Design PDF

SteelConstruction.
info
The free encyclopedia for UK steel construction information
Design
The design process encompasses the architectural design, the development of the structural concept , the analysis of
the steel structure and the verification of members. Steel solutions are lighter than their concrete equivalents, with the
opportunity to provide more column-free flexible floor space, less foundations and a fast, safe construction
programme.
For the designer, a steel solution means reliable materials, assured material and section properties, precise off-site
manufacture and extensive support including software, design guides and easy to use resistance tables.
The Blue Book
1 / 26
//www.steelconstruction.info/Design - 17th September 2017
SteelConstruction.info
The Green Book
Design process
Main articles: Concept design, Steel material properties
The fundamental process of structural design commences with the preparation of a structural concept, which is itself
based on an architectural design for the structure. For simple, common forms of structure, it will be possible to prepare
a concept design directly from the architectural design - typical solutions are well understood.
For more complex structures, or innovative designs, best practice is to develop the structural concept in conjunction
with the architectural scheme, so that an efficient, appropriate solution can be developed.
Once the concept design has been established, the structural design can be completed, involving determination of
loads, analysis and member verification.
Steel design
Steel is ideally suited for design. Material properties are known and member properties are accurate, meaning that
analysis is precise. Design rules are clear and mature, without undue conservatism, having been developed over many
decades. There is a wealth of support resources, including software, to facilitate efficient design.
2 / 26
Concept design
Main articles: Concept design, Steel material properties, Multi-storey office buildings, The case for steel, Service
integration
The choice and design of the primary structure is a fundament part of the concept design of buildings, and ideally
should be integrated with the development of the architectural design. Meeting client, planning and Building
Regulation requirements are paramount, but there will be a range of structural forms that meet these requirements,
each with its own advantages. The merits of different structural forms should be reviewed against the requirements for
the structure. Key considerations include:
Principal structural elements of a multi-storey building
Cost and speed of construction

Building height and plot ratio
Future flexibility and adaptability
Site constraints including ground conditions
The need for special structural arrangements in public spaces or circulation areas
Floor grids and dimensional coordination with the planning grid
Structural construction depth (ceiling to floor level)
Servicing strategy and its coordination and integration with the structure (horizontally and vertically)
Floor loadings
Fire resistance
Sustainability requirements.
The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building comprise floors, beams and columns. A wide variety
of alternative forms and arrangements can be used in multi-storey steel framed structures to deliver the benefits of:
Economy
3 / 26
Shallow floor construction

Integration of services
Flexible, column-free floor space
Reduced foundations
Rapid on-site construction.
Factors affecting choice of structural system

Main articles: Long-span beams, Floor systems, Service integration, Braced frames, Continuous frames, Simple
connections, Moment resisting connections, Steel construction products, Composite construction, Facades and
interfaces
Floor grids define the spacing of the columns in orthogonal directions, which are influenced by:
The planning grid (typically based on multiples of 0.6 m, 1.2 m or 1.5 m)

The column spacing on the facade, to suit the external envelope (typically 5.4 m to 7.5 m)
The intended use of the internal space
The requirements for building services distribution.
The British Council for Offices (BCO) Guide to Specification[1] provides extensive guidance on the preparation of
scheme designs.
For naturally ventilated offices, a building width of 12 m to 15 m is typically used, which can be achieved by two spans
of 6 m to 7.5 m, with a column placed adjacent to a central corridor. Natural lighting also plays a role in choice of the
width of floor plate. In larger buildings, a long-span solution provides a considerable enhancement in flexibility of
layout. For air conditioned offices, a clear span of 15 m to 18 m is often used.
Floor-to-floor height will be an important consideration at the concept design stage. The table below gives typical floor
to floor heights for buildings of different use.
Typical floor-to-floor heights
Prestige office 4 - 4.2 m
Speculative office 3.6 - 4.0 m
Renovation project 3.5 - 3.9 m
If planning restrictions limit overall building height, shallow floor solutions may be adopted, or solutions that involve
integrating the services within the structural depth. Typical structural depths for different types of construction are
given in the table below.
4 / 26
Typical structural depths (ceiling to floor)
Composite beam construction 800 mm - 1200 mm
Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 mm - 1100 mm
Precast concrete floors (7.5 m span) 1200 mm - 1200 mm
Precast concrete floors (14 m span) 1450 mm - 1450 mm
Shallow floor system or integrated beams 600 mm - 800 mm
Stability systems
Typical bracing in a multi-storey frame
The structural system required for stability is primarily influenced by the building height. For buildings up to eight
storeys height, the steel structure alone may be designed to provide stability, but for taller buildings, concrete or
braced steel cores are more efficient structurally. The following structural systems may be considered for stability.
Braced frames
For buildings up to eight storeys high, braced steel frames are commonly used with bracing members generally
located within a cavity in the facade, or around stairs or other serviced zones.
A steel braced frame has three key advantages:
A braced solution is less expensive than a continuous frame

5 / 26
Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation

As soon as the steel bracing is connected, the structure is stable.
Continuous frames
For buildings up to four storeys high, continuous frames may be used in which the multiple beam to column
connections provide bending resistance and stiffness to resist horizontal loads. This is generally only possible where
the beams are relatively deep (400 mm to 500 mm) and where the column size is increased to resist the applied
moments. The connections between members are likely to be more expensive than those in braced frames.
Concrete or steel cores
Concrete cores are the most practical system for buildings of up to 40 storeys high, with the concrete core generally
constructed in advance of the steel framework. In this form of construction, the beams often span directly between the
columns on the perimeter of the building and the concrete core. Special structural design considerations are required
for:
The beam connections to the concrete core

Fire safety and robustness of the long-span construction.
Typical beam layout around a concrete core
A braced steel core
6 / 26
Braced steel cores may be used as an economic alternative where speed of construction is critical. Such cores are
installed with the rest of the steelwork package. An example of a braced steel core is shown in the figure above right.
Columns
Columns in multi-storey steel frames are generally H sections , predominantly carrying axial load. When the stability of
the structure is provided by cores, or discreet vertical bracing, the beams are generally designed as simply supported.
The generally accepted design model is that nominally pinned connections produce nominal moments in the column,
calculated by assuming that the beam reaction is 100 mm from the face of the column.
For ease of construction, columns are usually erected in two, or sometimes three storey sections, i.e. approximately 8
m to 12 m in length. Column sections are joined with splices , typically 300 mm to 600 mm above the floor level.
Floor systems
A wide range of floor solutions is available. Although steel solutions are appropriate for short spans (typically 6 m to 9
m), steel has an important advantage over other materials in that long-span solutions (between 12 m and 18 m) can be
easily provided. This has the key advantage of column-free space, allowing future adaptability, and fewer foundations.
Floors spanning onto the steel beams will normally be either precast concrete units, or composite floors. The
supporting beams may be below the floor, with the floor bearing on the top flange (often known as "downstand"
beams), or the beams may share the same zone with the floor construction, to reduce the overall depth of the zone.
The available construction zone is often the determining factor when choosing a floor solution.
Typical floor solutions
Form of construction Typical solution
Low rise, modest spans, no restriction on construction Downstand beams precast units or composite floors
depth
Modest spans (less than 9 m), restricted construction Integrated solutions precast or composite floors
depth
Low rise, long span (e.g. 15 m) Downstand beams in the faade. Composite floors with
secondary steel beams spanning 15 m
Medium and high rise, modest spans, no restriction on Downstand beams, composite construction
construction depth
Medium and high rise, long spans (to 18 m) restricted Composite floors with cellular long span secondary
construction depth steel beams
The span range of various structural options in both steel and concrete are shown in the table. Long-span steel options
generally provide for service integration for spans of over 12 m. Cellular beams and composite trusses are more
efficient for long-span secondary beams, whereas fabricated beams are often used for long-span primary beams.
7 / 26
Typical spans for various floor systems
Long-span beams have gained in popularity in the commercial building sector because they offer the following benefits
in design and construction:
Internal columns are eliminated, leading to more flexible and efficient use of internal space
Services can be integrated within the depth of the structure, and so the floor to floor depth is not increased
Fewer components are required (typically 30% fewer beams) leading to reduced construction and installation
time
Fire protection costs can be reduced due to the massivity (weight : exposed profile) of the longer span
members
Steelwork costs are not increased significantly, despite the longer spans
Overall building costs are increased by a negligible amount.
Foundations
In inner city and on difficult or brownfield sites, the time and cost of constructing the foundations has a major effect on
the viability of a project. Although the weight of the frame is relatively small compared with the floors and walls, a steel
frame can be significantly lighter than a comparable reinforced concrete frame. Further reductions in weight can be
achieved by using light floor construction such as composite metal deck floors and lightweight concrete.
Difficult ground conditions may dictate the column grid. Long spans may be required to bridge obstructions in the
ground. More generally, widely spaced columns reduce the number of foundations, simplifying the substructure
construction and reducing cost.
Integration of building services
8 / 26
Services integrated with a cellular floor beam
Service runs can be integrated within the depth of the structure or separated by fixing them at a lower level.
Separation of zones usually requires confining the ducts, pipes and cables to a horizontal plane below the structure,
which will increase the overall floor construction. However, the services remain readily accessible for maintenance and
future refitting.
Integration of services and structure reduces the construction depth but requires a perforated structure; installation
and subsequent refitting of services may be more difficult.
External envelope
Cladding systems that are used in multi-storey buildings depend on the building height and the degree of fenestration.
Fully glazed facades are widely used, although provision for solar shading generally has to be made. Cladding
systems include:
Brickwork
Ground supported up to 3 storeys. Supported by stainless steel angles attached to edge beams for taller buildings
Glazing systems
Generally triple glazing or double layer facades supported on aluminium posts or glass fins.
Curtain walling
Aluminium or other lightweight facade that is attached to the perimeter steelwork
Insulated render or tiles

Cladding system supported on light steel infill walls, mainly used in public sector buildings and residential buildings.
The external skin of a multi-storey building is usually supported off the structural frame. In most high quality
commercial buildings, the cost of external cladding systems greatly exceeds the cost of the primary structure. This
influences the design and construction of the structural system in the following ways:
Reducing the floor zone may be cost-effective as it reduces the area of cladding.
The perimeter structure must provide a satisfactory platform to support the cladding system and be sufficiently
stiff to meet any deflection criteria.
9 / 26
Structural principles
Main articles: Modelling and analysis, Design codes and standards, Portal frames, Allowing for the effects of
deformed frame geometry
Once the structural concept has been fixed, the structural design may be completed. The structural design process
involves the following steps:
Calculating the permanent actions and determining the variable actions

Identifying the load paths that carry the applied actions (vertical and horizontal) to the foundations
Selecting preliminary sizes for members
Analysis of the structure, if necessary, to determine design effects on individual members and deflections
Analysis of the structure to assess sensitivity to second-order effects, allowing for these if necessary
Verifying the members by ensuring the design resistance exceeds the design effects
Verification of the members, and the frame, by ensuring the deflections do not exceed the limits given in the
design Standard, or those specified by the Client.
Variable actions
Characteristic variable actions include:
Imposed floor loads

Imposed loads on roofs
Wind actions
Snow loads
Actions on structures exposed to fire
Actions during execution of buildings (for example during concreting of composite slabs and beams)
Accidental actions (used when considering the requirement to avoid disproportionate collapse)
Characteristic variable actions should be determined from the appropriate parts of BS EN 1991-1[2] and the relevant
UK National Annexes[3].
Analysis
10 / 26
Model of a building constructed with cellular beams

(Fastrak model courtesy of Trimble)
For 'simple construction', frame analysis will not be necessary at the Ultimate Limit State (ULS), as the members can
be designed in isolation. It may be necessary (or convenient) to use analysis software to determine the lateral
deflections at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS) and when assessing frame stability. Analysis will be required for
continuous frames.
Generally, elastic analysis is used. Plastic analysis (and elastic-plastic analysis) is generally only used for the design of
portal frames .
Although manual methods of analysis may be used, most designers find it convenient to use readily available software
.
Modelling members
Most software contains libraries of all the standard steel sections, with the associated member properties used in the
analysis. Non-standard members may be modelled with equivalent section properties. Tapered or haunched members
may be modelled with a number of short elements, each with different section properties. Curved members may be
modelled with a series of straight members.
Modelling Joints
Common UK practice is to assume joints are either nominally pinned (and modelled as perfectly pinned) or nominally
rigid (and modelled as perfectly rigid). It is then important to ensure that the physical details correspond to the design
assumptions.
Sensitivity to second-order effects
All frames experience second-order effects, typically because under lateral loads (or simply due to frame
imperfections), the vertical loads are no longer concentric with the bases. The effect of this displacement is not
accounted for in a first-order analysis. Some frames are sufficiently stiff such that second-order effects are small
enough to be ignored. When second-order effects must be accounted for, this can be achieved by using second-order
analysis, or by a simple amplifier of the lateral loads.
All frames must be assessed for sensitivity to second-order effects, and these effects allowed for if necessary.
11 / 26
Design Standards
Main articles: Design codes and standards
The over-arching requirement for design in the UK is to satisfy the Building Regulations. Practically, design of steel
structures will generally be in accordance with BS 5950[4] or the Eurocodes .
Building Regulations
Building Regulations require that a safe structure be constructed. Although a series of design Standards are cited in
the Regulations, there is no absolute requirement that the listed Standards are used for design.
BS 5950
Although BS 5950[4] was withdrawn in March 2010, it is likely to be used for steel building design for a number of
years. The advantages of design to BS 5950 include:
Familiarity with the Standard enjoyed by experienced designers

The extensive use of look-up tables within the Standard
The specific sections of the Standard devoted to particular building types, such as portal frames.
Eurocodes
The Eurocodes are a set of unified structural design standards for use across Europe, developed by CEN (European
Committee for Standardisation), to cover the design of all types of structures in steel, concrete, timber, masonry and
aluminium.
In the UK, the Eurocodes are published by BSI under the designations BS EN 1990 to BS EN 1999; each of these ten
Eurocodes is published in several Parts and each Part is accompanied by a UK National Annex (which must be used
for construction in the UK) that adds certain UK-specific provisions.
In addition to the Eurocodes and the National Annex, non-contradictory complementary information (NCCI) is
provided, to provide further guidance on the application of the Eurocodes.
National Annexes
The National Annex (NA) is an essential document when using any Eurocode Part; the relevant NA covers the country
where the construction will take place. Where the opportunity is given in the text of the Eurocode, the National Annex
will:
Specify the value of factors, modify limiting values or formulae

Specify which design method may be used
Specify which options may be used, if they are given in the Eurocode
State whether an informative annex may be used - such annexes are explicitly identified as being open to
National acceptance.
Identify NCCI.
12 / 26
NCCI
The National Annex may give references to publications and other guidance containing non contradictory
complementary information (NCCI) that will assist the designer when designing a structure to the Eurocodes.
The Eurocodes omit some design guidance where it is considered to be readily available in text books or other
established sources. Publications that contain such design guidance may be referenced in the National Annex as
NCCI.
Several 'Published Documents' (PDs) are available, published by BSI . These NCCI documents are informative,
without the status of a Standard, but are generally helpful reference documents for designers.
Basis of structural design
BS EN 1990 [5] can be considered as the 'core' document of the structural Eurocode system as it establishes the
principles and requirements for the reliability, serviceability and durability of structures. It also describes the basis for
structural design and verification. The main sections of BS EN 1990 [5] include:
Requirements
Principles of limit state design
Basic variables
Structural analysis and design assisted by testing
Verification by the partial safety factor method.
Designers will refer to BS EN 1990 [5] (and its National Annex[6]) for load factors and combination factors, used when
determining design combinations of actions (ULS loads).
BS EN 1993-1 (Eurocode 3)
BS EN 1993-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures comprises a set of general rules in twelve parts (BS EN
1993-1-1[7] to BS EN 1993-1-12[8]) for all types of steel buildings. The commonly used Parts include:
BS EN 1993-1-1[7]. This Part provides most of the general rules used in the design of steel buildings, including
material properties, guidance on analysis, the assessment of second-order effects and the calculation of
member resistances.
BS EN 1993-1-5[9]. This Part provides rules for members fabricated from plate, but also provides the rules for
calculating the resistance of webs - typically verified under concentrated loads.
BS EN 1993-1-8[10]. This Part provides the design rules for joints. It includes rules for the resistance of joint
components, such as bolts and welds.
Additional rules are provided in separate Parts for other structures, e.g. BS EN 1993-2[11] provides design rules for
bridges.
A comprehensive range of design guidance is available for use in the UK, all incorporating the influence of the UK
National Annexes.
BS EN 1994 (Eurocode 4)
BS EN 1994[12] covers the design of composite structures and elements .

13 / 26
Guidance is available covering the design of composite floors in accordance with Eurocode 4 in SCI publication
Composite design of steel framed buildings (P359).
Common structural systems

Main articles: Braced frames, Continuous frames, Composite construction, Floor systems, Steel construction products
, Long-span beams
Building frames may be broadly classified by their stability system, as braced or continuous frames . A portal frame is
a particular type of a continuous frame. For multi-storey frames, a braced frame is likely to be most economical,
because the fabrication effort for the joints in braced frames is generally much less than for joints in continuous
frames. Continuous frames must be used when bracing cannot be provided within the structure.
Within both types of frame, a wide range of floor systems is available. Several floor systems utilise the benefits of
composite construction , which will be the de facto solution for many structures. The floor systems in common use are
briefly described in the following sections
Composite construction
Trapezoidal decking on downstand steel beams
Composite construction is the dominant form of construction for the multi-storey building sector. Its success is due to
the strength and stiffness that can be achieved, with minimum use of materials, utilising the compressive strength of
concrete and the tensile strength of steel. Composite floors offer significant advantages related to speed of
construction and reduced overall construction depth.
Composite floor slabs generally use either relatively shallow profiled steel decking , typically spanning up to 3.75 m, or
deep deck systems, spanning up to 9 m (if propped during construction). Composite floor slabs may also be
constructed using pre-cast planks as the permanent formwork.
Floor slabs may be formed from pre-cast planks, but still allow the supporting beam to be designed as a composite
member.
14 / 26
Composite beams involve the transfer of force between the steel section and the concrete which it supports,
preventing slip and thus ensuring the two elements perform as a composite whole. For beams located wholly under the
slab (known as "downstand" beams) the transfer of force is commonly achieved using headed shear studs, which are
attached to the upper flange of the steel beam. Studs are usually welded on site, through the decking, to the
(unpainted) top flange of the beam. Alternatively, smaller shear connectors may be shot-fired to the steel beam. In
some forms of construction, the shear bond between the steel member and the encasing concrete is sufficient to
provide composite action without additional shear connectors.
Different types of composite beam are available:
Downstand beams - the steel beam is wholly below the concrete slab
Shallow floor solutions - the steel beam is at least partially integrated within the depth of the floor slab.
Integrated beam with deep decking

Conventional "downstand" beam
Precast concrete units
Precast concrete units may be used in conjunction with steel beams. The units may be solid or hollow-core, and with
tapered or bluff ends. They are normally prestressed. The steel beams and precast units may be designed as a
composite member, provided specific detailing rules are satisfied to ensure that composite behaviour.
15 / 26
Precast concrete floor slabs on a steel frame

(Image courtesy of Severfield (Design & Build) Ltd.)
Integrated floor solutions
Typical shallow floor system'
Integrated (or 'shallow') floors offer a range of benefits, including a reduced construction depth (compared to an
orthodox "downstand" solution) and, in some solutions, a virtually flat soffit, allowing easy location of services.
A number of integrated floor solutions are available, including a range of rolled and fabricated options providing
shallow depth members with wide bottom flanges, so that precast planks or steel decking can be placed on the bottom
flange.
Long-span beams
Long spans result in flexible, column-free internal spaces, reduced substructure costs, and reduced erection times.
This broad range of benefits means that they are commonly used in a wide range of building types.
Long-span beam options include:
Composite beams with web openings

Cellular composite beams
Tapered girders.
The design of long-span steel and (steel-concrete) composite beams is generally carried out in accordance with BS
5950[4], BS EN 1993 [13] or BS EN 1994 [12]. For some types of beam this codified guidance is complemented by
specific design guidance, such as that on the design of beams with large web openings, or manufacturers' software.
Trusses
16 / 26
Long-span roof trusses, The Emirates Stadium, Arsenal Football Club, London
(Image courtesy of Severfield (UK) Ltd.)
Main article: Trusses
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements. The most common use of
trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and internal loading such as services and suspended ceilings,
is readily provided. Trusses are commonly used in a range of buildings including airport terminals, aircraft hangers,
sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and other leisure buildings . Trusses are also used to provide large column-free
spaces in commercial buildings. The main reasons for using trusses are:
To span large distances

To provide a lightweight solution
To control deflection
To support heavy loads.
Trusses may be exposed within the structure and be fabricated from hollow sections for aesthetic appeal. Large loads
may require the use of open sections (UKC, typically) or sections built up from plate. In all cases, the additional
fabrication costs make trusses more expensive than conventional beam and column structures.
Portal frames
Main articles: Portal frames, Moment resisting connections, Single storey industrial buildings
Portal frames are low-rise structures, comprising columns and rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections.
The resistance to lateral and vertical actions is provided by the rigidity of the connections and the bending stiffness of
the members, which is increased by a substantial haunch to reinforce the rafter sections. This form of continuous
frame is stable in its plane and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by bracing. Bracing is provided in the
longitudinal direction, between frames.
Portal frames are structurally efficient and lightweight, accounting for over 90% of the single-storey market in the UK.
Portal frames are used for industrial, storage , retail and commercial applications.
17 / 26
Steel framed, steel clad single storey distribution

warehouse building Principal components of a portal framed building
In addition to a primary steel structure, portal framed buildings also commonly include:
Secondary, thin gauge cold-rolled steel members (purlins and side rails) which restrain the primary steel
members and support the cladding
Profiled steel wall and roof cladding.
Member design to BS EN 1993

Main article: Member design
Steel member design is based on the requirements given in BS EN 1993-1-1[7] . The overall process in member design
involves:
Classification of the cross section

Cross-sectional resistance
Member buckling resistance
Resistance to combined axial loading and bending, where applicable.
Member design is often completed using software, of by reference to the resistance tables in the 'Blue Book'.
Connections
18 / 26
Main articles: Cost planning through design stages, Braced frames, Continuous frames, Simple connections, Moment-
resisting connections
The cost of connections is a significant proportion of the overall cost of the structure and the use of standardised,
simple details is recommended wherever possible. Moment resisting connections will undoubtedly be more expensive
than the nominally pinned connections used in braced construction .
Design of joints in steel structures in the UK is covered by BS EN 1993-1-8[10] and its UK National Annex[14]
BS EN 1993-1-1[7] requires that connection behaviour be accounted for in frame analysis, if it is significant. Nominally
pinned connections and continuous connections may be modelled as pinned and rigid (respectively) in the analysis,
but semi-continuous joint behaviour should be taken into account.
BS EN 1993-1-8[10] provides numerical methods to classify a joint, but offers the option that joints may be classified on
the basis of previous satisfactory performance. The UK National Annex[14] specifies that joints designed in accordance
with the industry standard guides (on nominally pinned and moment-resisting connections) are nominally pinned and
rigid respectively. Classification in accordance the guidance in the UK NA is recommended.
Simple connections
Simple connections are nominally pinned connections that transmit end shear only and do not transfer significant
moments. This assumption underpins the design of multi-storey braced frames in the UK, in which the beams are
designed as simply-supported and the columns are designed for axial load and the small nominal bending moments
induced by the end reactions from the beams.
Fin plate connection
End plate connections
Simple connections include:
19 / 26
Beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections using:

Partial depth end plates
Full depth end plates
Fin plates
Column splices (bolted cover plates and end plates)
Column bases
Moment-resisting connections
Moment resisting connections are used in continuous frames . Connections in multi-storey frames are most likely to be
full depth end plate connections and extended end plate connections.
Connections in portal frames will be haunched at the eaves, often with stiffeners in the column member. The apex
connection may have a small haunch or a simple extended end plate.
Moment-resisting connections may also be provided by providing a welded connection between members.
Apex connection
Eaves connection
Structural robustness
Main articles: Structural robustness
Building Regulations require that all buildings should be designed to avoid disproportionate collapse . Commonly, this
is achieved by designing the joints in a steel frame (the beam-to-column connections and the column splices) for tying
forces. Guidance on the design values of tying forces is given in BS EN 1991-1-7[15] Annex A, and its UK National
Annex[16] .
20 / 26
Two generic types of strategy for designing robust structures for accidental actions are provided in BS EN
1991-1-7[15] :
1. Strategies based on identified accidental actions.

2. Strategies based on unidentified accidental actions.
The robustness requirements relate to the building Class (the type, size and use of a building) and establish required
levels of robustness for different building Classes.
Detailed guidance on robustness strategies for steel framed buildings designed in accordance with the Eurocode is
available.
Specification of structural steelwork

Main articles: Steelwork specification, Fabrication, Construction
The purpose of a structural steelwork specification is to state what materials and products should be used and how
work (fabrication and erection ) should be carried out, in order to ensure that the completed structure meets the
designer's assumptions and the client's needs.
Under the Eurocode system, fabrication and erection should comply with the execution standard BS EN 1090[17] which
covers material specification, component specification, workmanship and tolerances.
In the UK, the National Structural Steelwork Specification (NSSS) is recommended for use with steel structures. The
NSSS complements BS EN 1090[17], by providing additional requirements on transfer of information, weld inspection
etc, and other requirement which are not addressed in BS EN 1090[17].
BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures
BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures consists of three parts:
Part 1[18]: Requirements for conformity assessment of structural components
Part 2[19]: Technical requirements for steel structures
Part 3[20]: Technical requirements for aluminium structures.
BS EN 1090-2[19] specifies general requirements for the execution of structural steelwork as structures or as
manufactured components, depending on the Execution Class of the structure. Four Execution Classes are identified
and more onerous fabrication and erection requirements are demanded for the higher numbered Execution Classes.
BS EN 1090-2[19] also gives guidance for the steelwork of steel and concrete composite structures designed in
accordance with BS EN 1994[12].
The National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building Construction (NSSS)
The 6th Edition of the NSSS covers structures designed in accordance with either BS 5950 or Eurocode 3 and is for
structures to be executed in accordance with BS EN 1090[17]. CE Marking of structural steelwork became mandatory
in July 2014.
The principal topics covered in the NSSS are as follows:
21 / 26
Information required by the Steelwork Contractor

Materials
Information provided by the Steelwork Contractor
Workmanship
Welding
Bolting
Fabrication accuracy
Erection
Erection accuracy
Protective treatment.
These topics present, in a concise manner, the requirements in BS EN 1090 for orthodox building (Execution Class 2)
structures.
22 / 26
References
1. Guide to Specification, BCO, 2009
2. BS EN 1991-1 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. (Various Parts). BSI
3. NA to BS EN 1991-1 UK National Annex to Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. (Various
Parts). BSI
4. 4.04.14.2 BS 5950 Structural use of steelwork in building (Various Parts). BSI
5. 5.05.15.2 BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005. Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI

6. NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005. UK National Annex for Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI
7. 7.07.17.27.3 BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for
buildings, BSI
8. BS EN 1993-1-12:2007 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Additional rules for the extension of EN 1993
up to steel grades S 700, BSI.
9. BS EN 1993-1-5:2006. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Plated structural elements. BSI
10. 10.010.110.2 BS EN 1993-1-8:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Design of joints, BSI
11. BS EN 1993-2:2006 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Steel bridges. BSI
12. 12.012.112.2 BS EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures. (Various Parts). BSI
13. BS EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. (Various Parts) BSI
14. 14.014.1 NA to BS EN 1993-1-8:2005:2008 UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures.

Design of joints, BSI
15. 15.015.1 BS EN 1991-1-7:2006. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. General actions. Accidental actions. BSI
16. NA to BS EN 1991-1-7:2006. UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Accidental actions,
BSI
17. 17.017.117.217.3 BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures, BSI.
18. BS EN 1090-1:2009+A1:2011 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Requirements for
conformity assessment of structural components BSI.
19. 19.019.119.2 BS EN 1090-2:2008+A1:2011 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Technical
requirements for steel structures. BSI.
20. BS EN 1090-3:2008 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Technical requirements for
aluminium structures. BSI.
Further reading
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction Institute 2012
Resources
SCI P355 Design of Composite Beams with Large Web Openings, 2011
SCI P358 Joints in Steel Construction: Simple Joints to Eurocode 3, 2014
SCI P359 Composite Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2011
SCI P360 Stability of Steel Beams and Columns, 2011
23 / 26
SCI P361 Steel Building Design: Introduction to the Eurocodes, 2009

SCI P362 Steel Building Design: Concise Eurocodes, 2009
SCI P363 Steel Building Design: Design Data, 2013
A web-based interactive version of the 'Blue Book', is also available.
SCI P364 Steel Building Design: Worked Examples - Open Sections, 2009
SCI P365 Steel Building Design: Medium Rise Braced Frames, 2009
SCI P374 Steel Building Design: Worked Examples - Hollow Sections, 2008
SCI P375 Fire Resistance Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2012
SCI P385 Design of Steel Beams in Torsion, 2011
SCI P391 Structural Robustness of Steel Framed Buildings, 2011
SCI P394 Wind Actions to BS EN 1991-1-4, SCI, 2013
SCI P397 Elastic Design of Single-span Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3, 2013
SCI P398 Joints in Steel Construction: Moment-resisting Joints to Eurocode 3, 2013
SCI P399 Design of steel portal frame buildings to Eurocode 3, 2015
SCI P405 Minimum degree of shear connection rules for UK construction to Eurocode 4, 2015
National Structural Steelwork Specification (6th Edition), Publication No. 57/17, BCSA 2017
Handbook of Structural Steelwork (Eurocode Edition), Publication No. 55/13, BCSA 2013
Historical Structural Steelwork Handbook, Publication No. 11/84, BCSA 1984
Advisory Desk Notes
Member design tools:
Compression resistance design tool

Bending resistance design tool
Combined axial compression and bending resistance design tool
Columns in simple construction design tool
Resistance of beams at elevated temperature
Resistance of columns at elevated temperature
Composite beam checking tool
Elastic critical moment for lateral torsional buckling calculation tool
Frame stability tool
Concrete filled structural hollow section design tool
Connection design tools:
Base plate designer

End plate designer
Fin plate designer
Gusset plate designer
24 / 26
Other design tools:
Wind load calculator

Floor response calculator
Acoustic prediction tool
See also
Steel manufacture
Steel construction products
Steel material properties
Concept design
Service integration
Braced frames
Continuous frames
Composite construction
Floor systems
Long-span beams
Trusses
Portal frames
Design codes and standards
Modelling & analysis
Allowing for the effects of deformed frame geometry
Member design
Simple connections
Moment resisting connections
Structural robustness
Steelwork specification
CE marking
Design software and tools
External links
Trimble
BSI
CPD
25 / 26
An introduction to Eurocode 3
Steel grades and specifications
Worked examples to Eurocode 3
Analysis and design of portal frames
Floor vibrations
Design for fire
Sustainability and steel construction
Model answers to IStructE exam questions
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

Design PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SteelConstruction.

The Blue Book

The Green Book

Principal structural elements of a multi-storey building

Cost and speed of construction

Shallow floor construction

Factors affecting choice of structural system

The planning grid (typically based on multiples of 0.6 m, 1.2 m or 1.5 m)

Typical floor-to-floor heights

Prestige office 4 - 4.2 m

Speculative office 3.6 - 4.0 m

Renovation project 3.5 - 3.9 m

Typical structural depths (ceiling to floor)

Composite beam construction 800 mm - 1200 mm

Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 mm - 1100 mm

Precast concrete floors (7.5 m span) 1200 mm - 1200 mm

Precast concrete floors (14 m span) 1450 mm - 1450 mm

Shallow floor system or integrated beams 600 mm - 800 mm

Typical bracing in a multi-storey frame

A steel braced frame has three key advantages:

A braced solution is less expensive than a continuous frame

Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation

Concrete or steel cores

The beam connections to the concrete core

Typical beam layout around a concrete core

A braced steel core

Typical floor solutions

Form of construction Typical solution

Typical spans for various floor systems

Integration of building services

Services integrated with a cellular floor beam

Insulated render or tiles

Calculating the permanent actions and determining the variable actions

Characteristic variable actions include:

Imposed floor loads

Model of a building constructed with cellular beams

Sensitivity to second-order effects

Familiarity with the Standard enjoyed by experienced designers

Specify the value of factors, modify limiting values or formulae

Basis of structural design

BS EN 1994[12] covers the design of composite structures and elements .

Common structural systems

Trapezoidal decking on downstand steel beams

Different types of composite beam are available:

Integrated beam with deep decking

Precast concrete units

Precast concrete floor slabs on a steel frame

Integrated floor solutions

Typical shallow floor system'

Long-span beam options include:

Composite beams with web openings

Main article: Trusses

To span large distances

Steel framed, steel clad single storey distribution

Member design to BS EN 1993

Classification of the cross section

Fin plate connection

End plate connections

Simple connections include: