Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

ISBN 978-0-7277-4146-2

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

doi: 10.1680/srcspb.41462.001

Chapter 1
Introduction

What would be the best bridge? Well, the one which could be within the constraints of available economic resources. These
reduced to a thread, a line, without anything left over; which structures use as a main load-bearing member a hanging
fullled strictly its function of uniting two separated distances. cable, whose shape (funicular to resisting load) is given by its
Pablo Picasso pure static function.

Cable-supported bridges have been designed from the beginning The decks of the cable-supported structures are formed of steel
of human history. Their fascinating development corresponds to and concrete. In many designs, the stiffness of the structure is
the development of civil engineering (Brown, 1996; Gimsing, given by the stiffness of the space net of the cables and/or from
1998; Leonhardt, 1984; Troyano, 2003; Wittfoht, 1972). The the bending and torsion stiffness of the deck. In several recent
beauty of these structures comes from their clear static function designs, the stiffness of the structures comes from the tension
that determines their architectural expression. or compression (normal) stiffness of the stress ribbon deck.

The architecture of bridges is not some kind of treatment added Stress ribbon bridge is the term used to describe structures
to or performed on the structural design of a bridge. The archi- formed by a directly walked prestressed concrete deck in the
tecture should emerge from and is given by the bridges basic shape of a catenary. The conception was rst introduced by
function. The function of a bridge is to cross a particular space Ulrich Finsterwalder, who repeatedly proposed such a structure
in order that some load or trafc may be conveyed over a for bridging large spans. Among the bridges suggested were
natural obstacle or another man-made thoroughfare; the form those over Bosporus (Figure 1.1), Lake Geneva and Zoo in
of the bridge must express this basic function. The best structural Koln (Finsterwalder, 1973).
solution should be some form inherent in the site which best
fulls the function of bridging the site. The task of the structural The bearing structure consists of slightly sagging tensioned
designer is to discover that form which can be realised in a way cables, bedded in a concrete slab that is very thin compared
that is economical and efcient (Strasky, 1994). to the span. This slab serves as a deck, but apart from distri-
buting the load locally and preserving the continuity it has no
Pedestrian bridges should be light and transparent. Of course, a other function. It is a kind of suspension structure where the
bridge structure must be safe, should invite use, be comfortable cables are tended so tightly that the trafc can be placed directly
for the user and should be designed and constructed to human on the concrete slab embedding the cables. Compared with
scale. Vibrations of the deck under excitation of pedestrians other structural types, the structure is extremely simple. On
walking or from wind must not produce feelings of discomfort the other hand, the force in the cables is very large, making
in the users. the anchoring of the cable very expensive.

Architects and engineers generally agree that the whole struc- The stress ribbon structures combine a structural form of primi-
ture and structural members forming the bridge should tive bridges formed by ropes from liana or bamboo (Figures 1.2
express by their shape the ow of internal forces through and 1.3) with a structural arrangement of prestressed suspended
the structural system, which is integrated into the social roofs (Leonhardt, 1964; Lin and Burns, 1981). For illustration,
surrounding, historical/time, technological and physical envir- two architecturally successful roofs are presented in Figures 1.4
onments (Pearce and Jobson, 2002). and 1.5.

The structures described in this book are dedicated to helping us The rst roof was built for the Dulles International Airport
to full those environmental, cultural and social objectives terminal in Washington, DC, US in 1962 (Figure 1.4). The

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 1.1 Bosporus Bridge (built by U. Finsterwalder in 1958)

Figure 1.2 Liana Bridge Figure 1.3 Mejorada Bridge across the Pari River, Peru (print of L.
Angrand, 1838)

Figure 1.4 Dulles International Airport terminal in Washington,

DC, USA

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 Introduction

Figure 1.5 Portuguese National Pavilion for EXPO 98 in Lisbon, Portugal (courtesy of Segadaes Tavares & Partners)

roof of the span of 51.50 m is assembled of precast members The roof structure, which was created from the projection of
suspended and post-tensioned by tendons anchored in cast-in- a hyperbolic paraboloid from a sphere of radius 67.5 m, is
place curved-edge beams. The tension force from the roof is assembled from precast members supported and post-tensioned
resisted by nicely shaped inclined columns passing through by a space net of prestressing tendons.
openings of the edge beams. The roof was designed by Aero
Saarinen and Ammann & Whitney Engineers. When the termi- The failure of part of the Berlin Congress Hall suspended roof
nal was extended in 1995, the same structure was constructed built in 1957 reminded engineers of the importance of the
beside the original one. analysis of the local bending and execution of structural
details of the stress ribbon at supports (Schlaich et al., 1980).
The second roof was built for the Portuguese National Pavilion The stability of the outer inclined arches of the Berlin roof
for the Lisbon World Exposition (EXPO 98) in Portugal was guaranteed by tension members formed by stress ribbon
(Figure 1.5). The roof forms a singly curved shell forming a strips anchored at the central ring (Figure 1.7). The collapse
canopy that covers an area of 65
50 m, and is formed of of the roof in 1980 was caused by the corrosion of prestressing
lightweight concrete which was cast in place. It is supported steel at anchor members. A new structure of a similar shape but
by bearing tendons anchored in an adjacent reinforced concrete of a different structural solution was built in 1986 again from
structure and is prestressed by prestressing tendons anchored in prestressed concrete (Figure 1.8).
the shell. There is a gap between the anchor slab and the shell.
The roof was designed by Alvaro Siza and Segadaes Tavares & The characteristic feature of stress ribbon structures is a
Partners (STA). variable slope, which disqualies the use of this structural
type for highway bridges. It is difcult to imagine that the
The technology used in the construction of precast singly curved structure presented in Figure 1.1 would be acceptable for
shells was also adopted in the design of double-curved shells. highway agencies. A stress ribbon structure might only
Figure 1.6 shows a Saddledome structure built in 1983 for represent the correct solution in special cases when the
the 1984 Calgary Winter Olympic Games (Bobrowski, 1984). highway is straight and the elevation is a concave (sag) curve.

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 1.6 Saddledome, Calgary, Canada

On the other hand, the variable slope is acceptable or even From that rst success, stress ribbon bridges were built in many
advantageous for pedestrian bridges built in an environment countries all over the world.
of no straight lines.
Stress ribbon structures can be designed with one or more spans
The rst stress ribbon bridge for public use was built according and are characterised by successive and complementary smooth
to the design of Professor Walther across the N3 motorway near curves. The curves blend into the rural environment and their
Pfakon, Switzerland in 1965 (see Section 11.1; Walther, 1969). forms, the most simple and basic of structural solutions

Figure 1.7 Berlin Congress Hall: structural arrangement of the original structure

Stress ribbon

Stress ribbon

61.00 m

(a) (b)

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 Introduction

Figure 1.8 Berlin Congress Hall: new structure

(Figures 1.9 and 1.10), clearly articulate the ow of internal without the need for any arms, props, masts, cables or
forces. Their ne dimensions also correspond to a human scale. dampers. Its stiffness and stability result from its geometry.

From Figure 1.11, it is evident that the stress ribbon structure Such structures can be either cast in situ or formed from precast
represents the simplest structural form. Both the engineering units. In the case of precast structures, the deck is assembled
and aesthetic beauty of this type of bridge lies in the fact that from precast segments that are suspended on bearing cables
the suspended walkway itself is the structure. It carries itself and shifted along them to their nal position (Figure 1.12).

Figure 1.9 Grants Pass Bridge, Oregon, USA Figure 1.10 Redding Bridge, California, USA

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 1.11 Redding Bridge: structural types, California, USA

Prestressing is applied after casting the joints between the They are able to resist not only uniformly distributed loads but
segments to ensure sufcient rigidity of the structures. also large concentrated loads created by the wheels of heavy
trucks. Extremely large oods that occurred in the Czech
The main advantage of these structures is that they have Republic in summers 1997 and 2002 also conrmed that they
minimal environmental impact because they use very little are able to resist a large ultimate load. Although two bridges
material and can be erected independently of the existing were totally ooded, their static function remains without any
terrain. Since they do not need bearings or expansion joints, changes.
they only need minimal long-term maintenance.
Even though stress ribbon structures have low natural frequen-
Figure 1.12 Redding Bridge, California, USA: erection of a cies, our experience conrmed that the speed of motion of the
segment deck created by walking is within acceptable limits (Figure
1.13). Our detailed dynamic test also conrmed that vandals
cannot damage these structures.

Over the course of time, people have realised that the deck can
be suspend on the cables of larger sag; in this way it is possible
to reduce tension in the cables (Figure 1.14). The rst suspen-
sion structures had a exible deck that was, in some cases,
stiffened by a net of additional cables. J. Finley rst identied
the major components of suspension bridges: a system
comprising main cables from which a deck was hung braced
by trusses (Figure 2.12). The concept behind this system was

Figure 1.13 Brno-Komin Bridge, Czech Republic

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 Introduction

Figure 1.14 Bridge in Nepal documented (Podolny and Scalzi, 1976). However, the failure of
the Tacoma Bridge (Washington, DC) has drawn the attention
of engineers to the aerodynamic stability of suspension structures
(Scott, 2001). New suspension structures therefore have decks
formed of an open stiffening steel truss of sufcient torsional
and bending stiffness (Endo et al., 1994; Figure 1.19(a)) or use a
streamlined steel box girder (Leonhardt and Zellner, 1980;
Figure 1.19(b)).

To guarantee the aerodynamic stability of pedestrian bridges,

solutions used in the design of highway bridges can be
adopted. However, these solutions can appear to be too
heavy, inappropriate and expensive for pedestrian bridges.

Another approach to providing stiffness is to construct a

slender concrete deck and stiffen the structure by a system of
inclined suspenders (Figure 1.19(c)). This approach has been
successfully developed and erected in designs by Professor J.
developed in Britain. For main cables, suspension chains of Schlaich. However, the maintenance of so many suspenders is
circular eyebars were used (Figure 1.15). The French engineers not an easy task.
substituted the chains with wire cables (Figure 1.16). J.
Roebling developed cable spinning and started the development Slenderising the deck could be combined with techniques often
of construction of modern suspension structures from Brooklyn used to stabilise utility bridges (Figure 1.19(d)). In such cases,
to Golden Gate Bridge (Figures 1.17 and 1.18). the concrete deck is stiffened by the post-tensioning of external
cables with an opposite curvature to that of the main suspension
The problem of vibration and even overturning of light cables. Similar effects can be achieved by eliminating the long-
pedestrian suspension structures due to wind load has been well itudinal movement of the deck.

Figure 1.15 Menai Straits Bridge, Wales, UK

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 1.16 Fribourg Bridge, Switzerland

The combination of the stiffening of the deck by external cables solutions. The modest suspension bridge produced the right
situated within the deck and elimination of the horizontal proportions for the setting (Figure 1.20) and also proved
movement was used in a design of the Vranov Lake Bridge economical to construct.
built in 1993 in the Czech Republic (Figure 1.20). The deck of
the span l 252 m is assembled of precast concrete segments The bridge deck can also be supported by suspension (Figure
of depth of only d 0.40 m (Figure 1.21). The bridge deck 1.24) or stay cables (Figure 1.25).
with the ratio d/l 1/630, which is one of the most slender
ever built, was erected without any effect on the environment While suspension structures have been widely designed both in
(Figure 1.22). the nineteenth and twentieth century, the development of
modern cable-supported structures started after the Second
From Figure 1.23, which shows possible bridge options, it is World War. Professor F. Dishinger rst emphasised the impor-
evident that suspension structures have a minimum impact on tance of high initial stress in the stay cables and designed the
the environment. A tied arch is too dominating of the lake rst modern cable-stayed bridge built in Stromsund, Sweden
and the pylons towered above the trees in the stay-cable in 1955. Since then, many cable-stayed structures with both

Figure 1.17 Brooklyn Bridge, New York, USA Figure 1.18 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, USA

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 Introduction

Figure 1.19 Suspension structures Figure 1.21 Vranov Lake Bridge, Czech Republic: deck

Figure 1.22 Vranov Lake Bridge, Czech Republic: erection of the

deck

steel and concrete decks have been constructed (Gimsing, 1998;

Leonhardt and Zellner, 1980; Liebenberg, 1992; Mathivat,
1983; Menn, 1990; Podolny and Muller, 1982; Wells, 2002).
The development of the prestressed concrete technology has
signicantly contributed to the development of the cable-
stayed structures.

Figure 1.20 Vranov Lake Bridge, Czech Republic

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 1.23 Vranov Lake Bridge, Czech Republic: structural types Figure 1.25 Varrugas Bridge, Peru

At present, a concrete bridge deck is widely used for the

majority of bridges and the stay cables developed from the
prestressing cables are used both for concrete and steel struc-
tures. Since the 1970s, the deck of many pedestrian bridges is
formed by a slender concrete slab. Professor F. Leonhardt
rst used a slender concrete slab for a large-span cable-stayed
pedestrian bridge (Volkel et al., 1977). Professor R. Walther
proved that a deck of average depth of 450 mm can be safely To focus on that fact and to narrow the scope of the book,
used for bridges with spans up to 200 m (Figure 1.26; Walther cable-supported structures formed by prestressed stress ribbon
et al., 1998). decks are primarily described in the book.

Cable-supported pedestrian bridges can have timber, steel, Although the above structures have a very simple shape, their
concrete or composite decks and the stiffness of the structures design is not straightforward. It requires a deep understanding
can be given by the bending stiffness of the deck, space arrange- of structural forms, function of structural details and the beha-
ment of cables or by tension stiffness of the prestressed concrete viour of prestressed concrete structures post-tensioned by
deck. internal and/or external tendons. The static and dynamic
analysis also requires understanding of the function of cables
The concept of prestressing, a product of the twentieth century, and resolves various problems regarding both geometric and
gave designers the ability to control structural behaviour. At the material non-linearity.
same time, it enabled (or forced) them to think more deeply
about the construction. While reinforced concrete combines
concrete and steel bars by simply putting them together and Figure 1.26 Model test of a cable-stayed structure with slender
letting them act together as required, prestressed concrete concrete deck (courtesy of R. Walther)
combines high-strength concrete with high-strength steel in
an active manner. The prestressing allows us to balance
the load, change boundary conditions and create supports
within the structure. Prestressing is a radical step from passive
reinforcement to creative thinking and development (Collins
and Mitchell, 1987; Hampe, 1978; Leonhardt, 1964; Lin and
Burns, 1981).

Figure 1.24 Design of the Almond River Bridge in Scotland (built by

R. Stevenson, 1821)

10

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 Introduction

1.1. Eurocode g permanent action (G)

Since 1910, bridges designed in countries that are members g variable action (Q), or
of the European Union should comply with rules given by g accidental action (A).
Eurocodes that are implemented in national standards. The
philosophy of the new codes is explained in the Designers A permanent action includes self-weight, additional dead load,
Guide to EN 1900 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design prestressing force, effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete,
(Gulvanessian et al., 2002) and the problems of designing and effects of settlement of supports. A variable action includes
concrete bridges are explained in the Designers Guide to imposed load (live load), erection load, wind action and snow
EN 1992-200 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part load, etc. To ensure this book is understandable to designers
2: Concrete Bridges (Hendy and Smith, 2007). from other countries, well-known terms such as self-weight,
dead load, live load and wind load, etc. are used.
The basis for verication of safety and serviceability of the
structures is the partial factor method. Each structure has REFERENCES
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The initial aim of this book was to explain the problems of Nature. Reed International Books Ltd., London.
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