. Mirage Water is that
23. c. "Her pollen body."
which is seen on roads during hot days. d. "Her pollen face."
24. Talking God. e. Diamond quartz bag. "Turquoise
25. Calling God. He has not as many wings with diamond designs inside the wings."
feathers and he is not as powerful as Talking f. "She makes a sound."
God. These are "live eagle feathers." g. "Pollen feather."
26. Corn. This corn represents all corn. h. "The thoughts of Talking God and
The colored tassels represent various colored Corn Beetle Girl are almost the same."
corn. i. "Then Talking God said, 'our echoes
27. Pollen Boy. (voices) are almost the same.' " 39
28. Corn Beetle Girl. j. This is the corn field Corn Beetle Girl
29. Long Life and Happiness. went to, when she was to hear the sound.
38
Fishier, 1953, pp. 27, 33. the Corn Beetle Girl was to give speech or voice to
89
The Franciscan Fathers, 1910, pp. 383, 384, state the others. When he spoke, Talking God could utter
that when Talking God and Calling God and others only, "wuuhu," and Calling God could utter only,
were created and the spirit of life breathed into them, "quwo, qawo."
7- A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
k. The quartz bag (?). i. "Then Calling God said, 'Our echoes
"
4.Talking God. are almost the same.'
5. This is exactly the same as XI, 29, except: j. This is the corn field that Corn Beetle
a. This shows Corn Beetle Boy and Corn Girl went to, in order to hear the sound. The
Beetle Girl layed out together as described Calling God did the same as the Talking God,
in number 2. but his prayers were with pumpkins.
6.Corn Field. This also represents a corn 8. Names of the song. These are the names
field. God, number 7a, did the same
Calling of the song, such as, "Song about the wings
as Talking God, but he used pumpkins instead making sounds," or, "The quartz bag," and
of corn. so on.
a. A long narrow corn field. 9. Wings. "The wings are moving."
b. Pumpkins. 10. Wings and noise. "The wings are mak-
7. Corn Beetle, a girl. ing noises."
a. "Her pollen feet." 1
1. 15 and 5 are the same.
b. "Her pollen legs." 12. 13, same songs, but have dif-
14 are the
c. "Her pollen body." ferent starts, yet finish in the same way as the
d. "Her pollen face." others. The informant would say no more
e. "Turquoise wings and diamond de- about this, but said that this would have to
signs inside the wings." be gained from another singer.
f. "She makes
a sound (or echo)." All of these designs are used in different
"Pollen feather."
g. ways
prayers for protection or in the Bless-
h. "The thoughts of Calling God and ing Way. All are used for protection and in
Corn Beetle Girl are almost the same." the Blessing Way.
j_llu
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uj
arm
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^ =
t =
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tt i
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if-
<3<S>
$- I
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W-*
CONCLUSIONS
PICTURE writing as a means of expressing by John Yazzi. While some of the devices
thoughts or noting facts by various means may be followed in the Liberation Prayer it-
is a widespread phenomenon in North Amer- self, which is also concerned with the curing
ica. Mnemonic devices or "memory-joggers," of witchcraft, no explanation of meaning is
a subdivision of picture writing, are manifest given for the individual symbols used. Dr.
among primitive groups and while expressed McAllester, 7 in his recording of the Music of
upon anything from feathers to colored the Navajo Creation Chants, worked in Ari-
"sand," they are used to recount traditions, zona in the fall of 1950. The singer recording
record treaties, keep accounts, give order of for him did not know the order of the words
songs and for other purposes. 1 Little has been in the creation chant and to aid his memory,
noted in the published material dealing with the informant drew pictographs. From the
the Navaho as to the use of picture writing context of the paper, it would seem the in-
of the type shown here. 2 formant drew the pictographs, gaining the
The Franciscan Fathers tell us: 3 "By way order of words from songs recorded by an-
of illustration, and as an aid to memory, lines other singer. Four of the figures were painted
are sometimes drawn on the sand. Various yellow to represent such things as the yellow
figures are designed in blankets and depicted afterglow, and yellow pollen and corn. Essen-
in sand paintings or on prayersticks, and are tially these devices of McAllester are similar,
now also seen on cloth and paper. The Navaho in some respects, to those described here in
do not tattoo, neither do they write, draw or that thev are used as a means to keep the word
design on paper or leather." The Franciscans order. Again, without the interpretation by
later state: ". is a sample roll of prayer-
. . the informant only a very few of the devices
sticks which is kept by some singers to aid in could be recognized bv the majority of the
the making of the various prayersticks for Navaho and undoubtedly few, if any, of the
the chants, or certain parts of the chants re- stanzas of the songs could be ascertained by
quiring special prayersticks, and tracing the anyone other than the maker. 8
order in which they should follow. Not every In a way, it is not strange that picture writ-
singer is possessed of the sample roll as most ing of the type herein described should exist.
of them rely upon memory in preparing and The range and diversities of Navaho cere-
ordering them." 4 No illustrations were given. monialism are outstanding when one notes the
Reichard, 5 writes of a medicine man who mass of published data, and still much is to be
relied upon paper sketches in the making of done. Dry paintings in a permanent medium
prayer sticks.. Father Berard, 6 has reproduced were forbidden to the Navaho. 9 The purpose
the first of two picture writing devices in of the dry paintings was to allow some of the
published material similar to the ones owned "power" depicted to be absorbed from the
'Mallery, 1882. 'The manuscript was completed when Dr. Mc-
"This manuscript was completed when Miss Allester informed me in a personal communication
Wheelwright brought to my attention the existence March
dated 15, was correct as to the
1954, that I
of a second set of published mnemonic devices. Mc- way in which the informant made and used the pic-
Allester, n.d.
'
ture writing. He further stated that while he had
1910, p. 74.
no statement in his field notes as to whether the in-
'
1910, p. 398. Dr. Wyman, in a personal communi-
cation in March, 1954, stated that he checked and formant used pictographs in the usual learning situa-
could find no singers who had used such cloths or tion, it was his impression the informant had not used
had even seen the type described by the Franciscan pictographs previously. Dr. McAllester felt that the
Fathers. making of the picture writing was a response to an
' '95. P- 35- unusual situation.
" Haile, 1950, p. 256. 'Reichard, 1950, p. 96; Sapir, 1935, p. 609; and
;
N.d. Wyman, 1952, p. 13.
73
painting into the patient. 10 The Franciscan of the objects portrayed would not represent
Fathers n note the following: "Originally, exoteric knowledge.
these drawings were made by the gods them- Some symbols are known and used over a
selves upon spreads designated as naskha, a wide area by the Navaho, being very similar
sewing, implying that the effigy was stitched to those utilized by the Pueblo and Apache.
upon some kind of fabric. These were
. . . Examples in published material show great
spread out for the ceremony, after which they similarities to symbols utilized in petroglyphs,
were rolled up and carried to their homes by dry paintings, blankets, prayer sticks, sacrificial
the divinities." Yet those who made use of figurines and baskets, with some variation as
permanent drawings were gods, and this was to composition, form and interpretation.
not for the Earth Surface People to do! Only Father Berard's picture writing 16 depicting
within relatively recent years have the Navaho thunder, bear, snake and wind are in form
felt not only immune to the power of the gods design closer to the ones described here than
in the making or reproductions of dry paint- symbols represented in any of the other Nav-
ings,but have gained the understanding that aho published material. That the actual form
much would be lost, if some permanent me- should be a simplified version of the intricate
dium were not used to preserve them. 12 While and painstaking dry painting is natural, due to
"sand painting" blankets may be looked upon the purpose involved. The picture writing is
as blasphemy by many Navaho, equally so 13

remembering of the prayers and
to assist in the
are the reproductions in water color, paints their order. While the important details are
or pencil. 14 depicted as reminders, the general form is sim-
The Navaho then have on the one hand plified, easily fulfilling its function.
precedents set by the gods, who forbade the Kluckhohn and Leighton adequately de-
permanent medium of a dry painting, and on scribed the complexity of ceremonialism using
the other hand the fallibility of the memory the following simile: 17
"Prodigious memory
of man who has need of remembering thou- isdemanded of the ceremonialist. The Singer
sands of verses for one ceremony. Faced by who knows one nine-night chant must learn
such a dilemma it is not too hard to see how at least as much as a man who sets out to
a Navaho might defy custom and feel that his memorize the whole of a Wagnerian opera:
"power" was sufficient reason to permanently orchestral score, every vocal part, all the de-
record. Finally there is the rationalization tailsof the settings, stage business, and each
that, whether the object be dry painting, requirement of costume." The old men are
blankets, or a "memory- jogger," the repro- dying off and due to increased interest in
duction is not a real reproduction. This is things non-Navaho, fewer young men are re-
because ideally no two things are made exactly placing them. Certainly all the ingredients for
alike. such an innovation were present as far as these
As is true in picture writing generally, many devices were concerned
knowledge of sym-
of the symbols used are exoteric and thus bols utilized elsewhere for various purposes,
known to the mass of people. In the more and there was certainly the impetus and need
ideographic subjects, these may give the gen- due to the loss of the old men and non-interest
eral idea of what is represented, but not the of the young. There can be no doubt that
exact words, or any words, for that matter. 15 the origin of the devices was influenced by
So it is with many of the devices described whites or acculturated Navaho. The essentials
here. In the first ceremony, thunder is easily of writing are well known. Still there was, as
recognized, while the words belonging to the in much Navaho ceremonialism, a minimum
verses in the ceremony would not be known of obvious white influence and the style still re-
to the majority of the Navaho. Even many tains its native flavor and technique. These
10
Reichard, 1950, p. 112. " Wyman, 1952, pp. 13-14.
11
1910, p. 398. "Mallery, 1888, p. 225.
I2
Wyman, 1952, p. 13. "Haile, 1950, p. 256.
u Sapir, 1935, p. 609. "Kluckhohn and Leighton, 1948, p. 163.
CONCLUSIONS: FISHLER 75
devices were made by and for the informant only by the maker. Other similar devices exist
and were not to be utilized by others. These on the reservation, 18 and as modern life con-
are, then, individualistic picture writings of tinues to make inroads into the
of the life
fairly recent acquisition, with the relations of Navaho, there probably will be an increased
the symbol to words and verses interpreted utilization of such devices.
"The informant, John Yazzi, stated that his clan

brother has some similar devices. Father Berard Haile, reported that other mnemonic devices are known to
in a personal communication in November of 1953, exist on the reservation.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Dyk, Walter Leighton, A. H.

1945. A discussion of five cases of incest among 1940. Unpublished field notes. Laboratory of So-
theNavaho. Unpublished talk at the Viking cial Relations, Harvard University, Compara-
Fund Conference for Anthropology, October tive Study of Values.
19, 1945. Lowie, Robert H.
Fishier, Stanley A. The northern Shoshone. American Museum
1909.
1953. In the beginning, a Navaho creation myth.
of Natural History, Anthropological Papers,
University of Utah, Anthropological Papers, vol. 2.
no. 13.
1924. Shoshonean tales. Journal of American Folk-
Franciscan Fathers lore, vol. 37, pp. 1-242.
1910. An ethnologic dictionary of the Navajo In-
Mallery, Garrick
dians. St. Michaels.
1882-83. P'ctographs of the North American In-
Haile, Berard
dians. Bureau of American Ethnology,
n.d. Prostitution Way and Moth Way. Unpub-
Fourth Annual Report.
lished ms. Department of Anthropology,
1888-89. Picture writing of the American Indians.
University of Chicago.
Bureau of American Ethnology, Tenth An-
1929. Raised by the owl. Unpublished ms., De-
nual Report.
partment of Anthropology, University of
Chicago.
Matthews, Washington
1938a. Navaho chantways and ceremonials. Ameri- 1885. The origin of the Utes. American Anti-
can Anthropologist, n.s., vol. 30, pp. 639-52. quarian and Oriental Journal, vol. 7, pp.
1938b. Origin legend of the Navaho Enemy Way. 271-74.
Yale University, Publications in Anthropol- McAllester, David P.

ogy, no. 17. n.d. Notes on the music of the Navajo Creation
1940. A note on the Navaho visionary. American Chants. Peabody Museum of Harvard Uni-
Anthropologist, n.s., vol. 42, p. 359. versity, Special Publications.
1947. Starlore among the Navaho. St. Michaels. Oakes, Maud, and Campbell, J.
1950. Legend of the Ghostway ritual in the male 1943. Where the two came to their father. New
branch of the Shootingway. St. Michaels. York.
Hill, W. W. Opler, Morris
1938. The agricultural and hunting methods of the 1938. Myths and tales of the Jicarilla Apache In-
Navaho Indians. Yale University, Publica- dians. American Folklore Society, Memoirs,
tions in Anthropology, no. 18. vol. 31.
Kluckhohn, Clyde Reichard, Gladys
1938. Participation in ceremonials in a Navaho
1950. Navaho religion. New York.
community. American Anthropologist, n.s.,
Sapir, Edward
vol. 40, pp. 350-69.
1935. A Navaho sand painting blanket. American
1944. Navaho
witchcraft. Peabody Museum of
Anthropologist, vol. 37, pp. 609-16.
Harvard University, Papers, vol. 22, no. 2.
Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Leighton, Dorothea Schmerler, Henriette
1948. The Navaho. Cambridge. 193 1. Trickster marries his daughter. Journal of
Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Wyman, L. C. American Folklore, vol. 44, pp. 196-207.
1940. An introduction to Navaho chant practice. Sleight, Frederick W.

American Anthropological Association, Me- 1 95 1. The Navajo sacred mountain of the east a
moirs, vol. 53. controversy. El Palacio, vol. 58, no. 12, pp.
Kroeber, A. L. 379-97-
1 90 1. Ute tales. Journal of American Folklore, Tozzer, Alfred M.
vol. 14, pp. 252-85. 1908. A note on starlore among the Navaho.
1934. Walapai ethnology. American Anthropolog- Journal of American Folklore, vol. 21, pp.
ical Association, Memoirs, vol. 42. 28-32.
79
So A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM
Wheelwright, Mary C. University of New Mexico, Publications in
1951. Myth Mountain Chant, told by Hasteen
of Anthropology, no. 7.
Klah; Beauty Chant, told by Hasteen Gahni. Wyman, Leland C, and Harris, Stuart
Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, Bulletin 1941. Navajo Indian medical ethnobotany. Uni-
no. 5. Santa Fe. versity of New Mexico, Bulletin, vol. 3.
no. 5.
Wyman, Leland C. Wyman, Leland C, and Kluckhohn, Clyde
1936. Navaho diagnosticians. American Anthro- 1938. Navaho classification of their song ceremon-
pologist, vol. 38, pp. 236-46. ials.American Anthropological Association,
1952. The sand paintings of the Kayenta Navaho. Memoirs, vol. 50.
PART III:
NOTES ON CORRESPONDING SYMBOLS IN

VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD
by
Mary C. Wheelwright
NOTES ON CORRESPONDING SYMBOLS
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD
IN THE following pages 1
I have brought rigines are not typical of primitive man in
together references to symbols in various Europe because of the great difference of
parts of the world that correspond to some physical type and geographical environment.
that arementioned in Airs. Newcomb's earlier It is rather in the Northern Steppe region of
chapters describing Navajo symbols. They Asia and America that we find the closest
are presented briefly for their suggestive value, analogies to Europe of the later glacial age,
without claim to completeness or comprehen- owing to parallels in climate, fauna and flora.
sive treatment, solely as the record of one There is to be found a common religious
person's reading and observations. foundation which is the key to the earliest
As an introduction to the pages that follow, known human religion that of hunting peo-
I quote certain notes that I made upon first ple, who live dependent on nature.
utterly
reading Christopher Dawson's The Age of the The hunter everywhere behind the out-
sees
Gods. While there is some direct quotation, ward appearance a vague supernatural power,
they reflect chiefly the impression of the early showing itself alike in beast and plant, storm
chapters of the book upon a reader concerned and heat, in rock and tree, in the magic of the
with the religion of the Navajo. priest and in the spirits of the dead. Particu-
"A culture is a common way of life a par- larly in the Indian tribes of North America,
ticular adjustment of man to his natural sur- the idea lies root of primitive magic.
at the
roundings and his economic needs. Race alone Indians see the vague cosmic power above all
does not explain social development, for en- manifested in the animals, particularly in re-
vironment, occupation and thought interact in gard to the killing of bears. The relation of
varying degrees. The history of mankind the hunter
the belief in animal guardian
shows a continuous process of integration by spirits
which goes back to late Palaeolithic
reason, which is a creative power, and by re- times may well have been diffused through
ligion, which embodies an attitude of life and India to southeast Asia and Australasia, and
a conception of reality. The prophet is per- through Siberia to North America.
haps the greatest of all agents of social change. With the change from the Palaeolithic
Thus the great stages of world culture are to the Neolithic culture, man ceased to be a
linked with changes in man's vision of reality. parasite on nature, like the hunter; he learned
Aristotle, in a flash of scientific imagination, to govern and direct nature. Agricultural
anticipated modern experimental achievements people tend to matriarchy, for the cultivation
in the theory of the Great Summer and the of land involves fixed settlements, and it is the
Great Winter, according to which the earth woman who cultivates, not the mobile patri-
passes through a cycle of climatic change, archal hunter or owner of flocks, that is the
each phase of which is linked with a corre- stable element in society. A
corresponding
sponding change in the relative area of land development is found in religion. Primitive
and sea. When physical conditions are most peoples regard the earth, which is the mother
stable, man does not progress. of the crops, as a female principle
The Earth
The religious impulse has been always and Mother. Her divine son and lover, who is the
everywhere present as one of the great perma- personification of the vegetative life of nature
nent forces that make and alter man's destiny. as seen in the trees
and the harvest, symbol-
The beginnings of religion are as old as the ized death and resurrection, and later gave
human consciousness. immortality to initiates. While agricultural
The African Bushmen and Australian abo- people have an earth religion, pastoral people
1 wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Walter

1
Whitehill for his editing of this section.
83
revere the Sun, the Moon and Storms; the Sky hunting peoples before agriculture. Pastoral
God issupreme. This is possibly an older re- life frees men from continual labor and tends
ligion than that of the Earth, as it was that of to speculation."
DEER AND HORNS OF POWER

Horned animals in Mesopotamia, Assyria, when their horns have hardened and dried,
Egypt, China, and among our Indians, either and the life-force that formerly passed into
in the form of bull, antlered deer or antelope, the horns passes into the genitals. Mr. Cox
were considered one of the earliest sources tells me that in many early sites in many dif-
of power. From them developed such Horned ferent localities,horned animals are
ritual
Gods as Pan or Cernunnos, and in the western buried with their horns above ground, and
Middle Ages the idea of the Christian Devil. that on the only documented set of early
This is suggestive of the fundamental unity Shang bronzes indicating ritual position (in
of thought in regard to sources of power that the Wedel collection), all the life forms, in-
are possibly to be reached by prayer. cluding the horns, show progressive growth.
In Navajo sand paintings the Sun, Moon, The superb Chinese bronze ceremonial ves-
Earth-Mother, Sky-Father, and Storms are sel belonging to Airs. Eugene Meyer of Wash-
always represented with horns of power. In ington, D.C., that is reproduced in plate I, a,
addition the most powerful forms of certain shows man emerging from an insect form and
powers, such as snakes, are sometimes repre- evolving progressively through increasingly
sented with horns. powerful animal forms to the culmination of
The Navajo's reverence for the deer is a great monster with strongly curved horns
shown bv the use of skins from deer killed of full power.
without the shedding of blood in the costume Horned figures appear early in prehistoric
of the Yehbechai God; by the fact that their art, as in the Palaeolithic painting of the horned
paintings were originally on deer skins; that sorcerer in the Caverne des Trois Freres in
deer appear in many of their paintings, and the Ariege in southern France. In the fourth
that they use rattles of deer hoofs in their century b.c. in the Far East one finds a wooden
dances. When I asked the Navajo priest Klah antlered demon head from Ch'angsha in south
why the Navajo revered the deer, he pointed central China, purchased in 1950 by the Brit-
to the veins in his wrist, which suggest deer ish Museum (pi. I, b), which should be com-
horns. In one ceremony of the Red Ant, the pared with the antlered human masks in the
wife of the hero is turned into a deer. Horns Mound Builder culture from Hopewell Mound
denote power to the Navajo. They also grind in Ohio (pi. II). Note also the antlered altar
up the horns for medicine and burn them in from Ch'angsha of the late Chou period, ca.
incense. third century B.C., belonging to Mr. John
Similarly in primitive Chinese medicine, Hadley Cox (pi. III).
ground-up deer horn is considered efficacious Mrs. Bober, in studying the Celtic deity
for the blood and is prescribed to increase Cernunnos, calls attention (pp. 14, 18) to a
virility. In regard to the deer horn as the rock carving at Val Camonica, dating from
container of life, from which this medical before the mid-fourth century b.c. at the time
theory probably derives, Mr. John Hadley of the Celtic sojourn in northern Italy. Here
Cox of Washington, D.C., tells me that in is an erect antlered figure, clothed in a long
Manchuria deer horns are so transparent that flowing garment, standing erect in an orans
one can see the blood enter the new horns in pose. She mentions Dr. Alfred Salmony's
the spring. As the blood comes up in the deer theory that "the antler motive lived on in the
horns before the sap comes up in the trees art of the steppe people, who carried it into
or vegetation begins, to a people familiar with China and same time bequeathed it to
at the
deer in a country where trees are scarce or the Celts." Salmony cites antlered horse masks
non-existent, the horns give the first premoni- from the Scythian burial at Pazirik, and two
tion of spring. The deer rut in the autumn gold "shaman" crowns in the Seoul Museum
NOTES ON CORRESPONDING SYMBOLS: WHEELWRIGHT ^5
from Silla in Korea with tree and antler dec- nium Although this position is repre-
a.d.
orations that indicate Siberian connections. sented in Graeco-Egyptian terra cotta figures,
An Indus Valley seal of about 3000 B.C. in objects from Cyprus and other circum-
from Mohenjodaro (reproduced by Coomara- ambient regions affected by the east, it is not
swamy, pi. VI, fig. 22) shows a male horned used in Greek art.
god sitting cross-legged
a prototype of the The Gundestrup cauldron (Bober, fig. 3)
great god Shiva of the later Hindu religion from the La Tene culture in Jutland shows
with four beasts around him and two deer at Cernunnos holding a torque in his right hand,
his feet. Warren's translation (p. 46) of the and a ram-headed serpent in his left. Next
account of the birth of the Buddha from the him is a stag with five-tined antlers identical
introduction to the Jataka, tells how the to those of the god. A relief in the museum
Brahma angels delivered the newly-born child at Reims (Bober, shows Cernunnos as
fig. 13)
"to the four guardian angels, who received a bearded old man, with cow horns, with a
him from their hands on a rug which was torque about his neck, holding a bag of acorns,
made of the skins of black antelopes, and was seated cross-legged between Apollo and Mer-
soft to the touch, being such as is used on cury above a bull and a stag. Similar Horned
state occasions." It might be noted that in Gods are familiar in Scotland, France, Scandi-
India deer areshown on either side of the navia and South America. At Meigle in Scot-
Wheel of the Law, and be recalled that Bud- land there composite horned figure with
is a
dha received enlightenment in the Deer Park. the head of a bull, a human body with ser-
In Greece deer were sacred to Apollo at pentine legs terminating in fish tails, whose
Delphi, as well as to Aphrodite and to Artemis. uplifted hands grasp snakes, flanked bv a boar
Actaeon, who surprised Artemis while bath- and a wolf. It will be recalled that Saint
ing, was punished by being turned into a stag Mungo of Glasgow made fields fertile by
who was torn to pieces by his own hounds. harnessing a wolf and a stag.
Kerenyi mentions (p. 146) an older tale in According to the mediaeval bestiaries, the
which Actaeon approached Artemis disguised hart or the stag was said to be the deadly
in the pelt of a stag, her favorite animal, and enemy of dragons or serpents, for he fed on
a later version in which Artemis, when Ac- these to restore his health and to get material
taeon attempted to rape Semele, threw a stag's for a crop of new antlers. Thus this animal
pelt over his shoulders. There seems general came, in the allegory of the bestiaries, to
agreement, however, that the unfortunate typify the destruction of evil by Christ.
Actaeon was torn to pieces by hounds. Deer served numerous pious purposes in
The stag was used as a symbol of abundance the western Middle Ages. For example, such
in the earliest Celtic art, probably before the an animal with a light between its horns met
Celts arrived in Europe. In the west the a nun on the Nethberg, the highest hill west
Horned God, Cernunnos, is most readily of Zurich, and guided her down to the site
found through the study of Roman and pre- where the Frauemunster was built in a.d. 853.
Roman monuments in Gaul, where this ant- St Hubert, while hunting, was converted
.
lered deity is usually seated cross-legged, and through meeting a deer bearing the image of
often accompanied by a ram-headed serpent, the crucified Christ between its horns, as one
or a woman holding a cornucopia. Some of may see over the entrance to the chapel at
these representations go back to the fourth Amboise, in a painting by the fifteenth cen-
century b.c. Such figures have been variously tury German Master of Werden in the Na-
interpreted as personification of night, death, tional Gallery in London, and elsewhere. A
evil or the generator of fecundity. The Ro- Chartres window shows the similar conversion
mans called him Dis Pater, and said that the of St. Eustache. Deer bearing crosses are also
Celts believed they were descended from him. familiar in Egypt and South America. An-
Alexandre Bertrand (Bober, pp. 21-22) sug- other fifteenth century painting in the Na-
gested that the cross-legged way of sitting tional Gallery in London shows St. Giles suc-
came from India, where it was adopted for coring a wounded deer in his arms.
the Buddha about the end of the first millen- In Ireland there is the curious incident of
.

St. Patrick and his companions escaping their with feathers. In England the Abbots Brom-
enemies unrecognized, in the guise of deer, ley deer dance, which is held in October (the
while singing the Lorica, known as "St. Pat- season of the stag's rutting), is one of the old-
rick's Breastplate" or "The Deer's Cry" a est folk customs to have survived. It is of a
translation of which appears today
Anglican in processional type, and the whitened deer
hymnals as "I bind unto myself today the horns, which are held before the faces of the
strong name of the Trinity." This mysterious dancers, are kept in the church during the re-
incident was explained by Macalister (pp. mainder of the year.
144-46) by suggesting
that the saint and his The Christian devil, both in mediaeval and
companions had the wit to trick themselves modern times, was usually horned. Horns
out in the deer skins that were the working alsonormally appeared on the fool's cap and
clothes of a formidable secret society known on the heads of cuckolds. The Marquis de
as the "Fair-lucky Harps." Professor Macalis- Montespan advertised his condition of royal
ter gave considerable offense in some quarters cuckold after wife had become the mistress
his
of Ireland by suggesting a parallel between of Louis XIV by driving into the courtyard of
this ancient Irish magical college and present- the palace at Versailles in a coach draped in
day Duk-Duk dancers of frightening appear- black with a stag's antlers wobbling about on
ance in the Bismarck Archipelago! the roof.
Deer skins and horns are dancing costume It might be noted that, whether through
in many parts of the world. The Pueblo In- mistranslation of the Old Testament or through
dians have a deer dance in winter with elabo- primitive tradition, Michelangelo's Moses has
rate horned headdresses. In one of the villages budding horns on his head. Horned heads
in the Coorg hill country in South India, come down to recent times, as one sees in the
Whitehead (pp. 91-92) reports that the terminal figures on certain staffs, made in
Coorgs after sacrificing a buffalo, have pecu- Africa of iron and in Persia, and possibly
liar dances around the temple, in which orna- India, of steel inlaid with silver. nineteenthA
ments belonging to and kept in the temple are century Persian example from a New York
worn. In the Kombata or horn dance, each private collection is reproduced here (pi. IV,
man wears the horns of a spotted deer or stag a), and in 1954 Dr. Leland C. Wyman saw in
on his head, while in the Pili-ata, or peacock's Beirut a Persian helmet topped by a similar
feather dance, the performers are ornamented horned human head of steel inlaid with silver.
DONTSO
The Navajos call him the Messenger. Al- examples of the ancient Chinese calligraphic
though his earthly form is a white-headed fly, symbol of the Cicada (H. Hentze, fig. e, f, g, 1
he powerful agent in the myths, unafraid

is a h). Compare also the Central American gold
of any force, who is the comforter and helper symbol from Colombia in the British Museum
of the hero. Every myth tells of the choice (fig. 2), and a jade circle from British Hon-
of a prophet to bring a particular mes- duras (fig. 3), also in the British Museum,
sage, and thereby give help and healing to which decorated with four faces, probably
is
men. During this process the prophet is tested typifying the four directions, beside one of
by the gods, and needs the help and advice which is a small symbol similar to Dontso.
of beneficent and wise counsellors such as There is the same apparent meaning to the
Dontso. While traveling in India I found that Ka of Egypt (fig. 4), which is the symbol of
Dontso was similar to the Purusha symbol of the spirit part of man as contrasted with the
the spirit or soul, and apparently in the most Ba, or physical side (see Gardiner's Egyptian
ancient Chinese symbols there is a similar Grammar)
unity of meaning. The similarity of appearance Hentze says (p. 15), in relation to the Cicada
will be seen in figure 1, where four versions symbol, that the Australian aborigines' idea
of Dontso (shown through the kindness of of the resurrection of their particular deity,
Dr. Leland C. Wyman) are reproduced with the Witchety Grub, is almost identical with
NOTES ON CORRESPONDING SYMBOLS: WHEELWRIGHT 87
r- ^J
Figs. 1-4. 1, a, b, c, d,
(e-h, courtesy Metropolitan

circle from British Honduras
four versions of Dontso.
Museum
in British
of Art.)
Museum.
2.
4.
e, f, g, h, ancient
Gold symbol from Colombia
Symbol associated with Ka.
u
Chinese calligraphic symbols for Cicada,
in British Museum. 3. Jade
the Chinese idea shown in the figure of Cicada of the Ch'angsha Codex in the Freer Gallery,
larva on Shang period bronzes. He further has given me the following notes on the sub-
states that the Cicada symbol is not only one ject. "This character appears generally in in-
of resurrection but of renovation. Hentze's scriptions and calligraphy; not usually on
first page of representations of the Cicada so bronzes. A
character which does not fit into
much resembled the Navajo Dontso that I either calendric nor zodiacal system, unlike
tried for years to locate the Japanese book by the characters meaning rabbit, turtle, tiger or
Nakashima, Shu-clfieh yuan-yuan, from which dragon, not associated with any specific
it is
he quoted on this subject and finally located it orientation or particular time of year. It
in the Freer Gallery in Washington, D. C. means only itself, and stands for the precursor
Mr. John Hadley Cox, who has lived and of First Man as a symbol of rebirth, accord-
studied in China, and is now making a study ing to the Ch'angsha Codex. Later it was con-
sidered to be a Cicada, and there are further The and the butterfly have often
chrysalis
sources in Chinese literature showing that, been taken as Accord-
resurrection symbols.
because of the Cicada's apparent death during ing to Sir Arthur Evans (pp. 53-64), butter-
a period of ten years, it represents a miracu- flies inCrete represented human souls. They
lous form of rebirth. It is the most compact appear on the Ring of Nestor, where the
form of the inclusive essence of life. On underworld is divided into four regions by a
bronzes there is a tendency to show the right great tree above the head of the Mother God-
side of the figure larger than the left. Later dess. The chrysalis as an emblem of life after
this character was considered as meaning death is illustrated by amulets found at My-
'bat.' A book by Kuo Mo-jo, A New Study cenae. Plate IV, b shows a crystal insect
in Chinese Bronzes, published in December chrysalis from the Spiro Mound, Le Flore
1952, establishes (despite Communist ortho- County, Oklahoma, reproduced through the
doxy) connections of Shang characters and kindness of Dr. Ralph B. Shead, Acting Direc-
calendrics with the ancient Near East. A little tor of the University of Oklahoma Museum.
known article published by Paul Pelliot in Two similarly shaped insect chrysalises of
19 1 6, 'Influences Indiennes en Asie Centrale hard granitic stone were included in the pre-
et en Extreme Orient', holds the same theory Columbian exhibition at the Philadelphia Art
of the origin of the earliest characters." Museum in January 1954.
FEATHER AND OTHER ABSTRACTIONS

For the Navajos, the feathers on head- are attached the feathers indicating Truth,
dresses or prayer plumes are their means of which was his chief characteristic. The idea
contact with the sky and its powers. Accord- apparently comes from the primeval concep-
ing to Flinders Petrie (p. 56) Shu was, in tion of the Heaven-Bird, which is discussed
Egypt, the god of space, who lifted up Nut at length by Stevenson (pp. 211 ff). In this
(the personification of heaven) off the body connection one might note the representation
of Seb (the personification of the earth). Shu's of a bird on a pole or staff in the Lascaux
emblem uses the ostrich feather, which, as a cave, reproduced by Brodrick (pis. 44-45,
singularly light and voluminous object, was pp. 82-83).
appropriate for a god conveying the abstract According to Heraclitus, eternal fire was
idea of air or space. Sara Yorke Stevenson more than an element; it was primordial es-
(pp. 239-40) observes that "The feather and sence, the source of all things and superior to
the wing in Egyptian myths are always and the gods (Stevenson, p. 237).
everywhere associated with the notion of heat In Father Berard Haile's Emergence Myth
and of light, and form endlessly varied themes. of the Navajos, there is much about columns
Not only are the goddesses. . spoken of as
. of light in the First World, and the Fire God
making light with their feathers or with their was one of the seven immortals in the First
wings, but 'Shu,' the god of the luminous air, Lower World.
who supports the heavenly vault, bears a The Navajos say that the spirit wanders for
feather upon his head, and 'rising-, he irradiates four days before finding the way to "the under
light with his double feather.' " She cites world where all unsprouted seeds fall and
other texts which state "Thou receivest thy grow." The Milky Way is the path of souls.
double feather, thy double light" and "The The Navajos fear many powers, but in the
sun, mighty king, divides the heaven with his highest God they recognize a Father and
two feathers." Wallis Budge (p. 320) men- Preserver who wants them to do good.
tions the White Crown of Osiris, to which
to"S
e to
.
6
|
"2 5
So E
y. c
id 2
Plate II. Antlered mask from the Hopewell .Mound, Ohio. See page 84. (Photo, courtesy
of the Chicago Natural History Museum.)
Plate III. Antlered altar from Ch'angsha, China, owned by .Mr. John Hadlev Cox, Washington, D. C.
See page H4.
)
/;, Crystal chrysalis of insect from Spiro Mound,

Oklahoma. See pages 86 and 88. (Photo,
courtesy of the University o\ Oklahoma \ln-
seum.
Plate IV. a, Antlered human head of steel and

from Persia, 19th century, owned by Miss
silver,
Susan Dwicht Bliss, New York.

ETHKAY-NAH-ASHI AND ASVINS

In connection with the Navajo Ethkay- were once shut off in a lower rank from other
nah-ashi, 2 it is of interest to turn to comparable gods because of their healing of men. In the
figures in the earliest Vedic mythology of Rigveda they rank below Indra, Agni and
India. Of the divine pair of horsemen called Soma. When they rejuvenated Cyavana, the
Asvins in the Rigveda, Keith (pp. 30-32) ancient husband of Sukanya, he obtained for
writes: "They and red
are beautiful, strong, them the previously denied right to the Soma
and their path is red or golden. They have drink of the gods. In the later epics they are
a skin filled with honey and touch the sacrifice called Nasatya and Dasra, and appear in higher
and the worshipper with their honey-whip. status as physicians of the gods and healers of
Their chariot alone is described as honey- mankind. Some accounts reported one Asvin
hued or honey-bearing, and it also has as bright and the other dark, in as striking con-
the peculiarity of possessing three wheels, trast as the black and white eagles of Aeschy-
three felloes, and all the other parts triple. lus. These twins, sometimes alike, sometimes
The time of the Asvins' appearance is at light and dark, are conceived of both as means
dawn; they follow dawn in their car. . . . of reinforcement and in opposition; most gen-
They are wedded to a deity described as erally they are transmitters and healers.
Surya, the sun-maiden, or the daughter of Like the Asvins, the Greek Dioskouroi,
the Sun, and it is for her perhaps that their Castor and Polydeuces (latinized Pollux) the
car has three seats and three wheels. . . . sons of Zeus by Leda
were handsome horse-
Moreover they are physicians who heal dis- men, who rescued many men, especially in
eases, restore sight to the blind, and ward off battle and at sea. Kerenyi (p. 87) also tells of
death from the sick. . . . Dioskouroi, who were represented in Samo-
"The Indian interpreters of the early period thrace by two brazen phallic statues, similar
were at a loss to decide the nature of the to those of Hermes, at the entrance to the
Asvins, whom they regarded as heaven and most secret shrine of the Great Mother. Daw-
earth, sun and moon, day and night, or even as son (p. 374) mentions the ruins of an early
two kings who were performers of holy acts. Iron Age temple at Nesactium in the south of
It is clear that in essence thev are one with Istria which contains remarkable statues of
the Dioskouroi and with the two sons of the twin figures ithvphallic horsemen
and a
Lettic god who came riding on steeds to woo goddess of birth, and says that the worship of
for themselves the daughter of the Sun or the a triad consisting of the Mother Goddess and
Moon and who, Dioskouroi, are re-
like the two divine horsemen was still prevalent in
cuers from the ocean. The older identification Pannonia during the Roman period. In Sparta
with sun and moon has been supported, and the Dioskouroi were exponents of virtues and
they have been regarded merely as succour- valor, called by Plutarch "Guardians." Far-
ing giants who have no mythical basis, but nell (p. 210) speaks of their worship at Epi-
the more probable view is either that they dauros, where "they were evidently attracted
represent the twilight (half dark, half light), into the circle of Asklepios as healers, and
or the morning and the evening star." Guard- came to share with him the ministrations of
ians of immortality, who can ward off death, his priest and were
probably in the healing
restore life, rejuvenate and make fertile, they sense entitled the 'Saviour-gods'."
2
Their name means "the-two-that-go-together." monial Art, they are called transmitters of life to all
They are mysterious, and so holv that they are only creation and are always mystically present at cere-
shown on creation paintings and always in white monies. See page 8 in Part I of this study, fig. 3,
color. In vol. I, Navajo Creation Myth, Navajo Reli- and section on "Notes on Parallel Symbols and Rites
gion Series, published by the Museum of Navajo Cere- in India, Tibet and Ancient Persia" in Part III, page 95.
BEAR CONSTELLATION OF SEVEN STARS

The Navajo gourd and skin rattles are dec- life, the rice measure is naturally the measure
orated with the Great Bear Constellation. The of given to the Mother of the Measure,
life) is
hibernation of bears during the winter, and or Queen of Heaven, who dwells among the
their survival through apparent death, has stars of the Bear Constellation. The Chinese
caused the Bear Constellation keeping watch words for measure and constellation are much
to become a universal symbol. The Greeks alike. Goette (p. 149) describes the green
had November ceremonies when the seven jade Kuei tablet, offered by the Emperor of
stars were highest, and all over North America, China at the Altar of the East outside Peiping
Indians believed the abode of bliss to be among on the morning of the Spring Equinox, which
the stars of the Great Bear. was incised with a conventional representation
In the Taoist heaven the Bear Constellation of the seven stars of the Great Bear constella-
is the throne of Shang Ti, the supreme deity. tion. Among the Ainu of Japan, the bear is
These China associated with lon-
stars are in the particular intermediary between men and
gevity and wealth, and there is a ceremony in their God, who is equated with the North
which a rice measure (rice being the staff of Star, and to whom they sacrifice the bear.
RITUAL SIMILARITIES BETWEEN NAVAJO CONCEPTS AND OTHERS

In a Navajo ceremony, pebbles are taken the Integration of Personality "embraces all
from the nest of the Rock Wren, painted with concentrically arranged figures, round or
symbols, used in ritual, and then returned to square, all having a centre; all radial or spheri-
the birds' nest. MacCurdy (vol. II, de-
p. 6) cal arrangements."
scribes pebbles of the Azilian culture, gath- The Incas and Aztecs took possession of
ered at Mas d'Azil in the Ariege, on which land by hurling a stone or arrow to the
designs, stylistically similar to Spanish petro- cardinal points, according to Brinton (p. 69).
glyphs from Estremadura and Andalusia, had In the Navajo Fire Dance in the Mountain
been painted in red ocher. Levy (pp. 46-48) Chant, the Medicine man throws a burning
mentions the relation of these prehistoric de- brand in the four directions before the racing
signs on painted pebbles to the decoration of of the "whitened men" around the big fire.
symbolic churingas among present day Aus- The sunwise swastika is in India sacred to
tralian aborigines. the male Ganesh, god of prosperity, while the
The Bull-Roarer, which is a special imple- counter-sunwise female swastika, sacred to
ment of the churinga type used in Australia Kali, typifying the course of the sun below
today to produce the voice of divinity, is like- the earth from west to east, symbolizes dark-
wise paralleled among prehistoric Magdalenian ness, death, and destruction, according to
objects. Bayley (vol. I, pp. 85-86) quotes d'Alviella (p. 68). Similarly the Navajo sun-
Professor Haddon's opinion that it is perhaps wise swastika symbol is also beneficent, while
"the most ancient, widely-spread, and sacred the counter-sunwise swastika is used only in
religious symbol in the world. It is used in rites to banish evil.
many parts of the world, and the Navajo em- The crescent used in Navajo necklaces
ploy it in many ceremonies to banish evil. (fig. 5) is an ancient Mediterranean protective
A CIRCLE WITH A CENTRAL SPOT in it OCCUTS symbol against the "evil eye," brought to
frequently among
the painted pebbles from the Southwest by the Spaniards. To the
Mas d'Azil(MacCurdy, vol. II, p. 218). This Navajo, the crescent is a fertility and protec-
is the original symbol for the sun (great male). tive symbol, and is similar to the Yoni, the
It is also used as a symbol for the universe in female fertility symbol of India. The round
India; and similarly in Masonry. beads of the Navajo necklace are seeds. The
The symbolism of mandala, the Sanskrit flowers are representations of squash blossoms,
word for magic circle, according to Jung in considered to be another symbol of fertility.
NOTES ON CORRESPONDING SYMBOLS: WHEELWRIGHT 9'
of the patient while praying, is reputed to be

efficacious in relieving tensions.
The fox all over Europe, and particularly
in Japan, stands in much the same relation to
man as the coyote does to the Navajo as a
very clever, mischievous magic creature. Else-
where he is not usually as powerful, however,
as the Navajo coyote, who (like Prometheus)
is the bringer of fire to man, and is able to
impede the path of the hero, whom he often

Fig. 5. Squash blossoms and fertility symbol of turns from human into coyote shape. Coyote
Navajo necklaces. knows more about the process of creation
than the other animals, but as he is a thief who
Perhaps the Yoni and the Mediterranean overreaches himself by arrogance, he inevit-
charm had a common origin at some time in ably fails in his efforts to upset the pattern of
the distant past (fig. 5). life. But all the world over the fox type is
The diviningby arrow and shaking hand allied to sinister forces.
in the Navajo Coyote Chant is similar to a The Navajo Thunderbird is quite similar
divining rite in India. to the Garuda of India, who
a god, and is
Many examples of the baleful effects of very combative, particularly with snakes. In
tying knots are cited by Sir James Frazer, and the Navajo Creation Myth a great white bird
achieved simply by find-
of cures from disease found flying over this present earth when the
ing and untying the knots in question. The people reached it from below is nearer to the
rite of Wohltrahd in Navajo ceremonial, Garuda: this great bird, the connection be-
which includes the untying of slip-knots in tween earth and sky, is also found in Mexican
woolen cords which are pressed to the body myth.
NOTES ON PARALLEL SYMBOLS AND RITES IN INDIA,

TIBET AND ANCIENT PERSIA
In 1940 I went to India, partly to see if I tion of King George VI, had been traveling
could find any connections there with the in the States. He was much interested
United
Navajo religion. I took with me several small in the American Indian religion, and expressed
colored drawings of sand paintings; one of the conviction that it came from the same
the Thunderbirds, another of Earth and Sky, source as the ancient religion of India.
one of the Whirling Rainbows, one of the I had letters to the Vedanta Priests at Belur,
Fire Gods in. the stars with the sun in the near Calcutta, and found them not only most
center and one of the Hozhonji or Blessing interested in my problem but very helpful
Chant. This last painting showed the creation with suggestions and information. They intro-
of man with the path of life ascending the duced me to the philologist Dr. Suniti Kumar
cornstalk between the Ethkay-nah-ashi. I also Chatter jee, Professor of Indian Linguistics at
took some Navajo sketches of Indian scenes, the University of Calcutta, who was con-
and some ceremonial stones such as are used vinced, as were the others whom I consulted,
in prayer. I was on the lookout for parallel that the Ethkay-nah-ashi and the Asvins, the
uses of symbols and rites, and have embodied mystical twins of the Vedas, have the same
in the following notes the results of conversa- meaning, both being healers or transmitters of
tions and personal observation during this trip. life. Professor Chatter jee, after examining the
On the steamer out to India I had various Navajo material, expressed the opinion that it
conversations with Commanding General was of a very ancient ritual, and thought that
Kaisar Shumshu of Nepal, the nephew of the it might go back to the cradle of the Aryan
former Maharaja of Nepal. General Kaisar, race northwest of India.

who had represented his uncle at the corona- Mrs. Choudhuri, a niece of the poet Tagore,
took me to see a holyor teacher who
man the three conditions of human existence
lived in a frugal way suburbs of Cal-
in the Srog (the vital principle breath), Lus (body)
cutta, Guru Bijay Krishna Chatter jee. The and Vang (power or moral energy) upon
Guru, who spoke idiomatic English, was a the union of which happiness depends; it
most direct, simple and impressive person. strengthens these conditions so as to cause a
Mrs. Choudhuri, who was a handsome, ener- union salutary to man. As the efficacy of any
getic and vital elderly lady, was not only full Dharani, or mystical sentence, for happiness
of help for the schools in Calcutta, but also in this existence is made more certain by the
an accomplished musician. presence of Lungta, the likeness of the airy
My information about Persian parallels horse appears on many such Tibetan block
comes from Dr. Phyllis Ackerman, formerly prints, as well as on the Derchaks, or prayer
of the Iranian Institute, New York. flags (p. 199), that aremet with in front of
religious buildings along the roads. The invo-
Tibet cation of Lungta ensures a safe and pleasant
During my I was able to obtain
stay in India journey. He also defends against maleficent
useful information on Tibetan worship from plants, and deprives hostile constellations of
conversations with Air. David Macdonald of the planets of their obnoxious influence.
Kalimpong, near Darjeeling, who had been At Lhasa in the spring, during a ceremony
British Trade Agent in Tibet from 1905 to designed to hasten the coming of the Buddha
1925, had written several books on his experi- of the Future, known to Indians as Maitreya
ences, and had married a Tibetan. His famil- and to Tibetans as Gye-wa. Cham-pa (Con-
iarity with Tibetan written sources is indi- quering Love), there is a race of riderless
cated by an acknowledgment by Sir Charles horses, the emblem of speed, and wrestling,
Bell ( pp. 199-200) for help in translating
193 1, the emblem of strength. Bell describes this
portions of Tibetan histories to Mr. Macdon- festival in The People of Tibet, pp. 272-84.
ald, "whospeaks and writes Tibetan more The wild ass appears in Persia in the decora-
easily than English." tions of Susa I (3500 b.c.) before the horse,
Horses play an important role in Tibet. and in the Navajo creation story he was per-
Sir Charles Bell (1924, p. 11) mentions the sonally created by the great god Begochiddy,
Tibetan geographical notion that the Tsang- whose favorite he was.
po River rises from the mouth of a horse and Sir Charles Bell ( 193 1, pp. 8-20) describes
flows through "Tibet, the land of horses." He the pre-Buddhist P6n religion of Tibet as a
further observes: "The Tibetan pony is cer- form of Shamanism or Nature worship, similar
tainly one of the characteristics of the coun- to that formerly followed by different tribes
try. Princes and peasants, men and women, of Turkish stock, by the Finns, Lapps and
ali and children too, from an early age.
ride; dwellers in the north of Asia on the borders
And with the mule, the donkey, and the yak, of the Arctic circle, as well as the Manchus
the pony, agile and hardy beyond those of and the Indians of North America. Official
most countries, transports their merchandise Chinese histories of the fifth and sixth cen-
and household goods across the plateaux, and turies a.d., when the Ponist religion was in full
up the rough valley and high passes that con- force, mention sacrifices of men, horses, oxen
nect them." and asses in Tibet. In spite of the introduction
Emil Schlagintweit, in describing Tibetan of Buddhism in Tibet, the Ponist faith still sur-
ceremonies for ensuring the assistance of the vives amonor the Lepcha, Limbu, Lolo, Lissu
gods, includes (pp. 253-56) the invocation of and Moso tribes east and southeast of Lhasa,
Lungta, "the airy horse, the horse of wind," while the epic of Ke-sar is still recited in
who permits his rider "the king of the golden eastern Tibet. Bell mentions men and women
wheel, the governor of the four continents who can recite this epic of Ponist Tibet for
(in Sanskrit Maha Chakravartin Raja)" to ten days without repeating themselves. Mr.
world between morning and night
traverse the David Macdonald told me that offerings of
without experiencing fatigue. Lungta is the horses and fowl were given to the war god
symbol of harmony, for it unites in harmony Ke-sar in Lhasa, and that now two images of
horses stand near his shrine and many live constantly moving, although the spectators
fowl are kept there. believe that the arrow is shaking him. He con-
Mr. Macdonald's Tibetan priest servant, tinues until he is exhausted, when the halt of
when I showed him a picture of an Apache, the arrow taken as a sign that the evil spirits
is
said that years ago the Tibetans sent away a have been driven away. If used for the de-
lot of wicked men called Lii. On 15 March tection of thieves, the culprit may be looked
of each year this sending away is commemo- for in the direction that the arrow points when
rated by the Lii-tsang ceremony in which it ceases to move. Ritual arrows are similarly
there is a scapegoat, and for which images of used by the Navajo in the Coyote Chant and
dough, similar to the Apache picture I showed an almost identical rite occurs in the Red Ant
him, are made. He thought that the Lepchas Chant of the Navajo.
and people of Sikkim were descendants of Each year the Tibetan government sends
those sent away, but that others went further, out to the governors of districts a proclama-
such as the people of Hor in Turkestan, who tion called Tsa-tsik. This root word for gen-
(like the Navajo) wear big silver plaques eral rules of conduct recalls the Navajo word
around their waists. In Tibet today the Lii Tsa-tlai, which appears in the Creation Story
are powerful serpent deities, who have a chapel of the First World as one of the first laws
immediately below the walls of the Potala as given there.
well as others in other parts of Lhasa. Flame is honored as one of the indestructi-
In the bazaar at Kalimpong cranes' heads, ble elements among both Tibetans and Nav-
which are used in Navajo medicine ceremonies, ajos.
were on sale for medicinal use. Mr. Macdon-
ald told me that Tibetans use conch shells India
pierced as bracelets, similar to prehistoric General Kaisar thought the mythic bird
Navaho excavated bracelets, and that they also Garuda the "vehicle" of Vishnu, lord of
use coral and turquoise in ornaments and ear- the birds, the charioteer of Surya is
the
rings, as the Navajos do. The name Sipaho of origin of the Navajo Thunderbird. The step-
the painting carried in front of Tibetan wed- brothers of the Garuda are Nagas, or snake
dings and funerals is curiously reminiscent of people. The Garuda image is always put op-
Sipapu, the name of the lower world in Pueblo posite an outsidedoor of the temple of Jager-
mythology. nath, "Lord of the Universe," the sky type of
Schlagintweit (pp. 260-63) describes Tibe- Vishnu. Garuda is a sky symbol in Persia,
tan divination ceremonies with arrows that are and related to Nagas, as they represent the
similar to Navajo uses. In the Thugdam Kant- water symbol on the world below the sky.
sai ceremony in Tibet, an arrow, to which five General Kaisar thought that the reference
silken strips of the five sacred colors are fas- to the underworld as Nagaboka (abode of
tened, as well as feathers and charms, is stuck snakes) means the North American continent.
perpendicularly into the ground. In another He also believed that Aztec equals Astik, the
Nagpo Chenpo is invoked by
rite the cere- saviour and protector of snakes mentioned in
mony of "moving; the arrow" both as protec- the Puranas. Ganesha, the Indian elephant god,
tion from the hostility of mischievous spirits Mayan sulpture.
figures in
in general and to detect thieves. An arrow, The name of Surya, or Sun God, is mascu-
trimmed with feathers, strips of silk and invo- line in India, America, Mexico and the Middle
cations to Nagpo Chenpo, is handed by the East. Savitr is also the Sun God, the Enlivener,
head Lama of the monastery to a novice, who, and God

of Morning, as well as Evening. His
after taking a seat on a carpet, holds the arrow chariot is drawn by seven horses (seven rays
with one hand, the point resting perpendicu- of light). Surya is often spoken of as a bird
larly on the palm of his other hand. By a in the Vedas, and is also described as All-See-
slight shaking and turning, he brings the point ing. The Sun God in Germany and Japan is
into motion, and gradually lets the arrow fall feminine.

to the ground. He then seizes it with both Professor Chatter jee says that the original
hands, and by convulsive shakings keeps it form of Surya was represented with two arms,
creates," and the earthly form "twins that ride
tKWAS=HOft$E on horses."
Swami Oonkarananda, after examining my
Navajo material commented on a variety of
subjects. He said that the string hand-drill
is used to make holy fire; that it is the custom
to make a Mandala of Perusha (Dontso) when-
ever they make Puja (prayer) and to place on
it a vessel of water containing a mango twig
that has three or five leaves on it; that boys
are whipped during and that
their initiation;
there walking in South India. Mandalas
is fire
are all memorized, and not made into pictures.

These mandalas or Rangole patterns are made
by holding a rag soaked in rice liquid in the
hand, and letting the liquid run down to earth
on the first finger. Swami Oonkarananda felt
Fig. 6. Derivation of words from pre-Sanskrit.

that there is connection with the
a possible
Aryans of Mesopotamia or Egypt or Sumeria
through paintings. The mandala pattern is
and accompanied by a dawn maiden on each used for meditation with no figures placed in
side and by two Asvins on horses. In the Cal- it, for the pattern suggests the powers, the
cutta Museum are three images of Surya with center is often Mount Meru, the white inner
one pair of arms, and one in a "kudu" (niche). rings for the initiated (such as Christ), the
They have one flower in each hand. Swami next circle for active good people, and the
Oonkarananda of Ramakrishna Math, Belur, next for worldly ones. He mentioned the
near Calcutta, said that Surya must have four tradition found in the Vedas and also often
arms and seven horses, and two wives, and in the Mahabarata of an expedition to a dis-
that below him there must be a god with a tant land, where there were "fair daughters
coach who prevents the world from being of serpent kings." He spoke of Ardhanaris-
burned up with too much light. At Anura- war, the half male and half female god of the
dapura in Ceylon is a bas-relief cut in living Vedas.
rock of a warrior with crest, and horse's head He observed that while in Tibet one held
at the side, that is reputed to represent Iswara, stones in the hand while praying, in India one
a pre-Buddhistic Sun God, above a relief of rather held two long ritual sticks of wood.
elephants and other figures. Temples there While pouring butter on a fire with the right
faced East and had four altars. Bands of fig- hand, it was customary to hold a bunch of
ures of fat gods of fortune, of horses or sacred tied grasses or fifty kinds of herbs in the left
swans went around the temples, moving in hand. This use of a bundle of herbs which is
sunwise direction, as is the custom in circling also a practice in Zoroastrianism, recalled to
Buddhist temples. me the use of bundles of herbs in Navajo
Professor Chatter jee told me that he be- ceremonies, particularly in the rite of Wohl-
lieved the word Asvin to be derived from pre- trahd, or the untying of knots on a sick person.
Sanskrit, as indicated in figure 6. Asvin twins Swami Oonkarananda said that the Navajo
with similar attributes, and connected with word Sahanahray, which ends many Navajo
Surya, the Sun, are also known in Persia. Dan prayers, was possibly connected with the
Gopal Mukerji, a Brahman whom I knew in word Swaha which is said at the end of the
the United States and consulted about the oblation of fire in sacrifice; also that Ethkay-
Navajo material which I was collecting, told nah-ashi (fig. 7) was probably like Stohas in
me that the Navajo word Ethkay-nah-ashi Vedic during sacrifice.
seemed to him to be similar to a Sanskrit word Professor Chatterjee showed me a painting
meaning "the substance through which God made in red on a wall (fig. 8) when his son
2J
Fig. 8. Design on wall with Perusha on top. Fig. 9.
Idealized form of man.
Ka, who is the spirit form of existing man or

of any living substance. To him the rainbow
and lightning were sensory and motor activ-
ities, the cornstalk equilibrium; the whole
painting; represented development of charac-
ter. The Ethkay-nah-ashi or Asvins repre-
sented healers and, beyond that, the feminine
and masculine form of the breathing and out-
breathing of God. By creating all forms of
Shaktra, leading up to the gunas, or flowers
of corn, which are the qualities of character
desired, and then up to Hamsa (the swan of
pure spirit level) at the top of the picture,
through sensory and motor activities and
through the corn stalk of direct growth or
equilibrium, the whole form represented the
body of man (fig. 7), with matter passing up
Fig. 7. Ethkay-nah-ashi figures at bottom. through form to spirit. He laughed with joy
at it. He said that everything was done four
was initiated. Such paintings used to be made times in ceremonies; that from his point of
on the earth. This painting, with the Purusha view the colors used by the Navajo in this
at the top, is very much like the prehistoric painting were correct, except that they had
Persian symbol of the conventionalized bird substituted black for blue.
of the sky, and is identical with the Navajo The Guru mentioned the legend in the
representation of Dontso, the Messenger. Vedas of King Bali to whom God manifested
The Guru Bijay Krishna Chatterjee, after himself. God, when asked by King Bali what
studying the Navajo sand painting of the He wanted, said that He wished to put his
Creation, found it absolutely correct and un- foot (set his seal) on Creation. God put one
derstandable, although he had different inter- foot on the world, one on the spirit, and then
pretations from the Navajo. To him Dontso asked King Bali where else to put His foot.
was Purusha, the symbol of the spirit or soul "On me," said the King, showing his willing-
(Logos), which was made under a sacred ves- ness to be used by God, and was thereupon
sel of water during the Puja, or prayer cere- sent toAmors or Antipolis, to make it always
monial. The position with upraised hands of holy. The East Indians think this was America.
this figure is identical with that in Egypt of Swami Nikhilananda of the Vedanta Center
"

in New York gives this version of the legend made by housewives in southern India at
of King Bali: "There was a very charitable sunset outside their front doors on the earth,
King, but he had great pride in his charity after work was over. Outdoors they are made
and the Lord wanted to calm his pride. The out of rice water squeezed out of a piece of
Lord came to the King in the guise of a dwarf cotton held in the hand. When used indoors,
and the King asked him what he wanted; the for weddings and other festive occasions, they
Lord said as much land as he could cover with are painted on the floor in wet color with a
three steps, and the King agreed to give him finger. In southern India these are called
this. With one step the dwarf covered the Rangole patterns; in northern India Alpona.
whole earth,and with the second he covered Near Puri similar decorations are made on the
the heavens; and King Bali said to the Lord, outside walls of houses of Brahmins.
'Where can you step now?' And the Lord In the Kandy Museum in Ceylon were ex-
stepped on his head making him helpless, and amples of painted plaques one and one-half
said to him, 'Be still, there is no place left ex- feet long with a handle at the bottom, used
cept Antipolis.' in ceremonies that were similar to plaques
I have seen patterns, of the type used in the used in the Navajo Water, Shooting and other
ceremony held in honor of King Bali, being ceremonies.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Barth, A. 1937. Friihchinesische Bronzen und Kultdarstellun-
1882. The religions of India. London. Antwerp.
gen.
Bayley, Harold Jung, Carl G.
1913. The lost language of symbolism. London. 1939. The integration of the personality. New
Bell, Sir Charles York.
1924. Tibet past and present. Oxford. Keith, A. Berriedale
1928. The people of Tibet. Oxford. 1917. Indian mythology. In: "The Mythology of
1 93 1. The religion of Tibet. Oxford. all Races," vol. 6, ed. by L. H. Gray and
Bober, Phyllis P. George Foot More. Boston.
1951. Cernunnos: origin and transformation of a Kerenyi, C.
Celtic divinity. American Journal of Archae- 1 95 1. The gods of the Greeks. London.
ology, vol. 55, pp. 13-51. Levy, Gertrude R.
Brinton, Daniel G. 1948. The gate of horn, a study of the religious
1868. The myths of the New World. New York. conceptions of the Stone Age and their in-
Broderick, Alan Houghton fluence upon European thought. London.
1949. Lascaux, a commentary. London. Macalister, R. A. S.
Budge, E. A. Wallis 1935. Ancient Ireland, a study in the lessons of
191 1. Osiris and the Egyptian resurrection. London. archaeology and history. London.
COOMARASWAMY, ANANDA K. MacCurdy, George Grant
1935. Elements of Buddihst iconography. Cam- 1926. Human origins, a manual of prehistory. 2
bridge. vols. New York.

Cox, Rev. Sir George W. Murdoch, Florence
1881. An introduction to the science of comparative 1932. Trailing the bestiaries. A?nerican Magazine
mythology and folklore. New York. of Art, vol. 24, pp. 5-12.
Dawson, Christopher Museum op Navajo Ceremonial Art
1928. The age of the gods. London. 1942-49. Navajo religious series. 3 vols. Santa Fe.
Evans, Sir Arthur Petrie, W. M. Flinders
1925. "The Ring of Nestor": a glimpse into the n.d. The religion of Ancient Egypt. Chicago.
Minoan after-world. Journal of Hellenic Piggott, Stuart
Studies, vol. 45, pp. 1-75. 1950. Prehistoric India to 1000 B.C. Harmonds-
Farnell, Lewis R. worth: Penguin Books.
192 1. Greek hero ctults and ideas of immortality. Schlagintweit, Emil
Oxford. 1863. Buddhism in Tibet. Leipzig.
Frazer, Sir James Stevenson, Sara Yorke
191 1. Taboo and the perils of the soul. In: "The 1894. The feather and the wing in early mythology.
Golden Bough," vol. 3. London. Oriental Studies, a Selection of the Papers
Gardiner, Sir Alan read before the Oriental Club of Philadelphia
1950. Egyptian grammar. 2nd ed. London. 18S8-18P4, pp. 202-41.
Goblet dAlviella, Count Eugene Warren, Henry Clarke
1894. The migration of symbols. London. 1896. Buddhism in translations. Harvard Oriental
Goette, John Series, vol. 3.
n.d. Jade lore. New York. Whitehead, Rt. Rev. Henry

Hentze, Carl 1916. The village gods of South India. London.
99
PRONUNCIATION l
a as in ah ay as in say
e as in end ai as in aisle
i as in inn g always hard, as in go
o as in old j
as inEnglish
u as in Yule zh soft z, like French in Juliet
NASAL SOUNDS
anh, anse like French an in tante
onh, onse as in French ton
inh like French in in intime
Hyphens in middle of words to denote a separation of tone between two vowels or separat-
ing syllables, and to help in pronouncing long compound words. Proper accenting is very im-
portant in pronunciation.
In the spelling and pronunciation of Navajo words, an attempt has been made to approxi-
mate as closely as possible to an English or Latin equivalent.
1
Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, Navajo Re-
ligion Series, vol. i, Navajo Creation Myth, p. 210.
(Continued fro?>i inside front cover)
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HI, pages 1-115. $2.00. Hoijer of the texts, notes on the myth by Mary
The Archaic Maya Inscriptions. Bv J. T. Goodman. C. Wheelwright, and descriptive and analytical
1897. Quarto.
149 pages. $4.25. notes on the music by Dr. David P. McAllester.
(Appendix to Biologia Central-Americana.) The $10.00 postpaid.
(Continued on outside back cover)

(Continued from inside back cover)
PHOTOSTAT REPRODUCTIONS OF OLD MANUSCRIPTS

NOT AVAILABLE FOR EXCHANGE mar, with some critical reflections on the Kak-
chiquel grammar. 2 vols., 1770: Vol. 1, 219 pages;
These relate principally to the native languages of
Vol. II, 91 pages. Vol. I, $24.00; Vol. II, $12.00.
Middle America. Reproduced under the direction
(Original in the library of the Peabody Museum
and through the generosity of the late Charles P.
of Harvard University.)
Bowditch. The edition of these reproductions is
limited to a few copies. Ydioma Zapoteco del Valle. Contains some com-
mon rules of grammar, a copious vocabulary, a
Doctrina en Lengua Quiche. Catechism in Quiche. confessionary, and other things which the Chris-
165 pages.Out of print. (Original in the library tian reader may see. 2 vols., 1793; Vol. I, 286
of ProfessorM. H. Saville, New York.) pages; Vol. II, 292 pages. Vol. I, $33.00; Vol. II,
Arte dela Lengua Szinca, Vocabulario dela Lengua $33.00. (Original in the John Carter Brown Li-
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UNIVERSITY

A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM

FRANC JOHNSON NEWCOMB

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.SA.

$9.30. Royal Public Library of Dresden. By Ernst

A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM

FRANC JOHNSON NEWCOMB

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.

1. from E. to W. is rainbow (fe-

(male) Cloud dropping rain on earth n

5. Border representing variety of trails con- Squirrel 17

9. Prayer stick Serpent 21

36. Sky symbols 24

59- Buffalo 32 3. Jade circle from British Honduras in British

UNIVERSITY OF FLORI PA.,

3 1262 07311 264

NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS

with adobe clay and tamped solid.

THE establishing of a definite locale is one

Arrow points held upright show movement. drawn correctly.

made in color. The significance of the color pigments.

associated with blue. In rites which stem from

position of honor, no matter what its color

and Articles," and Part III, sections dealing with

for good results

is white. cuts and sores.

cloudy, windy and moonless; then it is said

1 A STUDY OF NAVAJO SYMBOLISM

NAVAJO SYMBOLS IN SAND PAINTINGS AND RITUAL OBJECTS: NEWCOMB 2

IN A land so dominated by the sky with its

continuous changes of color and mood, it

is not surprising that almost all Navajo medi-

and Mountain Chant sand paintings we find

it represents all the clouds that

Fie. 37. Comet or shooting star.

Comet (fig. 37) or shooting star symbols

Fire Gods. Klah explained that these stars

Fig. 38. Star.

Fig. 65. Rabbit. Fig. 66. Coyote.

at the base and coiled to a peak at the tip.

witches eat the flesh of the badger." Sketches

or what lived on a certain mountain, or walked

in a certain direction, then tracks of that per-

THE earliest plant symbolism used in con-

the clay paint so that it will stick to the

no ceremony that does not use some symbol

Mr. North Duane of Santa Barbara. He

approaching menace. The root of the bulrush (Tralth) is used as

CEREMONIAL COSTUMES, MASKS AND ARTICLES

Fig. 79. Fire god carrying fire stick and traveler's

Navajo. Father Berard Haile pictures these

Klah said, "They never become less power-

THE Navajo myth

Fig. 84. Chart of hero's journey (see text).

NAVAHO PICTURE WRITING