Introduction to Soil Mechanics

- Geotechnical Engineering is that

part of engineering which is
concerned with the behaviour of
soil and rock.

- Soil Mechanics is the part

concerned solely with soils.

- From an engineering perspective

soils generally refer to
sedimentary materials that have
not been cemented and have not
been subjected to high
compressive stresses.

1. Soil Formations and Deposits

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 1.1 Rock Cycles

Soils The final products

due to weathering
are soils

(Das, 1998)

1.3 Weathering
Chelation
1.3.1 Physical processes of Involves the complexing and removal
weathering of metal ions .
Unloading Cation exchange
is important to the formation of clay
e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid
minerals
pressure.
Oxidation and reduction.
Thermal expansion and contraction Carbonation
Alternate wetting and drying is the combination of carbonate ions
Crystal growth, including frost action such as the reaction with CO2
Organic activity
e.g. the growth of plant roots. 1.3.3 Factors affect weathering
Many factors can affect the
weathering process such as climate,
1.3.2 Chemical Process of topography, features of parent rocks,
weathering biological reactions, and others.
Hydrolysis Climate determines the amount of
is the reaction with water water and the temperature.
will not continue in the static water. (Mitchell, 1993)
involves solubility of silica and
alumina

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 Transportation of Weathering
Products
Residual soils- Transported soils-
to remain at the original place to be moved and deposited to
The top layer of rock is other places.
decomposed into residual soils
due to the different factors The particle sizes of transported
such as climate changes. soils are selected by the
transportation agents such as
streams, wind, etc.
Engineering properties of
residual soils are different with Inter-stratification of silts and
those of transported soils clays.
The transported soils can be
The knowledge of "classical" categorize based on the mode of
geotechnical engineering is transportation and deposition .
mostly based on behavior of
transported soils. The
understanding of residual soils
is insufficient in general.

Transported Soils (Cont.)

(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

(2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited along

streams.

(3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes.

(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas.

(5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind.

(6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its original

place by gravity, such as during landslide.
(from Das, 1998)

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 Question
What is the main mineral of the sand
particles in general?

Quartz

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 Elements of Earth

8-35 km crust % by weight in crust

O = 49.2
Si = 25.7 82.4%
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg = 1.9
other = 2.6
12500 km dia
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Soil Formation

Parent Rock

Residual soil Transported soil

~ in situ weathering (by ~ weathered and
physical & chemical transported far away
agents) of parent rock
by wind, water and ice.
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 Parent Rock

~ formed by one of these three different processes

igneous sedimentary metamorphic

formed by cooling of formed by gradual formed by alteration

molten magma (lava) deposition, and in layers of igneous &
e.g., limestone, shale sedimentary rocks by
e.g., granite pressure/temperature

e.g., marble

Residual Soils

Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock

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 Transported Soils

Transported by: Special name:

wind Aeolian
sea (salt water) Marine
lake (fresh water) Lacustrine
river Alluvial
ice Glacial
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 Basic Structural Units

Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural

units.
hydroxyl or
oxygen oxygen

aluminium or
silicon magnesium

0.26 nm
0.29 nm

Silicon tetrahedron Aluminium Octahedron

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Tetrahedral Sheet

Several tetrahedrons joined together form a

tetrahedral sheet.

tetrahedron

hexagonal
hole

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 Tetrahedral & Octahedral Sheets

For simplicity, lets represent silica tetrahedral sheet by:

Si

and alumina octahedral sheet by:

Al

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Different Clay Minerals

Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral

sheets form different clay minerals:

1:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., kaolinite, halloysite):

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 Different Clay Minerals

Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral

sheets form different clay minerals:

2:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., montmorillonite, illite)

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Kaolinite

Al
Si
Typically
70-100 Al
0.72 nm
layers Si
Al
joined by strong H-bond
no easy separation Si
Al joined by oxygen
sharing
Si

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 Kaolinite

used in paints, paper and in pottery (like ceramic) and

pharmaceutical industries
(OH)8Al4Si4O10

Halloysite
kaolinite family; hydrated and tubular structure

(OH)8Al4Si4O10.4H2O

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Montmorillonite
also called smectite; expands on contact with water
Si
Al
Si

Si
Al 0.96 nm
easily separated Si
by water
Si
joined by weak
van der Waals bond Al
Si 22

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 Montmorillonite

A highly reactive (expansive) clay

(OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O swells on contact with water

high affinity to water

Bentonite
montmorillonite family

used as drilling mud, in slurry trench walls,

stopping leaks
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Illite
Si
Al
Si
joined by K+ ions
Si
fit into the hexagonal 0.96 nm
Al
holes in Si-sheet
Si

Si
Al
Si
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 Others

Chlorite
A 2:1:1 (???) mineral.
Si Al Al or Mg

Vermiculite
montmorillonite family; 2 interlayers of water

Attapulgite
chain structure (no sheets); needle-like appearance
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A Clay Particle

Plate-like or Flaky Shape

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 Clay Fabric
edge-to-face contact
face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
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Clay Fabric

Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity, temperature,

cations present in the water) during the time of
sedimentation influence clay fabric significantly.
Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to the load applied on them.

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Scanning Electron Microscope

common technique to see clay particles

qualitative

plate-like
structure

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 Others

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

to identify the molecular structure and minerals present

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

to identify the minerals present

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Casagrandes PI-LL Chart

montmorillonite illite

kaolinite

halloysite

chlorite

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 35

Specific Surface

surface area per unit mass (m2/g)

smaller the grain, higher the specific surface

e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

10 mm cube 1 mm cube

spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g

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 Isomorphous Substitution
Def.: substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower
valence (e.g., Mg2+) cations
Diff. in valance results in charge imbalance (net negative)

Diff. in the size of the cations produces a distortion of

the mineral structure.
positively charged edges
+ +
+ _ _ _ _+ + _ negatively charged faces
+ _ _ _ __
_
+ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ _

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge 37

Cation Exchange Capacity (c.e.c)

known as exchangeable cations

capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of

the net negative charge of the clay particle)

measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of clay)

milliequivalents

The replacement power is greater for higher valence and

larger cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+
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 A Comparison

Mineral Specific surface C.E.C

(m2/g) (meq/100g)
Kaolinite 10-20 3-10
Illite 80-100 20-30
Montmorillonite 800 80-120
Chlorite 80 20-30

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Cation Concentration in Water

cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
+ clay particle +
+- - + cations
+ + +
+ + - - ++ +
+ + + ++ + + + + +
+ + + + - - + +
+ + + + + +- - ++ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + - - +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + +- -+ + + +
+ + +- -+ + + +
+ + + +

+ double layer + free water

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Adsorbed Water

A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin

1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick
more viscous than free water

- - adsorbed water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
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22
Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- -
1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- - free water
- -
- - double layer
- - water
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 Summary - Clays

Clay particles are like plates or needles. They are

negatively charged.

Clays are plastic; Silts, sands and gravels are non-plastic.

Clays exhibit high dry strength and slow dilatancy.

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Summary - Montmorillonite

Montmorillonites have very high specific surface,

cation exchange capacity, and affinity to water.
They form reactive clays.

Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit (100+),

plasticity index and activity (1-7).

Bentonite (a form of Montmorillonite) is frequently used as

drilling mud.

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