THERMODYNAMICS

DAM 20503
SEM II 2013/2014

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 Chapter 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND
DEFINITIONS
Chapter 1.0 Basic Concepts And Definitions
(8 hours)

1.1 Introduction;
1.2 Laws of thermodynamics;
1.3 System, boundary and surrounding;
1.4 Closed systems and open systems;
1.5 Process, state and thermodynamic properties;
1.6 The working fluid, the types of properties,
properties as a function of the state, a state diagram, the
types of processes;
1.7 The pressure, volume and temperature, and
measurement units.

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 1.1 INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics: The science of

energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).

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1.2 Laws of thermodynamics

Conservation of
energy principle:
During an interaction,
energy can change
from one form to
another but the total
amount of energy
remains constant.

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1.2 Laws of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics: An

expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The study of thermodynamics is
concerned with the ways energy is stored
within a body and how energy
transformations, which involve heat and
work may take place.
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Turbojet engine Refrigerator

Electrical Power Plant Automotive engine 7

 Air Craft Propulsion

Offshore wind farm Steam Engines

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 The study of
thermodynamics is
concerned with the
ways energy is stored
Conservation of energy
principle for the human body. within a body and how
energy transformations,
which involve heat and
work may take place.

Heat flows in the direction of

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decreasing temperature.
Physics that deals with the mechanical
action or relations between heat and work

Example 1: Heat to work.

Heat Q from flame provides energy

to do work

Example 1: Heat to
work.

Example 2: Work to heat.

Work done by person is

converted to heat energy via
friction.

Example 2: Work to heat. 10

 The second law of thermodynamics: It asserts that
energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual
processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of
energy.

Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to

the study of thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual particles.

Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach,

based on the average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.

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 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be
characterized by dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass
m, length L, time t, and temperature T
are selected as primary or
fundamental dimensions,

while others such as velocity V,

energy E, and volume V are
expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.
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IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Metric SI system: A simple
and logical system based on
a decimal relationship
between the various units.
English system: It has no
apparent systematic
numerical base, and various
units in this system are
related to each other rather
arbitrarily.

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Some SI and English Units

Work = Force Distance

The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 J = 1 Nm branches of engineering.

The definition of the force units.

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 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weight only 10
kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit

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mass at sea level.
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All non-primary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of
primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios

as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and

are unit-less, and thus such ratios (or their inverses)
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
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1.4 Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems

A thermodynamic system, or simply system is defined as a quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study. The region outside the system is called the
surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system may be fixed or
movable.

Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.

System, surroundings, and boundary

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed

mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. 17
1.3 SYSTEM, BOUNDARY AND SURROUNDING
System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.
Boundary (sempadan): The real or
imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Surroundings (sekitaran): The mass or
region outside the system

A thermodynamic system is a
quantity of matter (jirim) or region
(kawasan) in space (ruang tertentu)
that we are interested in study.

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A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the
system boundary. The closed system boundary may move.

Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the
volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and work
may cross the boundaries of a closed system.

Figure 9 : Mass cannot cross the Figure 10 : A closed system with

boundaries of a closed system, but a moving boundary 19
energy can
An open system, or control volume, has mass
as well as energy crossing the boundary, called a
control surface. Examples of open systems are
pumps, nozzles, diffusers, compressors, turbines,
throttling valves, mixing chambers, pipe, duct flow
and heat exchangers.

Figure 11 : An open system (a control volume) with one inlet and one exit
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may
cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing
the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its surroundings
that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system.
Isolated System Boundary

Heat = 0 Work Surr 4

Work = 0
Mass = 0 Mass
System
Across Surr 3
Isolated Surr 1 Mass
Boundary Surr 2 Heat

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Since some of the thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and open
systems are different, it is extremely important that we recognize the type of system
we have before we start analyzing it.

Properties of a System

Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property. The property is

independent of the path used to arrive at the system condition.

Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and

mass m.

Properties may be intensive or extensive.

Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size or extent of the system.

Some Extensive Properties

a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy
d. mass dependent property

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 Intensive properties are those that are independent of size. Some intensive
properties are :
a. temperature
b. pressure
c. age
d. color
e. any mass independent property

Figure 12 : Criterion to differentiate intensive and extensive properties

Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. For example, the
specific volume v, defined as

Volume V m3
v
mass m kg 22
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Types of systems
a. Closed System (sistem tertutup) -
also known as non-flow systems,
control-mass systems or
constant-mass systems.
Closed System (control mass):
A fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary, but
allows energy transfer across the
system boundary.
b. Open System (sistem terbuka)
also known as control volume
c. Isolated System (sistem
terpencil)
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A solid is a closed system
(no mass transfer across
boundary)

Expanding or compressing a gas

can also be a closed system if
there is no flow or major
leakages.

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OPEN SYSTEMS

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 Open system (control
volume): A properly
selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device
that involves mass flow
such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can
cross the boundary of a
control volume.

An open system (a control volume) with one

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inlet and one exit.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

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30
1.5 Process, state and
thermodynamic
properties;

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 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

Property: Any
characteristic of a
system.
Some familiar
properties are
pressure P,
temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.

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 PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
Properties are considered to
be either intensive or
extensive.
Intensive properties: Those
that are independent of the
mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and
density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the
sizeor extentof the
system.
Specific properties: Criterion to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties.
Extensive properties per unit 33
mass.
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
Specific volume at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

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 Thermodynamics deals
with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state
of balance.
In an equilibrium state
there are no
unbalanced potentials
(or driving forces)
within the system.

A closed system
reaching thermal
equilibrium. 36
A system at two different states.

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 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change
in pressure at any point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two
phases and when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change with
time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
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The State Postulate
The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent, The state of nitrogen is fixed
intensive properties. by two independent,
Simple compressible intensive properties.
system: If a system involves
no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times.

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 Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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1.6 The working fluid,
the types of properties,
properties as a function
of the state, a state
diagram, the types of
processes;
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The Steady-Flow Process
The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
or refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume 43
remain constant.
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure. 44
1.7 The pressure,
volume and
temperature, and
measurement units.

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 Temperature Scales
P versus T plots
All temperature scales are based on
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0C or thermometer
32F). using four
Steam point: A mixture of liquid water different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100C or low) pressures.
212F).
Celsius scale: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. 46
read 273.15C at absolute zero pressure.
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
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coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or pressure) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.

Some
basic
pressure
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gages.
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

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Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight). 50
 In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
the same fluid.
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Pascals law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascals
law. 52
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density and height h is gh. 53
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
Pressure transducers: Use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in
a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used

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to measure pressure.
 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
The basic barometer.
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