Programming Methodology

CST-207

Introduction

Dr. Arka Prokash Mazumdar

Major Course Outline

Introduction
Programming Paradigms
Abstraction in Languages
Sequence Control
Subprogram Control
Data Control
Storage Management

2
Books
Main:
1. Pratt: Programming language design and implementation, PHI.
2. Sebasta: Concept of programming language, Addison Wesley.

Reference:
1. Ghezzi and Jazayeri: Programming Language Concepts, John Wiley
& Sons.
2. Sethi Ravi: Programming Language Concepts & Constructs, Addison
Wesley
3. Louden: Programming Languages Priciples and Practice, Cengage
Learning.
4. Friedman and Wand: Essential of Programming Languages, PHI.

3
Weight Distribution

Continuous evaluation 20%

Assignments
Quiz
Case studies
Attendance
Mid-Terms -40%
Mid I
Mid-II
End Term 40%
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IMPORTANT !!!

All the slides and other materials will be

uploaded on the following link:

sites.google.com/a/mnit.ac.in/arka/home/cst-207

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Course Objective

To learn about
Programming Methodologies and Principles
Different programming paradigms
To understand concepts of syntax, translation,
abstraction, and implementation
Problem solving

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Course Outcomes

Outcomes
Ability to understand structures of languages
Ability to solve simple algorithmic problems
Ability to write efficient and effective codes

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Language Principles

Syntax
What constitutes a structurally correct
language
Names and Types
Vocabulary of a language variables,
functions etc.
Semantics
Meaning of a program

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Programming Paradigms

There are several ways to think about

computation:
a set of instructions to be executed
a set of expressions to be evaluated
a set of rules to be applied
a set of objects to be arranged
a set of messages to be sent and received

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Major Paradigms

Procedural (or Imperative)

examples: C, Pascal, Basic, Fortran
Functional
examples: Lisp, ML
Object-oriented
examples: C++, Java, Smalltalk
Rule-based (or Logic)
example: Prolog

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Choice of Paradigm

Depends on how people can formulate a

problem at his/her best

Other considerations:
efficiency
compatibility with existing code
availability of translators

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Von Neumann Architecture

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 A more complex view

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Memory Hierarchy

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Layered View of Computer

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Computer Components

Hardware

Firmware

Software

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Hardware-level operations

Fetch-execute cycle:
Processor fetches an instruction from
memory.
Processor executes the fetched instruction

Instruction cycle- processing that is

required for a single instruction

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Instruction Cycle

4.Write-
1.Fetch
back

3.Execute 2.Decode

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Fetch-execute cycle

1. Program counter contains the address

of the next instruction to be executed
2. The fetched instruction is loaded into
Instruction Register
3. Program counter is incremented after
fetching
4. Processor interprets the bits stored in the
IR and performs the required action

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Firmware

A set of machine-language instructions

implemented by programs,
called microprograms,
stored in programmable read-only memory in
the computer (PROM).

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Firmware Advantage

Flexibility

Low cost hardware

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Software

Translators and virtual architectures

High-level language machine language

Types:
Translation (Compilation)
Interpretation

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Translation

Input: high-level language program

Output: machine language code

Types of translation (high to low-level):

Preprocessor
Compiler
Assembler
Loader (usually part of the operating system)
Advantages: efficient executable
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Compiler

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Interpretation

The program is not translated to machine

language code.
Instead, it is executed by another program.

Example:
Prolog interpreter written in C++

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Interpretation

Advantages of interpretation:
Easy to be implemented
Easy to debug
Portability
Flexibility: easy to modify the interpreter

Disadvantages: slow execution

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Virtual Machine

Program:
data + operations on these data

Computer:
implementation of data structures +
implementation of operations
Similarity?

Example: JVM
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Interpreter / VM

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Hardware, Firmware, and Software
computer
Hardware computer:
Elementary data items, very simple
operations
Firmware computer:
Elementary data items, machine language
instructions (we may have specialized
processors e.g. vector multiplication)
Software computer :
Each programming environment defines a
specific software computer.
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TIOBE Index
Jul 2016 Jul 2015 Programming Language Ratings Change

1 1 Java 19.804% +2.08%

2 2 C 12.238% -3.91%
3 3 C++ 6.311% -2.33%
4 5 Python 4.166% -0.09%
5 4 C# 3.920% -1.73%
6 7 PHP 3.272% +0.38%
7 9 JavaScript 2.643% +0.45%
8 8 Visual Basic .NET 2.517% +0.09%
9 11 Perl 2.428% +0.62%
10 12 Assembly language 2.281% +0.75%
11 15 Ruby 2.122% +0.74%
12 13 Delphi/Object Pascal 2.045% +0.57%
13 10 Visual Basic 2.012% +0.07%
14 16 Swift 1.960% +0.73%
15 6 Objective-C 1.881% -1.46%
16 19 MATLAB 1.558% +0.35%
17 17 R 1.514% +0.28%
18 18 PL/SQL 1.456% +0.24%
19 22 COBOL 1.135% +0.10%
20 39 Groovy 1.125% +0.80%
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 Tombstone Diagrams
What are they?
Diagrams consisting out of a set of puzzle pieces we can use to
reason about language processors and programs
Different kinds of pieces
Combination rules (not all diagrams are well formed)

Program P implemented in L Translator implemented in L

P S -> T
L L

Machine implemented in hardware Language interpreter in L

M M
L
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Tombstone diagrams:
Combination rules

P P P
M S S -> T T
OK!
M M OK!
OK!
M OK!

P
P
L
WRONG! L S -> T
M
M
WRONG!

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 Compilation
Example: Compilation of C programs on an x86 machine

Tetris Tetris Tetris

C C -> x86 x86 x86
x86
x86
x86

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 Cross compilation
Example: A C cross compiler from x86 to PPC

A cross compiler is a compiler which runs on one machine (the host machine) but
emits code for another machine (the target machine).

Tetris Tetris Tetris

C C -> PPC PPC download
PPC
x86
PPC
x86

Host Target

Q: Are cross compilers useful? Why would/could we use them?

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 Two Stage Compilation
A two-stage translator is a composition of two translators. The output of the first
translator is provided as input to the second translator.

Tetris Tetris Tetris

Java Java->JVM JVM JVM->x86 x86
x86 x86

x86 x86

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 Compiling a Compiler
Observation: A compiler is a program!
Therefore it can be provided as input to a language processor.
Example: compiling a compiler.

Java->x86 Java->x86

C C -> x86 x86

x86

x86

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Interpreters

Tetris Tetris
JVM JVM
JVM JVM
x86 PPC

x86 PPC

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Bootstrapping

How does the first compiler gets

compiled?
What language should be used?

Implementing in the same language gives

independence from other languages.
But,Egg and Hen problem

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 Bootstrap
Step 1a: build a compiler (v1) for Ada-S in another language.

v1
Ada-S ->M

Step 1b: Compile v1 compiler on M

v1 v1
Ada-S ->M Ada-S->M

C C->M M
M
This compiler can be used for
M bootstrapping on machine M but we do not
want to rely on it permanently!

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 Bootstrap
Step 2a: Implement v2 of Ada-S compiler in Ada-S

v2
Ada-S ->M
Q: Is it hard to rewrite the compiler in Ada-S?
Ada-S

Step 2b: Compile v2 compiler with v1 compiler

v2 v2
Ada-S ->M v1 Ada-S->M

Ada-S Ada-S ->M M

M
We are now no longer dependent on the
M availability of a C compiler!

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 Bootstrap
Step 3a: Build a full Ada compiler in Ada-S
v3
Ada->M

Ada-S

Step 3b: Compile with v2 compiler

v3 v3
Ada->M v2 Ada->M

Ada-S Ada-S ->M M

M

From this point on we can maintain the compiler in Ada.

Subsequent versions v4,v5,... of the compiler can be written in Ada and each
compiled with the previous version.
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Assignment

Hand-written document on

1. P-code machine

2. Pascal bootstrapping method (as self-

hosting language), along with T-diagram

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