1

Akademiya Nauk SSSR

A. S. Predvoditelev, Editor

HIGH-T E MPER A TUR E PROPERTIES

-0
-0-g
and Physics of Combustion
-
m
"W
a 2

Translated from Russian

Published f o r t h e National Aeronautics and Space Administration

and t h e National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.
by t h e Israel Program for Scientific Translations
\
 . ... . .. .. -

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

AKADEMIYA NAUK SSSR * MINISTERSTVO ENERGETIKI 1 ELEKTR

Illllllllllll1llllllllllll
00b8998

Eiiergeticheskii institut im. G. M, Krzhizhaiiovskogo

-.

Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ministry of Power and Electrification of the USSR
G . M. Krzhizhanovskii Power Institute

A. S. Predvoditelev, Editor

HIGH-TEMPERATURE
PROPERTIES OF GASES
Physical Gas Dynamics, Thermodynamics, and Physics
of Combustion
(Svoistva gazov pri vysokikh teinperaturakh: fizicheskaya gazodinamika,
terinodiiiainika i fizika goreniya)

Izda t el 's tvo "N auka "

Moskva 1967

Israel Program for Scientific Translations

Jerusalem 1969
NASA TT F-558
TT 69-55021
Published Pursuant t o an Agreement with
THE NATIONAL AERONAUTIC AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
and
THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, WASHINGTON, D, C.

Copyright Q 1969
Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd.
IPST Cat. No. 5437

Translated by A. Barouch
Edited by P. Greeriberg

Printed in Jerusalem by IPST Press

Binding: Wiener Bindery Ltd ., Jerusalem

Available f r o m the

U. S. DEPARTMENT O F COMMERCE

Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information

Springfield, Va. 22151

 Table of Contents

SAMUILOV, E.V. Effect of spherical conducting foreign particles on the

electrical conductivity of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
ROZHDESTVENSKII, I . B., V. P. SHEVELEV. and K. K.OLEVINSKI1.

Calculation of the composition and thermodynamic functions of

general reacting gaseous systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14
ROZHDESTVENSKII, I. B., K.K. OLEVINSKII, and V.P.SHEVELEV. Thermo

dynamic functions of the combustion products of the system liquid

ethyl alcohol -gaseous oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23
TSITELAURI. N. N . Interaction potential of CO molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

GVOZDEVA, L. G. and O.A. PREDVODITELEVA. Parameters of carbon

dioxide and nitrogen behind shock waves interacting with a wedge. .

33
NIKOLAEV, G. N. and V. P.POP0V. Nonequilibrium expansion of air in

supersonic nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

NABOKO. I.M. and R.G.NEMKOV. Study of the flow state behind a shock

front by means of frame-scan photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

NEMKOV, R.G. Effective profile of the h4ach line in a relaxing gas . . . . . . . 64

POLYAKOV, Yu. A. Shock-tube study of the stagnation-point heat exchange

o f a blunt body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
KON'KOV, A. A., A. P. RYAZIN, and V.S.RUDNEV. Experimental study

of the spectral properties of air at high temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . 79

PLASTININ, Yu. A. Spectroscopic investigations of the emission of

hot nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
BASHILOV, V.A. and V.P.SHEVELEV. Flow structure of ionized gas i n an

electromagnetic shock tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

BASHILOV, V.A. Electron concentration behind a shock front and in a gas

discharge plasma in a magnetohydrodynamic shock tube ........ 105

BAZHENOVA. T. V. and Yu. S. LOBASTOV. Rate of thermal ionization of

nitrogen a t 3000- 5000cK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

PETROVA. G.P. and E.K.CHEKALIN. Argon plasma flow i n a channel

with a transverse magnetic field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

CHEKALIN, E.K. and V.S.SHUhlANOV. Radiation of an exploding wire

invacuum ..................................... 118

CHEKALIN, E.K. and V.S.SHUA1ANOV. Electric characteristics of an

exploding wire in vacuum .......................... 122

...
111

 VYGOVSKII, V.F., E.K.CHEKALLN, and V. S.SHUMANOV. Deformation

of solids by an exploding wire . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . .

. . 127
PREDVODITELEV, A.S. Ignition theory of two-phase mixtures . . .

... ... 129

PREDVODITELEV, A.S. Ignition conditions in combustible gas mixtures . . .
137
SALAMANDRA, G.D. Vibrational flame propagation in a tube . . . . . . ..
. 148
SALAMANDRA, G. D. Obtaining color Schlieren photographs of rapid

processes using the IAB-451 instrument . .. .... . ... . .. .

. . . 153
FEDOSEEVA, N.K. Apparatw for projecting stills . .. .. . .. .. .. . . .

. . 157
ZAITSEV, S.G., E. V. LAZAREVA, and E.I.CHEBOTAREVA. The boundary

layer behind a shock wave in argon and nitrogen . . .. . . .

. . . . . 160

NEMKOV, R. G. A delay circuit for triggering shock-tube recording

instruments, automatically controlled by the shock-wave velocity .

171
GUSEV, M. V . , V. A. GORDYUSHIN, and V. D.LOBANOV. Pulse counting

chronometer for shock-velocity measurements . . . . ... . .. . . .

175
GUSEV, M. V., V.D.LOBANOV, and V. A. GORDYUSHIN. An instrument

for controlling the high-speed photorecording of the phases of a

process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180

EROSHENKO, V.M., A. V.MORAR, and Yu. N. TERENT'EV. Front nature

of the reaction surface with the medium . . ........... . .

. . 183
EROSHENKO, V.M. and Yu.N. TERENT'EV. The sublimation of solids

in a supersonic stream , .. .
. .. ..... . . . . .. . .. . .

. . . . .. 196
VORONTSOV, Yu. N., V. M. EROSHENKO, A . V. hlORAR, and Yu. N. TERENT'EV

A method for visualizing isothermal surfaces . .. . . . ... .

. .
.. 205

iv
I

EXPLANATORY LIST OF ABBREVLATED NAhlES OF U. S. S. R. INSTITUTIONS

AND PERIODICALSAPPEARING I N THE BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Abbreviation Full name (transliterated) Translation

AN Akademiya Nauk Academy of Sciences

DA N Doklady Akademii Nauk Transactions of the Academy
of Sciences
FIAN Fizicheskii Institut Akademii Physical Institute of the
Nauk [SSSR] Academy of Sciences [of
the USSR]
GE1 Gidroenergeticheskii Institut Hydropower Institute
GITTL Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel'stvo State Publishing House of
Tekhnicheskoi i Teoreti- Technical and Theoretical
cheskoi Literatury Literature

IL Izdatel'stvo Inostrannoi Foreign Literature Publishing

Literatury House

NIKFI Vsesoyuznyi Nauchno- All-Union Scientific Research

issledovatel'skii Institute of hlotion Picture
kinofotoinstitut and Photography

Phlhl Prikladnaya Matematika i [Journal of] Applied hlathe-

mekhanika matics and hlechanics

PMTF Prikladnaya Mekhanika i [Journal of] Applied hlecha-

Tekhnicheskaya F izika nics and Technical Physics
R E Pripory i Tekhnika [Toumalof] Experimental Instru-
Eksperimenta ments and Techniques
ZhRFKhO Zhurnal Russkogo Fiziko- Journal of the Russian
Khim icheskogo Physicochemical Society
Obshchestva

 ANNOTATION

This collection contains theoretical and experimental investigations of the pro

perties of gas flow at high temperatures, and the thermodynamic functions and
physicochemical processes in gases and heterogeneous gas - solid systems. Experi
mental results regarding the ionization and dissociation of gases and the properties
of jets of ionized gases in a magnetic field are presented. A method is outlined for
impro\-ing the studies of rapid processes.
The collection is intended for scientists and engineers in gas dynamics.

vi
E . V . Samuilov

EFFECT OF SPHERICAL CONDUCTING FOREIGN

PARTICLES ON THE ELEC TRlCAL

C ONDUC TIVIT Y OF GASES

Conducting particles of s m a l l radius can be contained as natural

impurities in the products of combustion of a solid or gaseous fuel, in
high-temperature gas flows interacting destructively with surfaces.
P a r t i c l e s a r e sometimes introduced artificially in the gas t o i n c r e a s e i t s
electrical conductivity .
The particles affect the conductivity of the g a s e s a s a result of t h e r m a l
ionization (a considerable admixture of electrons is formed in the g a s ) and
the effect of f r e e electrons on the diffusion p r o c e s s .
It is assumed in what follows that the radius R of the particles is
considerably s m a l l e r than the average distance rav between electrons, ions,
and charged particles.

1. DYNAMICS O F THE COLLISIONS O F ELECTRONS

WITH THE PARTICLES

It is assumed that the electron adheres t o the particle on reaching its

surface. Collisions in which the electron reaches the s u r f a c e of the
particle a r e t e r m e d inelastic, and those in which it does not r e a c h the
s u r f a c e a r e elastic. The energy 'p ( r ) of an electron situated at a distance
r f r o m the center of a particle carrying charge Z*e (Z* is a positive o r
negative integer; e is the electron c h a r g e ) in a fully o r partially ionized
gas with an admixture of charged particles can be approximated by the
expression

where x is the Debye shielding constant given by

ne is the electron density; NZ,nz. a r e the ion and particle densities of

charges Ze. Z*e respectively; T,,Ti,T, a r e the respective t e m p e r a t u r e s of
the electrons, ions, and particles; k is the Boltzmann constant.
 The first t e r m in cp ( r ) is the electron energy in the shielded Coulomb
field of the particle 111, and the second one the electron energy in the
shielded image field / 2 / . The shielding factor e-2x(r-R) in the second t e r m
corresponds t o the c a s e of a plane wall 131. Expression (1)holds only for
r > R , commencing a t r, N R 4-6, where 6 = 2*10-'cm.
As explained below, the calculations involve function (1)n e a r the particle
surface, where it can be written in the f o r m
Ze2 e2
rp(r)=
r 4(r-R)'

+
and Z = Z*/(1 Rx). Function (3) w i l l therefore replace (1)in what follows.
For R ravthe electron interacting with the particle may be considered
as having come f r o m infinity.
Following /4/, the motion of an electron in a field cp ( T ) reduces to the
motion of the electron in the effective field

' p l ( 4 = 'p ( r ) + M 2/ 2mr2, (4 1

where M = mbV is the moment of momentum of the electron; b is the impact

p a r a m e t e r ; V is the absolute value of the electron velocity at infinity; m is
the electron m a s s .
The electron reaches the particle surface if

where rg) i s the value of P for which 'pl (r) is a maximum in the interval
ro<r<w.
At given electron velocity t h e r e corresponds to each Z and 2 a maximum
value of the impact p a r a m e t e r bg) f o r which the electron becomes incapable
of reaching the particle surface. The values of b$ and r z ) a r e determined
for given electron velocity f r o m the s y s t e m of equations

which can be represented in the following dimensionless form:

where E = RmVl2e2;B,,, = M A I R d ;r J R = 1 -k pm; $ (p,) = 1 3pm + +

+ (42 - a m a x + + +
3 ) ~ : ( 4 2 .:~)1
For p > >
6/R 0 (p + 1 = rlR), Z >
0 equation (8) has a solution for
a = 42 - a,,,,, < .
+ 3 0 The function g ( p ) then has two e x t r e m a at

Since 9 (0) = 1 and 'II, (00) = 00 equation (8) has no positive r e a l solutions
> <
f o r 11 ( p a ) 0 , while for g ( p z ) 0 two positive roots exist, of which p m ,

2
 <
situated in the range p 1 p,,, Q p 2 , corresponds t o the maximum value of
>
the function cp;. and t h e other one pma p z corresponds t o its minimum
value for pml < p < w. When Z <
- 1 equation (8) has only one positive root
for pml > p a . This root corresponds t o the maximum of the function cp;.
The minimum value of the energy Eminfor which the electron is incident
on the particle is a s follows:
for Z >
0

E,," = 0,

for 2 Q - 1

where

By solving equation (8) relationships were derived for pnl and pmz a s
functions of Bmaxfor different Z . The values of p,, (( 1 . The dependence of
B,,,,, on E for different Z and finite ranges of values of E is approximated
by a linear function of the f o r m

B r.m ai (Z) E + Pc (Z), (12)

where E i < E < Ei+l; i >,0 .
Values of ai, Pi,Ei a r e given in Table 1. Using t h e s e values and the
relation
0 = nbg"
(13)
one can calculate the capture c r o s s section of the electrons by the particle.

TABLE 1.
-~ ~

Z =i
-__ - .

-10 0 7.09 2.61 -18.5 0 2 1.4 2.9 3.42

-10 1 12 2.38 -15.6 0 3 3 2.73 4.1
-5 0 3.09 4.3 -13.25 0 4 5 2.38 5.6
-5 1 3.32 3.43 -10.4 1 0 0 3.46 5.2
-5 2 3.6 2.82 - 8.2 1 1 i 3.05 5.7
-5 3 6.4 2.56 - 6.4 1 2 2 2.7 6.33
-5 4 12 2.35 - 4 1 3 5 2.45 7.8
-1 0 0.25 5.21 - 1.3 1 4 15 2.38 10
--1 1 0.6 3.93 -0.55 5 0 0 2.83 15.55
-1 2 1.2 3.18 0.35 5 1 2 2.51 16
-1 3 2 2.83 1.3 5 2 5 2.4 16.8
-1 4 5 2.63 2.9 5 3 15 2.26 19
-0 0 0 4.75 2.18 10 0 0 2.52 27.5
0 1 0.4 3.59 2.65 10 1 7 2.24 29.7
-

I
 If, in expression (3), only the Coulomb interaction energy is considered,
(12) is replaced by

B,, =2E+2Z, (14)

where Emi, = 0 f o r Z > 0, and Emin= - Z for Z < O .
We s h a l l calculate the number of electrons with velocities between V
and V + dV incident p e r unit t i m e on the particle. According t o / 5 /

dNinc = f ( V ) V b d b d e d V , (15)

where e is t h e azimuthal angle; f ( V ) is the distribution function of the

electrons, normalized with respect t o the number of electrons p e r unit
volume:

n, = 5 f(V)dV. (16)

Only those electrons whose velocity and impact p a r a m e t e r satisfy

condition (5) r e a c h t h e particle surface. For the quasistationa? s t a t e
T,#T,#T, we have

For complete equilibrium

Writing dV in spherical coordinates and transforming t o the variables

M=mbV, V=V, (19)

expression (15) becomes

dNinc= $VMdMdVdede'sin 6d6,

where E*, 0 a r e the angles in the spherical s y s t e m of coordinates.

Transforming further t o dimensionless variables

Ma
B = - mRea , e2R
and E = - -mVa
2

expression ( 2 0 ) takes the f o r m

dNinc= 5
f sin6d6dsde'dBdE. (21 1
2ma

Condition (5) has the following f o r m in t e r m s of the variables B , E :

4
 With the aid of (21), (22), (17), one may derive by integration the total
number of electrons incident on the particle p e r unit time:

where E,i,, is selected according t o ( 1 0 ) o r ( 1 1 ) ; x, = e2/RkT,.

In subsequent calculations we use the angle of deviation X z of the
electrons during elastic collisions with the particle. This yields /5 /

where rminis the minimum distance between the electron and the
particle during collision (the maximum positive root of the equation
b 2
1 - mV'V
- (y)z ( r ) = 0).
The angle of deviation for the potential ( 1 ) can only be calculated
numerically. For the potential ( 3 ) the expression for X, can be reduced
t o an elliptic integral. In t e r m s of the variables E, B , y = R / r , expression
( 3 ) can be used to transform integral ( 2 4 ) t o the f o r m

where d, (y) 4E - (4E - 4Z - 1) y - (2B + 42) y2 + 2By3; yz is the minimum

positive root of the equation

CD(y) = 0. (26 1

The angle of deviation x for elastic collisions must be calculated for

B > B,,, . Equation ( 2 6 ) then has t h r e e roots, satisfying the inequality

1 > Ys >Y a > 0 > Y1.

Using ( 2 7 ) , CD (y) can be written in the f o r m

(Y)= (Y - YI) (ya - Y) ( ~ 3 -Y).

Following /6 /, integral ( 2 5 ) then equals

where (rp, n, k) is an elliptic integral of the third kind; F (p, k) is an elliptic

integral of the f i r s t kind;

5
 If only the first t e r m is taken into account in ( 3 ) , then

1
xz = 2 arc sin
f

2 . THERMIONIC EMISSION O F ELECTRONS FROM

THE SURFACE O F THE PARTICLES

The number of electrons with velocities between U and U + dU emitted

from the surface of a particle p e r unit t i m e a s a r e s u l t of t h e r m a l ionization
is equal t o

where U is the electron velocity a t distance 6 f r o m the p a r t i c l e surface;

u = I U 1 ; U, is the component of velocity U along the z axis (the z axis is
normal t o the p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e ) ; h is Planck's constant; a*is the work
function, including t h e work t o move the electron a distance 6 f r o m the
p a r t i c l e surface; a is the surface efficiency coefficient.
For @* > (3-4)kTp one may neglect the one in the s q u a r e brackets of
expression ( 3 3 ) . This expression then reduces t o

The electron, on overcoming the potential b a r r i e r will leave the

particle if

The relationship

U , dU = U,U? sin BdO dE dU = U 3COS 8 s i n O dB de dU (36

i s v a l i d , where 0 , E are the angles of the spherical s y s t e m of coordinates

whose axis z l i e s normal t o the particle surface.
Transforming t o t h e variables

M = U sin 8 ram, u=U, (37)

( 3 6 ) becomes

(38)

6
 In t e r m s of the variables V 2 ,Ma, e, where mF= +cp(ro), (38) has the
form

.~
1
d V 2d M a de. (39)
4(rd2

After another transformation t o the variables B and E (39) becomes

e4
-dBdE de.
2 (romIa

A s a r e s u l t , (34) and (35) are replaced, respectively, by

dN,, = 4xae4
- 2-
e hTp
(y+al*-!+(r,))d B d E de;
E > TJ:(PI. (42 )

F r o m (41)it is easy t o derive an expression f o r the number of electrons

emitted f r o m the p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e in t h e solid angle sinedOde*/4x:

AdN,,= a e 4ham e kTp s i n 0 d e de de' d B d E . (43)

F r o m (15) and (21) we obtain

s i n Ode de d e ' d B d E = V b db de d V . (44 1

Therefore, (43) can be written in the f o r m

V b db de d V . (45)

F r o m ( 4 2 ) and (41) we obtain

where E m i , is selected according t o (10) o r (11); zp = e 2 / R k T p .

3. LAW OF MASS ACTION

If the p a r t i c l e charge v a r i e s only as a r e s u l t of thermionic emission and

t h e incidence of electrons on t h e particle, the following balance relation w i l l
be satisfied in the quasistationary c a s e for T e # T 3 # T p :

 F r o m (23), (46), (47) we obtain the following expression f o r t h e law of

m a s s action:

where

When x p = x , expression (48) r e d u c e s t o the known expression f o r the l a w

of m a s s action for the ionization reaction. Using (12), the expression for
S(Z, x ) becomes, a f t e r integration,

where

If in expression ( 3 ) we take into account only the Coulomb interaction

energy, we obtain the following with the aid of (14):
for 2 2 0
s (Z, 5) = y2
(1 + 2s);

for Z g - I
2
S (2,x ) = zexz.

4. ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

The Boltzmann equation for the electron distribution function has the
f o r m 151

where v is the electron velocity; r is the radius vector; E is t h e e l e c t r i c

af
field strength;
ai
(z)~, (a/- x ) ~(x)
ai
, ,
(2-1) e m
( T ) ~ ~ , (:{~)z, a r e the variations

in the distribution function p e r unit t i m e produced respectively by e l a s t i c

collisions with atoms of ions of type a , electron-electron collisions,

8
thermionic emission of electrons f r o m the s u r f a c e of p a r t i c l e s with effective
charge ( 2 - l ) e , inelastic collisions of electrons with particles of effective
charge Ze, and elastic collisions of electrons with particles of effective
charge z r .
Inelastic collisions of t h e electrons with atoms o r ions a r e not taken into
account, since t h e i r relative weight i s s m a l l f o r low values of E .
The following calculations a r e realized under t h e assumption T,= T i =
= T, =T.
Using ( 4 5 ) and ( 1 5 ) (according t o I S / ) , and taking into account that the
m a s s of particle, atom, o r ion p > m . we can write

The quantity ($)e has the usual f o r m

(-:{-)e = sss ( f i j ' - f l f ) gb d b d e d V 1 . (55 1

In expressions (52), (54), ( 5 5 ) f ' = f ( V ' ) , where V ' i s the velocity of the
electron relative t o t h e p a r t i c l e a f t e r an elastic collision with it.
The solution of the Boltzmann equation ( 5 0 ) is taken in the f o r m

f = f ( 0 ) (1 -/- a).
Under the assumptions made relative t o the distribution function f , the
left m e m b e r of equation (50) can be written in the folowing form, using the
standard transformation procedure 15 1 of the kinetic theory of g a s e s :

where

6, is a t e n s o r ; p is t h e total p r e s s u r e ; p is the density; n is t h e total

number of p a r t i c l e s p e r unit volume.

9
 The s u m of t h e integrals of the inelastic collisions in the left m e m b e r
of equation (50) is trazsformed t o the f o r m

The expression in brackets vanishes by the law of m a s s action. Therefore

The collision integrals (54), (55) a r e transformed t o

In accordance with the f o r m (56) the solution of the integral equation f o r

0 may be represented as

@=-A a. -In- BT
ar
.aYo +
e. ar 12 Cd, (62)

where A , B e , C. a r e functions of the velocity, local composition of the

mixture, and temperature.
In particular

c = w c (M.2), (63)

where 1V2 = i11V2I21cT.

To calculate the e l e c t r i c a l conductivity the function C must be d e t e r
mined. Substituting ( 6 2 ) in (59), (60), (61), and replacing the left m e m b e r
of (50) by (56) and rewriting the right member of (50) with t h e aid of (59)
(61), we obtain an integral equation f o r the function C :

10
where

Following 15 1, equation (64) can be solved by a variational method. To

that end we r e p r e s e n t C in t e r m s of Sonin's polynomials S);i a s follows:

where C,,, (E) a r e the coefficients of expansion which must be determined.

Omitting the details of solving equation (64)by the variational method
151, we give the final s y s t e m of l i n e a r algebraic equations f r o m which the
coefficients C, (E) can be determined:

where

The expression in brackets r e p r e s e n t s the known integral operator of the

kinetic theory of gases, whose meaning is explained in 151. When
calculating (IF'"" one should bear in mind that the l i m i t s of integration with
r e s p e c t t o V must be selected to be consistent with Emi,in ( 1 0 ) o r (11).
Hence,
QY'" n,R2 2nkT '/x
( ~

m ) X'X

(731

where z = eaJRkT.

11
 5. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

The c u r r e n t density is
-
j = n,eV, (74)

where v = -'
ne S fVdV. Using (57), (62), (67), we obtain f o r the ohmic
component of t h e c u r r e n t density

The expression for the conductivity 6 can be obtained in a f i r s t approxi

mation by calculating C , ( E ) . This r e s u l t s in

where x, = n J n ; xz = nz/n; a, is a characteristic p a r a m e t e r of t h e interaction

potential of the electron with the p a r t i c l e a, having t h e dimension of length;

Emin
+ 1
oj

~e-xEII-cosxz] EdbdE
n o

Q:*')* is the integral of the collisions of the electrons with atoms o r ions of
type a having the usual f o r m 151.
We s h a l l calculate Q;,')', retaining only the f i r s t t e r m in (3). Using (14),
(32), (77), and (78), w e obtain

the In sign is replaced by 212, as is usual in /5 1. For Zx -

When calculating the integrals with respect t o E the value of E under
1 a l l the t e r m s
in expressions ( 7 9 t (80) a r e of the s a m e o r d e r of magnitude.
If electrons a r e produced only by the t h e r m a l ionization of the p a r t i c l e s ,
then f o r ne N 0.3 n, (n, is the saturation number of electrons p e r unit volume)
ZX N 1, f o r ne = n, Zx 1, f o r 11, <
n, Zx >> 1 I7 I .
 In conclusion e s t i m a t e s of the magnitudes figuring in (76) a r e given.
For Argon, according; t o / 8 1, \'T,Q$"'*~~ 31 IO-" c m 2 ; t h e r e f o r e for n, =
a

= 10" R = cm, p = 1 a t m and T = 2000" I( w e have ~:$E*')*R' N

%in-17 em2.

Bibliography

1. S e m e n c h e n k 0, V. K. Fizicheskaya t e o r i y a rastvorov (Physical

Theory of Solutions). - Moskva-Leningrad, Gostekhizdat. 1941.
2. L a n d a u , L.D. and E.M. L i f s h i t s . Electrodynamics of Continuous
Media.-Pergamon Press, Oxford. 1960.
3. B u f f , F.P. and F.H. S t i l l i n g e r . Surface Tension of Ionic Solution.-
J. Chem. Phys., 25(2):312-318. 1956.
4. L a n d a u , L.D. and E.M. L i f s h i t s . Mechanics.-Pergamon Press,
Oxford. 1960.
5. H e r s c h f e l d e r , J . , C. C u r t i s s , and R. B i r d . Molecular Theory
of Gases and Liquids.-John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1949.
6. G r a d s h t e i n , I.S. and I.M. R y z h i k . Tablitsy integrallov, summ,
ryadov i proizvedenii (Tables of Integrals, Sums, S e r i e s and
Products). - Moskva, Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel'stvo Fiziko-
Matematicheskoi Literatury. 1963.
7. W i l l i a m s , H . , J.D. L e w i s , and R.M. H o b s o n . The Influence of
T h e r m a l Ionization P r o c e s s e s on t h e Design of a F o s s i l Fuelled
MHD Power Generator. - In "Advanced Magnetohydrodynamics.
Oxford-London-N.Y. -Paris, Pergamon P r e s s . pp. 65-78.
1963.
8. P a c k , J. Z . and A. V. P h e l p s . Drift Velocities of Slow Electrons in
Helium, Neon, Argon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen. - Phys. Rev.,
Vol. 121, No. 3. 1961.

13
I. B . Rozhdestvenskii, V .P . Sheueleu, K . K. Olevinskii

CALCULATION OF THE COMPOSITION AND THERMO

DYNAMIC FUNCTIONS OF GENERAL

REACTING GASEOUS SYSTEMS

The thermodynamic functions of ideal reacting gaseous s y s t e m s at high

t e m p e r a t u r e s can be calculated by the methods of s t a t i s t i c a l physics 111.
In the range of t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s met in combustion chambers,
in the nozzles of MHD-generators, and behind shock waves, t h e t h e r m o
dynamic functions can be calculated with sufficient accuracy by assuming
that t h e g a s is ideal. This assumption is a l s o useful in e x t r e m e c a s e s ,
s i n c e it is possible t o introduce in the resulting values c o r r e c t i o n s allowing
f o r the nonideality 1 2 , 3 1 . We shall accordingly consider below a chemically
reacting g a s in an ideal s t a t e .
Data on the thermodynamic functions of pure components a r e given in
s e v e r a l s o u r c e s 14- 6 1 .
The calculation of the composition is linked with considerable difficulties
in view of i t s nonlinear dependence on the thermodynamic p a r a m e t e r s of
the s y s t e m .
The simplification of the computing model by means of neglecting various
components can lead t o considerable e r r o r s . This simplification is
particularly undesirable when estimating the degree of ionization of negligible
admixtures and in many problems of chemical kinetics. Calculations
have shown /7/ that the optimum amounts of easily ionized admixtures,
giving maximum conductivity, do not exceed s e v e r a l per cent. Thus, when
determining t h e electron fraction one must account for all the possible
reactions of ionization and the formation of negative ions of negligible
admixtures.
By an a r b i t r a r y gaseous s y s t e m is understood a s y s t e m consisting of
k types of a t o m s (including e l e c t r o n s ) and i different components. The
numbers i and k a r e a r b i t r a r y . In such a s y s t e m t h e r e can take place i - k
r e v e r s i b l e reactions of dissociation, ionization of a r b i t r a r y o r d e r , and
formation of negative ions, likewise of a r b i t r a r y o r d e r . The component
i can contain an a r b i t r a r y number of atoms of type k . For such a s y s t e m
it is possible t o write k - 1 equations of m a t e r i a l balance, one equation
of charge conservation (equation of m a t t e r balance for t h e e l e c t r o n s ) and
a norming condition (the Dalton l a w ) . These equations a r e completed by
i - k equations of the law of m a s s action.
This s y s t e m has been solved by numerous authors. In / 8 / the equations
of chemical equilibrium were established in a s y m m e t r i c a l form, f r o m
which much data was derived 19, 101.
In this paper we d e r i v e a m o r e general notation of the s y s t e m of equations
of chemical equilibrium, on which the mathematical model r e s t s . At t h e

14
end of the paper examples a r e considered of realizing this model in a t h r e e -
a d d r e s s computer .

1. THE EQUATIONS O F CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

The equations of chemical equilibrium have (in the approximatim

considered) the f o r m

where zi i s the molar fraction of component i ; A i j is an element of the

matrix of stoichiometric coefficients; CjK-Lis a material constant, equal t o
the r a t i o of the number of atoms of type j t o the number of atoms of type
li - 1; K , is the equilibrium constant at constant p r e s s u r e ; a r e the
stoichiometric coefficients in reaction s . The index j takes values f r o m
1 t o IC - 2.
The solution of s y s t e m (1)- ( 4 ) presents s o m e difficulties in view of its
nonlinearity. One of the methods f o r solving it c o n s i s t s in eliminating i - li
unknowns in (1 ( 3 ) with t h e aid of (4), and then applying Newton's method
/1/ t o the nonlinear s y s t e m of k equations. Different possibilities exist
involving various difficulties, e . g., the convergence of the method of
successive approximations, the selection of the independent variables, etc.
We selected a method by means of which this s y s t e m can be solved by
orientation on any s e t of k independent components f r o m the whole s e t i.
The Composition of the general i-th component [ x i ]of the reacting
mixture can be represented in the f o r m

[xi]= Ailrl 1- Ai2r2 +- . . . t Ai,,rk = 3 Ai,cr,t,

h
(5 )

where ek is a symbol designating the type of atom k , and !Ii,( is the number
of given atoms in the i-th component (in a l l t h e r e a r e k - 1 types of a t o m s ;
the l a s t index k always corresponds t o e l e c t r o n s ) .
It is likewise possible t o expand [zil not only with respect t o a l l the atoms
entering the mixture composition, but a l s o with respect t o k - 1 molecular
components selected in s o m e specific way. The molecular symbols a r e
designated by e; . Then

Thus, a l l the components allowed f o r in the calculation a r e represented

by the m a t r i c e s / A , 1 o r 1 (Die11. Expression (5) corresponds t o the orienta
tion of (1)-(3) on atoms, and expression ( 6 ) t o t h e orientation on molecules.
The transition f r o m one orientation t o the other is realized by the l a w s of

15

.. ... .. . .
 l i n e a r algebra, where [xi]is regarded a s a vector in the space of base e;
or e*.
To that end w e select the matrix* 1 A , 11 containing initial information on
the compos ition.
In o r d e r to t r a n s f o r m to a general [I @G 11 one must find the t r a n s f o r m a
tion matrix 1 Bik 1, which is the inverse of the transposed matrix consisting
of the coefficients Ai,for any base e; in,the space of base e,. It is only
n e c e s s a r y that the molecules forming e k contain at l e a s t once any atom ek
and not be a l i n e a r combination of each other (such a s 0, and 0).
We shall give an example of such a transformation. Take t h r e e types of
a t o m s 0, N, C, and e-, and consider the combinations CO,, CO, N2,N,O+, C2N2,e;
The matrix )I A,, 1 w i l l have respectively the following f o r m for them:

ONCe
2010
11010

j 0220
0001
, I , ,

Take now a s el, e2, e,, e4 respectively COz, CO, N, and e-.
The transformation matrix 1 B,, 1 is then found f r o m the matrix

2010
I010
0200
0001 .

1 00 01 I.
The elements of @)ik for NzO a r e hence found a s

For CzNz (Dc.N, is similarly determined, k = - 2, 4 , 1, 0.

Thus, the components of any vector i, written in the space e,, a r e
transformed uniquely into components of this vector in the space e; by
A matrix corresponding to an arbitrary orientation could be selected here.
* * The determinant of this matrix is nonzero (-2). i.e., the matrix is nondegenerate.

16
multiplying t h e s e vectors by the matrix IIBixII. The l a t t e r can easily be
found with the aid of the adjoint of the matrix \ l A i k l \ e k . i . e . , the matrix
formed of the coefficients A , in the space e k :

where IIAikIlel is the adjoint matrix, and d is the determinant of the matrix
.
I1 A ik Ile,
With the aid of the matrices IIAik[Io r !!(Dikll the fraction of an a r b i t r a r y
component xi is written a s follows on the strength of the law of m a s s action:

or

The quantities K P i Aand K P i , r e p r e s e n t the equilibrium constants at the

corresponding orientation and a r e calculated with the aid of data relative t o
the pure components (the enthalpy and entropy o r the reduced thermodynamic
potential); for instance
KPi=exp(--[Hi-i"TS,-~Oik(Hk -TS,)]/ RT}. (10)
k

In the c a s e of orientation on the atoms ll@ikll = 1 Ai* 11. It i s easily seen

that K,, = 1, i. e . , that the equilibrium constant of the base component,
calculated according t o (IO), is always equal to unity. We have then z k = zk
f r o m (8) and (9). Thus, the representation (8), (9), (10) has an obvious
advantage over other notations, since one may eliminate i - k unknowns
in ( 1 ) - ( 3 ) and conduct the calculation for the orientation on any s e t of k
independent components. In addition, in this notation the orientation can
be easily altered in the course of the calculation.
The selection of the k bsse components is subject only t o the requirement
d # 0 , i. e . , the matrix 1 AikIIpk must be nondegenerate; otherwise it does
not possess an inverse matrix. The simplest matrix is 11 Ai, (1 (orientation
on atoms). The transformation in the c o u r s e of the calculation t o the
orientation /I aik1) gives however a gain in computing t i m e and expands the
region of convergence of Newton's method, i f we select a s base components
the predominant components 111.

2 . THE COMPOSITION OF A GENERAL

GASEOUS SYSTEM

Consider the simple relations

2 N~ - N = 0,
i

2 AijNi - cjN0 = 0,
i

17
where Ni is the number of moles of component i; N is the total number of
moles: A i j a r e the elements of the matrix of stoichiometric coefficients;
cj a r e the material constants. For the electrons cj = 0. The index j takes
the values 1 t o k . The components i in these relations a r e expressed, with
the aid of the law of m a s s action, in t e r m s of k a r b i t r a r y components, but
include necessarily each type of the k atoms and electrons.
For determinacy we shall express the components i in t e r m s of the
number of moles of atoms and electrons (cf. above):

For the quantities with index k f r o m the totality i we obtain, with the
aid of (13), the identity iV,<= N , and K,, = 1. Substituting (13) in (11)and
(12), we obtain a s y s t e m of k +
1 nonlinear algebraic equations for
determining the unknowns N , , N2,... N,.N. The s y s t e m ( l l ) , ( 1 2 ) w i l l be
completely determined i f the s e t of numbers c j . the equilibrium constants
KPi, and the matrix of stoichiometric coefficients Q, a r e specified.
Applying Newton's method t o ( l l ) , ( 1 2 ) and solving this s y s t e m with
respect t o the logarithmic corrections A In N,, A In N, we obtain

System (141, (15) is linear with respect t o the corrections AInN,,AlnN

and can be solved by one of the standard methods. The iterated magnitudes
a r e the logarithms of N,,N 2 ,..., N,. The requirement that the iteration
converges is equivalent t o a comparison with the reference logarithmic
correction

Thus, the determination of the composition reduces t o the following

sequence of operations:
1) initial approximations InN,, ..., lnN a r e assumed;
2 ) we calculate

Here 1nKpi is calculated with the aid of (10);

3) solving (14), (15), we find AlnN,, A l n N ;
4 ) we realize the relative control (16);
5 ) if IAlnN, I > e , I A I ~ N I > E , we f o r m the next approximation, i. e.,

18

.- . _ _ _-_ - ..... . _ _ .., . . . , ... I....I .... 1.11.. I ....

I I , , . . , . . I., I I ,
,
 The second and fourth operations a r e now c a r r i e d out successively until
requirement ( 1 6 ) is finally satisfied. The right sides of (14), (15)then
vanish, and the approximate composition is derived. We further calculate
the m o l a r fractions xi = N i / N and the integral thermodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

3 . CALCULATIONS IN DIFFERENTIAL
THERMODYNAMICS

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l methods of calculating the differential thermodynamic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , differing in programming e a s e and computing time. One
of t h e m is the procedure used in 11, 2, 8-101, where the derivatives
IIA(s)p and l / N ( s ) v were calculated. The determinants of the linear
s y s t e m s for the composition and the derivatives turned out t o be different.
It is however known that the specific heats and the sound velocity can
a l s o b e calculated by a different procedure, with the aid of the derivatives
(s)p($)=and Or (a l n N ( alnN.
a l & - ) p a n d + ) T / l l 1. In this c a s e the determinants
for the composition and the derivatives coincide. In fact, if in (11) and ( 1 2 )
Ni is replaced by exp (In Ni) and N by exp(1n N ) , and we then differentiate
allowing for (13) and (14), t h e r e r e s u l t s

Thus, it is easily seen that the determinants of systems (24), (25), and
(26), ( 2 7 ) coincide with that of s y s t e m (14), (15) in the l a s t iteration cycle.
When using the standard subroutines for solving-systems of l i n e a r
equations, the matrix of coefficients is not conserved in the c o u r s e of the

19
calculations and cannot be used f o r solving other s y s t e m s . It is therefore
advisable t o include the solution of the s y s t e m with respect to the derivatives
in every cycle of iterations of the s y s t e m f o r composition (14), (15). Since
the systems differ in t h e i r right sides, it is convenient t o u s e a solution
p r o g r a m based on the Gauss method with selection of the main element and
with many right s i d e s (cf. below). The solution of t h e s y s t e m with respect
t o the derivatives is obtained in this c a s e in the last cycle of iterations of
the composition system. The matrix of coefficients of the determinants and
the matrix of the right s i d e s of the s y s t e m s a r e

1
N- A;i IIT 2( O i k H k-If i) N i 2 (1 - 2 Oik)N i
1 r

I
Ci-xAijNi
.
4T~ A i j ( @ i x H , - H i ) N i ~ A i( j1 - 2 ( D i , < )
t
N,

The calculation of the derivatives has thus been reduced t o the s a m e

sequence of operations a s the calculation of the composition.
This calculation yields together with N i , N also
alnN
(x$-)p, (g:)p
and
(!?!L_)
ainp
, . It )
(z
ainp
is now easy t o calculate
T
a In N. a In N.

quantities can likewise be determined in parallel with the iteration cycle.

Allowing for (lo), we obtain f r o m (13)

Finally, the formulas f o r calculating rp, c,, a a r e given a s follows:

4. REALIZATION O F THE MATHENLATICAL MODEL

The following must be borne in mind when the mathematical model

described is programmed in a computer language. The p r o g r a m must yield

20
t h e thermodynamic quantities and composition of t h e mixture corresponding
t o given T and p . It can a l s o be used as a subroutine in the p r o g r a m t o solve
the gas-dynamic problem. Both when used independently and a s a subroutine,
t h e p r o g r a m n e c e s s i t a t e s a s input data, in addition t o T and P, a l s o the
initial approximation .VI,N , , ..., N , , N . The p r o g r a m itself u s e s the l i b r a r y
of standard subroutines available in the IS-2 system, and a l s o a p r o g r a m
f o r solving a s y s t e m of l i n e a r equations by the Guass method with selection
of the main element. The advantages of this program, besides the accuracy,
a r e twofold: f i r s t , the selection of the main element, which makes it
possible t o avoid division by z e r o when dividing by an a r b i t r a r y element of
t h e s y s t e m determinant; second, by t h e Gauss method the expanded matrix
comprising the determinant coefficients and of s e v e r a l right s i d e s is
inverted, which enables the computing t i m e t o be considerably reduced.
Several comments a r e now made as r e g a r d s the possibility of using the
p r o g r a m with a computer having an internal memory of about 4000 t h r e e -
a d d r e s s c e l l s . We r e c a l l that the formation of the coefficients of l i n e a r -
s y s t e m m a t r i c e s is realized with t h e aid of t h e m a t r i x of stoichiometric
coefficients Ai,:. This matrix occupies ik cells. Since it is constantly in
use, it must be s t o r e d in the internal memory. For s m a l l values of iand
k (i- 100, k = I O ) the matrix & i s s t o r e d in such a w a y t h a t a cell corresponds
t o every m a t r i x element. For numbers i and k such that ik 2 1 0 0 0 , s e v e r a l
c e l l digits a r e assigned t o each matrix element, which is coded in binary
f o r m . Every vector i in space k is s t o r e d in two c e l l s of t h e memory, and
a s a r e s u l t the matrix occupies 2i c e l l s . Provision was made for modifying
the number of digits assigned t o each element Aikr depending on the maximum
content of the atom of type k in particle i. Independently of the method of
coding the matrix Ai,, t h i s unit r e a l i z e s the formation of the matrix of
determinant coefficients and t h e right s i d e s of l i n e a r s y s t e m s and t h e i r
distribution in a definite o r d e r for a r b i t r a r y i and k . Note that the maximum
o r d e r of the l i n e a r s y s t e m for the existing standard subroutines does not
exceed 60. We shall consider two optimum possibilities of the p r o g r a m .
In the first c a s e the m a t r i x Ai,, is s t o r e d in ik c e l l s , and t h e coefficients of
the polynomials cp?" a r e s t o r e d in the internal memory (i. e., the whole
p r o g r a m is s t o r e d in the internal memory). Possible i and k can then be
determined f r o m the approximation relation 15i ik 4-k + + 10k N 3200.
F o r k = 10, we obtain i 2 120; for k = 15, i N 90.
In the second c a s e the matrix A.is s t o r e d in 2i cells, and the coefficients
of the polynomials rp!"'are s t o r e d in the internal memory (i. e., the p r o g r a m
occupies the internal memory and one group of d r u m s ) . In this c a s e
possible i and k a r e determined f r o m the relation 7i k2 10k N 3200. + +
F o r k = 20, we obtain i N 370; for k = 40 i = 150.

Bibliography

1. S t u p o c h e n k o , E . V . , I . P . S t a k h a n o v , E . V . S a m u i l o v , A.S.
P l e s h a n o v , and I.B. R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i . Termodinami
cheskie svoistva vozdukha v intervale t e m p e r a t u r 1000- 1200K
(Thermodynamic P r o p e r t i e s of A i r in t h e T e m p e r a t u r e Range
1000- 1200K). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika, I t Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 195 9.

21
 2. S t u p o c h e n k o , E . V . , E . V . S a m u i l o v , A.S. P l e s h a n o v , and
1 . B . R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i . Termodinamicheskie funktsii
vozdukha p r i vysokikh temperaturakh (Thermodynamic Functions
f o r Air at High T e m p e r a t u r e s ) . - Zhurnal Fizicheskoi Khimii,
Vol. 34, No. 6. 1960.
3. H i r s c h f e l d e r , J . , C . C u r t i s s , and R. B i r d . Molecular Theory
of Gases and Liquids.-John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1949.
4. G u r v i c h, L. V. and others. Termodinamicheskie svoistva individual'
nykh veshchestv (Thermodynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Individual
Substances).- Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
5 G u r v i c h , L. V. and N.P. R t i s h c h e v a . Analiticheskoe predstavlenie
tabulirovannykh znachenii termodinamicheskikh svoistv gazov
(Analytic Representation of the Tabulated Values of the Thermo
dynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Gases). - Teplofizika vysokikh t e m p e r a t u r ,
No. 6. 1964.
6. S a m u i l o v , E . V . and K . K . O l e v i n s k i i . Tablitsy s u m m d l y a
r a s c h e t a termodinamicheskikh svoistv gazov (Tables of Sums for
Calculating t h e Thermodynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Gases). - Moskva,
Izdanie VTs AN SSSR. 1963.
7. A r a v i n , G.S. and V . P . S h e v e l e v . Termicheskaya ionizatsiya i
elektroprovodnost' nekotorykh smesei i produktov sgoraniya
( T h e r m a l Ionization and Electrical Conductivity of Some Mixtures
and Combustion Products).-PMTF, No. 2. 1962.
a. P l e s h a n o v , A. S. Obshchii r a s c h e t sostava i termodinamicheskii
analiz proizvol'nykh reagiruyushchikh gazovykh s i s t e m (General
Calculation of the Composition and Thermodynamic Analysis of
General Reacting Gaseous Systems). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya
gazodinamika, " Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
9. P 1e s h a n o v , A. S. and S. G. Z a i t s e v. Sostav, termodinamicheskie
i gazodinamicheskie svoistva uglekislogo g a z a p r i vysokikh
temperaturakh (Composition, Thermodynamic, and Gas -Dynamic
P r o p e r t i e s of Carbonic Acid at High T e m p e r a t u r e s ) . - Sbornik
"Fizicheskaya Gazodinamika. " Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR.
1962.
10. P 1e s h a n o v , A. S. Sostav, termodinamicheskie i gazodinamicheskie
svoistva azota p r i vysokikh temperaturakh (Composition, Thermo
dynamic, and Gas-Dynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Nitrogen at High
T e m p e r a t u r e s ) . - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika, " Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
11. E p s h t e i n , P. S. K u r s termodinamiki (A Course of Thermodynamics). -
Moskva-Leningrad, GITTL. 1948.

22
I . B . Rozhdestvenskii, K. K. Olevinskii, V . P . Shevelev

THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS OF THE COMBUSTION

PRODUCTS OF T H E SYSTEM LIQUID E T H Y L
ALCOHOL-GASEOUS OXYGEN

This paper presents (in Figure 1 )the h - s d i a g r a m of the products of

combustion (for a = I ) , a graph (in Figure 2 ) of the composition of the
combustion products a s afunction of a (O.l< a < 3 ) f o r the theoretical
combustion temperature T,, and other curves (Figures 3-7). These data
can be used in calculations regarding combustion chambers and the isentropic
flow of the products of combustion. The following 2 9 components w e r e
taken into account in the calculation: CO,. CO, CH, CH,, CH,, CH,, HzO,
H,o,, HO,. HCO, H,, o,, o,, OH, 0, H, c, e - , co+,OH+, o,+,H+, o+,c+,
OH-, 0,-, H-, 0 - , C-. The data on the composition can be used for an improved
calculation of the kinetic coefficients of the combustion products of the
s y s t e m . The computation was performed on a computer by the s a m e method
/1/ with orientation on CO,, CO, H,, e- for a Q 1, and on CO,, 0,. HzO, e
for a > l.

h, kca
2wl

zoo0

1200

800
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
s , kcal/kg. deg
FIGURE 1. h - I -diagram of the combustion products.

The following quantities were calculated: composition (molar fractions

), enthalpy h (cal/g), internal energy 11. (cal/g), entropy s (cal/g. deg),

23
FIGURE 2. Composition of the combustion products as a function of the oxidizer
excess coefficient a t a temperature of combustion T = T, and a pressure in the
combustion chamber p = p c = 1 a m .

24
 molecular weight p (g/mole), specific heats c p . c, (cal / g - deg), = c,/c,,
sound velocity n ( m / s e c ) , density p (g/cm3). The calculations were
conducted as a function of the oxidizer e x c e s s coefficient a for the following
p r e s s u r e s in the combustion chamber: p c = 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20,
30, 40 atm. The thermodynamic functions of the pure components (polyno
mial coefficients) for h and s were taken f r o m a handbook / 2 / . The
equilibrium constants f o r the reactions 02+e - - 0 2 - 2 0 and C + e - - - - Z 0
a r e taken from / 3 / . The dissociation or ionization energies and the enthalpy
r e f e r e n c e levels at 0K a r e given in the table for the main components.

0 IO 20 30 40 Pc 0 1 2 3
FIGURE 3. Combustion temperature a t a = 1 a s FIGURE 4. Combustion temperature p c = 1 atm
a function of the pressure in t h e combustion as a function of the oxidizer excess coefficient.
chamber.

Dissociation,
ionization Enthalpy at
energy, )OK, cal/mole
cal/mole--

coz 381 543 0 117 973 0

co 255 790 66iFA.5 785 596 117 157.5
11.3 103 264 57 1:10 (I - 58 986.5
CH* 291) 581 213 580 H - 80 197
HzOi 252 282 26 OR5 c - 263 570
HzO 219 361 0 e - 0
HOz 165 UOU 33 170 cc ) + 323 179 389945.4
CHz 206 849 217 115 OH+ 304 000 341 824
OS 141 828 35 131.5 0 a+ 278 545 278 544
CHI 392 118 192 240 H+ 313 600 393 797
CH 80 000 163 767 O+ 314 052 373 038.5
OH 101 360 37 824 C+ 259 845 523415

The complete combustion of pure (100 70)ethyl alcohol can be described

by t h e stoichiometric equation

CaHBO1+ 3 O ~ - Z C O f + 3 H 2 O 1 +W,
where t h e s u p e r s c r i p t s 1 and g r e f e r t o liquid and gas respectively.

25

 FIGURE 5. Specific-heat ratio y = cJcv of

the combustion products a t a = 1 as a function
of the temperature for p , =1. 10, 40 a m .

T. "K
FIGURE 6. Specific-heat ratio y = c,/c, of the combustion
products a t p = 1 as a function of the temperature for dif
ferent a.

FIGURE 7. Equilibrium sound velocity of the

combustion products as a function of the
temperature for a = 1 and p c = 1. 10, 4 0 a t m .

26
 The heats of combustion of CzH60in liquid and gaseous s t a t e s for T =
= 298"K, following /4/, are equal respectively t o W(Cz%01)-326.66 f
f 0.10 kcal/mole, IV(CzH,0h')-336.78 f 0.10 kcal/mole. It follows that the
heat of evaporation of alcohol at 298K (q,::~.o) is equal t o 10.12 kcal/mole.
The products of combustion a r e in both c a s e s liquid water and gaseous
carbon dioxide. The heat of evaporation of HzO at 2 9 8 K ( q ~ ~is, ~equal
) to
10.503 f 0.006 kcal/mole.
We can thus write t h e following reaction equations:

CZHGO' + 3Oi-2COb; + 3HzOl + IV(CsFIBO');

HzOR- f I z 0 ' - qHI0 = 0;
CzH,Og-CzI-IeO1 -qc*xao = 0.

+
These equations yield w - W ( C , I ~ ~ O ' ) qC&O - 3 qH,O = 305.271 kcal/mole
f o r the heat of combustion of gaseous alcohol into gaseous products. At the
enthalpy r e f e r e n c e levels adopted the enthalpy of Cz%Og at 298K is found
t o have the value 310.628kcal/mole (fIY&o = 310,628 c a l / m o l e ) .
The calculation w a s performed f o r 96 70 (by volume) alcohol. The quantity
It.'includes the heat of evaporation of the water contained in 96 70 alcohol.
The theoretical combustion t e m p e r a t u r e w a s determined by l i n e a r interpola
tion of the enthalpy values with simultaneous calculation of the h - s - d i a g r a m s
of the combustion products.
The range of the k - s diagram (cf. Figure 1 ) which is of practical
interest for calculating the efflux through a nozzle is the lower region,
lying beneath t h e horizontal line of the corresponding combustion t e m p e r
a t u r e ( h ," = h p r ) .

B i b 1i o g r a p h y

1. R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i , I . B . , V . P . S h e v e l e v , and K.K. O l e v i n s k i i .
Raschet sostava i termodinamicheskikh funktsii proizvol'nykh
reagiruyushchikh gazovykh sistem (Calculation of the Composition
and Thermodynamic Functions of General Reacting Gaseous
Systems).-In this collection, p. 14.
2. Gu r v i c h, L. V. and others. Termodinamicheskie svoistva individual'
nykh veshchestv (Thermodynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Individual
Substances).- Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
3. P l e s h a n o v , A.S. and S . G . Z a i t s e v . Sostav, termodinamicheskie i
gazodinamicheskie svoistva uglekislogo g a z a dlya t e m p e r a t u r ot
1000 do 12,000"K i davlenii ot lo-' t o l o 3 a t m (Composition,
Thermodynamic, and Gas-Dynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Carbonic Acid
for T e m p e r a t u r e s between 1000 and 12,000"K and P r e s s u r e s
between lo-' and l o 3 atm). -Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika,"
Moskva, Izdatel'stvo A N SSSR. 1962.
4. L e w i s , B. and G. von E l b e. Combustion, Flames and Explosions of
Gases.-Academic Press, New York. 1951.

21
N . N . Tsitelauri

INTERACTION POTENTIAL OF C O MOLECULES

The kinetic theory of rarefied gases provides a means f o r calculating

the t r a n s f e r coefficients if the intermolecular interaction f o r c e s a r e known
/1/. The available interaction polentials for most g a s e s correspond
however t o moderate and low t e m p e r a t u r e s , and t h e i r extrapolation t o
higher t e m p e r a t u r e s is unsatisfactory. Several theoretical and experimental
methods w e r e developed for obtaining the interaction forces at high t e m p e r
a t u r e s . The most valuable experimental approach in this respect is the
study of the elastic scattering of a high-velocity neutral beam of particles
121, and measurements of the relaxation t i m e of the vibrational energy of
the molecules. Another suitable method for obtaining the interaction
potential i s to use data about the viscosity o r other t r a n s f e r coefficients;
however, t h e s e data a r e difficult t o obtain at high t e m p e r a t u r e s .
In this paper t h e interaction potential of CO molecules was determined
by studying the vibrational relaxation in CO behind a shock wave. This
procedure was dictated by the available experimental data, and a l s o by the
following r e a s o n s : the chemical inertness of CO satisfies the theoretical
assumption that t h e effect of chemical affinity can be neglected when
describing molecular collisions ; the high chemical stability of CO enables
one t o conduct shock-tube studies of the vibrational relaxation over a wide
t e m p e r a t u r e range.
The p a r a m e t e r s of the interaction potential of CO can be obtained f r o m
measurements of the vibrational relaxation time, using the relations of the
theory of vibrational relaxation founded by Landau and T e l l e r 131. They
proved that the probability of exciting molecular vibrations during collisions
depends strongly on the intermolecular forces, mainly in the excitation of
vibrations pertaining t o the repulsive forces, while t h e attractive forces
only a c c e l e r a t e the colliding m o l e x l e s . This result is obtained by both
classical and quantum-mechanical calculations. It is assumed that the
kinetic energy of the molecules in collisions which excite vibrations is
much higher than the vibrational quantum. This theory contains many
simplifications, and its r e s u l t s a s r e g a r d s the probability of exciting
vibrations in the molecule only coincide with the experimental r e s u l t s in
o r d e r of magnitude. Some of the discrepancies can be attributed t o
inaccurate potentials. Besides the inaccuracies of the theory, discrepancies
a l s o a r i s e due t o experimental e r r o r s linked both with incorrect m e a s u r e
ments and with the strong effect of impurities on the value of the t i m e of
vibrational relaxation 141. It is therefore essential t o ensure the purity of
the gas under investigation.

28
r
L, p e c The given calculation of the p a r a m e t e r s
mi of the intermolecular interaction potential
of CO is based on the experimental r e s u l t s
summarized in 151. The authors d e t e r
mined the relaxation time z over a wide
101 temperature range f r o m the variation of
the infrared emission in the g a s behind a
shock wave. The inaccuracy of t h e i r
measurements (of t h e o r d e r of 15 70)was
JI;
due t o e r r o r s in the front velocity, the
temperature and p r e s s u r e behind the front,
the initial t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e .
E r r o r s due t o impurities, and a l s o the
I effect of the boundary l a y e r and the self-
008 01 absorption, could be neglected. Their
r-b r e s u l t s 15 1 a g r e e satisfactorily with those
FIGURE 1. Vibrational relaxation time of of others, who measured the time of
CO niolccules as a function of temperature. vibrational relaxation by means of infrared
emission / 6 1. bv the line-reversal method
- I

for sodium 17 1 and by interferometry 18 1. The experimental r e s u l t s of 15 I ,

divided by t h e atmospheric p r e s s u r e , have been plotted a s a curve of Ig z
against T-'I3 (Figure 1). The points lie approximately on the straight line

IC! z = 75.8T"'-10.lf. (1 1

The slope of t h i s line determines the radius of the exchange interaction

forces of the molecules. These r e s u l t s cover the temperature range 1 1 0 0
4900K and represent initial data for calculating the interaction potential of
CO molecules.
The following relationship between the vibrational relaxation time of the
molecules and the temperature was derived for the model of two colliding
diatomic molecules with exponential c e n t r a l forces of repulsion located at
t h e centers of the atoms 14, 91:

where L is the equilibrium internuclear distance in the molecule: rC is the

distance between the m a s s centers of the molecules a t the c l a s s i c a l r e v e r s a l
point; h is Planck's constant; IC is the Boltzmann constant; p is t h e g a s
p r e s s u r e ; a is the reciprocal of the radius of action of the exchange forces
between the atoms of the interacting molecules; is the reduced mass of
the colliding molecules: AE is the vibrational quantum; T is the g a s
temperature.
The following assumptions w e r e made in the derivation of t h e formula:
the main contribution toward exciting t h e vibrations were t h e repulsive
f o r c e s , which d e c r e a s e exponentially with increasing distance between the
particles ;
the l a r g e s t contribution is made by those collisions f o r which the axes
of the molecules a r e arranged along the same line;

29
 t h e internuclear distances a r e sufficiently l a r g e compared with t h e
r a d i u s of action u-l of the intermolecular forces, and t h e r e f o r e only the
interaction of t h e n e a r e s t a t o m s is important, while that of the second
atoms can be neglected.
The full intermolecular potential w i l l then equal the interatomic potential
given by
V = V,, exp (- aR),

where a, V,, a r e constant over the given t e m p e r a t u r e range; R is the distance

between t h e m a s s c e n t e r s of the atoms of the interacting molecules.
T h e attraction is allowed f o r by increasing t h e energy of the colliding
p a r t i c l e s by the depth of the minimum E in t h e Lennard-Jones (6, 1 2 )
potential 11 I , i. e . ,

V = V o exp (- a R ) - E . (3 1

The attraction f o r c e s a r e allowed f o r by introducing in ( 2 ) the factor

esp (-- g) 141. The reduction in t h e vibrational relaxation t i m e caused by
the conversion of rotational energy into vibrational energy is allowed f o r
by introducing a constant factor A s m a l l e r than unity. This factor is
selected t o compensate for other inaccuracies of the theory as well.
It is often convenient t o use the total interaction energy averaged over
all the orientations, the so-called "effective" s p h e r i c a l s y m m e t r i c a l potential.
The averaging can be realized by the method of Amdur 1 2 1 .
The effective potential is obtained in the f o r m U = Uoe-a,r, where a, is
the r e c i p r o c a l of the radius of action of the exchange forces between the
molecules : r is t h e distance between t h e m a s s c e n t e r s of colliding molecules.
The averaging leads naturally t o an additional e r r o r , since the i n t e r
molecular potential CO is not spherically s y m m e t r i c a l .
It is s e e n f r o m formula ( 2 ) that the dependence of the relaxation t i m e
on t e m p e r a t u r e is mainly determined by the factor e x p ( 3 x). Taking the
logarithm of expression ( 2 ) and t r a n s f e r r i n g t o the left side all the t e r m s
except 3 2 , we derive

The quantity t ( T ) is found f r o m Figure 1 or equation (1) for the c o r r e

sponding t e m p e r a t u r e . If the left side of equation (4) is designated by
cp - In A , then the following linear equation is obtained:

- In A =( ~ T-'".

3 /a'/,) (5 1

Several equations analogous t o ( 5 ) can be written f o r different t e m p e r

a t u r e s to give a s y s t e m of linear equations which can be approximately
solved by the method of l e a s t s q u a r e s . The z e r o approximation f o r a and
rc in ( 4 ) or ( 5 ) is obtained by using method B , described in /4, 8 1 , t o s e l e c t
an exponential potential for the Lennard-Jones (6, 1 2 ) potential. The

30

required values of a a r e then found f r o m equation (4) by the method of

successive approximations for a given r,. The following approximations of
r, a r e linked with the p a r a m e t e r s of the effective intermolecular potential.
This potential can be obtained by the method of Amdur, developed in / l o /
f o r the exponential potential:

First V , is found f r o m t h e condition V = Voexp (- nR) - E = 0 f o r r = o.

Hence, since R = r - L,

V , = E exp [ u ( s - - L ) ] . (7 1

Here 0 is the p a r a m e t e r of the Lennard- Jones potential 111.

Next, writing equation ( 6 ) f o r different
r , w e find aM and U,. The quantity r, can
O.IO': erg then be derived f r o m the condition

U o e x p ( - - a , , r , ) = E ' =L ~ ~ , (8)

I Nz-Nz
where u* = (4n2kTAE/~hp)':a is the velocity of
4
the molecules which a r e most effective
I in exciting vibrations 141.
I The whole procedure is then repeated
I
I with the new values of r , . This p r o c e s s
\ converges fairly rapidly.
\ As a r e s u l t the following values w e r e
\
',Lennard -Jones
potential
obtained f o r the interactions of C and 0
atoms contained in difierent colliding
molecules: u = 4.899A1', V, =
= 2.624. e r g ; the correspondoing values
<,co-co f o r the molecules a r e aN=4.629A-', lJo=
18 22 26 30 ~ 3'i = 3.158. e r g . The value of the c o r r e c
r ,A tion f a c t o r A in equation ( 4 ) is equal t o 0.2.
The effective interaction potential obtained
FIGURE 2. C u r v e s of rhe interaction f o r the CO molecules,
potential of the molecules.
li = 19 700 r x p ( -4.629 r ) cli (9)

corresponds (following ( 8 ) )t o intermolecular distances 1.95 r < 2.2,&. <

Figure 2 shows a curve of the potential U along with the Lennard-Jones
(6, 1 2 ) potential. It is seen that the Lennard-Jones potential gives over
estimated r e s u l t s .
The f i g u r e a l s o shows a plot of the interaction potential of t h e N, molecules,
obtained f r o m t h e experimental data on vibrational relaxation 110 /.

31

..

Bibliography

1. H i r s c h f e l d e r , J., C. C u r t i s s , and R. B i r d . Molecular Theory

of G a s e s and Liquids.-John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1949.
2. A m d u r , I . , E.A. M a s o n , and J . E . J o r d a n . Scattering of High
Velocity Neutral Particles: He-N,; A-N,. The N,-", Inter
action.- J. Chem. Phys,, Vol. 27, No. 2. 1957.
3. L a n d a u , L. and E. T e l l e r . Z u r Theorie d e r Schal1dispersion.-
Phys. Z . Sowjetunion, Vol. 10, No. 1. 1936.
4. H e r z f e l d , K . F . and T.A. L i t o v i t z . Dispersion and Absorption
of Ultrasonic Waves, N.Y.-London. 1959.
5. M i l l i c a n , R.C. and W. J. H o o k e r . Shock-tube Study of Vibrational
Relaxation in Carbon Monoxide f o r the Fundamental and First
Overtone.-J. Chem. Phys., Vol. 38, No. 1. 1963.
6. W i n d s o r , M.W., N. D a v i d s o n , and R.L. T a y l o r . AStudy of
Vibrational Relaxation in Carbon Monoxide by Shock Waves and
Infrared Emission.- Seventh Symposium (International) on
Combustion, London. 1959.
7. G a y d o n, A. G. and I. R. H u r 1e. Measurement of T i m e s of
Vibrational Relaxation and Dissociation behind Shock Waves in
N,, 02, Air, CO, CO, and H,.-Eighth Symposium (International)
on Combustion, Baltimore. 1962.
8. M a t t h e w s , D. L. Vibration Relaxation of Carbon Monoxide in t h e
Shock Tube.-J. Chem. P h y s . , Vol. 34, No. 2. 1961.
9. H e r z f e 1d, K. F. Deactivation of t h e Vibration during Collision of
Two Diatomic Molecules.-2. P h y s . , Vol. 156, p . 265. 1959.
10. V a n d e r s l i c e , J.T.., E.A. M a s o n , and E.R. L i p p i n c o t t .
Interaction between Ground State Nitrogen Atoms and Molecules. -
J. Chem. Phys.,Vol. 30, No. 1. 1959.
I
L . G . Gvozdeva, 0 .A . Preduoditeleua

PARAMETERS OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND NITROGEN

BEHIND SHOCK WAVES INTERACTING WITH A WEDGE

The gas-dynamic quantities behind shock waves, propagating in a gas

with initial temperatures of 300- 3000"K, have been tabulated under different
assumptions a s regards the thermodynamic s t a t e of the gas. Tabulated
data a r e used for calculating different shock configurations generated
during the flow of shock waves past a wedge.
The interaction of the shock wave with a wedge consists in a reflected
wave f r o m the wedge surface and the flow of hot gas past the wedge behind
the incident shock wave. This pattern depends substantially, a s shown in
11, 2 1 , on the extent of the physicochemical transformations in the heated
gas. The positioning of the reflected wave in the Mach configuration and
the angle of inclination of the attached wave at the wedge a r e sensitive
functions of the s t a t e of the gas in the regions bounded by these waves. This
may lead to the detachment of the reflected and attached waves, and the
formation of a second t r i p l e wave configuration.
Studies of the Mach configuration and the attached waves reveal regions
in which double Mach configurations can exist.
Investigations w e r e undertaken for carbon dioxide and nitrogen. In the
range considered the physicochemical transformations in these g a s e s affect
the gas p a r a m e t e r s considerably.
Every type of physicochemical transformation has its own relaxation
time. The relaxation times of different processes sometimes vary widely.
A s a result, one can observe quasiequilibrium s t a t e s in a gas heated by a
shock wave, in which some processes have already been completed while
others continue 1 3 1 ; it can happen that the molecular vibrations have been
fully excited, but no dissociation has taken place.
When considering shocks propagating in a gas preheated by a shock wave
it was assumed that the s t a t e on the wave varies such that equilibrium is
established immediately behind the wave with respect to the degrees of
freedom excited behind the incident shock wave.

1. THE GAS STATE BEHIND SHOCK WAVES FOR

DIFFERENT INITIAL STATES O F THE GAS

The s t a t e of the gas behind shock waves was calculated f r o m the

conservation laws of energy, mass, and momentum, by the method of
successive approximations 14, 5 I. The calculations for carbon dioxide
w e r e based on the following assumptions: a l l the vibrational modes a r e

33

 excited in a stable manner behind the wave, and dissociation has taken place
(variant I); a l l the vibrational modes a r e stable behind the wave, and t h e r e
is no dissociation (variant 11); neither dissociation has taken place n o r have
a s y m m e t r i c valent vibrations been excited in the g a s behind the wave
(variant 11'). The graphs compare curves for a constant specific-heat r a t i o
y = 1.4 during transition a c r o s s the shock (variant 111). Variant I1 was used
f o r nitrogen, since the degree of dissociation of nitrogen molecules is low
f o r the corresponding shock velocities. The calculation of the values of
the enthalpy and molecular weight for variant I is described below. The
values of the enthalpy f o r variant I1 were taken f r o m the tables in / 6 / , and
the values of the enthalpy for variant 11' f r o m /7/.
The calculations were f i r s t conducted for the gas s t a t e in front of the
shock w i t h p i n = 1.68, lo-' a t m and Ti, = 293"K, and wave velocities between
1000 and 3000 m / s e c . Calculations were also performed for shocks under
higher initial t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s . These initial s t a t e s a r e obtained
a s a r e s u l t of the passage through a gas (whose initial temperature is 293K)
of shock waves moving at one of the following velocities: u = 1.0, 1.3, 1.6,
1.9, 2.2, 2.5, 2 . 8 k m / s e c .

TABLE 1. C 0 2 . Variant I

~.
293 I 17i0 2185 1 2690

- 1.75 1

k
5
.
Q
-
ha

- b"

0.7 1.84 7.2 4.23 1.03 1.33 1.29 1.00 .2? . .22 .04 - -
0.8 2.08 10.2 4.92 1.07 1.73 1.61 1.03 .41 . .43 .23 .00f 1.14
0.9 2.36 13.1 5.61 1.11 2.20 1.97 1.06 .85 .74 .51 .02 1.35
1.0 2.62 16.1 6.16 1.15 2.72 2 36 1.08 t28 1.09 .84 .04 1.66
1.1 2.93 19.6 6.69 1.19 3.31 2.77 1.11 .76 :.45 .19 .06 1.96
1.2 3.26 23.4 7.17 1.22 3.96 3.2t 1.14 .29 I. 83 .55 .07 2.30
1.3 3.60 27.5 7.65 1.26 4.67 3.65 1.17 .88 1.24 .93 .09 2.63
1.4 3.97 32.0 8.06 1.31) 5.42 4.11 1.20 .50 :.65 .33 .tt 2.98
1.5 4.35 36.8 8.46 1.33 6.16 4.59 1.22 .20 .I3 .74 .I3 3.25
1.6 4.75 42.0 8.85 1.37 7.14 5 06 1.23 -94 .63 .16 .I4 3.71
1.7 5.19 47.5 9.16 1.41 8.08 5.53 1.27 .70 1.02 .59 .I7 4.12
1.8 5.62 52.3 9.45 1.45 9.08 6.03 1.29 .54 1.54 .02 .18 4.56
1.9 6.04 59.2 9.81 1.49 10.1 6.48 1.31 '.43 i.11 .41 .20 4.93
2.0 6.42 65.820.2 1.52 11.2 6.97 1.34 .34 i.52 - .22 5.34
2.1 6.83 72.7 10.6 1.56 12.4 7.47 - - - - -
2.2 7.23 80.010.9 1.59 13.6 7.95 - - - - -
2.3 7.58 87.711.4 1.63 14.9 8.42 - - - - -
2.4 7.88 95.711.8 1.66 16.3 8.89 - - - - -
2.5 8.14 04 12.3 1.69 17.7 9.38 - - - - -
2.6 8.45 13 12.7 1.72 19.2 9.88 - - - - -
2.7 P.70 22 13.2 1.75 20.7 10.3 - - - - -
2.8 8.94 31.513.6 1.78 22.2 10.7 - - - - -
2.9 9.16 41 14.1 1.81 23.9 11.1 - - - - -
3.0 9.39 51 14.6 1.84 25.6 11.6 - - - - - -
- I
~ . .-

The tables give the ratios of the p r e s s u r e pa, the temperature Tb, and
the density pa behind the wave to the initial p r e s s u r e pin, t e m p e r a t u r e T,n,

34
and density P , ~ ,respectively, a s a function of the wave velocity u . The
initial p r e s s u r e and temperature a r e indicated for variant I. For variants
I1 and 11' only the initial t e m p e r a t u r e I",, is indicated, since in this c a s e
the specific enthalpy of the gas behind the wave i s a function of t e m p e r a t u r e
alone, and the given ratios depend only on the velocity of the shock and the
initial temperature. The calculations have an e r r o r of 1-2 70. The data
can be used for determining the gas p a r a m e t e r s behind reflected waves in
a shock tube, and behind waves at obstacles, when a hot gas flows past
them. These r e s u l t s were used t o determine the gas p a r a m e t e r s for shock
diffraction a t a wedge (Tables 1-4).

TABLE 2. CQ. Variant I1

T,,,O K

1390
__ -
51 TI;.
3 - 3
P
h a
a h
-P

(1.7 1.84 4.2 t .22 1.14 1.8: .02 1.77 - - - - - -

0.E 2.OR 4 . 9 1.31 1 .20 2.31 .07 2.14 1.07 1.59 1.04
1.30 1.0 1.11
0.9 2.36 5 . 6 1 . 4 c 1.26 2.8: .12 2.57 1.12 1.91 1.08 1.57 1.0, 1.34
I .(I 2.62 6. 1 I.5G 1.33 3.41 .I7 3.u3 1.1F 2.27 1.12
1.91 I.0I 1.61
1.1 2.93 6.6 1.61 1. 411 3.0: ,23 3 . 4 6 1.21 2.66 1.15 2.26 1.1' 1.90
1.2 3 26 7.1 1 . T 1.411 4 . 51 .?4 3.82 1.2G 3.10 1.20 2.61 1.1i 2.19
1 .:i 3.M' 7.G 1.8s 1.57 4.9: .36 4.38 1.31 3.511 1.24 2.95 1.1! 2.49
1 . 4 3.97 11.11 1.9e 1.M 5.41 .43 4.82 1.37 3.80 1.29 3.31 1.2: 2.82
1.5 4 35 8.4 ! . I 1 1.7fi 5.9 . 5 1 5.15 1.43 4.28 1.33 3.68 1.21 3.16
i.6 4.75 8.8 z.27 1.87 6.3f .59 5.67 1.49 4.6R 1.38 4.05 I 3 3.49
1.7 5.19 9.1 z . 4 4 1.98 6.7( .68 6.05 1.56 5.118 1.43 4.41 1.3: 3.81
1.8 5.55 9.5 Z.61 2.11 7.1: .77 6.46 1.63 5.45 1.40 4.76 1 n! 4.14
1.9 fi.(IU 9.8. t.78 1.24 7.4: .86 6.84 1.70 5.111 1.55 5.09 I.4L 4.47
2.0 6.50 10.1 L.96 2.37 7.N .96 7.19 1.78 6.16 1.62 5.43 1 . 4 : 4.79
2.1 7.00 10.3 - - - - - _ - - - -
2.2 7.50 10.6 - - - - - - - . - -
2.3 8.05 10.8 - - - - - _ - - - -
2.4 8.65 11.0 - - - - - -
2.5 9.25 11.2 - - - - - -
2.6 9.85 11.3 - - - - -
2.7
2.8
0.4
1.2
.3 IJ 2.6
3 . 3 4.9
3.fi 7.2
11.5
11.6
11.9
12.2
12.5


-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I:; -
-
-
-
-
3.8 3.0 12.7 -
-

2. THE EQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS

O F CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE TEMPERATURE
RANGE 1100-4500K FOR PRESSURES 0.1-13 a t m

The thermodynamics and composition of C 0 2 were calculated by the

method described in 141. The following reactions a r e assumed t o occur
in carbon dioxide at t e m p e r a t u r e s of the o r d e r of 1000--4000K:
co, 2 c f 20;
co t C + 0 ;
0 2 2 20.

35

TABLE 3. CQ, Variant I1

_- .-___- - .~
I __T , ..
..=
O

" 293 1900 2390

5 h" 0
-
0

1.0 - 1.11 1.75

1.1 - 1.16 2.05
1.2 - 1.20 2.35
1.3 - 1.25 2.69
1.4 - 1.30 3.00
1,5 - 1.35 3.33
1.6 - 1.40 3.65
1.7 - 1.46 3.95
1.8 - 1.53 4.25
1.59 4.55
1.66 4.83
- -
-
-
9.95 - -
10.1 - - -
- -
-
-
2.9 10.5 -
- -. ~~ ~-
..-_ . ___ ..

TABLE 4. N2. Variant I1

~

2810
u - 3_ _ - 1400 1800 !- -

2 h .5
,o
,Pc
< P
8
8 -
5 .a

1
5
- h
- a

0.7 - - 1.lf 1.501 - - - - -

0.8 - - 1.27 1.84 1.13 1.54 1.04 1.28 1.01 1.11 - -
0.9 - - 1.3E 2.11 1.23 1.68 1.11 1.45 1.04 1.24 - - -
1.0 2.52 3.75 1.49 2.49 1.33 1.97 1.16 1.73 1.10 1.35 1.04 1.21 -
1.1 2.82 4.09 1.62 2.81 1 40 2.33 1.24 1.97 1.16 1.59 1.08: 1.3: 1.03 1.19
1.2 3.1: 4.37 1.74 3.16 1.48 2.66 1.32 2.19 1.21 1.85 1.14 1.54 1.07 1.32
1.3 3.5 4.64 1.87 3.46 1.58 2.95 1.40 2.41 1.26 2.11 1.19 1.74 1.13 1.51
1.4 3.9 4.87 2.02 3.73 1.67 3.25 1.49 2.65 1.33 2.34 1.24 1.94 1.16 1.69
1.5 4.3 5.09 2.18 3.99 1.77 3.50 1.56 2.91 1.40 2.54 1.30 2.15 1.21 1.84
1.6 4.7 5.25 2.34 4.23 1.90 3.75 1.65 3.17 1.48 2.74 1.35 2.35 1.26 2.02
1.7 5.15 5.45 2.52 4.45 2.03 3.98 1.73 3.43 1.56 2.93 1.41 2.57 1.30 2.25
1.8 5.6 5.62 2.71 4.64 2.17 4.16 1.82 3.66 1.63 3 15 1.46 2.80 1.36 2.42
1.9 6.1 5.80 2.91 4.81 2.33 4.31 1.91 3.89 1.70 3.39 1.52 3.01 1.42 2.58
2.0 6.6 5.92 3.11 5.01 2.48 4.52 1.03 4.07 1.77 3.63 1.59 3.20 1.47 2.76
2.1 7.15 6.05 3.31 5.20 2.62 4.72 1.16 4.22 1.87 3.77 1.67 3.33 1.52 2.95
2.2 7.72 6.17 3.53 5.37 2.78 4.90 1.28 4.39 1.97 3.95 1.74 3.52 1.58 3.12
2.3 8.3 6.28 3.76 5.52 2.94 5.06 1.39 4.58 2.06 4.12 1.82 3.71 1.64 3.36
2.4 8.95 6.39 4.01 5.63 3.12 5.21 1.52 4.74 2.16 4.30 1.89 3.88 1.70 3.47
2.5 9.55 6.48 4.27 5.74 3.29 5.37 1.65 4.89 2.26 4.47 1.971 4.04 1.77 3.63
2.6 0.22 6.56 4.52 5.88 3.47 5.50 1.78 5.05 2.36 4.62 2.06 4.19 1.84 3.79
2.7 0.85 6.64 4.76 6.02 3.66 5.63 1.92 5.19 2.47 4.77 2.15 4.34 1.91 3.95
2.8 1.55 6.72 5.04 6.12 3.86 5.74 3.07 5.32 2.59 4.90 2.24 4.49 1.98 4.09
2.9 2.25 6.79 5.34 6.20 4.06 5.86 3.22 5.44 2.70 5.04 2.33 4.64 2.06 4.23
3.0 3.0 6.86 5.63 6.29 4.27 5.97 5.37 5.56 2.82 5.17 2.42 4.78 2.13 4.37
- _- - 1 -
A. I-

36

. .. . .

 The thermodynamic equations of the s y s t e m of gases a r e

X0Xc
-- KPCO
BCO - P '

where X designates the molar fraction of a component, and K, the equilibrium

constant of the c o r responding r e a c tion.
If the equilibrium constants K, a r e known, one can determine f r o m this
s y s t e m the gas composition a s a function of temperature and p r e s s u r e .
When the gas composition is known, its specific enthalpy h and molecular
weight p can be found in the f o r m

where H , is the molar enthalpy of the components; p,, is the molecular weight
of the components; n is the number of components.
Such calculations w e r e conducted for T = 1100-4500K with increments
of 200" and p r e s s u r e s of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 7, 9, 11, 1 3 atm.
Tables 5 - 11 give data for h, I.L,Xc0,, X C O ,XO,,X o , X c .
The numerical material of the tables is given in normalized form.
The enthalpy of the gas C 0 2 at To = 293.16"K was taken a s 43.485 cal/g.
The thermodynamic functions of the mixture components, given in / 6 /,
w e r e used t o calculate the composition and thermodynamic properties of
carbon dioxide.
The reference levels of the enthalpies of the components, and the values
of the dissociation energies of the main components, a r e given in Table 1 2 .
A comparison of the results obtained with those of 161, which allows for
a l a r g e number of possible reactions but gives values of the enthalpy for
temperature increments of lOOO", showed that the failure to allow for the
gas components figuring in very low concentrations is unimportant over
these temperature ranges. The discrepancy does not exceed 1 % . The
values of the enthalpies calculated in o u r case differ by 10-20 70 f r o m the
values obtained in / 6 / by linear interpolation, in particular over the
temperature range 2000- 3000K.

3. THE GAS STATE BEHIND AN ATTACHED SHOCK

AT A WEDGE AND THE ANGLE O F INCLINATION
O F THE ATTACHED SHOCK

Consider the interaction between a shock wave and a wedge (Figure 1).
Let the shock wave SA be incident on a wedge of apex angle a,, and let the
wave velocity be u,,. An attached shock wave ON is then formed.

37

 __
P. am
T. "K
-
0.1

I
0.5

1 A i A
2
T A
3
r
1
(
5
r ~

I 1
A , T I A P T
0.452
i.'a0.451 3 0.451
i3 l 0.520
0.451 3

1
1700 0.457 3 0.454 0.453 3 0.452 3 0.452 3 0.452 3
0.496 3 0.491 3 0.489 3 0.487 3 0.487 3 0.486 3 0 . 486 0.485 3 0.485 0.485 3

1800 3

0.524 3 0.522 3 0.521 0.521 3 0.520

1 :':9":
1900 0.542 3 11.531 3 0.527 3 0.525 3
2100 0.663 3 0.629 33 0.619 3 0.612 3 0.607 3 0.603 3 0 . GOO 0.599 3 3 I 0.597 3

2300 0.848 3 0.768 3 0.742 3 0.722 3 0.713 3 0.702 3 0.697 i /

3
0.693 3 3
3
0.687 3

0.800 3

2500 0.113 4 0.963 3 0.914 3 0.873 3 0.854 3 0.832 3 0.820 3 ' 0.811 3 0.805
0.151 4 0.124 4 0.115 4 0.108 4 0.104 4 0.100 4 0.980 3 0.965 3 0.953 3 0.944 3

2700 0.llS 4 0.114 4 0.113 4

0.134 4 0.129 4 0.122 4 0.119 4

2900
3100
3300
0.199
0.251
0.302
4
4
4
, 0.159
0.200
' 0.244
4
4
4
'
0.145
0.182
0.222
4
4
4
0.166
0.203
4
4
0.158
0.192
4
4
0.149
0.180
4
4
0.144
0.173
4
4
0.140
0.168
4
4
0.137
0.164
4
4
0.135 4

0.161 4

3500 0.345 4 , 0.289 4 0.264 4 0.241

281
4
4
0.229
0.266
4
4
0.214
0.250
4
4
0.205
0.239
4
4
0.199
0.232
4
4
0.194
0.226
4
4
0.190 4

0.222 4

3700 0.375 4 ' 0.330 4 0.306 4

0.393 4 0.364 4 (1,343 4 8:318 4 0.304 4 0.285 4 0.274 4 0.265 4 0.259 4 0.254 4

3900
4100 0.405 4 1 0.388 4 0.373 4 0.352
n.379
4
4
0.338
0.368
4
4
0.320
0.351
4
4
0.308
0.340
4
4
0.299
n mi
4
4
0.292
0.324
4
4
0.286 4

0.318 4
4300 0.414 4 0.405 4 n.395 4
0.422 4 0.417 4 0.411 4 0.400 4 0.392 4 0.378 4 0.368 4 0:360 0.353 4 0.347 4

W
 1700 ; 0.993 0 0.996 0 , 0.998 0 0.998 U n. w x 0 0.998 I) 0.999 [I,O.XI!I n
1800 0.986 0 0.992 0 0.995 0 ' n.995 0 [l.!197 0 0.997 0 0.997 0 0.9!17 0
lono 0.973 0 0.984 0 ' 0.990 n 0.991 0 0.903 0 0.994 0 ' 0.094 0 0.995
2100 0:jzi 0 0.953 0 0.9711 0 (1.974 n (I.9x0 0 ' 0.982 0 0.983 0 0.984 n
2300 0.815 0 0.886 0 0.927 0 0.Y3li 0 0.951 0 0.955 0 0.958 0 u.9tiu 1)
2500 0.649 0 0.773 0 U.S4!1 0 0.867 0 0. H98 0 0.905 0 0.911 0 0.916 0
2700 0.449 0 O.Gl7 0 0.734 0 0.7G3 II 0.814 0 0.827 0 ' 0.838 0 0.s45 n
2900
3100
0.266
0.138
0
0
0.442
0.283
n
11
0.58!1
n.435 0
I 0.(i'LS
11.470
11
II
0.7111
ll.%!I
0
0
0.721
0.594
0
0
0.736
0.613
0 11.748
iI U.UY!I
0
I1
3300 0.622 -1 0,164 o n.m 0 u 339 0 11.433 0 0.461 0 0.482 0 U.501 n
3500 0.265 -I 0.~7n 1) 0.187 0 0.224 11 n.xo 0 0.337 0 0.359 n 0.377 (1
n.xo 0 0.271 u

1
3700 0.112 -1 11.437 -1 0.111 0 0.139 U 0 0.234 0 0.254
3900 0.400 -2 0.214 -I (1.631 -1 11.827 0 (1.136 0.156 0 0.172 0 0.18U n
4100
4300
4500
0.227

1
0.112
0.587
-2
-2
-3
1 ll.10F
nso
(1.288
-1
-1
-2
,
I
0.,%0
0.193
0.108
-1
-1
0.477
u.271
-1 -. 1 0.155
--I
-1
-'i____
-1
0.855
11.524
0.318
1; 0.999 --I ' 0.112
0.626 -1
0.358
0.718 -I
u 0.124
~

0.801 -1
0.452 -1 10.511 -1
I1

- - ~

W
W

1700 0.225 -2 0.132 -2

1800 0.465 -2 0.273 -2
1900 0.886 -2 0.523 -2
2100 0.259 -1 0.156 --i
'L300 0.592 --1 (l.3iO -I
3500 0.107 0 0.719 --I
2700 0.154 0 0.116 IJ
2900 0.175 0 0.157 (I {~.l4l 0 0.124 0 ,
3100 0.157 0 0.177 11 ~l.lil 0 0.150 II
3300 0.111 0 11.168 (I 0.178 iJ 0.178 (I
3500 0.633 -I 0.135 o 0.159 o 0.175 (I
3700 0.320 -I n.w5 - I 0.1% IJ (1.152 11
3900 0.159 -11 11.55!1 -I O.,%-I ll.117 u
4100 0.741; -2 0.314 -I U.510 -1 U.X15 -1
4300 0.379 -2 11.173 -1 U.312 - 1 0.53; -1
~
4500 0.202 -2 I U.961 -2 0.181 -1
~ ~~
i 0.326 -I.
 -
T , 'IC 11. I 0.5 2 3 5

A r A r . A r1-A P I A r ( A r
1700
1800
0.451 -2
0.934 -2
0.123 -2
0.255 -2
0.110
0.228
-3
-2
I 0.102
0.210 -2 1 0.945 -3 10.894 -3
0.191; -2 0.18G -2
19ll(l 0.178 -1 0.489 -2 0.437 -2 0.402 -2 0.376 -2 ' 0.358 -2
2100 0.526 -1 0:314 -1 0.251 --2 0.200 -1 0.175 -1 0.148 -1 0.133 -1 0.122 -1 ' 0.114 -1 0.108 -1
2300 0.122 0 0.753 -1 0.607 --1 0.487 -1 0.428 -1 0.354 -1 0.3'26 -1 0.30.1 -I 0.282 -1 0.267 --I
2500 0.229 0 0.149 0 0.122 0 0.997 -1 0.88' -1 0.754 -1 0.679 -1 O.R'28 -1 0.590 -1 0,559 --1
2700 0.353 0 0.250 0 0.210 0 0.175 0 0.15ti 0 0.135 0 0.123 0 0.114 0 0.108 0 0.102 0
2900 0.455 0 0.357 0 0.312 0 0.268 0 0.243 0 0.214 0 0.196 0 0.lH3 0 0.174 0 0.1GG 0
3100 0.510 0 0.447 0 0.406 0 0.362 0 0.335 0 0.302 0 0.280 0 0.~5 0 0.253 0 0:~43 0
3300 0.5'24 0 0.502 0 ' 0.476 0 0.441 0 0.417 0 0.38li 0 0.3% 0 0.X7 0 0.334 0 0.323 0
3500
3700
0.519
0.510
3900 1 0.505
:'
0
0.524
0.524
0.517
0
0
0
0.514 n
0.5%
0.524 0
0
0.404
0.520
0.527
0
0
0
0.478
0.512
0.52G
0
0
0
0.453
0.407
0.520
0
n
0
0.43
0.484
0.514
0
u
0
0.410 o
0.473 0
0.507 0
0.407
0.464
0.501
u 0.396 I)
o 0.455 n
0 0.485 0
4100 0.503 0 0.510 0 0.517 0 0.523 0 0.526 0 0.527 0 0.53 0 0.524 0 0.521 0 0.518 0
4300 0.501 0 0.506 0 0.510 0 0.517 0 0.521 0 0.525 0 0.527 0 0.528 0 0.528 0 i 0.577 0
4500 0.501 0 0.503 0 0.506 0 0.511 0 0.515 0 0.520 0 0.523 0 0.525 0 0.527 0 0.527 0

P
0

- I A r I - r 1
A - A 1.1 A A r ) A r ! A r ) A 1.1 A I . ) A Y

1700
1800
1 0.GGG -5 I
0.261 -4
(1.28 -5
0.894 -5
I 0.144 -5
0.563 -5
I 0.906:
0.355 -5
-6 1
I
0.691 -6
0.2ii -5
0.492 -13
'
0.193 -5
I 0.393 -(i
0.154 -5
0.331. -8
0.131) -5
I 0.391 -6 I 0.2130-6
0.114 -5 0.102 -5
1900 0.882 -4 0.303 -4 u.ini -4 0.120 -4 0.920 -5 n.~55 -5 0.523 -5 0.443 -5 0.387 -5 0.348 -5
2100 0.703 -3 0.244 -3 0.15443 0.974-4 0.744-4 0.530-4 0.424-4 U.35!3--'t 0.614 -4 0.281 -4
2300 0.379 -2 0.134 -1 0.853 -3 0.541 -3 0.415 -3 ' 0.20(i -3 0.237 -3 0.2nl -3 0.lifi -3 0.158 -3
2500 0.149 -1 0.546 - 'J 0.351 -2 0.25 -2 0.173 --1! 0.124 -2 0.995 -3 0.844 - - 3 0.i40 -3 0.663 -3
2700 0.445 -1 0.173 -1 0.113 -1 0 734 -2 0.568 -2 0.412 -2 o.331 -Z 0.28: -2 0.248 _ ' I 0.2':! -2
2900 0.104 0 0.440 -1 0.300 -I 0.200 -1 0.154 -1 0.112 -1 O.!)lt -2 0.779 -2 0.G87 -2 O.ti18 -2
3100 0.196 0 0.932 -1 0.M8 -1 0.44'!-1 0.351 -1 0.2Iit - 1 0.213 -1 (1.183 -1 O.lli2 --I 0.t44T - 1
3300 0.302 0 0.16ti 0 0.121 n 0.855 -1 0.691 -1 0.523 -1 0.434 -1 0.9ili --Z 0.335 -1 0.304 -I
3500 0.391 0 0.254 0 0.195 n 0.145 0 0.120 0 0 . 9 2 ~ -1 0.781 -1 0.684 -1 n . w -1 0.560 -1
3700 0.446 0 0.339 n 0.258 0 0.217 n 0.184 0 0.148 n n.i2i; (I n.ii2 0 0.101 I 0.931 -1
3900 0.475 0 0.405 0 0.354 0 0.293 o 0.257 0 0.213 o 0.186 n o.iiii n 0.153 1 0.141 0
4100 0.488 0 0.448 0 0.411 0 0.360 n 0.326 0 0.281 o 0.250 n n.r2o 11 u . 2 ~ 1 0.198 0
4300 0.494 0 0.471 0 0.448 0 0.411 0 0.384 0 0.343 0 0.313 11 0.291 0 0.~73 1 0.258 n
45(M 0.497 0 0.484 01 0.470 n 0.446 0 0.425 o 0.393 0 I 0.368 u , o 347 0 O.:XIO 1 0.315 0
TABLE 11. XC=A.10'

T. 0.1 05 I 2 1 7 9 II 13
I 1

1700 0.488 -22 0.167 -22 0.105 -22 0.663 -23 0.506 -29 0.360 -23
1800 fl.186 -20 0.635 -21 n.c,iio -21 0.252 -21 0.193 -21 0.137 -21
1900 U.481 -19 0.165 -19 u. Ill4 -19 0.655 -20 0.500 -20 0.:35fi -20
2100 0.127 -19 11.436 -17 0.275 -17 0.174 -17 0.133 -I7 0.945 -18
2300 0.124 -14 0.434 -15 0.275 -15 0.174 -I5 0.133 -15 0.948 -16
2500 0.571 -1:3 0.203 -13 0.129 -I3 0.823 -14 0.631 -14 0.452 -14
2700 0.144 -11 0.526 -12 0.338 -12 0.217 -12 0.167 -12 0.120 -12
29nn 0.228 -IO 0.848 -11 u.551 -11 o.:m -11 0.276 -11 o.zno -11
3100 , 0.254 - 9 0.939 -10 0.614 -10 0.401 -10 0.312 -IO 0.227 -10
,3300 0.223 - 8 0.778 - 9 0.507 - 9 0.332 - 9 0.259 -9 fl.190 -9
3500 0.168 - 7 U.521 - 8 n.:m - 8 0.216 - 8 0.168 - 8 0.123 -8
3700 0.111 - 6 ii.:tun - 7 0.184-7 0.116 7 - 0.898 - 8 0.654 - 8
0.645 - 6 -7 -7
3900 0.155 - 6 11.898
0.399
-7
-6
-5
0.545 - 7
0.230 - 6
'
0.8Y5 - 6
' 0.414
0.171
0 645 -
-6
0.297
fl.119
0,437
-6
-6
0.162
0.604 - 5 0.322 - 5 1 0:226 -
6
SI n.148 -5

TABLE 12.

Dissociation Dissociation
energy at OX,
Component Reaction
1 energy at OX,
caymole 1
HT =O I' Component
I/ I
Reaction
1 cal/mole
HT = 11

+ 2c 2
+ co f ;02 3 0
(:2 --cz 0 143170
--CUI 66767 0
u - - 58986
--co + c + 0 2 0 255790 66767 c - - 263571
-02 + 20 2 0 117973 0
 Designate by P , u. p . T,p, h the density, velocity, p r e s s u r e , temperature,
molecular weight, and specific enthalpy of the gas.
The subscripts 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 r e f e r respectively to the g a s s t a t e ahead
of the incident wave, behind the incident shock wave, behind the reflected
wave, behind the Mach wave, ahead of the Mach wave (this s t a t e coincides
with s t a t e 0), and behind the attached wave.

FIGURE 1. Diffraction pattern of a shock wave on a wedge.

Consider a coordinate f r a m e linked with the wedge. The attached wave

ON is immobile in this frame. The gas flows into the wave at an angle ~5
and is deflected through an angle Is equal to the wedge angle a,.
It follows f r o m the continuity equation that

First the gas p a r a m e t e r s in region 1 a r e determined f r o m the velocity

of the incident wave (cf. Figure 1, Tables 1-4), i, e., we obtain the g a s
veldcity ui in the coordinate f r a m e linked with the wedge, and the density pl.
We then specify s o m e angle 'ps of the attached wave; the normal component
of the flow incident on the attached wave is then

u,,, = u, sin (ps.

In the coordinate f r a m e linked with the gas particles in region 1 it is the

shock wave which will move at this velocity u,:, The p a r a m e t e r s behind it
a r e determined f r o m Tables 1-4. Substituting the values obtained in the
continuity equation, we obtain O5 = a5. Tables 13- 1 6 give the values thus
obtained for the angle (p5 of the attached wave at the wedge and the p r e s s u r e
and t e m p e r a t u r e behind the wave, p 5 and T5, a s a function of the wedge angle.
The p r e s s u r e and temperature in the gas s t r e a m impinging on the wedge
and the velocity of the incident shock wave a r e given.
The l a s t line gives the "limiting" values of the parameters, which a r e
determined with a lower accuracy than the other p a r a m e t e r s . The t e r m
"limiting" implies the flow conditions under which the attached shock
becomes detached. It is seen f r o m the calculations that the physicochemical
transformations s o m e t i m e s substantially a l t e r the pattern of the gas-dynamic

42

.. . . ~.
..... .. .. . .. ..
 TABLE 13. C02. Variant I

1770 20"06' 1.22 2nno 17"54' 1.76 2385 16"54' 2.22 2620
1830 23 06 1.63 2120 21 24 2.50 2450 20 06 3.12 2680
1890 26 48 2.18 2150 25 00 3.34 2520 23 48 4.22 2750
1970 31 00 2.86 2201) 28 48 4.32 2590 27 36 5.72 2830
2050 35 18 3.60 2270 33 24 5.60 2660 32 12 7.40 2910
2120 40 18 4.53 2340 38 00 7.04 2720 37 00 9.40 2990
2210 45 36 5.60 2420 43 00 8.60 2800 41 48 11.65 3070
35 00 54 12 5.26 2285 51 36 , 6.72 2490 48 48 10.5 2880 47 24 14.2 3150
'
40
41
44
00
30
00
58 24
41 48
-
j 6.40
7.10
-
2370

1
55 36

70 i
7.94
-
9.7 i
2570

1
52 24
-
- I
12.45
-
-
I -
1
2970

-
-
Id-
-

e
TABLE 14. C q . Variant I1

uo, kmlsec
1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8

O"O0' 21%' 0.71 1390 20"30' 0.98 1780 20"30' 1.33 19"48' 1.72 2730
5 00 25 00 O.YR 1420 25 00 1.30 1850 24 06 1.82 23 06 2.37 28511
10 00 28 36 1.24 1450 29 00 1.72 imn 27 48 2.44 27 00 3.m 29x0
15 on 33 00 1.54 1480 33 on 2.24 2025 31 48 3.14 31 12 4.20 3125
20 00 37 48 1.90 1540 37 42 2.86 21'0 36 24 4.00 35 48 5.40 3175
25 on 43 12 2.36 1610 42 48 3.55 zin 41 36 5.05 41 00 6.80 3430
30 00 49 06 2.86 1690 48 30 4.36 2320 47 00 6.20 46 18 8.33 3620
35 00 1 56 30 3.50 1790 55 48 5.35 2470 , 53 36 7.44 52 48 10.1 3830
9.20 1 61 00 1 12.3 4080
 1
~ ~

0"OO 22"48'
1
11.99
I
1900 1 22"Ofl 1.34 2390 'Y"12' 1.74
I 2970
5 00 26 24 1.34 1990 1 25 12 1.80 2480 24 36 2 . :14 3110
10 00 3n 12 1.72 2080 29 00 2.:x 2610 28 34 3.10 3260
25 00 34 I? 3.20 2170 33 15 3.1111 2740 33 30 4 . IJ2 3420
20 00 38 48 2.76 2260 38 00 3.82 2890 37 00 5.ill xno
25 01) 44 12 :3.47 2.380 43 12 4.84 3040 42 30 6.4 3800
30 00 50 36 4.30 2500 411 34 6.00 3215 48 24 7.8R 4040
35 00 58 4 R 5.26 2680 57 on 7.28 3445 55 42 9.60 4300
37 18 68 00 6.10 2840 - - - - - -
38 06 - - - 67 I2 8.80 3680 - - -

TABLE 16. N2. Variarit I1

-
I %. km/sec

0,
I 13 I 16

Ta." I i
__
10"OO 3140
15 00 3350
20 00 JSRO
25 00 3930
19 no - - - 65 00 1.311 -
22 12 -
24 36 -
25 36 4010
process. Thus, for avelocity ofthe incident shockwave equalto 1.9- l o 5 m / s e c
(Figure Z), the change in the specific-heat r a t i o y caused by exciting the
vibrational levels of the C 0 2 molecules causes the shock at the wedge apex
t o remain attached up t o wedge angles a. = Ib= 41"31'.

FIGURE 2. Angle of the attached wave as a

function of the wedge angle a. = Bo for dif
fraction of a shock wave a t the wedgc:
Gas C q , ~ , = 1 . 9 . 1 0 ~ m / s e c . Curves I, 11,
11' were calculated for the corresponding
variants. and curve 111 for an ideal gas y =
= 1.4.

TABLE 17. CO,. Variant I

110

91'12' 2.085 9. :1 I lli"4X'

91 48 2005 2.97 22 110
92 30 19411 2.05 25511 2.70 27 30
50 , --I? 48 93 14 1900 1.74 2380 2.49 32 18
55 I -12 42 94 :m 1 860 1.51 2240 2.33 37 48
GO I -10 (111 95 54 1831) 1 .:33 2110 2.19 42 42
65 I -4 30 98 12 1805 1 .2O5 1980 2.08 48 24

45"
50
, -13"36'
-14 96
92"24'
93 OG
2170
2130
2.50
2. I15
2730
2570
2.97
2.74
28'18'
33 06
55 -14 36 94 12 2100 1.83 2440 2.56 38 30
GO -12 42 95 90 2070 1.64 2320 2.41 43 30
65 -6 42 97 18 2050 1.48 2220 2.30 48 06

50" -18"30' 92-54 2500 3.00 2930

55 -19 00 93 54 2460 2.63 2780
60 -17 30 94 54 2450 2.33 2670
65 -13 54 96 36 2425 2.12 2580

45
4. THE TRIPLE CONFIGURATION USING
SHOCK POLARS

The s y s t e m of waves in the neighborhood of a t r i p l e point was calculated

using shock polars 181.
Consider a coordinate f r a m e linked t o the t r i p l e point (cf. Figure 1). In
such a f r a m e the gas flows into the incident wave with velocity u,lsin ol, at
an angle cpo = ol. During its transition through the incident wave the flow is
deflected through an angle 8,. This angle is determined f r o m the continuity
equation

The g a s velocity behind the shock wave S A in the coordinate f r a m e linked

with the t r i p l e point is

where ti, is the gas velocity in the coordinate f r a m e linked with the incident
wave.
Construct the shock polar for the reflected wave in ( p . e) coordinates.
Let the reflected wave l i e a t an angle q1 t o the flow incident with velocity
6,; the normal component of the flow velocity will then be u,,, = El sin cp.
The value of p z behind the reflected wave i s determined from Tables 1-4
and 9 2 f r o m the continuity equation.
F o r different (p, a number of values of El" can be derived for correspond
ing e2. and p z , i. e., the shock polar in the p-8 plane. Construct now the
shock polar for the Mach wave. If the Mach wave l i e s a t an angle (p4 to the
incident flow, the normal velocity component t o the Mach wave w i l l be
U M = uo (sin cp4/sinq).
By assuming different values for uMr one can construct the shock polar
for the Mach wave in ( p , 8 ) coordinates, using Tables 1-4 and the continuity
equation.
In o r d e r t o find the required solution the compatibility condition must
be fulfilled, namely, equality of the p r e s s u r e s and parallelism of the flows
in regions 2 and 3; p z = p 3 and O3 = el- O2.
These conditions a r e fulfilled at the intersection point of the shock
polars f o r the reflected wave and the Mach wave.
The intersection point of the polars yields the required values of and
U1n.
All the angles of the Mach configuration a r e determined f r o m the
e x p r e s s ions
-
sin (p3 = "In, Oz=~z-el,
u1

sin (p4 = 5
uo
sin ml, 0 3 = qa.

Tables 17-20 give the r e s u l t s obtained using this method, and a l s o the
values of the gas-dynamic p a r a m e t e r s and the angles between the shock
waves forming the t r i p l e configuration a s a function of the velocity of the
incident wave.

46

TABLE 18. CQ. Variant I1

uo = 1.0 km/sec T1=767' K P1=0.27 aim

30" 2054' 90"48' 1000 1.09 1920 2.00 6"54
35 1 00 91 30 945 0.83 1560 1.74 11 54
40 -0 48 92 24 905 0.66 1340 1.55 17 06
45 -0 48 93 18 870 0.54 1180 1.41 21 54
50 -0 24 94 30 845 0.46 1060 1.30 26 30
55 1 06 95 54 830 0.40 970 1.21 30 54
60 8 12 97 12 820 0.36 900 1.14 35 18
65 24 12 99 48 810 0.32 850 1.09 39 00

P I = 0.46 atm

30" -foil' 91"06' 1360 1.86 3360 2.60 9030'

35 -3 46 91 36 1290 1.41 2350 2.26 15 06
40 -4 44 92 24 1235 1.12 1950 2.02 20 00
45 -6 33 93 24 1200 0.92 1690 1.83 25 42
50 -6 08 94 24 115n 0.78 1500 1.69 30 24
55 -5 24 95 48 1120 n.68 1370 1.58 35 54
60 -1 47 97 43 I095 0.61 1270 1.48 41 no
65 1 40 loo 00 1090 0.55 11x0 1.41 45 06

PI 0.706 atm

30" -4036' 91"Oo' 2280 4.03 5560 3.80 11"54'

35 -7 24 91 36 2150 3.U6 4380 3.30 I7 12
40 -10 06 92 18 2050 2.41 3600 2.95 22 42
45 -12 00 92 00 1980 1.98 3060 2.68 28 OR
50 -t2 48 93 5'1 1920 l.6X 2690 2.47 33 12
55 -12 30 95 no 1870 1.47 2420 2.31 38 18
60 -10 00 96 18 1840 1.30 2210 2.18 43 on
65 -4 30 98 24 1820 1.17 2030 2.07 48 12

uo 2.2 !un/sec P I = 0.98 aim

35" -8"42' 91"38' 26fin 4.12 3.83 17048'

40 -tl 30 92 12 2540 3.28 3.42 23 18
45 -13 36 92 54 2471, 2.65 3.11 28 54
50 -14 42 93 48 2400 2.27 2.86 34 3G
55 -15 00 94 54 2340 1.97 2.67 39 54
60 -12 54 96 18 2300 1.75 2.52 44 48
65 -8 30 98 06 2260 1 .59 2.40 49 24

uo = 2.5 !un/sec T I = 2220 "K PI = 1.33 aim

40" -12"06' 92"12' 3110 58(10 4.24 3.89 23048'

45 -14 12 92 54 3030 4880 3.5@ 3.53 28 54
50 -15 48 93 48 2935 4269 2.92 3.26 34 42
55 -15 48 94 30 2880 3770 2.55 3.04 39 42
60 -14 12 95 48 2835 3440 2.28 2.87 44 42
65 -9 42 97 54 2790 3165 2.m 2.73 50 24

47
TABLE 19. Cq. Variant I1

uo = 1 . 9 !un/sec TI 1900" K
40" -8"36 92"24' 2220 2.40 3970 2.95 21'42'
45 -11 00 93 18 2125 1.97 3340 2.68 27 30

1
50 -12 I 8 94 18 2055 1.67 2900 2.47 32 54
55 -12 18 95 36 2010 1.46 2590 2.31 38 24
60 -10 00 97 06 1975 1.30 2360 2.18 43 30
65 4 30 99 12 1950 1.17 2170 2.07 47 54
2 km/sec TI= 2390' K
94012' 33042'
95 24 38 48
96 48 2.52 43 42
98 54 2770 2.40 48 36
u1 = 2.5 !un/sec Ti = 2965" K
60"
65 1 -11"12'
-6 06 1 96"4?'
98 42 [ 3090
3030 1 2.26
2.05 I 3760
3440 1 2.87
2.73
44024'
49 18

30" 9054 90"36 1560 3000 2.60

35 8 30 91 36 1415 2380 2.26
45 8 12 94 12 1230 1707 1 83
50 10 12 05 30 1190 1500 1.69
55 14 12 97 48 1142 1344 1.51
60 24 12 100 54 1110 1230 1.48
65 44 54 108 54 1050 1100 1.36

30" 7"06 90"54' 2110 4240 3.20

35 5 06 91 54 1910 3360 2.79
40 4 00 93 00 1745 2790 2.48
45 3 42 94 24 1630 2360 2.26
50 4 36 95 54 1560 2080 2.08
55 7 06 07 54 1495 1850 1.93
60 13 42 100 24 1460 1680 1.82

35" 2"24' 92"Oo' 2390 4500 1.82 3.31

40 1 36 93 06 2240 3680 1.445 2.95
45 1 24 94 18 2135 3140 1.20 2.68
50 2 06 95 54 2035 2740 1.01 2.47
55 4 18 95 48 1965 2440 0.87 2.30
60 7 12 I 0 0 12 1900 2220 0.77 2.16
65 17 18 103 30 1835 2020 0.685 2.04

T I= 2270" K p1=0.80 arm

40" -0YT 93"06' 2830 4720 1.94 3.42
45 -0 36 94 18 2680 4080 1.60 3.10
50 0 00 95 36 2580 3500 2.14 2.86
55 2 12 97 18 2440 3120 1.18 2.66
60 6 48 99 36 2380 2800 1.04 2.50

50" 3.25
55 3.03
60 2.85
 40 50 60 70
UP
FIGURE 3. The reflection angle mt vs.
the incidence angle 0,:
1-ideal gas Y = 1.4; 2-unexcited asym
metric vibrations of the molecules and no
dissociation; 3,4-the curves overlap, the
vibrations are excited, there is no dissocia
tion, and complete equilibrium.

The r e s u l t s shown in Figure 3 indicate that under certain conditions the

angle o, becomes negative, i. e., the reflected wave is situated lower than
the motion t r a j e c t o r y of the t r i p l e point. Under t h e s e conditions the
appearance of a double Mach configuration becomes unavoidable.

Bibliography

1. G v o z d e v a , L . G . and O . A . P r e d v o d i t e l e v a . Eksperimental'noe
issledovanie makhovskogo otrazheniya udarnykh voln p r i s k o r o s t i
1000-3000 m / s e k v uglekislom gaze, azote i vozdukhe (Experi
mental Study of the Mach Reflection of Shock Waves at Velocities
of 1000-3000 m / s e c in Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen, and Air).-
Doklady AN SSSR, Vol. 163, NO. 5. 1965.
2. G v o z d e v a , L.G. and O . A . P r e d v o d i t e l e v a . Osobennosti
makhovskogo otrazheniya udarnykh voln, dvizhushchikhsya v
uglekislom gaze s o skorostyami poryadka 2000 m / s e k (Special
F e a t u r e s of the Mach Reflection of Shock Waves Propagating in
Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen at Velocities of the O r d e r of
2000 m/sec).-Sbornik "Issledovaniya PO fizicheskoi gazo
dinamike, Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. 1966.
3. Z e 1 d o v i c h, Ya. B. and Yu. P. R a i z e r. Fizika udarnykh voln i
vysokotemperaturnykh gidrodinamicheskikh yavlenii (Physics
of Shock Waves and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Pheno
mena). - Moskva, Fizmatgiz. 1963.

49

4. R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i , I.B. Termodinamicheskie i gazodinamicheskie

svoistva potoka vozdukha z a pryamym skachkom uplotneniya s
uchetom d i s s o t s i a t s i i i ionizatsii vozdukha (Thermodynamic and
Gas-Dynamic P r o p e r t i e s of the Air Flow behind a Normal
Compression Shock Allowing f o r t h e Dissociation and Ionization
of t h e A i r ) . -Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i teploobmen':
Moslwa, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1959.
5. B a z h e n o v a , T . V . and 0 . A . P r e d v o d i t e l e v a . Znacheniya
p a r a m e t r o v vosdukha z a pryamym skachkom uplotneniya i za
otrazhennoi udarnoi volnoi p r i ravnovesnoi i zamorozhennoi
d i s s o s i a t s i i (Values of the A i r P a r a m e t e r s behind a Normal
Compression Shock and Behind a Reflected Shock Wave at
Equilibrium and F r o z e n Dissociation). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya
gazodinamika i teploobmen, ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR.
1959.
6. Gu r v i c h, L. V. et al. Termicheskie svoistva individual'nykh
veshchestv ( T h e r m a l P r o p e r t i e s of Individual Substances).
Vol. 11.-Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
7. N a b o k 0, I. M. Issledovanie sostoyaniya gaza z a udarnoi volnoi PO
obtekaniyu prepyatstviya, pomeshchennogo v udarnuyu trubu
(Study of the Gas State behind a Shock Wave f r o m t h e Flow P a s t
an Obstacle in a Shock Tube).-Sbornik "Issledovaniya PO
fizicheskoi gazodinamike", Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1965.
.
8. C o u r a n t , R. and K. F r i e d r i c h s Supersonic Flow and Shock
Waves.-Interscience P u b l i s h e r s , New York. 1948.

50
G . N . Nikolaev, V .P . Popov

NONEQUILIBRIUM EXPANSION OF AIR IN

SUPERSONIC NOZZLES

A basic difficulty exists when simulating the conditions of hypersonic

flow in wind tunnels with a high a i r stagnation temperature. At high
t e m p e r a t u r e s , a i r r e p r e s e n t s a mixture of products of dissociation of
oxygen and nitrogen and a certain amount of nitric oxide NO (not taking into
account admixtures of argon, carbon, dioxide, etc.). In addition t o cooling
of the gas and a d e c r e a s e in its density, physicochemical p r o c e s s e s take place
in the c o u r s e ofthe expansion, e. g., recombination of atomic components,
reactions withthe participation of NO, deactivation ofthe vibrational degrees
of freedom of the molecules. These p r o c e s s e s occur at a finite velocity, and it
has been shown /1,2 1that for very rapid expansions in nozzles the degree of
t h e i r completion may not correspond t o t h e local values of the gas temperature
and p r e s s u r e . The gas s t a t e will be characterized bynonequilibriumvalues
ofthe component concentrations. The main effect of this type is t o f r e e z e the
oxygendissociationlevels,a s a result of which the other t h e r m o - and gas-
dynamic flow p a r a m e t e r s ( p r e s s u r e , temperature, flow and sound velocities)
differ f r o m the conditions of equilibrium expansion.
Since calculations of these phenomena a r e based on the r a t e constants of
the chemical reactions, whose values a r e unreliable, it is important t o
study experimentally a i r expansion in nozzles.
The first published data showed that 131, according t o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
measurements, the a i r flow in supersonic nozzles is not in equilibrium
under certain conditions.
In this paper the Mach number (the p a r a m e t e r sensitive t o nonequilibrium
effects) is determined f r o m the angle of inclination of the weak disturbance
propagating in the supersonic flow. This method is considerably s i m p l e r ,
since the manufacture and assembly of p r e s s u r e gages is v e r y complicated.
The disturbances a r e recorded optically, which enables nozzles of s m a l l
dimensions t o be used.
The values of the static p r e s s u r e derived f r o m experimental data on the
Mach numbers a g r e e qualitatively with the r e s u l t s in / 3 / and the recently
published paper 171, in which the static p r e s s u r e of the a i r flow in nozzles
was measured, and r e s u l t s based on a m o r e accurate theoretical analysis
of the p r o c e s s w e r e given.

1. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The supersonic expansion of the a i r was studied by means of an i n t e r

mittent laboratory wind tunnel, combining in its design a shock tube and a

51

I.. ...~~ ,111 , .. .-. ,. ., .. ,... . , .. .

 supersonic nozzle. The shock wave was reflected f r o m a wall w i t h a s m a l l
orifice (occupying in a r e a 3 % of the total c r o s s section of the shock-tube
channel). The region behind the reflected shock s e r v e d a s an a i r r e s e r v o i r ,
heated t o a high temperature. The apparatus and method of study a r e
described in 15, 6 1 . The s t a t e of the gas at the nozzle exit was determined
by the Mach number of the flow,
which in t u r n was found f r o m the
angle of inclination of the weak
disturbance at a wedge located n e a r
the nozzle exit such that one of its
edges was parallel to the plane of
s y m m e t r y o f t h e flow. The Machangle
was determined f r o m photographs
(taken with an exposure of the o r d e r of
3psec) of the flow pattern past the
FIGURE 1. Mounting of the axisymmetrical nozzle
wedge, visualized by Topler's method
and the model a t the end of the shock tube.
(Apparatus IAB-451).
The low-pressure chamber of
the shock tube was separated f r o m the nozzle by an additional thin diagram,
burst by the oncoming shock wave. This diaphragm ensured the creation
inside both the nozzle and p r e s s u r e chamber of a sufficient rarefaction,
independent of the initial p r e s s u r e in the shock tube. As a result nozzles
with a high degree of expansion of the flow could be used, independently of
the p r e s s u r e developed behind the reflected shock waves. Such a nozzle
set-up attached t o a shock tube is now widely used 17, 8, 9, 41. Figure 1
shows the nozzle mounting at the end of the shock tube and the location of
the diaphragm; the wedge was fastened on holders directly t o the nozzle
and was not connected to the p r e s s u r e chamber. The l a t t e r was connected
t o the shock tube through a rubber sealing ring with the aid of a sleeve.

FIGURE 2. Exterior of the nozzle with model, set up at the

end of the shock tube.

Figure 2 shows a nozzle with a wedge in its working position at the end
of the shock tube (the p r e s s u r e chamber is removed). Figure 3 depicts the
working section of the apparatus in assembled form.
The nozzles were axisymmetrical, the cross-sectional radius along the
axis obeying the hyperbolic law
ra = r2cr + (GIn) 9 9

52

-
. ...... ..-.
..... __ ... -. .. ..
where z is t h e distance f r o m the c r i t i c a l section; r is t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
radius corresponding t o the coordinate x ; K N = f i t g 6 ; 6 is the half-angle
of t h e asymptotic cone of t h e unparted hyperboloid of revolution r e p r e s e n t e d
by the nozzle in its supersonic p a r t .

. --

FIGURE 3. Working section of an intermittent wind tunnel.

The nozzle and model are inside a pressure chamber,
vacuum-sealed tightly to the shock tube.

Table 1 gives the geometrical dimensions of the nozzles.

TABLE 1.

1i
- -

Cross-sectional Cross-sectional
Distance from Distance from
Nozzle expan- diameter, m m Nozzle expan- diameter, m m
throat to exit,
I -~ throat to exit,
sion ratio

8.1
26.6
t

10.15
h

I ",::1
r o ~ ~ m~m l

80
135
1 sion ratio

.55:: 1 throat

10.31
5.67
exit

76.0
44.7
mm

200
125

The full angle of the asymptotic cone was 20" in a l l cases.

2. EXPERIMENTAL DATA

A study was made of the efflux f r o m a supersonic nozzle of a i r heated

by a reflected shock wave. The gas s t a t e behind t h e reflected wave was
calculated with the aid of tables of thermodynamic functions of air / l o /
based on the conservation l a w s on the shock wave, using the m e a s u r e d
initial g a s p a r a m e t e r s ( p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e ) in a l o w - p r e s s u r e
chamber and t h e velocity of t h e traveling shock wave. A r e g i m e of flow
was c r e a t e d such that in the region behind t h e reflected wave the air
t e m p e r a t u r e was T, = 5700K and the p r e s s u r e P,= 1 2 atm, which w a s
achieved for a t e m p e r a t u r e of 290K and a p r e s s u r e of 8 m m m e r c u r y in
the l o w - p r e s s u r e chamber, and a velocity of 3 2 0 0 m / s e c f o r t h e traveling
shock wave. The following chemical composition (in molar f r a c t i o n s )
corresponded t o t h e a i r p a r a m e t e r s behind the reflected wave: XO.= 0.005;
X N , =0.616; XNo=0.036; X A ~~ 0 . 0 0 8 ; X0=0.302; XN ~ 0 . 0 3 2 . The flow

53

Mach number a t the nozzle exit w a s determined by the method described

above.
In o r d e r t o assign the measured value of M t o s o m e specific c r o s s
section of t h e flow it is insufficient t o know j u s t the r a t i o of the nozzle
a r e a s a t the exit and t h r o a t [the expansion ratio]. The displacement thick
n e s s of t h e boundary layer was estimated (under the assumption of
equilibrium flow) with t h e aid of relationships given in 111, 121. The
calculation made u s e of the effective g a s enthalpy in t h e boundary layer
113, 141.
The variation of M h a s been plotted in Figure 4 f a r t h r e e different
nozzles, whose geometries are given in Table 1.
A complete analysis of the e r r o r s in the determination of M is given in
161. The corresponding corrections due t o the boundary layer have been
taken into account when marking the points on the graph.
The experimental and theoretical values of the Mach number w e r e
compared by plotting curves corresponding t o various assumptions about
the types of chemical transformations
in the a i r flow inside the nozzle. All
the curves were calculated t o a one-
dimensional approximation, which is
quite common for studies of expanding
flows in nozzles; the r e s u l t s coincide
satisfactorily both with experimental
data 14, 7, 8, 151 and with m o r e
accurate calculations. The Mach
number M was calculated a s a function
of the dimensionless nozzle a r e a f o r
an equilibrium a i r expansion, t h e
initial s t a t e being a t e m p e r a t u r e of
6670K and a p r e s s u r e of 82 atm. The
I l0 "'
FIGURE 4. hlach number of the air flow as a
A r e s u l t s of this calculation w e r e
compared with data obtained in 1 2 1 by
function of the dimcnsionless nozzle area: the method of finite differences f o r a
Stagnation temperarurc 5700K i n the reservoir; nozzle of c r o s s -sectional radius along
stagnation pressure 12 a m . the axis obeying a hyperbolic law, and
a total angle of the asymptotic cone
equal t o 12"40' f o r the s a m e initial
conditions. The values of M obtained by both methods did not differ by m o r e
than 6 yo, which in our opinion justifies the u s e of the one-dimensional model.
The quantities M in Figure 4 were obtained by dividing the flow velocity
by the frozen sound velocity, following the theoretical concepts about t h e
propagation of disturbances in reactive media 116-201, which have a l s o
been corroborated experimentally 121, 22 1. According t o t h e s e concepts,
t h e slope of the Mach line is determined in s o m e neighborhood of the s o u r c e
of weak disturbances in a supersonic flow by the velocity of the acoustic
waves; translational and rotational degrees of freedom of the molecules a r e
excited, while the g a s does not undergo either vibrational excitations or
any variation in i t s chemical composition.
Curve 1 in Figure 4 corresponds t o the assumption of full thermodynamic
equilibrium in t h e gas flow, i. e., infinite r a t e of the chemical reactions.
Curve 2 a s s u m e s complete freezing of the composition, i. e., that the
chemical reactions of formation of the molecules O2 and N, and dissociation

54

.. I
of NO cannot be completed by the time the g a s has flowed through the nozzle.
It was assumed in the calculations that the vibrational degrees of freedom
a r e permanently half-excited (the Lighthill model) / 2 3 / .
The experimental data presented in Figure 4 implies that the s t a t e of the
g a s flowing out of the nozzle not only differs noticeably f r o m the equilibrium
state, but does not correspond t o the conditions of frozen flow. Such a
p r o c e s s of nonequilibrium gas expansion, in which physicochemical
transformations proceed a t a finite r a t e , is described by a s y s t e m of
equations including the kinetic equations of the chemical reactions 11, 8 1 .
The calculations involved a r e very cumbersome and the data on the reaction
r a t e s is unreliable; an attempt has therefore been made t o simplify the
description of the given process.
The simplification reduces basically t o the following:
1 ) if the temperature is not too high, only one chemical reaction i s
important f r o m the point of view of the energy balance, namely, the
recombination of the atomic oxygen through t r i p l e collisions (the amount of
atomic nitrogen and NO is negligible);
2 ) the nonequilibrium effects a r e only connected with the recombination
of oxygen. A s t o the vibrational degrees of freedom, they a r e either in
equilibrium with t h e translational and rotational degrees of freedom or a r e
considered permanently half excited ;
3 ) by analogy with the r e s u l t s /8, 24-27 / for simple diatomic dissociating
g a s e s , the instantaneous freezing model of oxygen recombination is
considered sufficiently close t o the r e a l p r o c e s s . The possibilities and
conditions of application of the instantaneous freezing model of one reaction
t o the processes taking place in gaseous mixtures, and in p a r t i c u l a r in a i r ,
a r e examined in detail in 1 2 5 , 2 8 1 .
F o r temperatures up to 6000" a i r approximately s a t i s f i e s the above-
described model of physicochemical transformations at rapid expansions.
It is possible in t h i s c a s e t o calculate the variation in the p a r a m e t e r s of
the a i r expanding in the supersonic nozzle, assuming a n overall equilibrium
flow up to s o m e section of the nozzle, a f t e r which the flow proceeds
independently of any energy variation due t o the chemical activity of the
components.
The r e s u l t s of calculating the Mach numbers M by this approximate
method a r e shown in Figure 4 (curves 3, 4, 5 ) . They correspond t o the
interruption of the oxygen recombination, originating a t a section of
dimensionless a r e a 2 . 7 , 5.4, and 8.3.
A comparison of the obtained experimental data with these curves leads
t o the conclusion that a s h a r p slowing down of the oxygen recombination
occurs a t the nozzle section of a r e a equal t o 3-7 t i m e s the throat a r e a .
In our opinion the best representation of the experimental r e s u l t s is curve 4.

3. DISCUSSION O F THE RESULTS

Despite the wide s c a t t e r of the r e s u l t s , an attempt was made t o compare

them with the data of other experimental studies dealing with the nonequilib
r i u m expansion of a i r . The distribution of the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e w a s calculated
during the expansion of a i r f r o m the s a m e initial conditions, f o r equilibrium
u p t o the section of dimensionless a r e a A = 5.4, and then according t o the

55
 middle curve of Figure 4, corresponding t o the instantaneous freezing
model of the phys ic oc he mica1 t r a n s formations .
Table 2 presents the measured values of the static piessure given in
the published papers, together withthe calculated values for a nonequilibrium
flow based on measurements of the Mach number M. The expansion ratio,
relative t o which all the data of Table 2 r e f e r , has been s o selected a s t o
enable a comparison t o be made with the r e s u l t s of 131. Under t h e a i r
efflux conditions created by u s and the expansion r a t i o selected for
comparison, the p r e s s u r e t u r n s out t o be lower than the equilibrium
p r e s s u r e by a factor of 2 - 2 . 5 (in the c a s e of complete freezing it is lower
than the equilibrium p r e s s u r e by almost a factor of 4). With due allowance
f o r the inaccuracy in determining the freezing section from tlie data on RI,
our result can h e considered a s agreeing satisfactorily with that in 1 3 1 .
The computed data of 1 3 , 4 / , given in Table 3, have been measured f r o m
the curves given in these papers, and therefore the third figure in the
values given i s only tentative. The experimental values have an e r r o r of
the o r d e r of k 1 0 70. The values of the p r e s s u r e derived from measurements
of the Mach number 14 a r e less reliable, since the instantaneous freezing
section is determined with a considerable e r r o r . Thus, foi. freezing in the
section a t which A = 2.72, the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e in the section corresponding
t o A = 144 will be 30 % lower than the value indicated in Table 2 : nevetheless
the result a g r e e s well with the values obtained by direct measurements of
the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e .

TABLF 2 .

ior a fruzcii
To. R P,. atiii che iiiical
for c qu i I i br i ui i
sourct of thechpcriiiiciiral colilposlrloil
expa inion ixpc riimtiit
results from tlit start
(calculation)
of thc cxpaiision
(calcul~lt~o~iJ

701111 17 4.uo 2.26 Papcr /4/ 1.37

1.50 Extrapolation of tlie d a t a i n /:I

57ou I: 5.17 2.42 :;alculation of tlic s t a t i c prcs- 139

surl bascd on n i r a s u r c i ~ i ~ ~ ~ u
of tlic h i a r h nuiribcr h1 i n
this paprr
1.95 Paper /3/
40UO 35 2.80 2.55 Papcr / 4 / 1.46
2.58 Paptr / 3 /

* The results of the calculations for T,, =7000 and 4000K arc takvn from /4/, where it was assumed that
the chemical composition was inbaiiablc a n d thr excitation of the vibrations \\as in cquilibriuni. The
result for T , = 5700% presupposes that thc vibration5 are likewise frozen.

56

__._ ...-., .._... .... ... . ..

 CONCLUSIONS

Under experimental conditions t h e expansion of a i r in nozzles is a

thermodynamically nonequilibrium process, a fact connected with the lag
in t h e recombination of atomic oxygen. A s h a r p slowing down of the
recombination t a k e s place when the r a t i o of the local c r o s s section t o the
throat area lies between 3 and 7. The subsequent expansion takes place
with a constant (nonequilibrium) chemical composition.

B ib l i o g r a phy

1. E s c h e n r o e d e r, A. Q., D. W. B o y e r, and J. G. H a l l . Nonequilibrium

Expansions of Air with Coupled Chemical Reactions. -Phys. of
Fluids, Vol. 5. 1962.
2. B r e i n e r d, G. and E. L e v i n s k i i. Vyazkie i nevyazkie neravno
vesnye techeniya v soplakh (Viscous and Nonviscous Non-
Equilibrium Flows in Nozzles).- Raketnaya Tekhnika i
Kosmonavtika, No. 11. 1963. [Russian translation. 1
3.
N a g a m a t s u , J . B . , J . B . W o r k m a n , a n d R . E . S h e e r . Hypersonic
ExFansion of Air in Nozzles, Accompanied by Recombination of
Atoms.-J. Aeronaut. Sci., Vol. 28. 1961.
4. D u f f y , R. E. Experimental Study of Nonequilibrium Expanding Flows.-
AIAAJ., Vol. 3. 1965.
5. I o n o v , V . P . , G . N . N i k o l a e v , M. V . G u s e v , and 0 . I . L u n e v a .
Izuchenie potokov gaza v udarnoi t r u b e p r i pomoshchi skhemy
T e p l e r a i skorostnogo kadrovogo fotografirovaniya (Study of Gas
Flows in a Shock Tube by t h e Topler Method and High-speed
F r a m e Photography). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i
svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, ' I Moskva, Izdatell
stvo "Nauka. ' I 1964.
6. I o n o v , V. P. and G. N. N i k o l a e v. Eksperimental'noe issledovanie
istecheniya dissotsiirovannykh gazov cherez sverkhzvukovye sopla
(Experimental Study of the Flow of Dissociated Gases through
Supersonic Nozzles ). - Sbornik "Issledovaniya PO fizicheskoi
geodinamika. ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo, "Nauka". 1965.
7. N a g a m a t s u , H., R . G e i g e r , and R.E. S h e e r . A Hypersonic
Shock Tube.-ARSJ., Vol. 29. 1959.
8. Hu r l e , I. R., R u s s 0, A. L . , and J. G. H a l l . Spectroscopic Studies
of Vibrational Nonequilibrium in Supersonic Nozzle Flows. -
J. Chem. Phys., Vol. 40. 1964.
9. K a m i m o t o , G., T . A k a m a t s u , and T. H a s e g a w a . T r i p l e -
Diaphragm Type Hypersonic Shock Tunnel. - Dept. Aeronaut.
Engng., Kyoto University, Current P a p e r s , Kyoto. 1962.
10. P r e d v o d i t e l e v , A.S., E. V. S t u p o c h e n k o , A.S. P l e s h a n o v ,
E. V. S a m u i l o v , and I.B. R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i . Tablitsy
termodinamicheskikh funktsii vozdukha (Tables of the Thermo
dynamic Functions of Air).- Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
11.
H a l l , G. H. Application of Boundary L a y e r Theory t o Explain Some
Nozzle and Venturi Flow Peculiarities.- P r o c . Inst. Mech. Engrs.,
Vol. 173, No. 36. 1959.

li
 12. S i c h e 1, M. Leading Edge of a Shock-Induced Boundary L a y e r . -
P h y s . of Fluids, Vol. 5. 1962.
13. B u r k e, A. and K. B i r d. P r i m e n i konicheskikh i profilirovannykh
s o p e l v giperzvukovykh ustanovkakh (Use of Conic and Profiled
Nozzles in Hypersonic Installations). -Sbornik "Sovremennaya
tekhnika aerodinamicheskikh issledovanii p r i giperzvukovykh
skorostyakh, ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroenie. '' 1965. t
14. H a y e s , W.D. and R.F. P r o b s t e i n . Hypersonic-Flow Theory.-
Acad. Press, New York. 1959.
15. V i d a v s k i i , A . , R. O s v a l d t , and J. H a r n . Eksperimental'noe
opredelenie konstanty rekombinatsii vodoroda (Experimental
Determination of t h e Hydrogen Recombination Constants). -
Raketnaya Tekhnika i Kosmonavtika, No. 12. 1962. *
16. S t u p o c h e n k o , E.V. and I . P . S t a k h a n o v . Oburavneniyakh
relaksationnoi gidrodinamiki (Equations of Relaxation Hydro
dynamics).-Doklady AN SSSR, No. 4, p. 134. 1960.
17. S t a k h a n o v , I . P . and E.V. S t u p o c h e n k o . O s t r u k t u r e linii
Makha v relaksiruyushchikh sredakh (Structure of t h e Mach Lines
in Relaxing Media).-Doklady AN SSSR, No. 5, p. 134. 1960.
18. W o o d, W. W. and F. R. P a r k e r. Structure of a Centered Rarefaction
Wave in a Relaxing Gas.-Phys. of Fluids, Vol. 1. 1958.
19. M o o r e , F.K. and W.E. G i b s o n . Propagation of Weak Disturbances
in a Gas Subject to Relaxation Effects.-J. Aerospace Sci.,
Vol. 27. 1960.
20. B r o e r, L. J. F. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Equations of Motion of a
Reacting Gas.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 4. 1958.
21. W i l s o n , J. An Experiment t o Measure t h e Recombination Rate of
Oxygen.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 15. 1963.
22. W e g e n e r , P. P. Supersonic Nozzle Flow with a Reacting Gas
Mudure.-Phys. of Fluids, Vol. 2. 1959.
23. L i g h t h i 11, M. Dynamics of a Dissociating Gas: Part I. Equilibrium
Flow.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 2. 1957; Part 11. Quasiequilibrium
T r a n s f e r Theory.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 8. 1960.
24. B r a y , K. N. C. Atomic Recombination in a Hypersonic Wind-Tunnel
Nozzle.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 6. 1959.
25. B r a y , K. N. C. Sudden-Freezing Analysis for Nonequal Nozzle Flows.-
A m e r . Rocket SOC.J., Vol. 31. 1961.
26. H a l l , J. G. and A. L. R u s s 0 . Proceedings of t h e First Conference
on Kinetics, Equilibria, and Performance of High T e m p e r a t u r e
Systems. -Butterworth Scientific Publications, London. 1960.
27 L o r d i, J. Comparison of -act and Approximate Solutions f o r Non-
Equilibrium Flows in Nozzles.- Raketnaya Tekhnika, No. 8.
1962. *
28. B r a y , K. Ninth Symposium (International) on Combustion.
N. Y. - London, Academic Press. 1963.

' Russian translation. 1

5437 58
I . M . Naboko, R . G . Nemkov

STUDY OF THE FLOW STATE BEHIND A SHOCK

FRONT B Y MEANS OF FRAME-SCAN
PHOTOGRAPHY

In 11-31 the s t a t e of the flow behind a shock wave was estimated f r o m

the angle made by the Mach line leaving the leading edge of the half-wedge,
located in the section of the shock tube under consideration. The position
of the Mach line was recorded by a s e r i e s of s t i l l photographs. In addition
to the still photographs, the flow may be easily recorded by f r a m e -
scan photography. The Schlieren f r a m e -scan photograph of the flow
past an obstacle enables an independent determination t o be made of the
flow velocity and the propagation velocity of the weak disturbance (the sound
velocity) in addition t o measurements of the angle made by the Mach line
with the flow axis.
Experiments t o record the flow continuously w e r e conducted on the UT-2
apparatus 141, to which was attached a cylinder of 40 l i t e r capacity, separated
f r o m the low-pressure chamber by a celluloid diaphragm and evacuated t o
a p r e s s u r e of lo-'" mercury. The vacuum-sealed connection of the
cylinder with the low-pressure chamber was facilitated by suspending the
cylinder on a trolley which moved along the r a i l s of the shock tube stand.
A stabilizer enabled a higher initial p r e s s u r e t o be used in the low-
p r e s s u r e chamber. This somewhat reduced the effects due t o the develop
ment of t h e boundary l a y e r , and lowered the' requirements regarding the
intensity of the short-exposure lamp.
A delay with an automatic control based on the shock velocity was used
t o synchronize accurately the flash of the lamp with some specific position
of the shock wave, independently of the wave velocity 151. The u s e of such
a delay turned out t o be v e r y convenient. In fact, since the a p e r t u r e in the
blind covering the tube section under investigation had t o be a s narrow a s
possible, the period of maximum lamp intensity had t o be synchronized
with the most interesting stage of the process.
The synchronization is shown in Figure 1. On passing the s e n s o r b , the
shock wave triggered a signal proportional t o the t i m e of its passage between
s e n s o r s a and b . A s a result the pulse which lit the short-exposure lamp
was delayed during a t i m e

T =S / U -TI,
(1 1

where z' is the experimentally determined delay t i m e of the lamp; u is the

velocity of the shock wave.
The set-up f o r obtaining the Schlieren f r a m e - s c a n photograph of
the Mach line is shown in Figure 2. The distance between the a p e r t u r e and

59
the n e a r e s t generatrix of the half-wedge was measured before the experi
ment. Together with a knowledge of the distance between the a p e r t u r e s
a, p, 7 (which s e r v e d t o obtain reference l i n e s ) this made it possible t o
r e c o r d the r e a l s c a l e of the phenomenon on the film. The Mach number of
the flow was determined f r o m the relations

where the a s t e r i s k implies distances on the film.

The beginning of the formation of the Mach line as an acoustic disturbance
moving with the flow at velocity u corresponds to the instant at which the
shock wave p a s s e s the leading edge of the half-wedge, If the effective
length of the relaxation zone behind the shock wave is sufficiently s m a l l
compared with 1 and d, this disturbance w i l l obey s o m e stationary conditions
most of the t i m e until it reaches the aperture. The sound velocity c and
the flow velocity u can then be found directly f r o m photographs of the flow
past the half-wedge and r e f e r r e d to the indicated stationary state. The
sound velocity thus determined is actually the velocity c, of propagation of
s o m e effective (sufficiently strong) leading Mach front.
The value of u can frequently be determined f r o m the f r a m e - s c a n
photograph of the process 161.
Since the Mach line is inclined at an angle t o the aperture, its width is
mainly determined by the width of this aperture, which equals 0.5 mm.

ST

I
"I
ti

FIGURE 1. Synchronization set-up: FIGURE 2. Outline of

the Mach line:
ST-shock tube; a , b-sensors; K-half-wedge; D-delay;
SL-short-exposure lamp; T-output of the delay, triggering a-chamber; b-film;
the illumination; 1-shock front; T,,T,-IA 8-451 apparatus; S-aperture; K-half
Ph -photorecorder. wedge; M--hlach line;
M*--trace of the Mach
line on the film; R *
trace of the contact
surface; a*. p,p
reference lines.

60
 Figure 3 shows a typical f r a m e - s c a n photograph of the flow past a
half-wedge (shock wave in COP,Mo=7.45 is Mach number ofthe shockwave).
The Mach line is indicated on Figure 3 by the l e t t e r M .
The photograph indicates the vibrations of the Mach line in the COz flow,
which point t o an inhomogeneity of the other flow p a r a m e t e r s . Such
vibrations a r e absent in an N2 flow.

FIGURE 3 . Frame-scan Topler photograph of the hlach line.

The existence of a periodical variation in the inclination of the Mach line

in COz is consistent with the density fluctuations observed by other authors
using interferometry 17 I and electron-beam absorption / 8 1.
Note a l s o the systematic, although negligible, d e c r e a s e in the angle ubl
toward t h e end of the plug, which may result f r o m the i n c r e a s e in the flow
velocity accompanying the development of the boundary l a y e r . The part
played by diffusion and heat conduction apparently becomes substantial in
the narrow region adjoining the contact surface.
The data obtained were processed by the method described in 12, 3 1. A
number of c u r v e s M = f (Mo,h) w e r e plotted, where M = [tic, and h is the s t a t e
of the flow.
The flow s t a t e is characterized by a s e t of conditions: .Eo,i r e p r e s e n t s
the internal energy of the molecular vibration of frequency oi in a frozen
state. The s t a t e of the flow could be estimated by comparing the
experimental and theoretical values of M.

~ ~~

Na 4.14 1.73 710 710 COz 6.2 2.1-2.3 640 fi60

Nz 4.66 1.92 780 770 COa 7.03 2.42 - 720
Nz 6.73 1.97 - 982 COa 7.45 2.1-2.35 740 750
Coa 4.8 1.3-4.50 540 560 COa 7.15 2.2-2.35 760 770
co1 5.14 2.08 - 580

61
 The r e s u l t s a r e given in the table, where M corresponds t o s o m e
intermediate p a r t of the plug, in which the flow p a r a m e t e r s are almost
constant with t i m e . When calculating c , all the internal d e g r e e s of freedom
except the rotational ones were considered frozen, i. e., 7 = (c,/cI,) = 1.4.

CONCLTJSIONS

The folloxing conclusions about the s t a t e of the g a s flow behind t h e

incident shock wave can be drawn f r o m the r e s u l t s of the investigations.
1. Behind the shock front in CO, at p r e s s u r e s of 1- 3 a t m and Mach
numbers M = 5 - 8, the angle of inclination of the Mach line has a variable
component, a fact apparently connected with the existence of waves
disturbing t h e plug, generated as the boundary l a y e r thickens behind the
shock wave, and also during t h e formation of the shock wave after the
diaphragm bursts. In nitrogen s u c h periodical variations of t h e Mach
number a r e almost absent.
2. The average s t a t e of the C 0 2 flow (assuming 7 = 1.4 in the sound
wave) is c l o s e t o the frozen s t a t e of the a s y m m e t r i c valent vibrations of
the molecules and t h e lag of the dissociation. This r e s u l t a g r e e s with
1 2 , 31, and is corroborated t o a certain extent by an independent m e a s u r e
ment of t h e mean value of the propagation velocity of the leading front of
t h e signal.

I
Bibliography

1. F e 1I d m a n , S. Eksperimental'noe izuchenie khimicheskikh reaktsii

v vozdukhe p r i vysokikh temperaturakh (Experimental Study of
the kinetics of Chemical Reactions in A i r at High Temperatures). -
VRT, No. l ( 4 9 ) . 1959.
2. B a z h e n o v a , T. V. and I.M. N a b o k o . K v o p r o s u o s k o r o s t i fiziko
khimicheskikh prevrashchenii molekul CO, za udarnoi volnoi p r i
temperaturakh 2000-4000K (Rate of Physicochemical T r a n s f o r
mations of CO, Molecules behind a Shock Wave a t T e m p e r a t u r e s
of 2000-4000"K).-Doklady A N SSSR, Vol. 154. No. 2.
3. N a b o k 0 , I. M. Issledovanie sostoyaniya gaza z a udarnoi volnoi PO
kartine obtekaniya prepyatstviya, pomeshchennogo v udarnuyu
trubu (Study of the Gas State behind a Shock Wave f r o m the Flow
P a t t e r n P a s t an Obstacle in a Shock Tube). - Sbornik "Issledovaniya
PO fizicheskoi gazodinamike, ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. " 1966.
4. B a z h e n o v a , T. V., I. M. Naboko, and 0. A. Predvoditeleva. Vliyanie
dissipatsii na p a r a m e t r y potoka z a skachkom v udarnoi t r u b e
(Effect of Dissipation on the Flow Parameters behind a Shock in
a Shock Tube). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva
gazov p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, I' Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN
SSSR, 1963.
5. N e m k o v , R. G. Skhema zaderzhki dlya sinkhronizatsii zapuska
registriruyushchei apparatury (A Delay Circuit f o r Triggering
Shock-Tube Recording Instruments, Automatically Controlled by
t h e Shock-Wave Velocity).-In this collection, p. 171.

62

I
6. B a z h e n o v a , T. V. Izmenenie s k o r o s t i potoka gaza z a s k a c h k o m v
udarnoi t r u b e (Variation in the Gas Flow Velocity behind a Shock
in a Shock Tube).- Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i
teploobmen, ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1961.
7. Z a i t s e v , S . G . , E. V . L a z a r e v a , and A.P. S h a t i l o v . Issledovanie
normal'nogo otrazheniya udarnykh voln v udarnoi t r u b e (Study of
t h e Normal Reflection of Shock Waves in a Shock Tube).-PMTF,
No. 4. 1964.
8. B u s y g i n , E.P. and G . K . T u m a k a e v . Izmerenie plotnosti gaza za
udarnoi volnoi v udarnoi t r u b e metodom elektronnogo lucha
(Measurement of the Gas Density behind a Shock Wave in a Shock
Tube Using an Electron Beam). - Zhurnal Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki,
Vol. 34, No. 1. 1964.

63
R . G . Nemkov

EFFECTIVE PROFILE OF THE MACH LINE

IN A RELAXING GAS

It was shown in 111 that in a relaxing gas the Mach line occupies a whole
region (the cone A O B in the figure). It was a l s o established that in the
c a s e s (x,y)+ 0 and (5,y) -> w the s t r u c t u r e of the disturbance region
(emanating f r o m a s o u r c e at x = y = 0 ) is such that a clearly expressed
disturbance maximum exists and is localized along the frozen Mach line
(cf. the line OA in Figure 1 ) and correspondingly along the equilibrium
Mach line (the line OB).
Thus, in these two limiting c a s e s the introduction of the concept of an
"effective" Mach line a s s o m e one-dimensional region, given by

y = cp(z: u ; Cm, e,; T), (1 1

can be justified, where u is the flow velocity; c, co a r e the frozen and

equilibrium sound velocities: z is the relaxation time.

FIGURE 1. T h e Mach line M. calcu

lated by formula (25) for p =I, E =
=0.5, v z = 1 . 5 .

An attempt is made in this paper t o find the profile of the effective Mach
line (as the curve describing the propagation of the wave packet center), i. e.,

64
the function (l), over the e n t i r e range of values of z. The s a m e assumptions
a r e used a s in 111, namely, the relaxing substance (gas) is described by
the Kneser model, and the Mach line corresponds t o such s m a l l disturbances
that it can be described by some linear acoustic equation. The effective
Mach line in dispersive media is considered.

1. LINEAR ACOUSTIC EQUATION O F A

RELAXING GAS

It is assumed that the required Mach line can be found f r o m the l i n e a r

acoustic equation of relaxing media. Since the experimentally observed
Mach line corresponds t o some finite disturbance, this assumption may
r a i s e objections (e. g., the c r i t i c a l observations in / 2 / on the analogous
question of applying linear equations t o a dispersive plasma). Nevertheless,
the solution of the linear acoustic equation approximates the exact solution
<
for sufficiently s m a l l (z L , y< L) distances f r o m the source. The
relationship L = L ( A ) , where A is the disturbance amplitude, can only be
evaluated quantitatively f r o m the initial nonlinear equations. This problem
is beyond the scope of the present paper. The acoustic equation for a
relaxing gas (in rheological t e r m s - f o r the Kneser model) has been derived
in s e v e r a l papers (cf. for instance 13-51). For our purposes a different
form of this equation is more convenient, namely, a second-order partial
integro-differential equation. To the best of our knowledge such a f o r m of
the acoustic equation has not been used before. A brief derivation of this
equation w i l l accordingly be given.
The gas is assumed to be inviscid with zero t h e r m a l conductivity. The
following equation is then derived f r o m the continuity equation, the Euler
equation, and the condition that s m a l l disturbances a r e adiabatic 1 6 1 :

where 0 is understood a s the flow velocity (density p , p r e s s u r e p ) , and c

is not explicitly determined a t this stage.
Let the relaxation properties of the substance be determined by a single
relaxation p a r a m e t e r . Using the linear relaxation equation, it can be
shown / 6 / that c is determined f r o m the relation

as a function of the frequency of the p r o c e s s ,

The following f o r m w i l l then be equivalent t o (2):

65
 Applying the convolution theorem t o the functions C-~(O) and O ( O ) , and
using the relation

it is easily derived that equation (4) is equivalent t o a second-order integro

differential equation with retarded argument:

T o the best of our knowledge equation ( 6 )has not been used in gas-dynamic
studies. Similar acoustic equations have however been used t o d e s c r i b e
viscoelastic media (according t o the Maxwell model) in 17, 8 1 .
+
Multiplying ( 6 ) by the operator [I i3 ( a / & ) ] , we obtain the t h i r d - o r d e r
partial differential equation

with no r e t a r d e d t e r m . Such an equation has often been used 13- 5 1.

Equation ( 6 ) is m o r e convenient h e r e , since the link between the retardation
effects and the relaxation is explicit.
Equation ( 6 ) d e s c r i b e s the propagation of acoustic disturbances in a
medium at r e s t . The transformation aldt -,slat - dldx defines a coordinate
f r a m e in which the substance moves with a velocity u along the x axis, and
i f alat E 0 (we s e e k only stationary disturbances), the equation

I=&, Mo=u/co, Mm=u/cm, J

is derived in which only the c a s e ;== (I,y) is considered.
Equation (8) d e s c r i b e s the propagation of stationary acoustic disturbances
in a supersonic s t r e a m and is fundamental in the subsequent treatment.
When (8) is multiplied by [ I + l(d/dx)l the equation

is obtained (without pronounced retardation); this equaticn has beenused in a

number of papers, f o r instance f l f .

66
2. EQUATIONS O F THE EFFECTIVE CHARACTERISTICS
IN DISPERSIVE MEDIA

Equations (8) indicate that a point disturbance s o u r c e (I = y = 0) c r e a t e s

an acoustic field, whose intensity d i f f e r s f r o m z e r o (for t p 0 ) over a two-
dimensional cone between the lines

OA y = x/T/M&-i,
OB y=x/l/M~--l.

where O A (cf. the figure) is the frozen Mach line and OB the equilibrium line.
This fact can a l s o be derived intuitively. When x =: 0 the disturbance
a) (5,y), i. e. , (1/2n) (a)exp ( i [-~k (a)y
])do,is localized in a s m a l l spatial
region, and in this wave packet a l l the frequencies participate with equal

intensity (i. e., 0 (a)= const). Each frequency then propagates with its

particular velocity, which determines the indicated shape of the disturbance

region.

A n unavoidable consequence of the dispersion i s the subsequent spreading

of the disturbance a s a wave packet. However, for any fixed I t h e r e exists
s o m e center of this wave packet, which, a s can be shown, moves at the
group velocity, i. e., along the r a y of geometrical optics. Our separation
of the effective Mach line (as a one-dimensional region) from the whole
disturbance region is based on this fact. The trajectory y = y(x), a r a y of
geometrical optics, is associated with the effective Mach line.
It is natural a l s o t o attempt t o find an equation governing the motion of
the wave packet center, and hence t h e form of t h e effective Mach line. This
equation w i l l be called the equation of the effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Only
the c a s e when the effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e r e a l quantities is considered,
i. e., when the initial equation is hyperbolic in this s e n s e .
Equation ( 6 ) will be used t o illustrate how the equation of the effective
characteristics-is Cerived. In this c a s e the effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c will
be s o m e curve r = r ( t ) , along which

where the group velocity (ddd;) is determined by

a = - agist,
k = VQ,

in t e r m s of the eikonal J, of the field 0.

Equation (6), written a s a geometrical acoustics approximation (i. e.,
in t e r m s of $, where g-const along (12)), t a k e s the f o r m

(1/2)as= (G). (14)

The required equation follows f r o m (14):

61
 By analogy, the effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of equation (8) a r e the solutions
of

Following this procedure, the effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of (9) can a l s o

be derived; they naturally coincide with (16).
Suppose c (0) is the phase velocity a s a function of the frequency. The
function c (a)i s a consequence of the dispersion relation resulting f r o m the
equation studied (an example is the relation bet_wee_n ( 3 ) and (6)).
Consider now the problem of finding c u r v e s r = r ( t ) such that t h e equation

-
is satisfied along them, where V, is determined f r o m

? = (1/2n)S ?(a) e i m l do,

C Y = v(@M),

Rec(aM) = mas R e c ( o )
0 I

a s a group velocity for s o m e narrow group of waves n e a r the frequency for

which the phase velocity is a maximum.
The c u r v e s satisfying (17) r e p r e s e n t the leading front of the disturbance,
along which the "signal" (as understood in information theory) propagates,
i r r e s p e c t i v e of the energy c a r r i e d by this signal. It is therefore natural
t o a s s u m e that the partial differential equations (17) establish t h e i r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (in the usual sense). The general proof of this a s s e r t i o n
will not be given; we note only that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (7), determined
from

do in fact coincide with the curves determined by (17).

Relation (17) is convenient in view of the fact that it is a l s o applicable
to the integro-differential equation (6). It is easily s e e n that the s a m e
equation ( 1 9 ) is obtained. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of equation (8) a r e found
in exactly the s a m e way; they satisfy the equation

Thus, starting f r o m two physically different requirements, i. e., f r o m

(17) and (12), equations w e r e derived for two generally speaking different
curves, namely, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
If c (a)= const s a t i s f i e s the initial equation, its effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
coincide with the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s given in /6 / (the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were
derived f r o m (12) and (13) for a quasilinear second-order partial differential
equation).

68
3 . PROFILE O F THE EFFECTIVE MACH LINE
IN A RELAXING GAS

Consider now equation (16). Note first that f r o m t h e condition y (J) =0

<
for z 0 it follows that

The operator i may be assumed t o be determined by the relations

i = Alim4 ?A, (A >0),

j A 9 (5) 0, (O < Z <A), (23)

i. e., in theinterval O < z < A equation (16) takes the f o r m

Relation ( 2 1 ) follows from (24).

Equation (16) is easily solved with the aid of (21). Its solution, valid
for y 2 0 , is given by

where q and p a r e determined by

P = I(M:- 1)/(Mk- I)] (l/Z),

4 = [ ( l / M L- 1) - (i/Mi- I)].

We shall discuss the relation obtained. The fact that y (z)= 0 when z < 0
implies that the only liquid particles which interact directly with the s o u r c e
a r e those situated (for x < 0) on the line y = 0.
It follows further f r o m (25) that in the limiting c a s e s (z+ 0, Z > 0 , Z - 0 0 )
the direction of the Mach line coincides (asymptotically) with the direction
of the frozen ( 9 ) and equilibrium (10) Mach lines. The Mach line itself
tends asymptotically t o the line

i. e., t o a line lying above the equilibrium Mach line.

This is s e e n in the
figure, where the effective Mach line is designated by the l e t t e r M , and
C D r e p r e s e n t s the line given by (27).

69
 As T 40 we obtain t h e equilibrium Mach line, and as T -+ 00 t h e frozen
line is derived. The limit of y i (T) a s r -+ 0,

i/W-j, x > o ,
lim yS,(r)=
2*0 x=o

is discontinuous a t x = 0. However, t h i s in no way i m p a i r s the validity

of our a s s e r t i o n that t h e effective Mach line of a relaxing m e d i u m t r a n s f o r m s
into the equilibrium Mach line. In fact, z = y = 0 is the point at which the
s o u r c e o p e r a t e s , and it t h e r e f o r e is not a p r o p e r p a r t of the Mach line.
We s h a l l consider briefly the frequently discussed a s s e r t i o n that in
relaxation acoustics the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is no longer a line of propagation
of s m a l l disturbances (i. e., is not a Mach line /4- 9 / ) . This follows f r o m
the fact that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of equations ( 8 ) and (9), according t o ( 1 9 )
and (ZO), do not tend t o the equilibrium (T = 0) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s T + O
(T +0 ) . This is not only t r u e in relaxation gas dynamics p r o p e r (i. e.,
including the effects of exciting internal d e g r e e s of freedom of the molecules),
but is r e l a t e d at t i m e s t o t h e asymptotic paradox of hydrodynamics / l o / .
In o u r opinion, the c o r r e c t interpretation of this paradox is that one can
only a s s o c i a t e an effective Mach line with an effective c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for the
line of propagztion of the disturbance-energy center. Only for such a line
would its discontinuity a t T = 0 constitute a paradox. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of equations (8) and ( 9 ) d e t e r m i n e t h e leading front of t h e disturbance,
whose intensity differs f r o m z e r o (although it is v e r y close t o z e r o ) for any
nonzero t.

Bibliography

1. S t a k h a n o v , I . P . and E. V. S t u p o c h e n k o . O s t r u k t u r e linii Makha

v relaksiru,yushchikh s r e d a k h (Structure of the Mach Lines in
Relaxing Media).-Doklady AN SSSR, Vol. 134, No. 5. 1960.
2. Z a k h a r o v, V. E. Ob evolyutsii volnovogo paketa v gidrodinamike s
d i s p e r s i e i zvuka (Evolution of the Wave Packet in Hydrodynamics
with Sound Dispersion).-PMTF, No. 3. 1964.
3. M o o r e , F. K. Propagation of Weak Waves in a Dissociated Gas. -
J. Aeronaut. Sci.,Vol. 25, No. 4. 1958.
4. S t u p o c h e n k o , E . V . and I . P . S t a k h a n o v . Oburavneniyakh
relaksatsionnoi gidrodinamiki (Equetions of Relaxation Hydro
dynamics).-Doklady AN SSSR, Vol. 134, No. 4. 1960.
5. C 1 a r k e , J. F. On the Propagation of Small Disturbances in a Relaxing
Gas with Heat Addition.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 20, Part 2. 1964.
6. L a n d a u , L.D. and E.M. L i f s h i t z . Mekhanika sploshnykh s r e d
(Mechanics of Continuous Media).- Moskva, GTTI. 1954.
7. S i p s , R. Propagation Phenomena in Elastic Viscous Media.-
J. P o l y m e r Sci., Vol. 6, No. 3. 1951.
8. D a v i s , J. L. On Wave Propagation in Viscoelastic Media.-
J. P o l y m e r sci., Vol. 50, No. 4. 1 9 6 1 .
9. B r o e r, L. J. F. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Equations of Motion of a
Reacting Gas.-J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 4, Part 2. 1958.
10. A n d e r s o n , G. D. and W. B a n d . Compressible Fluid Flow and the
Theory of Characteristics.-Amer. Phys., Vol. 30, No. 11. 1962.
Yu. A . Polyakov

SHOCK- TUBE STUDY OF THE STAGNATION-POINT

HEAT EXCHANGE O F A BLUNT BODY

The shock tube provides a means f o r simulating the conditions of heat

exchange with r e s p e c t t o t h e stagnation p a r a m e t e r s in the neighborhood of
the stagnation point of axisymmetrical bodies moving at high velocities.
The initial p a r a m e t e r s and wave velocity in the tube must be c o r r e c t l y
selected to correspond completely t o t h e conditions of motion of t h e body.
In 111 the simulation conditions a r e derived f r o m t h e main relations on
the shock front f o r an ideal gas. Such a formulation of the problem is
i n c o r r e c t for r e g i m e s with dissociation of the g a s molecules.
The thermodynamic and gas-dynamic p a r a m e t e r s for air, published in
J 2 J, enable one t o derive t h e corresponding relations f o r simulating the
conditions of heat exchange f r o m the flight velocity and altitude in the
p r e s e n c e of thermochemical reactions in the gas.
The interference with t h e heat exchange at high M is mainly due to:
1) the appearance of electrons during ionization, whose high mobility
may lead t o an i n c r e a s e in convective heat t r a n s f e r ;
2 ) the influence of t h e diffusion of the reacting g a s components toward
the w a l l on the magnitude and c h a r a c t e r of the heat flux;
3 ) the catalytic effect of the body wall m a t e r i a l on the recombination of
atoms at its s u r f a c e ;
4 ) t h e appearance of additional heat flux due to radiation f r o m the shock
layer;
5 ) t h e variation in the kinetic coefficients of the polycomponent medium
a s a function of t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e ;
6 ) the absence of thermochemical equilibrium both in the gas l a y e r
behind the shock front and in t h e boundary l a y e r over some p a r t s of the
trajectories.
In addition t o problems on the interaction of a high-temperature reacting
g a s with the body, t h e r e exist experimental investigations 13, 4 1 of the total
value of the heat flux at the stagnation point of a blunt body.
A shock tube enables one t o simulate intermittently t h e heat exchange f o r
highvelocities of t h e body over a v e r y wide range of velocities and p r e s s u r e s .
The present paper p r e s e n t s an attempt t o simulate conditions for heat
exchange at t h e stagnation point of blunt bodies.

1. DERIVATION OF THE SIMULATION RELATIONS

To derive the simulation conditions of heat t r a n s m i s s i o n with r e s p e c t t o

t h e stagnation p a r a m e t e r s one r e q u i r e s the main gas-dynamic relations for

71

I .
a plane shock front propagating along the tube channel and the corresponding
equations f o r the detached compression shock around the blunt body under
flight conditions.
The bending of the shock wave discontinuity around the blunt body is
neglected when establishing the correspondence between t h e stagnation
enthalpies of the gas in the shock tube (in the plug) and under flight conditions.
Thus, if u2 is the gas velocity in the plug for a laboratory coordinate
f r a m e , the stagnation enthalpy in the region before the stagnation point is
given by

V2
h' = 2
2
+ hz,
where h, is the enthalpy of the plug gas.
On the other hand, for a coordinate f r a m e linked with the shock front,

where V, is the velocity of the shock wave.

In equation ( 2 ) the velocity of the gas impinging on the motionless front,

is the gas velocity behind the wave front.

Therefore, f r o m (1) and (2)

v? v? u?
h'=1+"--1
2 2 2 '

or, taking into account (3),

The stagnation enthalpy at the stagnation point of a flying vehicle w i l l be

realized a t a flight velocity V , and will be equal t o

h' vz,/ 2 = vsvz.

Thus, the connection between the flight velocity and the gas-dynamic
flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the shock tube is expressed a s

To e n s u r e the heat-exchange simulation conditions with respect t o the

flight and experimental stagnation p a r a m e t e r s , one must know the velocity
of the shock wave V , in the tube and the gas velocity u2 in the plug. P r e s e n t -
day pulse techniques for recording the p a r a m e t e r s of transient p r o c e s s e s
enables t h e s e magnitudes t o be measured experimentally to a high degree of
accuracy.

72

I , I I I II I1
 In the absence of data on the gas velocity in the plug, this velocity can
be eliminated with the aid of the mass-conservation equation on the front,
namely,

I (V, -On) PZ.

V ~ P= (4)

Vf ,l ~ /sec
n
FIGURE 1. Correspondence between the stream
parameters in the shock tube and the supersonic-
flight conditions a t different altitudes with respect
to the stagnation parameters:
Shaded regions-simulation conditions; A -typical
trajectory of an earth satellite; B -gliding vehicle;
c-ballistic vehicle; v-maximum altitude of the
equilibrium boundary layer.

Hence

where 6 = pz/p, is a function of M and p , , and found f r o m gas-dynamic

tables which allow for dissociation (121 or 151).
As a result

When M, > 10, V , - V , l / 2 to the experimental accuracy.

The simulation condition with respect t o density (altitude) is derived
f r o m the equation of m a s s conservation in flight. In the stagnation-point
region f o r the central flow
PfV, = P J S .

where psrV, a r e the density and velocity of the g a s in the vicinity of the
stagnation point behind the compression shock under flight conditions.
The model of supersonic plug-gas flow can be simulated by
PIUS =P J S .

73

 Then

or

On the strength of (5) and (6), we can write

which, with the aid of 1 2 1 o r 151, shows that even for M, > 1 0 we can take

F o r an initial p r e s s u r e p 1 (pl) in the shock tube, we can find (taking into

consideration 8 , whose variation with M allows for chemical reactions in
the g a s ) a relation between the flight altitude and p r e s s u r e p 1 in t h e tube,
given by

or

where p , is the a i r p r e s s u r e a t altitude H for the corresponding flight

velocity. The relationship between p , and H can be found f r o m the tables
in 161.

FIGURE 2. Model with heat transducer.

On the strength of (6) and (9), Figure 1 shows curves of altitude, initial
shock-tube p r e s s u r e , flight velocity and M, for the shock wave in the tube.
Several typical flying-vehicle t r a j e c t o r i e s a r e represented 17 1, in additional
t o the equilibrium boundary l a y e r n e a r the s u r f a c e of a body of radius
R =0.3m.

74
 The operating range of the shock tube easily includes the t r a j e c t o r i e s of
different hypersonic vehicles at entry into the dense l a y e r s of the atmosphere.

2. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

The experimental apparatus used t o study heat exchange in the neighbor

hood of the stagnation point of a blunt body is described in 141. A shock
tube with an inner diameter of 50" enabled the Mach number t o be varied
between 3 and 13 in the course of the experiments; the initial a i r p r e s s u r e
p 1 varied between 0.00013 and 0.13 atm.
The two r e g i m e s p 1 = a t m and p , = 1.3 a t m w e r e investigated.
That with p1 = 1.3 . a t m made it possible t o compare heat-flux m e a s u r e
ments with the r e s u l t s of 111, obtained by calorimetric s e n s o r s ; thanks t o
the high sensitivity of the film transducers, data was obtained for relatively
low values of M. (up t o 3).
The r e g i m e with pl = a t m yields data for relatively high altitudes,
a t which the flying vehicles begins t o brake for reentry. The experiments
w e r e conducted with cylindrical g l a s s
models (Figure 2 ) of 11m m diameter
with a semispherical head, t o which a
platinum film transducer of thickness
< 1 0.1 p was fastened in the f o r m of a
s t r i p through the stagnation point. The
technology for obtaining such instruments
is described in 141.
The contacts w e r e glued by a special
glue, and a s a result the measuring zone
occupied about 50 70 of the film length.
The resistance of the working zone of
the transducer was measured by means
of molten electrodes made f r o m a low-
melting metal.
The heat transducer, connected a s a
resistance thermometer, recorded the
transient temperature of the model
surface after the shock front reached
the stagnation point. The heat exchange
FIGURE 3 . Schlieren photograph of the super-
was observed during the unsteady flow
sonic flow past the model in a shock tube.
past the model (Figure 3).
M s = 6.6; p , =lo-' atm. The Schlieren photograph indicated
that the period during which a detached
compression shock forms about the body
does not exceed 5-10psec; a t h i g h M 8 this initial period may represent a
considerable fraction of the duration of homogeneous flow. The time for
a boundary l a y e r t o f o r m on the body is likewise important. The Navier-
Stokes equation was used t o demonstrate that the t i m e during which a
boundary layer forms is of the s a m e o r d e r a s the t i m e that it takes a
compression shock t o develop about the model.
Rose and Stark /I 1 established that the p r e s s u r e distribution about the
model is Newtonian f o r shock-tube conditions.

75
 The method of measuring heat exchange by film t r a n s d u c e r s provides a
means f o r detecting minute variations in the s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e . The
oscillogram in Figure 4 clearly shows the vertical jump of the film t e m p e r
a t u r e a t the moment the shock wave touches the model. The analysis of
/ 4 / and the many oscillograms f o r different r e g i m e s show that the t i m e
constant of the film t r a n s d u c e r does not exceed l p s e c .

FIGURE 4. Oscillogram of the pulse from a heat transducer near the stagnation p i n t of a
blunt body:
M s = 6.6; P, = atm; marker frequency 10 psec.

After converting t h e pulses to t e m p e r a t u r e it was established that the

t e m p e r a t u r e of the model s u r f a c e is proportional t o fi. This means that
during steady flow past the model the heat flux is constant.
Any deviation f r o m a steady s t a t e is immediately reflected in the
c h a r a c t e r of the pulse; the law q = const is then disturbed. It is known that
the duration of the parabolic f o r m of a pulse indicates the length of the plug
I 8 I.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The heat fluxes were calculated by the formula / 9 /

- to1 h,
[t (0,
=, 2.0.5642 w.
Figure 5 shows the dependence of the heat flux on the Mach number M,
of the shock wave and on the flight velocity, calculated f r o m the relations
governing the simulation conditions. Rose and Starks r e s u l t s a r e a l s o
presented; they w e r e obtained by means of c a l o r i m e t e r s on models of
12.7 d i a m e t e r 111. It is seen that the film t r a n s d u c e r s provide a means
for studying the heat exchange at lower M, and Re.
Up t o flight velocities V ,= 6 k m / s e c the experimental r e s u l t s coincide
satisfactorily with the theory of Fay and Riddell / l o / for the equilibrium
boundary layer. The calculation w a s realized in 141.

16
 To obtain quantitative data on the heat flux f o r the leading p a r t of a
flying vehicle a correction must be introduced t o allow a correction for the
body geometry. Then

where r,,, is the model radius; R , i s the radius of the leading p a r t of the body.

qsI km/cm2 Y 6 8
8
e
2
I
0.8

6?t
0.2
D.1
008

0.09

2.0 20 g.0 $0
Vf. h/sec
FIGURE 5. Heat flux near the stagnation point of the model as
a function of rhe shock-wave Mach number M:
1- p,=1.3.10-2 atm. H = 22--28km; 2- ~ s = l O - ~ a u n ,
H e 35-4Okm; 3 - r e s U l t s of /l/; 4-the author's results.

Figure 5 shows that a t altitudes of the o r d e r of 35-40 km the heat flux

in the neighborhood of the stagnation point i n c r e a s e s by a factor of almost
two a s the flight velocity i n c r e a s e s f r o m 1 t o 5 k m / s e c . Air dissociation
a t high velocities leads t o no anomalies in the behavior of the function q a .
The experimentally found heat fluxes can be used when calculating the heat
shielding of high-velocity flying vehicles.
The simulation conditions with r e s p e c t t o the stagnation p a r a m e t e r s can
be extended t o other gases, the heat exchange in supersonic flows being
studied in a shock tube.

Bibliography

1. R o s e, P. and W. S t a r k . Stagnation Point Heat-Transfer Measurements

in Dissociated Air.-J. Aeronaut. Sci., Vol. 25, No. 2. 1958.
2. P r e d v o d i t e l e v , A . S . , E . V . S t u p c h e n k o , E. V. S a m u i l o v ,
A.S. P l e s h a n o v , and I.B. R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i . Tablitsy

termodinamicheskikh i gazodinamicheskikh svoistv potoka

vozdukha z a pryamym skachkom uplotneniya (Tables of Thermo

dynamic and Gas-Dynamic P r o p e r t i e s of the A i r Flow behind a

Normal Compression Shock). - Moskva. Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1960.

77
 3. O f f e n h a r t z , E . , H. W e i s b l a t t , and R. F l a g g . Stagnation-Point
H e a t - T r a n s f e r Measurements at Super-satellite Speed.-J. Roy.
Aeronaut. SOC.,Vo1.66, No. 1 . 1962.
4. P o l y a k o v , Yu. A. P r i m e n e n i e plenochnykh datchikov dlya izucheniya
teploobmena v dissotsiirovannom potoke gaza (Use of F i l m
T r a n s d u c e r s f o r Studying Heat Exchange in a Dissociated Gas
Flow). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika, teploobmen i
termodinamika gazov vysokikh t e m p e r a t u r . I ' Moskva, Izdatel'stvo
AN SSSR. 1962.
5. R o z h d e s t v e n s k i i, I. B. Termodinamicheskie i gazodinamicheskie
svoistva potoka vozdukha z a pryamym skachkom uplotneniya s
uchetom d i s s o t s i a t s i i i ionizatsii vozdukha (Thermodynamic and
Gas-Dynamic P r o p e r t i e s of the Air Flow behind a Normal
Compression Shock allowing f o r Dissociation and Ionization of
t h e Air).-Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika, ' I Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1959.
6. 0 s t o s 1a v s k i i, I. V. and I. V. S t r a z h e v a. Dinamika poleta.
T r a e k t o r i i letatel'nykh apparatov (Flight Dynamics. T r a j e c t o r i e s
of Flying Vehicles).- Moskva, Oborongiz. 1963..
7. C h e n g , H. K. Recent Advances in Hypersonic Flow Research.-AIAA
Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2. 1963.
a. P o l y a k o v , Yu.A., I. M. N a b o k o , and Yu. V. M a k a r o v . Eksperi
mental'noe opredelenie rabochego v r e m e n i udarnoi truby metodom
teplovogo zonda (Experimental Determination of the Operating
T i m e of a Shock Tube Using a Heat Probe).-Teplofizika vysokikh
t e m p e r a t u r , No. 3. 1965.
9. L y k o v , A. V. Teoriya teploprovodnosti (Theory of Heat Conduction).-
Moskva, GITTL. 1952.
10. F a y , J. A. and F. R. R i d d e 11. Theory of Stagnation Point Heat
T r a n s f e r in Dissociated Air.-J. Aero. Sci., Vol. 25. 1958.

78
A . A . Kon'kov, A . P . Ryazin, V . S . Rudneu

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE SPECTRAL

PROPERTIES O F AIR AT HIGH TEMPERATURES

The spectral absorption coefficients of a i r and the absorption of c r o s s

sections of i t s components have been calculated by different authors 11-41,
and t h e i r r e s u l t s diverge widely. The s q u a r e s of the matrix elements
representing the dipole moments of the electron transitions of the molecules
f o r m the b a s i s of the calculations, but t h e i r measurement accuracy is
however not always satisfactory. Differences a l s o exist in the calculation
methods. An experimental determination of the radiant heat flux 1 5 1 at the
stagnation point of a model under conditions corresponding t o a flight altitude
of 37 km and a Mach number equal t o 2 8 showed that the radiant heat flux
is dominant. A comparison of the experimental value of the heat flux with
the value calculated under the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium
showed that the theoretical values a r e twice a s l a r g e as the experimental
ones. The value of the radiant heat flux is determined by the s p e c t r a l
absorption coefficients. The s p e c t r a l absorption coefficients of a i r at
temperatures above 10,000"K have not been found experimentally. The
present paper a i m s a t filling this gap.

1. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The shock tube used in our experiments is described in detail in 161.

Its basic design p a r a m e t e r s a r e : length of the low-presssure chamber,
1 7 0 c m ; internal diameter, 3 c m . The high-pressure chamber was filled
with either hydrogen (for p r e s s u r e s up t o 1 5 0 atm), o r a mixture of 1 0 %
oxygen, 2070 hydrogen, and 7 0 % helium (for p r e s s u r e s up t o 40atm).
The range of shock-wave velocities which could be realized was 2
1 0 k m / s e c . The velocity of the shock wave was measured by a s y s t e m of
s e n s o r s . Photo-ionization s e n s o r s were used. The sensor comprised two
electrodes set a t a distance of about 2 m m f r o m each other t o which a
voltage of about lOOv was applied. The shock wave generated a c u r r e n t in
the s e n s o r circuit; the resulting voltage pulse on t h e load resistance w a s
recorded or. an oscillograph. The photosensors were F E U - 2 9 photomulti
p l i e r s . The signals w e r e recorded on an 10-4 oscillograph. The p a r a m e t e r s
of t h e gas heated by the reflected shock wave were calculated f r o m the
velocity of the incident shock. The accuracy of t h i s calculation was
corroborated by d i r e c t measurements of the temperature, whose r e s u l t s
are given below.

19
 2. SPECTRAL COMPOSITION O F THE RADIATION
AND DEPENDENCE O F THE ABSORPTION
COEFFICIENT O F AIR ON WAVELENGTH

The s p e c t r a l properties of air w e r e studied by time-resolved spectro

g r a m recordings taken simultaneously with the absolute intensity of the
radiation for s o m e region of the spectrum.
The u s e of s p e c t r o g r a m s with t i m e resolution is described in 161.
Basically, it consists in the following: an inclined slit moves perpendicular
ly t o the spectrograph slit, and uncovers different portions of the entrance
slit at various instances of t i m e ; a s a result, the photographic film r e c o r d s
the time-resolved radiation s p e c t r u m of the gas. A s i m i l a r device enabled
time-resolved spectrograms t o be obtained with a resolving time of 5-1Opsec
and a total operating t i m e of 40-200psec.
The absolute radiation intensity was measured with the aid of a photo
multiplier-monochromator system, graduated with the aid of an SI-8-200
tungsten band lamp.
The general layout of the experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 1.
The shock wave, on passing the ionization sensor, initiated a pulse which
triggered the synchronization unit 6 . Over definite time intervals, the
l a t t e r sent pulses t o the supply unit 7 of the s p e c t r u m shutter 9, and a l s o
triggered the sweep of the
oscillographs measuring the
intensity of the air radiation and
the shock velocity. The spectro
g r a m s w e r e recorded by means of
the ISP-28 spectroscope 8 on an
X-panchromatic film of sensitivity
I I
1000 GOST* units. The photoelectric
channel of the apparatus comprised
the following elements: the lens 12,
projecting the image of the radiating
g a s volume on the entrance s l i t ; the
neutral light filters 13, which made
it possible to vary the sensitivity of
the s y s t e m within wide l i m i t s ; the
ZMR-3 monochromator 1; the
FEU-29 photomultiplier 2; the supply
FIGURE 1. Apparatus for studying thespectralcharac- unit 3 of the photomultiplier; the
teristics of gases. 10-4 oscillograph. The monochro
m a t o r was placed such that its
optical axis coincided with the
optical axis of the spectrograph and was perpendicular t o the shock-tube
axis. The image of the gas layer, located 5 m m f r o m t h e end of the shock
tube, w a s projected on the entrance slit of the monochromator. Accordingly,
a slit of about 1m m width w a s placed at a distance of 5 m m f r o m the end
on the outer surface of the observation window.
Figure 2 shows the t i m e resolution of the radiation s p e c t r u m of a i r heated
by a reflected shock wave. The f i r s t negative bands of nitrogen a r e identified
in the spectrum, a s well a s the lines of the impurities - iron, chrome,
calcium, etc. The impurity lines were identified in s e v e r a l stages. F i r s t ,
* [Gosudarstvennyi obshchesoyuznyi standart -All-Union State Standard. 3

80

using the reference lines of iron, the wavelengths of all the lines in the a i r
s p e c t r a w e r e interpreted and determined. The impurity lines in the a i r
radiation s p e c t r a were highly broadened, and it was consequently difficult
t o accurately determine t h e i r wavelength. W e therefore obtained /7/ the
radiation s p e c t r a of krypton and xenon at 20000-~5000"K, where the lines
of the impurities only appear in the absorption spectrum. The r e v e r s e d
lines a r e quite narrow, and the accuracy in finding t h e i r wavelength is
much higher than determining it f r o m the radiation s p e c t r a . If the mutual
spacing of the lines was the s a m e in the s p e c t r a of a i r ,
krypton, and xenon, and the wavelength coincided with
that of the impurity line, it was considered a s
established that the given line belongs t o the impurity.
The spectrograms were processed using hetero
chromatic photometry 16 /. The graphic variant of this
method was used: using an MF-4 microphotometer,
microphotograms of the s p e c t r a of the SI-8-200 tungsten
band lamp w e r e recorded on the s a m e plate with the
aid of a nine-step attenuator on the s a m e film a s the
spectrum being studied. The dependence of the
emission power of tungsten on the wavelength is well
known, and s o these microphotograms enable t r a n s
formations t o be made f r o m the blackening in the
spectrum of the gas studied t o the dependence of t h e
intensity in relative units on the wavelength.
This variant of the method f r e e s u s from the cumber
s o m e and time-consuming construction of the c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c curves of the film for every wavelength. As
indicated above, the relative dependence of the intensity
on the wavelength was normalized t o absolute values
with the aid of data f r o m a p h o t o e l e c t r i c channel. The
s p e c t r u m zone of width 1 0 A about the wavelength4850A
was selected f o r the normalization, because it is f r e e
of impurity lines, a s seen f r o m the s p e c t r o g r a m
(Figure 2). The emissive power was thus obtained a s
a function of wavelength. The dependence of the
absorption coefficient on the wavelength was derived
using the laws of Kirchhoff and Beer.
This method of finding the absorption coefficients
presupposes a known gas temperature. Under the
given experimental conditions, t h e r e a r e insufficient
grounds for taking the a i r temperature equal t o the
value calculated on the basis of the conservation laws;
accordingly, the accuracy of such a calculation was
corroborated by direct measurements of the gas
temperature, whose r e s u l t s a r e presented below.
Figure 3 (curve 1)gives the experimental relation
ship between the a i r absorption coefficient and the
wavelength for a t e m p e r a t u r e of 11500K and a p r e s s u r e
of 60 atm. The a i r absorption coefficients, obtained
FIGURE 2. Time-re-
solved air radiation
by directly measuring the s p e c t r o g r a m blackenings,

spectrum; the temper- a r e given here. The vertical lines give t h e values of

ature is 11500oK and the absorption coefficients measured a t the points of

the pressure 60 a m . the spectrum where the impurity lines l i e . The

81
 height of the lines corresponds t o the value of the absorption coefficient
measured directly a t the given point of the spectrum. It follows f r o m an
examination of both this curve and the s p e c t r o g r a m (cf. Figure 2 ) that v e r y
few zones a r e f r e e of impurity lines.

Kh.102. cm-1

U
3000 3500 'to00 5000 i
FIGURE 3. The air absorption coefficient as a function of the wavelength:
1-experimental data of the present paper, temperature 11500'K, pressure 60 arm; P-theore
tical values according to f2, 3 / , temperature 12000oK, pressure 50 a n n ; 3-theoretical values
according IO /4/9 temperature 12000"K, pressure 50 atm.

3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

a)
FIGURE 4. The air absorption Coefficient as a function of the wavelength:
1-experimental data of the present paper, remperature 10500'K, pressure
50 a n n ; 2-theoretical values according IO /2, 3/. temperature 100009<;
3-theoretical values according to /4/. temperature 10000%.

The widely used method of studying the emissive power of g a s e s by

measuring the emission at different zones of the spectrum without simul
taneous s p e c t r o g r a m recordings contains a considerable indeterminacy,
since considerable quantities of the impurity lines a r e present (as seen
f r o m Figures 2 and 3 ) and contribute t o the emissive power.

82
 Figure 4 (curve 1 ) shows the experimental relationship between the a i r
absorption coefficient and the wavelength at t e m p e r a t u r e 10500K and
p r e s s u r e 50 atm. The impurity lines have been excluded f r o m consideration
h e r e and the given values of the absorption coefficient only correspond t o a i r .
The accuracy of the absorption coefficients is determined by the accuracies
of the heterochromatic photometry and the normalizing factor. The accuracy
of the heterochromatic photometry is determined by the graduation accuracy
of the standard source, and the measurement accuracy of blackening by a
microphotometer, and f o r m s *20 70. The measurement accuracy of the
normalizing factor is determined by the accuracy with which the standard
s o u r c e is s e t up, its graduation, the measurement of the potential by an
oscillograph, and the determination of the gas p a r a m e t e r s , and f o r m s rt 25 70.

3. MEASUREMENT O F THE TEMPERATURE OF

AIR HEATED BY A REFLECTED SHOCK WAVE

The t e m p e r a t u r e of a i r heated by a reflected shock wave was measured

with the aid of Kirchhoff's law. The t e m p e r a t u r e was obtained f r o m
simultaneous and independent measurements of the emissive and absorptive
powers of a i r f o r a given wavelength. Their ratio, according t o Kirchhoff's
law, is the Planck function, depending at given fixed wavelength only on the
t e m p e r a t u r e of the radiating object.
The general set-up of the apparatus is shown in Figure 5. T h e r e a r e
two channels: the first was used for recording the absorptive power of the
g a s , and the second for recording its emissive power. To that end the
entrance and exit slits of the mono
chromator were divided into two p a r t s ,
and two recording channels w e r e
installed behind t h e exit slit. The f i r s t
channel functioned a s follows. The
image of the probing pulse light s o u r c e
11 was projected by the l e n s e s 1 2 - 1 4
roughly on the axis of the shock tube,
a f t e r which lens 15 projected it on the
upper part of the entrance s l i t of a
ZMR-3 monochromator 1. After the
radiation pas sed the monochromat or
and was reflected by the revolving
m i r r o r , it entered the FEU-29 photo-
FIGURE 5. Apparatus for measuring the air multiplier 4 and was recorded by an
temperature. 10-4 oscillograph 7. The radiation
f r o m the object under observation
entered the lower part of the slit of monochromator 1, and w a s then
recorded by the second channel, consisting of an FEU-29 photomultiplier 3
and anIO-4 oscilloscope 7. The photomultipliers were fed by the VS-16
unit 5. The operation of both channels and t h e pulse light s o u r c e was
synchronized by an electronic unit 8. The s y s t e m was graduated in absolute
units by means of an SI-8-200 tungsten band lamp, which was inserted at
t h e intersection of the axes of the shock tube and the optical s y s t e m , while
the other p a r a m e t e r s of the optical s y s t e m remained the s a m e a s during
the experiment.

83
 L ________ -____ Z -I L..---l

FIGURE 6. Electric circuit of the pulse light source.

W
P

FIGURE 7. Time resolution of the emission spectrum of a puke light source,

 The auxiliary pulse s o u r c e functioned according t o the scheme in
Figure 6. A s e r i e s of five LC c i r c u i t s was discharged through a textolite
capillary tube of diameter 2- 3 mm. The pulse s o u r c e elements functioned
in the following sequence. The pulse f r o m the synchronization unit reached
the grid of the thyratron L, t h e thyratron opened and the capacitor C, w a s
discharged through it, As a result, a voltage pulse was generated on the
secondary t r a n s f o r m e r winding T T ~ which , initiated the breakdown of the
s p a r k gap P,, and high-frequency oscillations appeared in the circuit
comprising t h e capacitor C'? and t h e p r i m a r y t r a n s f o r m e r winding 7 ' ~ ~ .The
voltage was then increased on the secondary t r a n s f o r m e r winding T T ? . The
e
gap of the s p a r k gap P? w a s selected t o obtain a breakdown voltage of 2 O k v .
After t h e breakdown, t h e high-frequency oscillations appearing in t h e CnLl
circuit initiate the breakdown of the s p a r k gap of t h e capillary tube P,. The
s e r i e s of five LC cells charged t o a voltage of 3 kv was discharged through
t h e capillary tube.
The emission s p e c t r u m of t h e pulse s o u r c e (Figure '7) is continuous with
a s m a l l number of r e v e r s e d lines. Its brightness and color t e m p e r a t u r e s
coincide within the e r r o r l i m i t s and a r e equal t o 30000K.
It follows that the s o u r c e r a d i a t e s as a black body of t e m p e r a t u r e
30000K. The emission pulse of the s o u r c e has a trapezoidal form, and its
duration is about 300psec, the radiation remaining constant or about
200 psec.
The experiment was conducted a s follows. When the shock wave reached
the ionization s e n s o r , the l a t t e r t r i g g e r e d the synchronization unit, which
in its t u r n triggered the supply unit of the pulse light s o u r c e and the sweep
of the oscillographs. The t i m e intervals w e r e selected s o that the instant
at which the reflected shock wave a r r i v e d coincided with the zone at constant
radiation of the capillary s o u r c e . The first channel r e c o r d e d t h e quantity
+
IT,, (1 - A A ) C J L ] , and the second one I X , where J A i~s the radiation intensity
of the capillary s o u r c e ; A A is the absorptive power of the gas; I,, i s t h e
emissive power of the g a s ; c is the r a t i o of the sensitivities of the channels.

< "K
I
a

1-
I4000

I3000

12000

ll000

IO000

I;
1
21 25 27 29N
FIGURE 8. Radiation intensity FIGURE 9. Temperature of the air heated
(a) and absorptive power (b) as a by a reflected shock wave as a function of
function of time. the Mach number of the incident shock wave.

Since eel, in a first approximation the data obtained f r o m t h e first

channel yield the value of t h e absorptive power, while the e m i s s i v e power

85
 can be calculated f r o m the data of the second one. After measuring the
r a t i o of sensitivities of the channel, one can, if necessary, suitably c o r r e c t
the values obtained f r o m the f i r s t channel.
The a i r temperature in the section situated 4 m m fromo the end of the
shock tubeb was measured. A s p e c t r u m zone of width 5 A was selected
n e a r 4238 A f o r measuring the temperature. The s p e c t r o g r a m (Figure 2 )
and the dependence of the absorption coefficient on the wavelength (Figure 3 )
show that the given s p e c t r u m zone is f r e e f r o m impurity lines and corresponds
t o the absorption maximum (0.1) of the f i r s t negative band of nitrogen.
The radiation intensity ( a ) and the absorptive power (b) have been plotted
in Figure 8 a s afunction of time. The curves show that after the a r r i v a l of
the reflected shock wave the radiation remains constant for a p e r i o d of
lG-30psec (at times considerably longer), then drops rapidly t o a relatively
s m a l l value, and remains at that level for a considerable time. The absorption
is constant for 10-30psec after the a r r i v a l ofthe reflected shock wave, and
t h e n s t a r t s t o i n c r e a s e t o unity. The s a m e shielding effect of the radiation
ofthe auxiliary s o u r c e bythe gas being studied after the reflected shockwave
and the contact surface meet, was observed e a r l i e r in 161. No reliable
interpretation of this effect has s o far been given.
The experimental values of the a i r temperature a r e represented by dots
in Figure 9. The initial a i r p r e s s u r e in the low-pressure chamber was
5 m m mercury. The accuracy of the temperature measurement was 10000". *
The continuous curve r e p r e s e n t s the dependence of the temperature of the
a i r heated by the reflected shock wave on the Mach number of the incident
wave. These data a r e taken f r o m /8 /, where the temperature was calculated
f r o m the conservation laws. The theoretical values of the temperature a r e
givenin / 8 / for Mach numbers up t o 24; the values corresponding to higher
Mach numbers w e r e obtained by extrapolation.
The theoretical a i r temperature is seen t o coincide with the experimental
value up to Mach number 23. F o r higher Mach numbers a systematic
discrepancy is observed; however, taking into account the accuracy of the
temperature measurement and the fact that the theoretical values in this
region a r e extrapolated, it is impossible to s t a t e with certainty that a
discrepancy does indeed exist.

4. DISCUSSION O F THE RESULTS

The data of /1/ a r e out of date and a r e therefore not considered.

It follows f r o m an examination of the curves in Figure 3 that the values
of the absorption coefficient obtained on the basis of / 4 / lie above the
experimental values in the whole region of the s p e c t r u m under investigation.
This is due t o the absorption cross section of the negative nitrogen ion used
in 141, which is taken f r o m 191, and is assumed t o be independent of the
wavelength and equal t o 4. cm'. At 10000K the emission of the
negative nitroogen ion was disregarded, and therefore in the region of
4000-5000A the experimental and theoretical z a l u e s agree satisfactorily.
The data of 12, 3 / in the region of 4000-5000A describe satisfactorily the
experimental data. In the region of 3000-4OOOA a discrepancy is observed
between the experimental and theoretical values. In 12, 4 / the oscillator
strength of the second positive s y s t e m of nitrogen is taken n e a r the value
0.057 obtained in 1101. However, this paper does not analyze the possible

86
effect of impurities, whose emission can make an additional contribution,
which makes it n e c e s s a r y t o consider t h i s value of the oscillator strength
of the second positive s y s t e m of nitrogen a s the upper limit. The above-
mentioned papers imply that t h e value n e a r e s t the t r u e value is 0.039
obtained in Ill/, where the lifetime of the excited s t a t e of the second
positive s y s t e m of nitrogen was measured. The oscillator strength of the
f i r s t negative s y s t e m of nitrogen - was taken a s 0.035 in 141, according- t o the
data of 7 1/. The adiabatic approximation is assumed c o r r e c t . The authors
of 1 2 1 assumed the s a m e value f o r
Re! at. units t h e oscillator strength of t h e f i r s t
negative s y s t e m of nitrogen, but
assumed in addition that the square
of the matrix element of the dipole
transition moment Re'depends on
the internuclear distance: the
assumed relationship is represented
by t h e dotted line in Figure 10.
Hence, the values 0.032-0.035
and 0.039 a r e the best approximations
of the oscillator strength of the f i r s t
4 000 a,a" negarive and second positive nitrogen
FIGLIREi n . Dcpcndcnce of thi. s w a r t ' of the matrix s y s t e m s respectively. Since no
~ l c t i i ~ of
n t the dipole 1 1 1 0 r i i c n 1 of Vlectron transition radiation increase was observed in
of the first negative systcm of nirrogcn on the wave the region of 3500A in the present
length .
study, the relationship represented
by t h e solid line in Figure 1 0 w a s
adopted a s expressing the s q u a r e of the matrix element of the f i r s t negative
s y s t e m of nitrogen a s a function of the wavelength.
It was therefore found advisable t o introduce the following changes in the
computed values of / 2 / and 141:
1 ) to exciude the contribution of the negative nitrogen atom f r o m the data
of 141;
2 ) t o take 0.039 a s the oscillator strength f o r the second positive s y s t e m
of nitrogen;
3 ) t o a s s u m e that the s q u a r e of the matrix element is given by the solid
curve in Figure 1 0 .

3000 3500 'too0

FIGURE 11. Dependence of the absorption coefficient of air on the wavelength:
1-experimental data of the present study, temperature 115009<, pressure 60 atm: 2
according to the data of /2, 3 / with the rhanges indicated in this paper, temperature
120009<, yrcssure 50 arm: 3-according to /4/with the changes indicated in this paper,
temperature 12000'K. pressure 50 atm.

87
 FIGURE 12. Dependence of the absorption coefficient of air on the wavelength:

1-experimental data of the present study, temperature 10500%. pressure 50 atm; 2

according to the data of /2, 3/ with the changes indicated in this paper, temperature
10000%; 3-according to /4/ with the changes indicated in this paper, temperature
10000%.

The indicated changes w e r e introduced in the calculations of / 2 / and 141.

The dependences of the absorption coefficient on t h e wavelength obtained
a f t e r t h e s e changes w e r e compared with the experimental data. The r e s u l t s
of this comparison a r e shown in Figures 11 and 12, f r o m which it follows
that the changes yield satisfactory agreement between experimental and
theoretical data, with t h e exception of the region of 3 5 0 0 A .

CONCLUSION

1. The t e m p e r a t u r e of a i r heated by a reflected shock wave was

measured f o r Mach numbers of the incident shock wave between 2 0 and 30.
Satisfactory agreement between experimental and theoretical data was
observed up t o Mach number 24, while for higher Machnumbers a s y s t e m a t i c
discrepancy existed between the measured and theoretical values of the
t e m p e r a t u r e . This discrepancy, however, remained within the l i m i t s of
the measurement e r r o r s .
2. A comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of the
s p e c t r a l absorption coefficients of a i r established that the values used in
/ 4 / for the absorption c r o s s section of the negative nitrogen ion w e r e
overestimated, and that the values used in 12, 41 f o r the absorption c r o s s
sections of the second positive nitrogen s y s t e m w e r e likewise overestimated.
Calculations for t h e a i r absorption coefficients in the t e m p e r a t u r e range
1000-2400K and for densities 10-6-10' of the n o r m a l a r e given in 1121.
A comparison of the data of 1121 with that of 12, 3 / showed that t h e i r
numerical values a r e close.
The authors acknowledge the assistance of A. A. Volkov in conducting
this study.

B i b l i o g r a p hy

1. A r m s t r o n g , B . H . , I . S o k o l o f f , R . W . N i c h o l l s , D.H. H o l l a n d ,
and R. E. M e y e r o t t . Radioactive P r o p e r t i e s of High Temper
a t u r e Air.- J. Quant. Spectr. Radiative T r a n s f e r , Vol. 1,
No. 1/2. 1961.

88

 2. P l a s t i n i n , Yu.A. and G.G. B a u l a . Secheniya pogloshcheniya

elektronnykh s i s t e m polos dvukhatomnykh molekul (Absorption
C r o s s Sections of the Electron Band Systems of Diatomic
Molecules). - Sbornik "Issledovaniya PO fizicheskoi gazodinamike,
Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I t 1965.
3. N i k o l a e v, V. M. and Yu. A. P 1a s t i n i n . Vychisleniya poperechnykh
sechenii fotoionizatsii atomov azota i kisloroda i ikh ionov,
nakhodyashchikhsya v vozbuzhdennykh sostoyaniyakh (Calculations
of the Photo-Ionization C r o s s Sections of Nitrogen and Oxygen
Atoms and their Ions in Excited States). -Sbornik "Issledovaniya
PO fizicheskoi gazodinamika. I ' Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I t .
1965.
.
4.
B i b e r m a n, L. M. and A. Kh. Mn a t s a k a n y a n Teplofizika vysokikh
t e m p e r a t u r (High-Temperature Physics), Vol. 4, No. 2. 1966.
5. F1 a g g, R. F. Stagnation-Point Radioactive H e a t - T r a n s f e r Measure
ments at Supersatellite Velocities. - IEEE T r a n s . Nucl. Sci.,
Vol. 11, No. 1. 1964.
6. A m b a r t s u m y a n , E . N . , P. V. I o n o v , and A.A. K o n ' k o v .
Issledovanie spektral'nykh kharakteristic gazov, nagretykh
sil'nymi udarnymi volnami (Spectral C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Gases
Heated by Strong Shock Waves). - Sbornik "Issledovaniya PO
fizicheskoi gazodinamike. I ' Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I ' 1965.
7. K o n ' k o v , A.A., A . P . R y a z i n , and V.S. R u d n e v . Eksperimentall
noe issledovanie spektral'nykh svoistv inertnykh gazov, nagretykh
otrazhennoi udarnoi volnoi (Experimental Study of t h e Spectral
P r o p e r t i e s of Inert Gases Heated by a Reflected Shock Wave).-
Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika ionizirovannykh i khimi
cheski reagiruyushchikh gazov, ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I '
8.
F e r r i, A., ed. Fundamental Data Obtained f r o m Shock -Tube
Experiments.-Pergamon P r e s s , London. 1961.
9. B 01d t , G. Rekombinations-und "Minus"-Kontinuum d e r Stikstoffa
tome.-2. Phys., 154(3):330. 1959.
10. R e i s , V. H. Oscillator Strengths f o r the N, Second Positive and N,'
F i r s t Negative Systems f r o m Observations of Shock L a y e r s about
Hypersonic P r o j e c t i l e s . -J. Quant. Spectr. Radiative T r a n s f e r ,
Vol. 4, No. 6. 1964.
11. B e n n e t t , R.G. and F . W . D a l b y . Experimental Determination of the
Oscillator Strength of the First Negative Bands of Nz+. - J. Chem.
Phys., Vol. 31, No. 2. 1959.
1 2 . C h u r c h i l l , D.R.. B.H. A r m s t r o n g , R.R. J o h n s t o n , and
K. G. MU 11e r. Absorption Coefficients of Heated A i r : A
Tabulation t o 24000K.- J. Quant. Spectr. Radiative T r a n s f e r ,
Vol. 1, No. 314. 1961.

89

 Yu.A. Plustinin
SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATIONS OF THE
EMISSION OF HOT NITROGEN

This paper t r e a t s the emission s p e c t r u m of very hot nitrogen in the

visible and n e a r infrared regions of the s p e c t r u m 5450 - 8200 A. The
s p e c t r u m was excited by reflecting a shock wave f r o m the tube end 111.
This method has been used much lately in spectroscopic investigations of
gases. Measurements in hot nitrogen over the wavelength range indicated
a r e of interest when studying the f i r s t positive s y s t e m of nitrogen N2(1+).
Few such m e a s u r e m e n t s have been obtained in pure nitrogen 12- 41. Allen's
study / 2 / embraced the s p e c t r a l region ?, < O . ~ P , Wurster / 3 / investigated
the range 0 . 7 4 - 1 . 2 5 ~ , and Wray /4 f obtainedphotolelectric measourements
of the intensity at odifferent points of the s p e c t r u m 7200-10400A. Allen's
results for 10400A a r e given in 151. The chief a i m of /2-4/ was t o
determine the s q u a r e of the matrix element Re'of the first positive s y s t e m
of N,(l+) . It was shown in 141 and 151 that the values of Re'given in / 2 /
and / 3 J diverge considerably in both absolute values and the pattern of t h e i r
variation with wavelength. This discrepancy is discussed in 151, but no
conclusions a r e reached; further studies therefore s e e m appropriate. F r o m
an analysis of /2-4/ one concludes that t h e i r results a r e m a r r e d by a lack of
any photographic record of the emission s p e c t r u m of the hot gas, and by the
use of s p e c t r a l apparatus of average dispersion. It is therefore possible
that radiation f r o m foreign particles o r atomic nitrogen lines a r e p r e s e n t '
in the spectral zones isolated by the monochromator. Besides, s o f a r no
one has succeeded in obtaining an emission s p e c t r u m of nitrogen f r e e f r o m
the interference of impurities. The main shortcoming in obtaining
photographs in shock-tube experiments is that the photographic m a t e r i a l
is insufficiently sensitive in the n e a r infrared region of the spectrum. In
the present study the photographic sensitivity was increased by s e v e r a l
o r d e r s of magnitude using a three-stage image converter / 6 /, which
enabled nitrogen emission s p e c t r a t o be resolved at t i m e intervals of the
o r d e r of s e v e r a l tens of microseconds. In addition t o photographic
recordings, the standard photoelectric method was used t o obtain absolute
measurements of the radiation intensity. The simultaneous use of these
two methods yielded data on Re2for the s y s t e m N2(1+).

1. INSTRUMENTATION

The experimental s e t - u p included a two-diaphragm steel shock tube, made

of chrome-plated high, medium, and low p r e s s u r e compartments of 80 m m

5437 90
bore. The low p r e s s u r e compartment terminated in a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s q u a r e
section 35 X35 mm, connected by an intermediate section with a compartment
of c i r c u l a r c r o s s section. The radiation was observed both along and
a c r o s s the tube axis f r o m corundum a p e r t u r e s at the end of t h e shock tube.
L a t e r a l a p e r t u r e s were used in most of the experiments; the observation
axis was 4 m m f r o m the end surface.
The d r i v e r gas was helium under a p r e s s u r e of 200atm, and s o the
intermediate compartment was filled with helium up t o 1 atm. The shock
tube was equipped with a s y s t e m t o purify the gas being studied (removal
of solid foreign particles, drying the gas, freezing out the C O z ) . The low
p r e s s u r e was p 1 = 25 m m mercury. The velocity of the normal shock wave,
*
measured by means of ionization s e n s o r s , was v = 3450 30 m / s e c . The
given p i and u corresponded t o a design t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e behind
the reflected shock wave of T3 = 7100 f 30" K and pR= 34 f 0.4 atm. The gas
p a r a m e t e r s and composition of hot nitrogen w e r e determined by the usual
method 111, using the thermodynamic functions of nitrogen in 171. The
molar fraction of nitrogen was z=O.821. It follows f r o m / 8 / that the
design t e m p e r a t u r e of nitrogen -7000K coincides with the measured value;
the time-consuming pyrometric investigations of the working conditions of
our apparatus could therefore be dispensed with, On the strength of the
data in / 9 / we established that under our experimental conditions the
relaxation p r o c e s s e s behind the reflected shock wave ceased a f t e r 6 0 . l p s e c .
The equipment for the s p e c t r a l measurements consisted of a g l a s s
spectrograph ISP-51 with c a m e r a of f = 2 7 0 mm, an image converter with
multislit photocathode / 6 /, a f o u r - c h p n e l diffraction s p e c t r o m e i e r with
relative a p e r t u r e 1:7, dispersion 2 6 A / m m t o first o r d e r and 1 3 A / m m t o
second, and a condenser of f = 90 mm. The e n t r a c e slit of the s p e c t r o
m e t e r was 0.1 m m wide, and the exit slit 1m m wide. The radiation was
recorded in a l l four channels by means of FEU-38 photomultipliers and
OK17-M pulse oscillographs. The receiving-amplifier circuit was graduated
by means of a standard tungsten SI 8-300 lamp.
The beam of light f r o m the l a t e r a l a p e r t u r e was split by a s e m i t r a n s
parent m i r r o r into two p a r t s , one of which was directed t o the entrance slit
of the s p e c t r o m e t e r , and the other t o the entrance slit of the spectrograph.
With this apparatus, the radiation f r o m a givenvolume of gas couldbe studied
simultaneously by photoelectric and photographic methods. A n image-convert
e r photocathode was placed where the spectrum image formed i n the focal plane
of the spectrograph chamber. The spectrum was photographed f r o m the image-
converter s c r e e n o n highly sensitive f i l m . The spectrograph slit was 0.02 m m
wide. The image-converter had a delayed f r a m e - s c a n c i r c u i t , triggered by
a signal f r o m an ionization s e n s o r at the end of the shock tube.

2. MEASUREMENT RESULTS

Photogmphs of the emission s p e c t r a of nitrogen in the wavelength range

6300-8500 A a r e shown in F i g u r e s 1-3. Photographs w e r e taken a t intervals
of 33- 100psec, the exposure t i m e for each f r a m e being A t = 25- 80psec.
The line spectrum of a PRK-2 lamp w a s used f o r r e f e r e n c e / l o / . The

the image -converter s c r e e n was -

optical s y s t e m was focused such that>he resolution power a t the middle of
3A.

91
 The following conclusions w e r e reached. Atomic lines of nitrogen, the
band s p e c t r u m of the nitrogen molecules, and atomic lines of the impurities
a r e a l l excited in the spectrum. The following atomic lines w e r e identified:

Element Wavelength, A
N . . . 8216, 8185, 7468, 7442, 6723, 6645

0 . .. 8446, 7773

K ... 7699, 7665

CH . . . 7326, 7203, 7148, 6494, 646. 6439

0
One notes the presence in the s p e c t r u m of the intense oxygen line 7773A,
due to the u s e in the experiments of industrial nitrogen, which contains
0.3-0.8 70 0.

Wavelength, a
7400 7600 78Q0 8#00 8ZQU 84Q0 86N
v i - I ,---T~-rl
I

a b
FIGURE 1. Frame scan of the nitrogen emission spectrum (1) for wavelengths 7 3 0 0 - 8 5 0 0 i ,
-
3
D

A f = 25 psec,
and microphorogram of the emission spectrum (b) ( the second frame):
1- theoretical curve.

Wavelength, a
68K ~ 7000 7200 7400 76?0 7800
Sequence d o - 2

a b
FIGURE 2. Frame scan of the nitrogen emission spectrum (a) for wavelengths 6800--7800R, A t = 80 wec,
and microphotogram of the emission spectrum (b) (the second frame):
1-theoretical curve.

92
 Figures 1- 3 indicate that the number of impurity lines and t h e i r
intensity increase sharply with time. Thus, t r a c e s of K lines can be s e e n
on the s p e c t r o g r a m of the f i r s t f r a m e in Figure 1, while in subsequent
f r a m e s t h e i r intensity increases sharply. The lines of the other easily
excitable element Ca appear much l a t e r in the s p e c t r u m than the K lines.
Unlike the K and Ca lines, the intensity of the 0 lines is almost constant
from the t i m e the spectrum i s first photographed. The differences in
behavior of the radiation intensity of the K, Ca, and 0 lines a r e probably
due to the fact that the K and Ca atoms originate at the walls of t h e shock
tube, while oxygen is present in the gaseous phase throughout the radiating
gas. Additional observations of the K, Ca, and 0 lines from the end
a p e r t u r e corroborate this opinion. The emission s p e c t r o g r a m s established
that during the f i r s t 25psec a few weak impurity lines a r e present.

Sequence d u = 3

FIGURE 3. Frame scan of the nitrogen eniission spectrum (a) for wavelengths G 4 0 0 - 7 2 0 3 i , A f 80 vsec,
7

and microphotogram of the emission spectrum (b) (the second frame):

1- theoretical curve

A clearly expressed band s t r u c t u r e was observed in the nitrogen

spectrum, and this s e e m s t o correspond to the f i r s t positive s y s t e m of the
nitrogen molecules. This interpretation is based on the following consider
ations :
1 ) the theoretical distribution of the radiation intensity corresponds to
that observed in the whole wavelength interval;
2 ) a detailed analysis of the band s p e c t r u m s t r u c t u r e established that
the distances between the intensity peaks almost coincide with the distances
between the edges of the branches of the bands of the s y s t e m N , ( l + ) (2, 0),
(3, l), etc., which can be determined f r o m data on the rotational s t r u c t u r e
1131;
3 ) the variation of the oxygen concentration in nitrogen between 0 . 3 and
0.8 % d o e s not affect the spectrum and the relative distribution of the intensity
with wavelength. The corresponding photoelectric measurements of the
absolute intensity indicate that the intensity remains invariable when the
oxygen concentration is varied within t h e s e l i m i t s ;
4 ) The bands of the r e d s y s t e m of cyanogen a r e absent from the en-Assion
spectrum. It follows in particular f r o m Figure 1 that the s t r o n g cyanogen
bands n e a r A = 8000-w a r e not observed, and therefore the emission of bands
belonging t o this s y s t e m does not affect the intensity measurements.

93
 F i g u r e s I- 3 present microphotograms of emission s p e c t r a and t h e
r e s u l t s of calculating the blackening density, allowing f o r the s p e c t r a l
sensitivity of the converter radiation r e c e i v e r . The s p e c t r a l absorption index
of the f i r s t positive s y s t e m of nitrogen w a s calculated by a computer using
the formula /11/

where

Here, Q is the total statistical s u m disregarding t h e nuclear s p i n ; Re2 (h,,,..)

is the s q u a r e of t h e matrix element of the dipole moment, at. units; qu',,- is
the Franck-Condon f a c t o r ; Loo is the wavelength of the center of the band
( 0 , 0 ) ; T i , gl a r e t h e energy and statistical weight of the lower electron s t a t e ;
o0,ooze, ooyo, wozo a r e molecular constants; A h is the averaging h t e r v a l ;
[N,] is the concentration of Nz molecules; h is the wavelength, /A.
The single p r i m e s indicate the upper electron state, and the double
p r i m e s the lower state. The value ReZ= const w a s used in the calculations,
in addition t o the latest, most accurate values of the Franck-Condon factor,
given in 1121. They w e r e calculated for the potential c u r v e s of s t a t e s
A8Z and B3nof the nitrogen molecules, determined by the Klein-Rydberg-
Ritz method. The molecular constants w e r e taken f r o m a handbook 171.

- . . ..
a. K Intensity Intensity
__ .~ . - -_ _ . . _ _ _

1
~

5450
GOOll
4.16; 3.G
20.8; 23.5; 17.2;
16.G
30.6: 33.0 3R.0;
15.7; 1 7200
73i3
18.1; 19.3; 25.2; 26.9
l R . O : 27.2: 27.8: 20.6

F532 7490 32.0; 32.4

6780 12.2 7613 23.7; 31.0: 31.0: 19.2

6800 2o.n 7738 11.6; 16.0

6870 12.3; 15.6; 11.3 1767 12.0

6884 15.8; 15.1: 14.3

It is s e e n f r o m Figures 1-3 that the theoretical calculation d e s c r i b e s

satisfactorily t h e special features of the intensity distribution in t h e
emission spectrum, such as the maxima of the intensities of sequences
A u = 2 and 3, the s h a r p drop in intensity at the long-wave end of the
sequences, and the smooth drop at the short-wave end.

94
 The values of the absolute intensities obtained by the photoelectric method
a r e given in the table ( [Ihl=olw/cm3. p * s t e r a d ) . The s p e c t r a l range isolated
by the spectrometer was 2 6 A f o r wavelengths >
0 . 6 4 ~and 1 3 A for wave
lengths < 0.64~.

FIGURE 4. Oscillogram of the nitrogen emission, recorded a t right angles to

the tube axis.

FIGURE 5 . oscillogram o t the nitrogen emission, recorded from the end of

shock tube.

Figure 4 r e p r e s e n t s an oscillogram ofthe signal f r o m the photomultiplier,

characteristic for all the investigated regions of the spectrum. The lower
beam r e p r e s e n t s the time base, with a peak-to-peak distance of 10psec.
The values obtained for the absolute intensities (cf. the t a b l e ) w e r e used
to determine the square of the matrix element of the first positive s y s t e m
of nitrogen by the formula

where Ka was calculated by means of relations in 11, 2 1 ; Bh is Planck's

function; 1 is the thickness of the radiating g a s l a y e r ; I A is the radiation
intensity.

95
 The formula holds f o r an optically thin gas l a y e r . To t e s t this assump
tion, the intensity was measured during recordings of the radiation a t the
end of the shock tube. The corresponding radiation oscillogram is shown
in F i g u r e 5. A l i n e a r f o r m is observed on the oscillogram for 25psec, a
fact indicating that the radiation intensity and t h e thickness of the radiating
gas a r e related linearly 113, 141.
The r e s u l t s of determining the s q u a r e of the m a t r i x element over the
wavelength range 5450-85OOA a r e given in Figure 6, together with values
ifRe'obtained f r o m the relative
distribution of the radiation intensity
when processing the microphotograms
of Figures 1 and 3. A relative relation
ship was normed with the aid 2f data
on Re'for the wavelength 7490 A, obtained
by the photoelectric method. It is seen
62

f r o m Figure 6 that, according t o the

relative and absolute measurements,
the value of the s q u a r e of the matrix
0.1 element is constant over t h e whole
wavelength range studied: ReZ=0.19 k
k0.05 at. units.
L7 In o r d e r t o compare our data with
the r e s u l t s of 12 - 5 1 the l a t t e r must be
FIGURE 6. Re2 as a function of h. for the first
recalculated t o allow for the new values
positive system of nitrogen: of the factors q V v ' 1121. The r e s u l t s of
such calculations for the data of 12-41
I-averaged values of the present paper by
a r e represented in F i g u r e 6. The data
photographic and photoelectric methods; 2-
Allen's values /2/; 3-Wurster's values /3/; of Allen 121 and Wray 141 a g r e e
4- Wray 's values 14,'. satisfactorily with the values ofRezin
this study. W u r s t e r ' s data 131, on the
other hand, yield considerably lower
values of the m a t r i x element. Nicholls /15/ established a strong dependence
of Re on the mean internuclear distance, using the values of qY'," for the
potential Morse curve 1161. However, if the l a t e s t values of the Franck-
Condon factors a r e used / 1 2 / , the matrix element of the first positive
s y s t e m of nitrogen is constant r a t h e r than variable. This conclusion a g r e e s
with the r e s u l t s of the present study.
The author acknowledges the help given him by G. G. Baula.

B i b 1i o g r aphy

1. R a k h m a t u l i n , Kh.A. and S.S. S e m e n o v , editors. Udarnye truby

(Shock Tubes).-IL. 1962.
2. A l l e n , R., J. C a m m , and J. K e c k. Radiation f r o m Hot Nitrogen.-
J. Quant. Spectr. Radiative T r a n s f e r , Vol. 1, No. 314. 1961.
3. W u r s t e r, W. H. Measurements of t h e Transition Probability f o r the
First Positive Band System of Nitrogen.-J. Chem. Phys.,
Vol. 36, No. 8. 1962.
4. W r a y , K. L. and T. J. C o n n o l y . Nitrogen and Air Radiation in the
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 5. K e c k , J . C . , R.A. A l l e n , a n d R . L . T a y l o r . E l e c t r o n i c T r a n s i t i o n
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Studying U l t r a r a p i d P r o c e s s e s ) . - U s p e k h i n a u c h n o i fotografii.
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k i n e m a t o g r a f i i , M o s k v a - L e n i n g r a d , I z d a t e l ' s t v o AN SSR. 1959.
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State h e h i n d a Reflected Shock Wave).-Trudy FIAN, Vol. 18.
1962.
9. L o g a n , D. G. R e l a x a t i o n P h e n o m e n a i n E y p e r s o n i c A e r o d y n a m i c s ,
C o l l e c t i o n of t r a n s l a t i o n s . - Mekhanika, No. 1. 1 9 59.
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e l e k t r o n n y k h s i s t e m d v u k h a t o m n y k h m o l e k u l N,, O,, N,, NO,
C,, CN. F i z i c h e s k i e j z m e r e n i y a v g a z o v o i d i n a m i k e ( A b s o r p t i o n
C r o s s S e c t i o n s of E l e c t r o n i c S y s t e m s of t h e D i a t o m i c M o l e c u l e s
N,, 0,. N,, NO, C z , CN. P h y s i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t s in G a s
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" I s s l e d o v a n i e PO f i z i c h e s k o i g a z o v o i d i n a m i k e , " M o s k v a ,
I z d a t e l ' s t v o "Nauka. ' I 1966.
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f r o m Hot A i r . - Ann. P h y s . , Vol. 7, No. 1. 1 9 5 9 .
15. T u r n e r , R.G. a n d R . W . N i c h o l l s . An E x p e r i m e n t a l Study of
Rand I n t e n s i t i e s in t h e F i r s t P o s i t i v e S y s t e m IT,. T h e T r a n s i t i o n
in t h e F i r s t Moment,-Canad. J . P h y s i c s , V o l . 32, No. 6. 1954.
16. N i c h o 11 s, R. W. F r a n c k - C o n d o n Factors t o High V i b r a t i o n a l
Q u a n t u m N u m b e r s N, a n d N,+.- J. R e s . Nat. B u r e a u S t a n d a r d s ,
Vol. 6 5 A . No. 5 . 1961.

97
V . A . Bashilov, V . P . Shevelev

FLOW STRUCTURE OF IONIZED GAS IN AN

ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOCK TUBE

1. THE DISCHARGE PROCESS IN A CONIC

DISCHARGE CHAMBER

The p r o c e s s taking place inside a discharge chamber and causing the

flow of high-temperature plasma in an electromagnetic shock tube, strongly
a f f e c t s t h e behavior of the whole flow. In particular, a plasma "piston"
f o r m s in the discharge chamber, and leads t o the appearance of a shock
wave.
A conic chamber made of a transparent m a t e r i a l was used t o study the
p r o c e s s which brings about plasma flow. The p r o c e s s in the chamber was
recorded by means of SFR c a m e r a s , which took single films and made a
continuous recording. The p r o c e s s was recorded both inside the discharge
chamber itself and a t its junction with the plexiglass section of the shock
tube.
A number of papers 11- 3 J have shown that a pinch effect must be
observed during t h e discharge in a conic chamber. Only a s m a l l number
of experimental studies exist, on the b a s i s of which a conclusion could be
drawn about the actual discharge mechanism in a conic discharge chamber.
The experiments indicated that t h e following occurs (Figure 1 ) : f i r s t ,

luminous zone s t a r t s t o broaden symmetrically, until a f t e r -

a narrow luminous band appears along the cone axis; 6--8psec l a t e r the

the whole cone; 4--5psec l a t e r a glow appears in the region behind the
lOpsec it fills

annular electrode. A clearly visible revolving pinch then becomes visible

in the discharge chamber itself. The pinch revolves with constant angular
velocity, its period being approximately 10psec. The radius of revolution
of the pinch remains constant during the f i r s t 30psec and equal t o the radius
of the discharge chamber; it then s t a r t s t o d e c r e a s e , until a t the end of the
half-period of the discharge the pinch disintegrates completely. The pinch
rotation t a k e s place in a cone filled with luminous plasma. However,
photographs show that the plasmaluminosity in the pinch is m u c h g r e a t e r than
the luminosity of the surrounding medium. The rotation of the pinch
probably contributes t o the s y m m e t r y of t h e plasma efflux f r o m the cone.
No shock waves were s e e n converging t o the chamber center.
The rotating pinch exists for a fairly long period, and for roughly the
s a m e period a stable flow pattern can be observed at the exit f r o m the cone.
The p r o c e s s n e a r the chamber during the plasma efflux in the shock tube
was recorded in detail. The field of view of the recording instrument was
20cm. By inserting a f r a m e , photographs of the p r o c e s s w e r e obtained at
the junction of the tube with t h e gap. The plasma appears in the region

98
behind the annular electrode approximately lOpsec after the discharge
commences. Near the tube walls a narrow, pale ejection appears, which
gradually shrinks t o the center of the tube, forming a cone with a glowing
vertex. The oblique shocks converging t o the tube center gradually become
distinct, and t h e general pattern of the plasma flow f r o m the conic chamber
during this period resembles the pattern of supersonic flow f r o m a nozzle.
The angle at the vertex of the luminous cone increases, the vertex itself
becomes blurred, and after -12 p s e c the regular geometrical configuration
disappears. After another 5 p s e c , the pattern is r e s t o r e d . This restoration
was found t o be linked with the second half-period of the discharge c u r r e n t .

F I G W 1. Rotating iiiirror photograph of the process in the discharge chamber. The axis of the camera
mirror lies a t right angles to the tube axis.

2. THE PLASMA F L O W STRUCTURE FOR DIFFERENT

INITIAL DISCHARGE CONDITIONS

To elucidate the c h a r a c t e r of the plasma flow at different instances of

t i m e the p r o c e s s was photographed by two synchronized SFR c a m e r a s , one
of which made a continuous recording and the other a s e r i e s of photographs.
The f i r s t c a m e r a s e r v e d t o measure the propagation velocity of the glow
front, and the second to determine the instantaneous flow pattern. The
exposure time was 0.5psec p e r f r a m e .
At f i r s t , the plasma flow in the tube was observed at a distance of 3 0 c m
f r o m the annular electrode. The d r i v e r g a s e s used w e r e a i r , hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, and a l s o mixtures of t h e s e g a s e s . The
a i r was evacuated f r o m the tube t o a p r e s s u r e of 1. mercury, a f t e r
which the tube was filled with the d r i v e r gas t o the required p r e s s u r e . The
voltage in the discharge chamber varied between 3 and 5 kv, It was estab
lished that f o r an initial p r e s s u r e of 0.1-0.5 m m m e r c u r y the plasma
motion f r o m the discharge a r e a is accompanied by a gradual alignment of
the leading boundary of the plasma and the formation of a plane glow front.
The lower the initial p r e s s u r e , i. e., the higher the plasma flow velocity, the
e a r l i e r is the alignment achieved. Thus, for an initial p r e s s u r e of 0.5 m m
m e r c u r y (in the a i r ) the plane front was observed - 3 0 c m f r o m the annular
electrode, while for a p r e s s u r e of 0.1 m m this distance decreased t o
- 2 0 cm. F o r an initial gas p r e s s u r e of 1 m m and above, the leading front
of the p l a s m a glow n e a r the discharge chamber c e a s e s t o appear plane.

99
 F o r higher initial tube p r e s s u r e s the plasma efflux f r o m the cone is not
accompanied by the formation of a distinct and stable pattern, and t h e r e
a r e no oblique shocks a t the exit f r o m the cone. AS the plasma moves
f u r t h e r along the tube, the leading front of the plasma glow c e a s e s t o have
a distinct boundary.
The investigation of the plasma flow pattern at l a r g e distances f r o m the
discharge chamber showed that for low initial p r e s s u r e s (0.1-0.5 m m
m e r c u r y ) of the d r i v e r gas the leading front of the plasma remains plane
up t o a distance of 1.5 m f r o m the discharge chamber (no investigations
were conducted at l a r g e r distances). F o r higher initial p r e s s u r e s the
leading front of the plasma flow did not have a distinct shape a t l a r g e
distances f r o m the annular electrode, and the formation of "tongues" and
diffuse ejections f r o m the brightly glowing region was observed.

V, kin /sec

3l
0,!un/sec

Zff

IO 0

F: mm mercury u v , k"
FIGURE 2. Glow front velocity as a function FIGURE 3. Glow front velocity as a
of the initial pressure in the shock tube: function of the voltage on the capac
itor battery, for air.
1-hydrogen: 2-air; 3 -argon.

The photorecordings enabled curves t o be plotted of the variation in the

velocity of the leading glow front (Figure 2). The experiments established
that a change of initial p r e s s u r e does not affect the front velocity very much.
Thus, a variation in p r e s s u r e f r o m 0.1 t o 1 m m m e r c u r y in a i r only yielded
a 4 0 % change in the front velocity. No regular pattern was observed in the
glow front velocity along the tube. The velocity attenuation changed for
different initial p r e s s u r e s . Nevertheless, over a certain initial portion of
the tube (up t o 30 c m f r o m the annular electrode) the plasma was accelerated,
a f t e r which the velocity decreased gradually. An i n c r e a s e in the voltage
applied t o the discharge chamber from 2.5 t o 5 kv caused a l i n e a r i n c r e a s e
in the glow front velocity, while the pattern of i t s variation along the tube
remained unchanged. The dependence of the front velocity on the discharge
voltage is shown in Figure 3.
The dependence of the glow front velocity on the discharge p a r a m e t e r s
was studied for different d r i v e r gases. It was established that the velocities
in hydrogen and a i r differ by approximately 25 7' and vary a s a function of the
initial p r e s s u r e between 13 and 18k m / s e c for a voltage of 3 k v applied t o
the discharge chamber. The velocities in CO, and argon w e r e somewhat
lower (-10 - 14km/aec).

IO0

-- ... ..-- .--- .-I I

.. .I.I ,1111 I,.,
111 ,I I 111 I. I 1 I I -1 111 111 1111111111 111111111111 111111 111111 I l l
 The photographs could not shed any light on the nature of the glow at the
leading front of the plasma flow. The glow front was mostly identified with
the shock front, assuming that the gas glow was due t o i t s being heated
behind the shock front 14, 5 1 . A study of plasma flow along the tube showed
however that the leading front of the glow i s not always plane, a s it should
be for the propagation of a shock wave.

FIGURE 4. Rotating mirror photograph of the propagation process of the glow front in the top part of the
shock tube over a portion enclosed by light filters, for p = 7 m m mercury.

The fluid was dyed t o aid studies of the front s t r u c t u r e . Sodium chloride
was introduced at the central electrode of the discharge chamber, and the I

p r o c e s s was photographed in the monochromatic light of a sodium doublet.

The p a r t of the tube being photographed
was enclosed by SES-10 and OS-14 light
f i l t e r s whichoexcluded the s p e c t r u m range
5800-60008. The length of tube covered
by light f i l t e r s was 8 cm, and the total
field of vision of the S F R c a m e r a was
5 0 c m . The film used was sensitive t o
the red range of the s p e c t r u m
(Panchrome-13); a color film of
sensitivity 45 GOST* units was a l s o used.
During the discharge, the central electrode
m a t e r i a l w a s vaporized, and the gas
discharge plasma was forced out of the
conic chamber and moved along the tube.
Photographs w e r e taken at different points
I I I

0 2 4 E 8
of the shock tube f o r different initial
P,m m mercury discharge conditions (Figure 4). At initial
FIGURE 5. Distance between the glow p r e s s u r e s of 0.1-0.5 m m m e r c u r y and
front and the boundary of the sodium- voltages of 3.5-5 kv applied t o the
colored region, as a function of the discharge chamber, t h e r e was no differ
initial pressure of a i r ence in the recorded glow whether o r not

* [Gosudarstvennyi obshchesoyuznyi standart- All-Union State Standard. 1

101

I I I I I Il 1 I I I

the tube was enclosed by light filters. At a p r e s s u r e of about 1m m and

above and at a distance of 5 0 c m f r o m the discharge chamber, a s m a l l lag
is observed between the glow of the sodium-colored plasma and the leading
glow front of the plasma flow. Figure 5 shows a curve of t h e value A x of
this lag a s a function of the initial discharge conditions. On the tube section
near the discharge chamber up t o a distance of - 5 0 c m f r o m the annular
electrode, the leading glow front and t h e beginning of the sodium fluorescence
almost coincide even a t p r e s s u r e s above 1 mm mercury. As the motion
continues along the tube the leading glow front s t a r t s t o move away f r o m
the boundary of the sodium luminescence, and the lag i n c r e a s e s smoothly
with increasing distance f r o m the conic discharge chamber. At any fixed
observation point this distance becomes l a r g e r for higher initial gas
p r e s s u r e s in the chamber. A s i m i l a r pattern is observed when the voltage
applied t o the discharge chamber is reduced: the lower this voltage, the
higher is A x at a fixed observation point and for a given p r e s s u r e .
The photographs show that the propagation velocities of the leading glow
front and the sodium luminescence a r e very close, 2nd the lines correspond
ing t o them on the recording a r e almost parallel.
The experiments indicated that for all operating conditions of the
apparatus the radiation intensity of the gas-discharge plasma considerably
exceeds the luminosity of the shock-heated gas.
These r e s u l t s a g r e e with measurements of the plug length by continuously
recording the emission s p e c t r a of ionized gas from an electromagnetic
shock tube 1 6 1 .

3. THE INTERACTION O F THE PLASMA FLOW

W I T H A SOLID

Some papers, such a s 171, established that in discharge shock tubes the
t i m e of flow past a model considerably exceeds the computed value f o r a
shock wave with corresponding velocity. This discrepancy is normal, since
the existence of two zones has been established in a plasma flow, namely,
that of the shock-heated gas and that of the gas-discharge plasma, the l a t t e r
exceeding the f o r m e r in its dimensions by a factor of 10-15.
The flow past differently shaped bodies was studied using the IAB-451
Schlieren unit with an S F R c a m e r a taking s e p a r a t e films. Satisfactory
Schlieren photographs of the flow of ionized gas in discharge tubes a r e
difficult t o obtain, in view of the strong plasma glow, To obtain a s a t i s
factory Schlieren photograph, the optical s y s t e m between the exit s l i t of
the Schlieren unit and t h e entrance slit of the SFR c a m e r a was adjusted,
The two-line framing inset together with the conversion s y s t e m produced
an image of the model in a s c a l e such that a working field of vision of 13 c m
diameter was represented on a f r a m e of 10" diameter. To that end RO-2
and h d u s t a r - 2 3 objectives with focal distances of 75 and 1 1 0 m m respectively
were placed between the shadow apparatus and t h e SFR c a m e r a . Two knife
edges, each 0.4" wide, were inserted at right angles t o the flow in the
IAB-451 instrument t o produce a slit of height 8 mm. These adjustments
enabled a satisfactory Schlieren photograph of the flow past the models t o
be obtained.

102
 The window in the plexiglass section was made of polished optical g l a s s
of type K8. The g l a s s was washed a f t e r every experiment, and the film
of copper and soot removed.
The light s o u r c e was an IFK-300 pulse lamp with a bank of capacitors
of 200pf capacity and 3 kv voltage. To initiate breakdown, a specially made
s p a r k generator with delay circuit was used in the lamp. The g e n e r a t o r
was triggered by a pulse f r o m the SFR panel.

FIGURE 6. Flow past a wedge:

Exposure time 1 psec; initial air pressure 2 m m mercury.

P l a s m a flow past models was studied for different initial discharge

conditions, the tube p r e s s u r e varying between 0.5 and 5 m m m e r c u r y and
the voltage applied t o the discharge chamber between 3 and 5 kv. The
photographs show that the flow past solids of different geometrical
shapes in an e l e c t r i c discharge shock tube is the s a m e a s in an ordinary
shock tube f o r supersonic gas flows past a body.
Figure 6 shows a typical photograph of the flow past a wedge at an angle
of attack of 15" ( p = 2 mm m e r c u r y , V = 3 kv). A weak disturbance wave
appears at one s i d e of t h e edge of the wedge, while at the other is an oblique
compression shock. This shock is reflected from the tube wall, i. e., we
observe a typical flow pattern past the wedge of a shock wave followed by
the gas.
The experiments indicated that the inclination of the oblique shock is
unaltered when the flow is of a gas-discharge plasma. This means that the
Mach number of this flow is almost the s a m e as that behind the shock wave.
The shock angle i n c r e a s e s with t i m e (a fact indicating a d e c r e a s e in Mach
n u m b e r ) until the shock at the model disappears a f t e r 80psec. The t i m e
of flow past the wedge coincides with t h e time during which the discharge
c u r r e n t flows 171.
Studies of plasma flow past solids showed that a supersonic plasma
flow ( M - 3.5 in o u r conditions) exists in t h e e l e c t r i c - d i s c h a r g e shock tube.
Another important result was that no substantial difference was observed
between the Mach numbers of the plasma flow behind t h e shock wave and
the flow of gas-discharge plasma a s a whoie.

I03
Bibliography

1. K h o l e v , S.R. arid L.I. K r e s t n i k o v a . E k s p e r i m e n t a l ' n o e issle

d o v a n i e n a p r a v l e n n o g o potoka g a z a p r i i m p u l ' s h o m r a z r y a d e
( E x p e r i m e n t a l Study of a D i r e c t e d Gas Flow in I m p u l s i v e
D i s c h a r g e ) . - I z v e s t i y a VUZOV, F i z i k a , No. 1. 1960.
2. V a s i l ' e v , V . I . , V.S. K o m e l ' k o v , Yu.V. S k v o r t s o v , a n d S.S.
T s e r e v i t i n o v . Ustoichivyi dinamicheskii tokovyi shnur
(Stable Dynamic C u r r e n t P i n c h ) . - Z h u r n a l T e k n i c h e s k o i F i z i k i ,
Vol. 30, No. 7. 1960.
3. A l l e n , R . A . , J . C . K e c k , and J.C. C a m m . N o n e q u i l i b r i u m
R a d i a t i o n and t h e R e c o m b i n a t i o n R a t e of S h o c k - H e a t e d N i t r o g e n . -
P h y s . F l u i d s , Vol. 5, No. 3. 1962.
4. K o l b , A. C. M a g n e t i c a l l y Confined P l a s m a s . - P h y s . Rev., Vol. 1 1 2 ,
No. 2. 1958.
5. K o l b , A. C . - P r o c . F o u r t h I n t e r n a t . Conf. Ionization P h e n o m e n a in
G a s e s , U p p s a l a . 17-21 August, 1959.
6. B a s h i l o v , V. A. S p e k t r o s k o p i c h e s k o e i s s l e d o v a n i e p r o t s e s s o v ,
proiskhodyashchikh v elektromagnitnoi udarnoi t r u b e (Spectro
s c o p i c I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e P r o c e s s e s T a k i n g P l a c e in an E l e c t r o
m a g n e t i c Shock T u b e ) . - S b o r n i k : " F i z i c h e s k a y a g a z o d i n a m i k a ,
t e r m o d i n a m i k a i g o r e n i e , ' I Moskva, I z d a t e l ' s t v o "Nauka. " 1965.
7. L a d y z h e n s k i i , M . D . and L . G . C h e r n i k o v a . I s s l e d o v a n i y a
r a s p r e d e l e n i y a u d a r n y k h voln v r a z r y a d n o i t r u b k e (Shock-Wave
D i s t r i b u t i o n in a D i s c h a r g e Tube).-PPMTF, No. 2. 1961.

I04

V .A . Bashilov

ELECTRON CONCENTRATION BEHIND A SHOCK

FRONT AND IN A GAS-DISCHARGE PLASMA IN
A MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC SHOCK TUBE

Time-resolved emission spectra of ionized gas formed in an electro

magnetic shock tube w e r e obtained in 111.
This paper presents the electron concentration, derived f r o m m e a s u r e
ments of the halfwidth of the HB line assuming Stark broadening of the
hydrogen lines.
The influence of the following different side effects, which cause a
broadening of the spectral lines, w i l l be estimated:
1 ) instrument broadening, caused by the finite slit width in the
instrument for the spectral decomposition of light. Photographs of the
plasma s p e c t r a were taken with a slit width of 0.2 mm, which gave an
instrument broadening - 6 A for the IOP-51 spectrograph with c a m e r a
F = 300 mm;
2 ) Doppler broadening, i. e., a variation in the frequency of an emitter
moving at a high velocity according to the formula v = v,,,,, (1 - d c ) , where
u is the velocity of the emitter in the direction of observation. The Doppler
halfwidth is estimated by the formula

with the obviously overestimated value of 20000K for the temperature (at
a front velocity of 20 k m / s e c ) , we obtain for the hydrogen atom

A h D = 0.25 A:
3 ) shock broadening, appearing only at very high p r e s s u r e s .
These effects can be neglected for a halfwidth of HP- 40 A.
The s p e c t r a obtained on the spectrograph for different initial discharge
conditions were processed a s follows. The continuous s p e c t r u m of a
tungsten l a m p was photographed on the s a m e film through a nine-step
attenuator. The characteristic curves of the film were then plotted for
t h r e e points with wavelengths 6560, 4860, and 4 3 4 0 A (all the s p e c t r a
processing was conducted on an M F - 4 microphotometer). The value of
for each s p e c t r u m range was determined on the basis of these curves. The
H, and Hp lines of the s p e c t r u m under observation w e r e then measured
photometrically.

I05

 Using the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curves, we passed f r o m blackening values t o

values of the intensity. The halfwidth of the lines was determined a s follows:

L!%=
JO
0.5: Ig k
Jo
= Ig 0.5 = 0.301; Ig Jo,5= Ig J o - 0.301.

We found the value of the maximum blackening, namely Ig J o . This value

was marked on the characteristic curve, the value 0.301 was subtracted
f r o m it, and the blackening value S = Ig Jo,5 was determined f r o m the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve. The distance (in A ) was then determined for two
such points, located t o the right and left of t h e line center.
It l a t e r became possible t o simplify the determination of the line
halfwidth, s i n c e the values of J , and J0/2 f o r the lines obtained w e r e situated
in the region of normal blackenings, and therefore

Knowing y f o r the wavelengths of the lines Ha and HB, and having

determined So for the maximum line intensity, the blackening f x So.5can
be found, and hence the halfwidth of the line.

$2
8

6-

4- 3or

2-

S, cm
FIGURE 1. Electron concentration behind the shock FIGURE 2. The temperature behind the shock
front and in the gas-discharge plasma: front in hydrogen for p 0 = 4 m m mercury:
1-region of shock-heated gas; 2-region of gas- o -experimental points obtained on the basis
discharge plasma. of Sachs equation.

The transition f r o m the measured halfwidths t o the concentrations of the

charged particles is realized a s follows. Since satisfactory agreement is
observed between theoretical and experimental values of the concentrations
for contours of equal halfwidths, the concentrations w e r e calculated (without
a detailed comparison of t h e contours) by formulas derived theoretically
and corroborated by numerous experiments in both electric a r c s and shock
tubes 12, 3 1 . The line halfwidth f o r Holtsmark broadening a r e :
without allowing f o r the electrons
6 , = 15.6dN, sec-;

106
 allowing f o r t h e electrons

6," = 25aN'", sec-'.

Here, a a r e the effective Stark constants, equal t o 3.9 f o r Ha,t o 10.5 f o r

H ~ a, nd t o 2 1 for 13,.
The concentrations of charged particles w e r e estimated f r o m t h e H3
lines. The hydrogen line contour w a s measured every lwsec, and a c u r v e
of the electron concentration along the plug w a s plotted (Figure 1). In
addition, the electron concentration in the gas-discharge plasma w a s
estimated. F i g u r e 1 shows t h e considerable r i s e in concentration linked
with t h e influx of g a s - d i s c h a r g e plasma, followed by the gradual d r o p in
concentration as t h e gas-discharge p l a s m a moves away f r o m t h e shock
front.
Knowing the velocity of the shock front, one can link t h e v a r i a t i m in
electron concentration with the equilibrium t e m p e r a t u r e by Sach's formula,
and then compare this variation with t h e theoretical variation, using the
conservation laws. The theoretical and experimental r e s u l t s a r e given in
Figure 2.
The following conclusions can be drawn f r o m a comparison of F i g u r e s
1 and 2:
the values of the concentrations coincide (within the e r r o r l i m i t s of the
method) with the theoretical values, calculated f r o m the conservation laws
on the shock;
the coincidence i s observed up to the moment of a r r i v a l of the g a s -
discharge plasma. The concentration of electrons in it i s 2 to 3 t i m e s
g r e a t e r than the concentration of electrons in t h e plug.
The measurement of the electron concentra.tion showed that t h e r e exists
s o m e transition region f r o m t h e gas-discharge plasma t o the pure g a s ,
the concentration increasing smoothly in the direction of the g a s - d i s c h a r g e
plasma. This i s probably due to the diffusion of electrons f r o m t h e g a s -
discharge plasma t o the pure g a s .

Bibliography

1. B a s h i l o v , V. A. Spektroskopicheskie issledovaniya protsessov,

proiskhodyashchikh v elektromagnitnoi udarnoi trube (Spectro
scopic Study of P r o c e s s e s Taking P l a c e in an Electromagnetic
Shock Tube). - Sbornik: "Issledovaniya PO fizicheskoi gazodina
mike. ' I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. " 1955.
2. G r e i m, H., A. K o 1b, and K. S h e n. Stark Broadening of Hydrogen
Lines in Plasma.-Phys. Rev., Vol. 1 1 6 . 1959.
3 . K i t a e v a, V. F. and N. N. S o b o 1e v. Ob ushirenii l i n i i vodoroda v
plazme dugi i udarnoi truby (Broadening of Hydrogen Lines in the
A r c P l a s m a and the Shock Tube).-Doklady AN SSSR., Vol. 137,
No. 5, 1 9 6 1 .

107
 T . V .Bazhenova, Yu.S . Lobastou

R A T E OF THERMAL IONIZATION O F NITROGEN

AT 3000 -5000 "K

The time taken f o r an equilibrium degree of ionization t o be established

in nitrogen a t 3000-5000K was determined f r o m the absorption by nitrogen
of centimeter radio waves behind a shock wave in a square 7 X 7 c m 2 shock
tube. The high-pressure chamber was 125 c m long, and t h e l o w - p r e s s u r e
chamber 600 c m long. The velocity of the incident shock wave was measured
by means of two piezoelectric pressure-sensitive elements on an OK-17-M
oscillograph. Control measurements of t h e velocity of the reflected shock
and the s t r u c t u r e of the g a s column behind it w e r e obtained in s o m e of the
experiments with the aid of an IAB-451 optical shadow instrument and a
d r u m photometer. The accuracy of the velocity measurement w a s 1%.
The microradio-wave absorption was measured in a s p e c i a l plexiglass
section, f r o m the end of which t h e shock wave was reflected. The absorp
tion of radio waves of wavelengths 1.6 and 0.8cm, directed through t h e
measuring section in two mutually perpendicular directions, was measured
simultaneously; t h e width of the radio-wave beams did not exceed 20 mm.
The determination of the free-electron concentration and the effective
collision frequency f r o m the above measurements w a s described in detail
in 11-31.
The time taken t o attain an equilibrium degree of ionization in nitrogen
was measured f o r initial p r e s s u r e s in t h e low-pressure chamber of 1-5 mm
m e r c u r y behind the incident shock wave with MI, - 9 , and behind the reflected
wave for incident-shock Mach numbers of 5.5-6.8. The temperature and
p r e s s u r e , calculated f r o m t h e conservation laws, were -4000K and
0.13 a t m f o r an equilibrium composition behind the incident wave, and
3500-4500K and 1-2atm behind t h e reflected wave 141.
The radio-wave absorption oscillograms a r e shown in Figure 1. The
apparatus resolution, determined f r o m the time of radio-beam shuttering
by the shock wave, is less than l 0 p s e c (Figure 1, a), and t h e time taken
to attain a constant absorption level is 60-70psec. After the reflected
shock wave (Figure 1, b ) reaches the radio beam, whose center is located
20 m m f r o m the end, a gradual i n c r e a s e is observed in t h e absorption of
radio waves during the next lOOpsec, a f t e r which a constant level is
attained. A f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e in absorption is linked with the influx of a
secondary wave, produced by the interaction of the reflected wave with the
contact s u r f a c e 131. The reflected wave propagates with a velocity of
0.5 m m l p s e c with respect t o t h e shock-tube walls 151, and therefore t h e
g a s behind the reflected wave overlaps the radio-beam section f o r 4 0 l s e c .
Control experiments in air showed that bifurcation during the reflection of
the shock wave does not noticeably affect the absorption of radio waves.

I08
This is probably linked with the fact that a distortion to the reflected wave
front only exists in a narrow region near the front 161. The increase in
radio-wave absorption during 6Opsec is due t o the establishment of
equilibrium ionization of nitrogen.

_._
__IC1

f,

FIGURE 1. Oscillogram of radio-wave absorption:

Peak-to-peak distance is 10 psec; a-behind the incident shock: b-behind t h e reflected wave.

The free-electron concentration ne, measured after the first maximum

on the absorption curve, is between 10 and l O ~ m - for ~ M p 6-6.8,
p o = 2 m m m e r c u r y (Figure 2). These values of n, a g r e e with the computed
curve 141.
The time taken to attain an equilibrium degree of ionization under
atmospheric-pressure conditions and over the t e m p e r a t u r e range studied,
is 60-300psec (Figure 3). At 4500K this time is an o r d e r of magnitude
higher than the t i m e for the t h e r m a l ionization of a i r . By comparison,
Figure 3 shows the ionization time of a i r under the s a m e conditions (in a
coordinate f r a m e linked with the gas s t r e a m ) using data obtained e a r l i e r
behind the incident shock wave 171. The experimental data on the ionization
t i m e of a i r a g r e e satisfactorily with the values calculated in 17, 8 1 for the

109
reaction N 4- 0 t NO' 4-e (cf. Figure 3, curve 4), whose r a t e constant equals
3.10-ST-S/2cm-3. It was shown in / 7 / that the ionization t i m e of a i r for
T = 3000--5000K is mainly determined by the formation t i m e of the nitrogen
and oxygen atoms. The high values obtained in t h i s paper f o r the ionization
t i m e of nitrogen indicate that not only the formation of nitrogen atoms, but
the ionization p r o c e s s itself also represent a limiting process.
Two possible ionization reactions f o r nitrogen a r e analyzed in / 9 / :

2,,pet. a t m

!
I

68 MO

FIGURE 2. Variation of ne as a function FIGURE 3. T i m e to establish an equilibrium degree of ionization

Of M,. of nitrogen and air as a function of the equilibrium temperature T:
I-nitrogen behind the reflected wave; 2-nitrogen behind the
incident wave; 3-air behind the incident wave; 4-following the
data of /E, 9/; 5, 6, 7-following the data of /9/.

In a laboratory f r a m e of coordinates, the t i m e taken t o attain an electron

concentration n e a r t o equilibrium at a-shock velocity of 6.6 k m / s e c and
p o = 4 m m m e r c u r y , is / 9 / 0.4 and O.1psec respectively for reactions (1)
and (2). In a coordinate f r a m e linked with the g a s and under atmospheric-
p r e s s u r e conditions, this time is 2 4 and 6 p s e c for T =7000"K (cf. Figure 3,
points 5 and 6 ) . The ionization time of a i r , calculated in / 9 / for the
reaction N + 0 2 NO' +e, is 1.6psec f o r T = 6000K at atmospheric p r e s s u r e
(cf. Figure 3, point 7 ) .
The experimental data indicate that the ionization t i m e of nitrogen f o r
T = 4000K is an o r d e r of magnitude higher than the ionization t i m e of air
and a g r e e s with the computed values of 191.

110

-.............-... _ .... I. ....._._.--

,._..I..
B i b 1 i o g r a p hy

1.. L o b a s t o v , Yu. S. Usovorshenstvovanie metoda radiovolnovogo

zondirovaniya gaza, nagretogo udarnoi volnoi (Improving the
Radio-Wave Method of Studying a Gas Heated by a Shock Wave).-
Shornik: "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh
temperaturakh, " Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I ' 1964.
2 . B a z h e n o v a , T. V. and Yu.S. L o b a s t ov. Kontsentratsiya elektronov
i chislo soudarenii elektronov s molekulami vozdukha z a udarnoi
volnoi (Electron Concentration and the Number of Electron
Collisions with Air Molecules behind a Shock Wave).- Sbornik
"Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh
temperaturakh, " Rbskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. ' I 1964.
3. L o b a s t o v , Yu. S. Eksperimental'noe opredelenie elektronnykh
kontsentratsii i effektivnykh chastot stolkovenii s neitral'nymi
chastitsami v vozdukhe, N,, 0,. Ar, CO, and CO, z a udarnymi
volnami (Experimental Determination of the Electron Configura
tion and Effective Collision Frequencies with Neutral P a r t i c l e s in
Air, N,, 0,, Ar, CO, and CO, behind Shock Waves).--Sbornik
"Issledovaniya PO fizicheskoi gazodinamike, ' I Moskva, Izdatell
stvo "Nauka. ' I 1965.
4. L a z a r e v , P. P . Raschet gazodinamicheskikh i termodinamicheskikh
parametrov gazov z a padayushchei i otrazhennoi udarnymi
volnami (Gas - Dynamic and Thermodynamic P a r a m e t e r s of Gases
behind Incident and Reflected Shock Waves).-Trudy FIAN imeni
Lebedeva. Vol. XXX, Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I ' 1964.
5. B a z h e n o v a , T . V . , O.A. P r e d v o d i t e l e v a , and T.V. N a d e z h i n a .
P o t e r i p r i otrazhenii udarnykh voln v udarnoi t r u b e (Losses f o r
Shock-Wave Reflection in a Shock 'Tube).- Sbornik: "Fizicheskaya
gazodinamika i svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, "
Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. " 1964.
6 . Z a i t s e v , S.G., A P. S h a t i l o v , E . V . L a z a r e v a , and L . I .
T r u k h a n o v a . Issledovanie p r o t s e s s a vzaimodeistviya
otrazhennogo razryva s pogranichnym s l o e m potoka z a pada
yushchei volnoi (Interaction P r o c e s s of a Reflected Shock with
the Boundary Layer of the Flow behind the Incident Wave).-
Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh
temperaturakh, " Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. " 1964.
7. B a z h e n o v a , T.V. andYu.S. L o b a s t o v . K v o p r o s u o mekhanizme
termoionizatsii vozdukha (Mechanism of the T h e r m a l Ionization
of Air). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva gazov
p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, 'I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. ' I
1964.
8. L in, S. C. and J. D. T e a r e. Rate of Ionization behind Shock Waves
in Air, 11. Theoretical Interpretations.-Phys. of Fluids, Vol. 6.
1963.
9. H a m m e r l i n g , P., J. T e a r e , and B. K i v e l . Nonequilibrium
E l e c t r i c a l and Radiation P r o p e r t i e s of High T e m p e r a t u r e Air,
Nitrogen and Oxygen.-Proc. Fourth Internat. Conf. Ionization
Phenomena in Gases, Uppsala, Vol. 2. 1959.

111
G . P. P e t r o v a . E . K . Chekalin

ARGON PLASMA FLOW IN A CHANNEL WITH

A TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC FIELD

The investigation of the flow of ionized plasma in a t r a n s v e r s e magnetic

field is an important problem in constructing an MHD [magnetohydrodynamic ]
generator.
It is of interest in this connection t o study the boundary-layer effect in a
nonisothermal plasma channel flow in the presence of a magnetic field, on
the current flow between the electrodes.
A direct study of plasma flow in channels is very difficult. Shock tubes
11-31 cannot simulate fully the conditions near the channel walls and
electrode surfaces in real MHD generators, in view of the short duration
of the plasma flow.
This paper studies the magnetohydrodynamic properties of a steady
argon plasma flow in a channel with cooled walls.

1. DESCRIPTION O F THE APPARATUS

A steady argon plasma flow was created by means of an e l e c t r i c - a r c

DC plasmatron 141. The water-cooled anode of the plasmatron consisted
of a conic b r a s s nozzle with throat and exit diameters of 5 and 5.4"
respectively. The p r e s s u r e in the a r c chamber varied between 4.5 and
5 a t m for different working conditions of the plasmatron, and the r a t e of
discharge of argon was 25-30 m 3 N T P / h r .
F i r s t , the plasmatron was connected through joint gaskets with a 23 mm
long quartz chamber of 2 5 m m diameter and a diffuser. Two tungsten
electrodes of 1 m m diameter and 4 m m apart were mounted in the quartz
chamber perpendicular t o the axis of s y m m e t r y of the apparatus and the
poles of the electromagnet. The electrodes w e r e placed 14" f r o m the
nozzle exit (Figure 1). The quartz chamber and the diffuser w e r e not
cooled, and the tungsten probes w e r e heated strongly.
Later, w e used a cylindrical quartz channel of inner diameter 6 mm,
which acted as a continuation of the plasmatron nozzle, The channel was
enclosed in a quartz shell and cooled by water. A separate unit of two
cooled b r a s s electrodes was fastened to the end of the channel, the
electrodes being isolated f r o m each other by 5 m m thick talc-chloride
washers. The inner diameter of the electrode unit was equal t o the
diameter of the quartz channel. The electrodes were 15 m m long and 4 m m
wide. The channel was fastened t o the anode of the plasmatron and t o the
electrode unit.by means of refractory asbestos washers.

I12
 The electrodes w e r e thoroughly insulated f r o m the whole apparatus and
cooled by distilled water t o prevent shunting of the electrodes in the
direction of the water cooling. The layout of the plasmatron with channel
and electrodes is shown in Figure 2. The screening casing with a 4 m m
thick w a l l w a s made of Armco iron, and prevented the magnetic field f r o m
influencing the plasmatron a r c c u r r e n t . The s a m e figure shows the layout
of the electrocies and poles of the electromagnet (view f r o m the channel end).
The electromagnet poles had a c r o s s section of 14x16 mm', and the
maximum s t r e n g t h of t h e magnetic field w a s 4500gauss. The magnetic
field s t r e n g t h in the gap was measured by a coil of 1.5 m m radius with
11 = 50 t u r n s . The field in the gap w a s found t o be homogeneous t o an
accuracy of 1 0 % .

FIGURE 1. Layout of the plasmatron with quartz chamber and exit cone:

1-arc chamber; 2-cathode; 3-nozzle; 4-magnetic screen; 5-argon

supply; 6-water cooling; 'I-quartz chamber; 8-tungsten probes; 9-dif
fuser.

FIGURE 2. Layout of the plasmatron vith quartz channel and electrode unit:
1-water-cooled arc chamber; 2-tungsten cathode; 3-nozzle anode; 4
screening casing; 5-quartz channel; 6- water-cooled quartz jacket; 7-brass
electrodes; 8 -insulating talc -chloride washers; 9 -poles of the electromagnet;
10-water; 11-argon; 12-distilled water.

Figure 3 gives t h e current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for two different load

r e s i s t a n c e s i n t h e plasmatron circuit- for the c a s e s of p l a s m a flow in t h e
channel and f r e e d i s c h a r g e of the jet into t h e atmosphere. The g r a p h
indicates that t h e current-voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for t h e s e c a s e s coincide
within t h e a c c u r a c y l i m i t s . The inclusion of a magnetic field did not affect
the values of the c u r r e n t , a r c voltage, and argon r a t e of discharge.

113
 20 30 4o %IC cham, '

FIGURE 3. Current-voltage characteristics

of the electric-arc plasniatron:
1- l l , , = U . l < 2 2 ; 2- R , , = 0.14522; 3-free d i s
charge of the jet from the nozzle into the
atmosphere, 11, = 0.1452, Q A p = 24.2m3NTP/hr;
4-plasma flow in the channel, I!,, = 0.1452;
Q A ? =23.5 m3NTP/hr; %free dischargeofthe
jet into rheaunosphere, H, = 0.152; Q a , =
= 21.4 m3NTP/hr: 6-plasma flow i n the channel,
H I , = 0.1 Q , p A I = 24.5in3NTP/hr.

2. E X P F R I M E N T A L RESULTS

The emf induced by the flowing plasma and the current in the electrodes
circuit w e r e both investigated for various magnetic fields and different
working conditions of the plasmatron.
The values of the emf were measured by an M-193 voltmeter and an
ENO-1 oscillograph with an input impedance of 0.5 megaohm. In the absence
of a magnetic field the plasma flow induces a potential difference on the
electrodes varying f r o m experiment t o experiment, and probably due t o
the nonuniform combustion of the plasmatron a r c or a disturbance in the
coaxial alignment of the nozzle and electrodes.
Tests of two types of electrode showed that the s c a t t e r of the initial
potential difference is maximum for thin tungsten electrodes. This is
probably due t o the fact that when electrodes a r e introduced in a f r e e jet
of relatively s m a l l diameter, even s m a l l deviations f r o m the s y m m e t r y
can cause changes in the temperatures and velocities of the probes (in a
jet of such s m a l l diameter the temperature and velocity gradients a r e
considerable). In addition, during a prolonged operation the wire probes
became very hot. F o r l a r g e water-cooled electrodes in the channel, the
value of the initial potential difference was much s m a l l e r and m o r e stable
than in the f i r s t variant. These electrodes w e r e capable of operating for
long periods (all the experiments w e r e conducted with the s a m e electrode
unit ).
Oscillograph m e a s u r e m e n t s established that the voltage on the electrodes
has a variable component, the amplitude of whose oscillations is of the s a m e
o r d e r of magnitude as the emf; the frequency of these oscillations is

I14
I

constant and of the o r d e r of s e v e r a l kc. The inclusion of an RC c i r c u i t

( R = 200 !?, C = 0.1pf) enabled these oscillations t o be shunted. A s a r e s u l t ,
the values of the emf measured on the oscillograph and the voltmeter almost
coincided.

v;v

1000 ZOO0 300U +OOO B,gauss loo0 2000 3000 4000

8, gauss
FIGURE 4. Emf 011 disconiiec~tedwire probes as a FIGURE 5. E m f on cooled electrodes in a 58111111long
function of B : channel as a function of B :
1- rlarc = 4.53 atin; rare =260a , Varcrham' = 4. I1 atin, vaIc c ~ l a m 2 8 . 6 ~ I; arc cllanl =
= 3 2 v , u ~ ~20111~NTP/llr;
= 2 - 1 , ~=5atlll,
~ ~ l a r c cllaln 3 0 1 a ; Q a r ' 23.5ir1~NTP/llr
= 250a, I arc clla,n = 30 L , Q A r = 22 n ? N 1 P/llr.

The plasmatron was s t a r t e d s e v e r a l times in o r d e r t o m e a s u r e the emf

f o r given magnetic field strength B and given working conditions of the
apparatus, and during each of its operating periods the magnetic field
direction in the gap was a l t e r e d s e v e r a l times by switching the polarity of
the supply source at the terminals of the electromagnet winding. After
each operating period t h e channel and the electrode unit were thoroughly
cleaned. The values of the emf in the different experiments w e r e averaged.
Curves of the emf induced on the wire probes a r e shown in Figure 4.
Their characteristic feature is the nonlinearity of the dependence V = f ( B )
and the existence of maxima. The l a t t e r is probably explained by the
appearance of a noticeable leakage current between the probes on the
inner surface of the quartz chamber.
Figure 5 r e p r e s e n t s the emf on the cooled electrodes as a function of
B . The numbers on the graph represent the sequence in which the points
were obtained in the course of the s t u d y . The curve in Figure 5 is s i m i l a r
in shape t o the curves in Figure 4.

-----
I I
D I 2 3 t,sec
FIGURE 6. Typical oscillogram of the current in the circuit of cooled electrodes

The c u r r e n t in the circuit of cooled electrodes was measured by an N-700

recording oscillograph. U s e was made of galvanometers with a sensitivity
t o d i r e c t c u r r e n t of 1400 "/ma, and an internal resistance of.36 Q , which

115
III I l l l l l

s e r v e d simultaneously a s external load in the channel electrodes circuit.

The r e s p o n s e of s u c h a galvanometer is 40cps. Figure 6 shows a typical
oscillogram of the c u r r e n t in the electrodes c i r c u i t . The undeflected-beam
loop can be s e e n . After theinclusion of the plasmatron a r c , but in t h e
absence of a magnetic field, one observes a certain deviation (over a period
of 0.7 sec), corresponding t o the initial c u r r e n t on the electrodes in the
s t r e a m of burning plasma. The s a m e photograph shows the beam deviation
due t o a t r a n s v e r s e magnetic field in two opposite directions, but equal
magnitude.

emf. v a b

0 1500 3000 1500 300R

B, gauss E, gauss
FIGURE I. Emf and current in the circuit of cooled elecrrodes as
a function of the magnctic field strciigth:

1-shaft channel (38inin), v, I a r CCilal,,

V a r c c ~ l a l l=l 32 2558,
~

Q A r = 23.1 m3NTP/iir; 2-long chaiinel (58miii), Varc c ~ l a l n7 31v;

larc = 255a. Q A T =22.7 ni3NTP/hr.

The emf and the c u r r e n t on the electrodes have been plotted in Figure 7
as functions of the magnetic field strength f o r two lengths of the quartz
channel, namely 58 and 38 mm. The emf and the c u r r e n t in the electrodes
c i r c u i t a r e s e e n t o d e c r e a s e f o r increasing channel length.

3. DISCUSSION O F THE RESULTS

The r e a s o n f o r the nonlinear dependence of the emf on t h e magnetic field

strength I3 is not sufficiently c l e a r . Such anonlinear dependence w a s observed
in experiments with models of MHD generators 1 5 , 6 1. The working medium
was the combustion products of a fuel with an oxygen-nitrogen mixture.
The voltage on the electrodes (in open c i r c u i t ) was of the o r d e r of s e v e r a l
t e n s of volts, and the corresponding magnetic induction was of the o r d e r
of 1 0 kgauss. The authors noted that f o r a magnetic induction of 1 4 kgauss
t h e experimental value of t h e emf was roughly 15 70 lower than that obtained
by assuming a l i n e a r relationship between the emf and B . This discrepancy
is explained by the voltage drop on the electrodes and t h e leakage c u r r e n t s
along t h e s u r f a c e of the insulator separating the electrodes.
The effect of channel length on the induced emf and the c u r r e n t in the
c i r c u i t of cooled electrodes (cf. Figure 7 ) is easily explained by the intense
cooling of t h e plasma in the channel and the development of a boundary l a y e r
in it.

1 I6
 In fact, the longer the channel, the s t r o n g e r the cooling and the lower
the average temperature of the plasma in the region between the electrodes.
F o r two channels of lengths lI and Lz respectively w e have

where Ul,z is the average velocity of the plasma flow; T t , z is t h e average

t e m p e r a t u r e ; p1.a is the p r e s s u r e .
F o r any channel length the p r e s s u r e n e a r the exit of the s t r e a m f r o m
the electron unit approximates the atmospheric p r e s s u r e (cf. Figure 2),
s o that p , = p z .
It follows f r o m h e r e that t h e flow velocity in the electrode unit w i l l
d e c r e a s e with an increase in channel length, and the emf w i l l therefore
decrease.
Figure 7 implies that the d e c r e a s e in emf and the drop in plasma
conductivity caused by the cooling of t h e flow along the channel affect
strongly the value of the short-circuiting current. Thus, if the cooled
channel i s lengthened by 50 70 for B = 3000 gauss, it yields a drop of 7 0 70
in the value of the current and only 3 0 % jn the open-circuit emf.
When assessing the r e s u l t s it should b e borne in mind that the experi
ments were conducted with small-diameter channels, and therefore the
effect of heat l o s s e s in the channel on the various c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
plasma in the magnetic field was considerable.

Bibliography

1. N a g a m a t s u, H. and R. S h e e r. Magnetohydrodynamic Results f o r

Highly Dissociated and Ionized A i r P l a s m a . -Phys. of Fluids,
Vol. 4. 1 9 6 1 .
2 . S a k u n t a l a , M., A. V o n E n g e l , and R. F o w l e r . Ionic Conductivity
of Highly Ionized Plasmas.-Phys. Rev., Vol. 118. 1960.
3. M a k a r o v , Yu. V. Nekotorye issledovaniya protsessov v magriito
gidrodinamicheskoi udarnoi t r u b e s konicheskoi razryadnoi
kameroi ( P r o c e s s e s in a Magnetohydrodynamic Shock Tube with
a Conic Discharge Chamber).- Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodina
mika i svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh temperaturakh," Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. 1964.
4. P e t r o v a , G. P. Issledovaniya nekotorykh fizicheskikh svoistv
plazmennoi s t r u i argona (Some Physical P r o p e r t i e s of an Argon
P l a s m a J e t ). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva
gazov p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, I t Moskva, Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka. ' I 1964.
5. W a y , S., S.M. D e C o r s o , R . L . H u n d s t a d , G . A . K e m e n y ,
W. S t e w a r t , and W . E . Y o u n g . Experiments with MHD
Power Generation.- J . Eng. Power, Vol. 83. 1961.
6. W a y , S. Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Results i n a
Magnetohydrodynamic Generator. - P r o g r e s s . Astron. J .
Rocketry, Vol. 3. 1961.

1 I7
E . K. Chekalin, V . S. Shumanov

RADIATION OF AN EXPLODING WIRE IN VACUUM

The e l e c t r i c explosion of thin w i r e s has attracted much attention lately

111 in connection with i t s many possible applications.
Of particular i n t e r e s t is the u s e of exploding w i r e s a s a s o u r c e of
powerful radiation tubes in both the visible and ultraviolet regions of the
s p e c t r u m for optical pumping of l a s e r s 121. However, the radiation of
exploding w i r e s has s o f a r been insufficiently studied.
The study of the radiation of exploding w i r e s in a gaseous atmosphere
is made difficult both by the luminosity of the surrounding gas in the
explosion p r o c e s s , and by the absorption of the radiation of the exploding
w i r e in the surrounding gas. Figure 1 p r e s e n t s the vacuum chamber, the
arrangement of the measuring
instruments, and the elements of
the e l e c t r i c circuit of the discharge
a loop. The e l e c t r i c explosion of the
wires was realized in vacuum. A
copper w i r e 4 of 0.3" diameter
and 1 0 0 m m length was placed
vertically between special clamps
(electrodes) along the axis of the
vacuum chamber 3. The initial
vacuum in the chamber was about
3. loY5" m e r c u r y . The impulsive
discharge of t h e battery of capacitors
( C I = 4 0 p f ) was triggered by an a i r
s p a r k gap 7 from the SFR panel
a c r o s s the transition capacitor Cg.
The discharge c u r r e n t circuit
consisted of the high-voltage battery
Layout of the experimental apparatus: of capacitors C1, the a i r s p a r k gap 7,
1-mirror; 2-end window; 3-vacuum chamber;
a central conductor 5 connecting the
4-copper wire; 5-high-voltage electrade; 6 s p a r k gap with t h e lower electrode
terminal of the pulse voltage divider; 7- air spark in the vacuum chamber, t h e w i r e 4,
gap; 8-from the SFRpanel; 9-terminal of the an upper electrode and the cylindrical
Rogowski loop; 10-SFR camera; 11-ISP-51 spec casing of the vacuum chamber 3. The
trograph; 12-condenser lens; 13-to the SFR panel discharge c u r r e n t was m e a s u r e d by
t h e Rogowski loop 9, and t h e voltage
on the w i r e by the pulse ohmic divider R1 and R,, which w a s placed inside
the vacuum chamber and had a vacuum sealed coaxial t e r m i n a l 6 .
In the experiments, the initial voltage on the battery of capacitors w a s
30 kv. The discharge period was 45 psec, which corresponds t o a frequency
of 2 2 kc. The maximum discharge c u r r e n t w a s 150 ka.
 The SFR c a m e r a , placed on one s i d e of the w i r e (position b , c in
F i g u r e 1), both took single f i l m s and took a rotating m i r r o r photograph of
the explosion p r o c e s s through a plexiglass window.
In position a, the SFR c a m e r a made a motion-picture r e c o r d along t h e
vacuum chamber axis through the end window 2 .
The emission s p e c t r u m of the expanding plasma cloud w a s obtained by
means of an ISP-51 spectrograph 11, combined with an SFR c a m e r a 10.
The a r r a n g e m e n t of the spectrograph and t h e SFR is s i m i l a r t o that in / 3 / .
The emission s p e c t r u m , r e s t r i c t e d in height by the horizontal s l i t , was
focussed on the film in the SFR c a m e r a such that t h e wavelength axis of the
s p e c t r u m h was perpendicular t o the direction of t h e m i r r o r rotation. As
a r e s u l t , the t i m e resolution of t h e s p e c t r u m was obtained.
F i g u r e 2 p r e s e n t s photographs of the plasma expansion in vacuum and
a rotating m i r r o r photograph of the emission s p e c t r u m of the explodingwire.
The t i m e s c a l e on photographs a, b, c , d is the s a m e .
The photographs in Figure 2 w e r e obtained in different experiments, but
in view of t h e satisfactory reproducibility of the r e s u l t s they can be
compared.
It i s seen in F i g u r e 2, a that t h e cloud of expanding plasma p o s s e s s e s
cylindrical s y m m e t r y , and that annular glow l a y e r s a r e observed in the
radial direction. The leading boundary of the glow, s h a r p at f i r s t , becomes
b l u r r e d with time. Inside the plasma cloud, 2 8 p s e c a f t e r the commence
ment of t h e p r o c e s s , a region of bright luminosity w i t h a c l e a r - c u t boundary
is formed anew.
Inhomogeneities a r e a l s o observed in t h e direction of the wire axis, both
on t h e leading boundary and inside t h e cloud of luminous p l a s m a ( F i g u r e 2
b , c ). The rotating m i r r o r photograph of the motion of the leading boundary of
the glow front was realized a c r o s s a horizontal slit, on which the image
of the middle part of the wire w a s projected.
The continuous s p e c t r u m r e c o r d (Figure 2, d ) showed that t h e s p e c t r a l
lines belong both t o t h e copper atoms (most of t h e l i n e s ) and t o the m a t e r i a l
of the electrodes in which the w i r e is fastened.
It i s seen on the s p e c t r u m r e c o r d that initially t h e r e is a continuous
s p e c t r u m , probably caused by the glow of the finest liquid p a r t i c l e s of the
w i r e in the plasma, and a l s o by the electron b r e m s s t r a h l u n g accompanying
t h e e l e c t r i c breakdown of t h e metal vapors of the exploding wire. Individual
strongly broadened s p e c t r a l lines of copper a r e c l e a r l y s e e n on t h e back
ground of the continuous s p e c t r u m . The variation in the glow intensity of
the s p e c t r a l lines corresponds t o the amplitude of the discharge c u r r e n t .
After the f i r s t half-period of t h e discharge c u r r e n t ( 1 8 p s e c ) t h e r e
a p p e a r s in the red region a continuous s p e c t r u m with a s h a r p leading front,
whose intensity d e c r e a s e s in t h e direction of t h e short-wave region of t h e
s p e c t r u m . At the middle of t h e second half-period ( 3 2 p s e c ) t h e r e a p p e a r s
again an intense continuous spectrum, likewise with a s h a r p leading front.
On t h e background of the continuous s p e c t r u m the l i n e s of t h e absorption
s p e c t r u m a r e c l e a r l y visible. After 2 0 p s e c two s p e c t r a l l i n e s in t h e r e d
region a r e inverted. T h e r e a f t e r the l i n e s of the electrodes m a t e r i a l flash,
corresponding t o maxima of the discharge c u r r e n t .
A comparison of F i g u r e s 2 b , c , d , show that t h e continuous s p e c t r u m
after 18 and 3 2 p s e c a p p e a r s at the moment the glow zones inside the p l a s m a
cloud (moving f r o m the e l e c t r o d e s ) meet at t h e middle, in t h e region cut by

1 I9
FIGURE 2. Radiation of the plasma of an exploding copper wire of 0.3mm dian~ etcrand l O O m m length for fro=3 0 k v and p o = 3. lO-'mm mercury:

a-motion-picture record along the wire axis: b-motion-picture record on one sidc of the wire; c-rotatins mirror photograp11 011 one sidc of the wire; d -rotating mirror
photograph of the emission spectrum.
the narrow horizontal slit. These moving glow zones a r e probably produced
by f l o w s of electrode material, whose formation is not completely c l e a r .
It is mentioned .in / 4 / that the j e t s of electrode m a t e r i a l a r e possibly due
to the sputtering of the electrodes m a t e r i a l in the liquid phase. The
actual sputtering is analogous to the p r o c e s s of the e l e c t r i c explosion
of metallic wires. The continuous s p e c t r u m a f t e r 18 and 32psec is
t h e r e f o r e apparently of the s a m e nature as the continuous s p e c t r u m at the
initial stage of t h e explosion.
The existence of an absorption s p e c t r u m indicates that t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
corresponding t o t h e glow intensity of the continuous s p e c t r u m is higher
than t h e electron t e m p e r a t u r e in the outer l a y e r s of the expanding plasma
cloud. No absorption s p e c t r u m was observed in t h e r e d region.
Thus, both the integrated radiation of the plasma of an exploding wire and i t s
s p e c t r a l distribution are inhomogeneous in time and space.
The appearance of electrode jets is probably t h e r e a s o n for the intense
continuous spectrum, against whose background is observed the absorption
s p e c t r u m of the lines due t o the metal in the wire.
These facts complicate somewhat t h e utilization of exploding w i r e s as
a radiation s o u r c e f o r practical applications.

B i b l i og r a phy

1. C h a c e , W. Exploding Wires.-Physics Today, Vol. 1 7 , No. 8. 1 9 6 4 .

2 . S t e v e n s o n , M . J . , W . R e u t e r , N. B r a s l a u , P.P. S o r o k i n , and
A. J. L a n d on. Spectral C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Exploding Wires for
Optical Maser Excitation.-J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 34, No. 3. 1963.
3. B a s h i l o v , V. A. Spektrograf s zerkal'noi r a z v e r t k o i (Spectrograph
with Rotating M i r r o r ) . - P r i b o r y i tekhnika eksperimenta, No. 2.
1965.
4. M e e k , J. and J. C r a g g s . E l e c t r i c a l Breakdown of Gases.-Clarendon
P r e s s , Oxford. 1953.

121
E . K . Chekalin, V . S . Shumanov

ELECTRIC CHARACTERISTICS O F AN EXPLODING

WIRE IN VACUUM

The present study a i m s at measuring the electric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the

explosion of thin metallic wires. The energy n e c e s s a r y for the wire t o
evaporate in the explosion is transmitted t o it almost instantaneously
compared with the t i m e n e c e s s a r y for the ordinary evaporation p r o c e s s
of metal (which is s e c ) . The g a s in a volume equal t o the volume of
the wire w i l l t h e r e f o r e be subjected t o a v e r y high p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e
f o r explosion conditions to occur. When the s u r f a c e forces and magnetic
p r e s s u r e become unable t o contain the wire m a t e r i a l in its previous volume,
an explosive expansion of this m a t e r i a l occurs. T o avoid the shunting
effect of the gas surrounding the wire, and a l s o the complication of the
explosion p r o c e s s by the formation of shock waves in the atmosphere
surrounding the gas, the w i r e explosion was realized in vacuum (cf. Figure 1
of the preceding paper).
In most experiments the s y s t e m had the following p a r a m e t e r s : initial
voltage of the bank of capacitors U0= 30 kv; energy stored in the capacitor
battery W,= 18 kj; total inductance of the discharge circuit L = 1 . 3 henry; ~
maximum discharge c u r r e n t I,"=x = 150 ka; duration of the f i r s t half-period
of the c u r r e n t 2/2=23psec; maximum r a t e of i n c r e a s e of t h e c u r r e n t
(dI/dt)o = 2.3-10" a / s e c ; length of the w i r e I = 100 mm. The variation with
t i m e of the discharge c u r r e n t in the s e r i e s R , L and C circuit is described by
the differential equation

This equation is easily solved for constant R , L and C . In o u r c a s e the

wire r e s i s t a n c e , which r e p r e s e n t s the main part of the circuit r e s i s t a n c e ,
v a r i e s with t i m e in the c o u r s e of t h e explosion process, a fact which
considerably complicates t h e problem. The w i r e explosion takes a f e w
microseconds in a l l (see below), and s o the energy l o s s e s due t o heat
conduction can be neglected. The radiation l o s s e s up t o the moment at
which t h e wire melts can a l s o be neglected, since the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
w i r e s u r f a c e is not high. Then

e
0.24 P ( t )R ( t )dt = M d T , (2 1

where c is the average specific heat of the wire m a t e r i a l ; M , T are its

m a s s and t e m p e r a t u r e .

5437 122

I
 By solving equations (1) and ( 2 ) simultaneously one can find the variation
with t i m e of the discharge current and the wire r e s i s t a n c e ; this a s s u m e s
a knowledge of the dependence of the wire resistance on temperature, which
up t o the instant of melting approximately satisfies the relationship

R ( T )= & ( I + PT), (3 1

where p is the temperature coefficient of the resistance.

As in Sobolev's paper*, the following expressions were derived f r o m ( 2 )
and ( 3 ) f o r the resistance and temperature of the wire a s a function of time:

It is very difficult to solve equation (1)in the general case. If we r e s t r i c t

ourselves to the particular case when the current increases linearly with
time, we obtain with the aid of ( 4 ) equations for determining the resistance
and temperature a s functions of time. The validity of this assumption is
corroborated experimentally (cf. Figures 1 and 2 ) . Under these conditions

and the resistance and temperature a r e given by

1
R = ROrxp(At3), T = - [exp ( A t 3 ) - l ) ] ,
P

where

PO i s the resistivity of the wire material; 6 , d a r e the density of its material

and its diameter.
Therefore, the resistance and temperature of the wire increase
proportionally t o e x p ( A t 3 ) .
F r o m relations ( 6 ) one can obtain the time required t o heat the wire t o
its melting point, i. e.,

An approximate calculation of the required t i m e s for the other phase

transformations of the wire material is very difficult for most metals, in
view of the absence of reference data (or the existence of contradictory
d a t a ) for metals in liquid and vapor s t a t e s .
Table 1 c o m p a r e s theoretical (calculated by ( 7 ) ) and experimental values
of t , .
Issledovanie elekuicheskogo vzryva tonkikh provolochek (Investigation of the Electric Explosion of Thin
Wires).- Zhumal Fizicheskoi Khimii, Voi. 17. No. 11. 1947.

I23

. ... .. . . .. .

 TABLE 1.
-

Material
aluminum

d, m m . . ... . . . .. . . . 0.11 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.31 0.3

t , , calculated. .. . . . . . 0.38 0.57 0.83 1.1 1.49 1.01
t,, experimental . . . . . . 0.4 0.62 0.90 1.3 1.7 1.1
~. ..

Figures 1 and 2 give examples of oscillograms of the current and voltage

for different wires.
It is clearly seen that the time resolution suffices t o distinguish the
various phase changes in the material, and also t o follow the variation in
the resistance at every phase.

,. . * $ :- c

l i-
*I- r L-
.4-a-
* :*; :% ,1 4%

FIGURE 1. Oscillogram of the current I and voltage U during the explosion of a copper wire of 0.1 m m
diameter and 100mm length:
0. = 30 kv: time markings 0.1 w e c .

The variation with time of the discharge current in the intial stage of
the process is linear. The well-known current pause is absent in these
experiments. Only at the instant of wire explosion does one s e e a s m a l l
variation in d l l d t on the c u r r e n t oscillogram. Such a variation in the r a t e
of i n c r e a s e of the current is to be expected, since at the explosion time
considerable energy is transmitted to the wire f r o m the bank of
capacitors, leading t o a rapid r i s e in the temperature of the wire. This

I24
is accompanied by a s h a r p increase in the w i r e r e s i s t a n c e , and therefore
a d e c r e a s e in d l l d t , t h e r a t e of increase of the c u r r e n t .
L a t e r , a f t e r the breakdown of the s p a r k gap and the ignition of the a r c
discharge in the metal vapors, the c u r r e n t variation is mainly determined
by the e l e c t r i c p a r a m e t e r s of the circuit, since the resistance and inductance
of the discharge interval a r e s m a l l compared with t h e corresponding
p a r a m e t e r s of the discharge c i r c u i t .
The initial voltage drop on the w i r e is determined by the ratios of the
resistances and inductances of the w i r e and the whole circuit. The w i r e
resistance l a t e r increases with increasing temperature. The increase of
the w i r e r e s i s t a n c e , and the increase of the discharge current with time,
lead t o an i n c r e a s e in i t s voltage potential. The f i r s t point tl a t which the
curve slope v a r i e s rapidly corresponds t o the transition f r o m a solid t o a
liquid s t a t e , since the material cocductivity v a r i e s discontinuously during
the phase transition. At s o m e instant the w i r e is p a r t solid and p a r t liquid.
The second voltage discontinuity is observed at t i m e f2, the beginning of
the evaporation, a f t e r which the w i r e resistance i n c r e a s e s until the voltage
gradient along it becomes sufficiently high t o ignite an a r c in the metal
vapors a t time t 3 . Thus, f o r a copper wire of 0.31 m m diameter the
oscillogram yields /,,, ( t l - t u ) = 1.70psec, while the theoretical value is
t,,, _v 1.49psec (cf. the table). The s m a l l increase in the experimentally
obtained melting t i m e of the wire is due t o the lower discharge current at
the melting t i m e a s compared with i t s theoretical value.

FIGURE 2. Oscillogram of the current I and the voltage U during the explosion of a copper wire of
0.31mm diameter and 100" length:
U O = 30 kv; t i m e markings 0.2 psec.

I25
 One can derive data on the electrical conductivity of metals for different
phase s t a t e s of the m a t e r i a l by analyzing the electric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
explosion. A study can a l s o be made of the thermophysical p r o p e r t i e s of
metals in liquid and vapor phases a t high t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s .

126

..
.. .. - . .. . . ,
V . F . Vygovskii, E. K. Chekalin, V . S . Shumamv

DEFORMATION O F SOLIDS BY A N
EXPLODING WIRE

Applications of the electric explosion of a wire w e r e discussed in 11-51.

This paper presents experimental r e s u l t s on achieving permanent joints by
means of the electric explosion of a wire.
The experiments were performed on the apparatus shown in Figure 1:
discharge voltage [lo=40kv, capacity of the bank of capacitors CO= 451~f,
total inductance of the discharge circuit L = l.Oph, period of natural
oscillations of the discharge circuit T = 30psec.

3 4
7 b

a
FIGURE 1. Experimental apparatus:
a -electric blockdiagram of the apparatus: 1-rectifier; 2-charge resistance; 3 -bank ofcapacitors;

4-switciung dcvice; 5-igniting device: G-igniter capacity; I- wire;

b-layout before the explosion: 1-copper pipe: 2-plasticine: 3- wire; 4-steel ring: 5-forward

conductor

The exploding wire was wound in a s p i r a l on a straight insulated c u r r e n t

conductor placed inside a copper tube filled with industrial plasticine
(Figure 1, b). The deformation of solids by an exploding wire was
studied using a copper pipe (outer diameter d o u t = 20mm, wall thickness
3 m m ) , inserted in a s t e e l ring (outer diameter Dout= 4 0 m m , inner
diameter D i n = 20.5 mm, height k = 30 mm). Two annular grooves on the
inner s u r f a c e of the ring ensured the sealing of the pipe-ring joint.
The p r e s s u r e pulse generated by the exploding w i r e and communicated
t o the copper pipe through the plasticine, deforms it in a radial direction
and so welds the pipe with the ring,
The degree of radial deformation H'was studied experimentally a s a
function of the electric energy W s t o r e d in the bank of capacitors
(Figure 2). The value of H' c h a r a c t e r i z e s the quality of the pipe-ring joint
and is given by
H = cd;. -di")-(Di. -do"*) 100%.
D,

127
where a:., din a r e the internal d i a m e t e r s of the pipe after and before the
wire explosion.
Very strong pipe-ring joints w e r e obtained in the experiments.

y kj

FIGURE 2. Deformation H' FIGURE 3 . Microstructure a t the interface of the copper-steel

as a function of the energy W perinanenr joint.

of the bank of capacitors.

Magnification X 160.

Figure: 3 presents the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of the interface of the pipe-ring

joint. The s t r u c t u r e of the s t e e l ring consists of perlite and f e r r i t e ,
mainly located a t the grain boundaries. It can be seen f r o m the
figure that the pipe m a t e r i a l completely fills the inner r e c e s s .
Thus, by means of an exploding wire the required degree of deformation
of solids is obtained, whereby a joint can be satisfactorily sealed by
filling the inner r e c e s s e s of the ring with copper; this is achieved by using
capacitor banks of optimum e l e c t r i c power.

Bibliography

1. R u k h a d z e, A. A . , editor. Sbornik: "Vzryvayushchiesya provo

lochki" (Collection "Exploding Wires"). -1L. 1963.
2. C h a c e , W. Exploding Wires.-Physics Today, Vol. 17, No. 8. 1964.
3. R u k h a d z e, A. A . , editor. Sbornik "Elektricheskii vzryv provodnikov"
(Collection "Electric Explosion of Conductors"). - Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo "Mir. I t 1965.
4. C h a c e , W. Exploding Wires and Their Uses.-New Scientist, Vol. 18,
No. 339. 1963.
5. M o u n t f o r d , N.D.G. Shaping Metal by Explosion.-New Scientist,
Vol. 14, No. 284. 1962.

128
A . S . Predvoditelev

IGMTION THEORY OF TWO-PHASE MIXTURES

I

1. The ignition theory of combustible gas mixtures can be extended

t o two-phase mixtures. The energy balance equation is easily formed in
this c a s e , and consists of the energy in heating the gaseous phase and
liquid drops, the energy expended on evaporation, and t h e energy liberated
during combustion of the gaseous phase. In addition, the inequality of the
t e m p e r a t u r e s of the gaseous phase and drops must be accounted f o r ; the
l a t t e r is lower than the t e m p e r a t u r e of the remaining medium during the
evaporation of the drops. The t e m p e r a t u r e of the drops r e m a i n s constant
a s long a s evaporation continues. During ignition the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
gaseous medium must be functionally connected with the fuel concentration.
It is a l s o assumed that the kinetics of combustion is known, at l e a s t in a
general f o r m .
The energy balance equation can thus be established under t h e condition
that a burning zone is formed about the ignition s o u r c e .
The heating of the gaseous mixture is determined by the integral over
the volume of the burning zone:

dT
c,p x d v .

The drops a r e heated by heat exchange with the surrounding medium.

If rql r e p r e s e n t s the coefficient of heat t r a n s f e r of an individual d r o p (we
a s s u m e it has the s a m e value for each drop), N the number of drops p e r
unit volume, and S the s u r f a c e of an individual drop, then the energy
expended on heating the drops w i l l be

Suppose the burning r a t e is $(T,z ) and the specific heat liberated during
combustion is q ; the quantity of heat liberated in t h e burning zone will then
be given by

s Y 9 do.

The quantity of heat expended on evaporation (latent h e a t ) is

1N w h do.
129
where (jlis the latent heat of vaporization and +,
is the r a t e of evaporation.
The heat liberated by the external heat s o u r c e is

where cp is the coefficient of heat t r a n s f e r f r o m the s o u r c e t o t h e medium.

Hence, the total heat balance can be written as

2. Let the derivative d T / d z be designated by p , which has a definite

meaning during the mixture ignition. Equation (1) j s differentiated with
respect t o the variable z . At the beginning of ignition the product Cup is
assumed t o depend weakly on the cuncentration of the combustible constituent
z . Hence

The r a t e equation is now differentiated with r e s p e c t to temperature:

or

If equation (3) is substituted in equation (2), w e obtain

Using the mean-value theorem, t h i s becomes

where the b a r indicates the mean value taken over the burning zone.
Designate P by P,. We can then always alter s o m e mean values t o satisfy
t h e equalities

130
 Taking these relations into account, the lasc equality can be written a s
follows :

This equality plays an important role in determining the ignition

conditions of two-phase mixtures.

I1

1. Consider the slow heating of a two-phase mixture, for which the

following inequalities can be considered a s valid:

With these inequalities, equation (5) can be be expressed in the f o r m

or

-
2. Rapid heating of the material leads t o the formation and motion of a
burning zone. The value of P , w i l l then satisfy inequalities of the f o r m

F P 8 > =;
3 LGPs>q.

On the strength of these inequalities (5) takes the form

Hence

Consider the quantity P, written in the f o r m

p - AT
_ = _A-T ='c AT
-=--: A T An 1
'- Az r Az Trp An r r p '

where An is the increment in the n o r m a l during the formation time of the

burning zone. The value of A n / t m e a s u r e s the displacement rate g of the
burning zone. The temperature gradient is the r a t i o of the heat f l
w of
the mean heat conductivity of the medium. The displacement r a t e of
the burning zone and the heat flux Q have the s a m e direction. Therefore

P . = r gQ = . I (8 1
Q

Substituting (8) in (7a), we obtain

where the r a t i o g/$ can be replaced by

If ii r e p r e s e n t s the mean value of the t h e r m a l diffusivity of the medium,

equality (9)takes the f o r m

3. The r a t i o VIS r e p r e s e n t s the thickness d of the burning zone. Hence

V
-=a=ggt.
S

However, during the formation t i m e r of the burning zone the following

is valid:

Therefore

with the aid of which expression (sa)becomes

The heat fluxes, expressed in t e r m s of the coefficient of heat t r a n s f e r

and the average heat conductivity, are equal, s o that

AT
Q = TAT = I,-
An
 Equality (10) now takes the form

Using the identity

AT -
AT = - Q gT,
An T = -
An T h

which is valid here, ( l o a ) becomes

We have thus obtained a formula for the displacemect r a t e of the burning

zone in two-phase mixtures for a constant heat flux from the ignition source.
The burning r a t e of the gaseous phase can be represented by

$= (T)/(z) J

s o that the following equality i s thus valid:

Equation ( l o b ) can now be written in the final f o r m

The physical meaning of the t e r m s in this expression is easily understood.

In the absence of liquid drops the displacement r a t e of the burning zone is

- _-
aq A
g: = a l j
p .
MzQ

If the burning r a t e I) is almost zero, the evaporation zone moves with

velocity g,. Formula (11)then yields

g1 =
('Pi& + 891
41 F )EN
algF
QaT
Hence, formula (11)can be rewritten in the simple form

I33

 I11

1. We shall investigate under what conditions equation ( l l a ) has r e a l

roots a nd what is t h e i r number.
F i r s t , this equation is reduced t o canonical f o r m by putting

g=y+

With t h i s substitution formula ( l l a ) gives

y 3 - l2
y3 - 2 (2+-$ ) =o.

The canonical cubic equation has the f o r m

ys + 3py + 24 = 0.
Therefore, the following identities a r e valid in our c a s e :

The condition for one r e a l root and two imaginary ones is

alternatively

g;: ($ + $)> 0. (13)

The quantity go is always positive. Inequality (13) will t h e r e f o r e only be

satisfied when

25 +$ >o.
i. (13a)

It follows that when q1 is positive we s h a l l have one r e a l root and two

imaginary ones.
2. The expression

will now be transformed. In the stationary c a s e the quantity of heat

delivered t o one drop can be considered a s equal t o the latent heat liberated
p e r unit t i m e :

I 34

I
 With the aid of this equality g1 takes t h e form

Suppose the heat source for the ignition yields exactly the amount of heat
n e c e s s a r y for the evaporation of the drop. Then

v l S ( T - T d )N V QS,

and the l a s t formula can be written a s follows:

The r a t i o 1.1s can however be expressed a s

V
- = d = gt = g,
ill
.
S rl
Therefore

The factor before the brackets in this formula is identical with the first
t e r m of ( l o a ) , which is equal t o g; if AT is equal t o the difference ( 7 ' - T d ) .
These differences a r e not in fact equal in the general case. Jntroduce y,
defined by

This quantity equals the ratio of the t e m p e r a t u r e jump in the burning

zone t o that n e a r the evaporating drop. Therefore, in accordance with the
physical meaning, its minimum value is unity. In practice these two jumps
a r e hardly e v e r equal, although logically they could be.
With the aid of this expression formula (14) can be written in the f o r m

Substituting the value obtained for g, in (lla), we obtain

or

I35

 This cubic equation is in canonical form, where

3p= -7g: + ra3

( 2 '- Td)], 29 = -gi.

The condition f o r one r e a l and two imaginary roots is

or

The condition f o r t h r e e r e a l roots is

Both c a s e s can obviously exist. The f i r s t condition corresponds t o stable

ignition, and the second t o unstable ignition. Each c a s e depends on the
numerical value of the evaporation r a t e of the drops and on the value of 7 .
__
The quantity aT ig
( TF - T d ) can be interpreted a s the increment in the
evaporation r a t e of drops caused by a t e m p e r a t u r e gradient at the s u r f a c e
of the drops. If i t s magnitude is positive and l a r g e r than one, stable
combustion o c c u r s f o r a l l values of 7 . If it is positive and s m a l l e r than
one, stable ignition depends exclusively on the numerical value of 7 .

136
A . S . Predvoditelev

IGNITION CONDITIONS IN COMBUSTIBLE

GAS MIXTURES

INTRODUCTION

The l a r g e - s c a l e use of gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels in different

branches of engineering, has opened a new chapter of knowledge-the
physics and chemistry of combustion. Soviet scientists have been foremost
in this new science. Homogeneous combustion was mainly studied by
Semenov's school, while heterogeneous combustion was developed by the
author of this paper and his co-workers. Our understanding of hetero
geneous combustion was also advanced by Knorre's school, whose a i m was
to apply the theory.
The secondary phenomena accompanying combustion in industrial
machinery complicate considerably the theoretical analysis. The different
p r o c e s s e s of fuel combustion have however many common phenomena,
reflecting the nature of the combustion p r o c e s s ; these enable a theory of
the l a t t e r to be constructed independently of the type of equipment.
Without such a basic theory it would be impossible t o understand, even
qualitatively, the maze of combustion phenomena in industrial machinery.
Therefore, in the absence of such theories the engineering of furnace
machinery is doomed to an extremely slow development, which is quite
incompatible with our r a t e of technical progress.
The main phenomena of homogeneous combustion a r e spontaneous
ignition, induced ignition, normal propagation of the flame, turbulent
combust ion, and detonation.
Several problems connected with the ignition of burning mixtures a r e
treated in t h i s paper f r o m a new point of view.
The physics of homogeneous combustion devotes considerable attention
t o the so-called limiting phenomena, which a r e usually divided in two
c l a s s e s -limiting phenomena at spontaneous ignition and at induced ignition.
F r o m the purely physical point of view the two phenomena a r e almost
identical. The difficulties in t h e i r description a r e only due t o the chemical
treatment of the phenomena.
We propose in this paper a new method t o describe the phenomena of
spontaneous and induced ignition in quiescent gas mixtures.

1. THE CRITERIA O F SPONTANEOUS IGNITION

Consider a slowly heated closed vessel, filled with a combustible gas
mixture. We shall analyze the factors on which the ignition of this mixture
depends.
137
 A s long a s a chemical reaction has not yet started, no d i r e c t relation
exists between the temperature and composition of the mixture. Only a f t e r
the beginning of the chemical reaction does such a connection appear, since
the heat released during this reaction depends on the quality of burnt
material, and therefore also on the mixture composition. This is what
determines basically the conditions for t h e r m a l ignition of gas mixtures.
To solve the problem, w e shall determine the r a t e of the chemical
reaction by the change in the components of the g a s mixture.
If the concentration of a component is z , a sufficiently general equation
of chemical kinetics can be written in the f o r m

The function F ( T ) may coincide in a particular c a s e with the Arrhenius

function.
In addition, the energy balance equation must be satisfied over the
volume of the system.
The variation in the quantity of heat contained in a gas of volume V during
heating is

This variation must be compensated, first by t h e heat liberated by the

chemical transformations, expressed a s

where y i s the specific heat of the chemical reaction, and second by the
heat t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m the walls t o the g a s :

cps ( T , - T,)
9

where T . is the temperature of the gas mixture n e a r the wall.

If the wall is assumed t o be uniformly heated, the balance equation is

Equation (1)and (2) do not f o r m a closed system, and do not give the
condition f o r the ignition of a volume of gas mixture. During ignition, as
mentioned above, a direct link must exist between the t e m p e r a t u r e and
the mixture composition at any point in the volume, i. e., a relationship of
the f o r m

T = f(z).
The t h r e e equations (1)- ( 3 ) must hold simultaneously f r o m the ignition
time .

138
 When the f i r s t equation i s differentiated with respect to the t e m p e r a t u r e
T , and t h e second one with r e s p e c t t o the variahle
z, where

x e obtain

The derivative d P / d t can be eliminated f r o m t h e l a s t equation t o yield

Were the gas mixture heated at an infinitely slow r a t e , the t e m p e r a t u r e

and concentration would be the s a m e everywhere in i t s volume. Equality
( 4 ) can be integrated f o r t h i s particular c 3 s e and written a s

For slow heating, relation (4a) is valid at any instant. T o find the
ignition condition, the g a s p r e s s u r e P at the ignition t i m e must be known.
Consider s e v e r a l p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . Suppose P s a t i s f i e s the conditions

Equation (4a) then yields the relation

When the reaction at the ignition t i m e is of z e r o o r d e r , relation (4c)

becomes

This relation was derived by Semenov.

A second c a s e is a l s o possible, when only the first of inequalities (4b)
is satisfied, while the second one is replaced by

This equality implies that in e v e r y element of t h e ignition volume t h e

quantity of heat which heats t h e g a s is equal t o the heat liberated during t h e

139
chemical reaction. Bearing this in mind, we can w r i t e relation (4a) a s

These c r i t e r i a do not hold f o r rapid heating. In this c a s e the ignition

p r o c e s s is necessarily accompanied by the formation of a burning zone and
its propagation inside the gas. The integration of equation (4) must
therefore be taken over the burning zone volume. The s u r f a c e S must
likewise enclose the whole burning zone. Integrating the right s i d e of (4)
with the aid of the mean-value theorem, we obtain

In the c a s e considered the p r o c e s s of formation of the burning zone must

always be associated with a very high p r e s s u r e P. The following inequalities
must therefore be satisfied:

Taking t h i s into account, equality ( 7 ) is rewritten a s

The mean values of P,c,,p and a$faT a r e selected t o satisfy the equalities

Similar identities w i l l always be meaningful if the burning zone is

sufficiently thin. Relation (8) can then be represented in the f o r m

This formula can be transformed t o a m o r e interesting f o r m using the

following identities :

Equality (9) then takes the f o r m

 The derivative ( d T / d t ) , can be easily expressed in t e r m s of the displace
ment r a t e of the isothermal front. By definition

dT 1
g = - --, dT dT
d t z gx=-Z*
dn
F r o m F o u r i e r ' s equation we obtain

and therefor e

If this expression is substituted in (10) it yields

where h r e p r e s e n t s h,/pc,.
Let AT be the t e m p e r a t u r e difference between the s u r f a c e s of the burning
zone. Hence
=VAT.

Formula ( l o a ) can now be written a s follows:

The s u r f a c e S is equal t o the s u m of the s u r f a c e s enclosing the burning

zone:

If the thickness of the burning zone is d , its volume is

V Sld.
Relation (11)then becomes

If the t h i c h e s s of the burning zone is v e r y s m a l l then, without consider

able e r r o r , we may write

141
 A fundamental r e s u l t is now drawn f r o m this expression. Consider the
following relations f o r t h e burning zone:

d=gz, M = l i d t = % ,
0

where z r e p r e s e n t s t h e formation t i m e of the burning zone, and M the

quantity of burnt gas.
With t h e s e b e t t e r relations formula (12) can be expressed in the f o r m

- .-
2az
g= aTF- (12a)
A T 7 M

Thus, if conditions a r e c r e a t e d under which g s a t i s f i e s equality (12a),

the ignition p r o c e s s of the combustible gas mixture commences.

2. THE PRESSURE RANGE FOR IGNITION

Experience shows that g a s mixtures cannot be ignited a t all concentrations

and p r e s s u r e s . The question therefore a r i s e s how t o interpret t h e s e
phenomena: t o what extent do they depend on the chemical nature of the gas
mixture and t o what extent a r e they determined by the physical conditions.
The solution of this problem is important for both the theory and practice
of gas burning; the design of any device for gas burning must take t h e s e
phenomena into account.
On the s t r e n g t h of the Maxwell distribution of t h e r m a l velocities, the
gas mixture must always contain molecules with relative t h e r m a l velocities
capable of s t a r t i n g t h e chemical p r o c e s s . This phenomenon is not observed
because the d i r e c t and i n v e r s e p r o c e s s e s lead t o instantaneous concentra
tions of the reaction products with an associated lifetime whichis impossible
t o detect by conventional means. With a r i s e in t e m p e r a t u r e the concentra
tions and lifetimes become observable; what is m o r e , the r a t e of the direct
p r o c e s s may exceed that of the inverse process. We can thus conclude
that no component of t h e gas mixture can be completely expended.
Following t h i s idea, s o m e equilibrium concentrations of the components
must exist in any gas mixture. This equilibrium is kinetic, i. e., the
concentrations of the reacting components in a given t i m e interval v a r y
within definite, sufficiently narrow l i m i t s . If the t i m e interval is lengthened
with the aid of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , it is possible t o isolate in this cyclic
p r o c e s s a specific link in one direction.
The existence of cyclic reactions in the g a s affects the total p r e s s u r e s o
that it will fluctuate about s o m e mean p r e s s u r e . The amplitudes of t h e s e
vibrations a r e usually v e r y s m a l l and in practice cannot be directly
measured.
The s i m p l e s t equations describing p r e s s u r e fluctuations caused by cyclic
reactions a r e t h e Volterra equations.
Let p1 r e p r e s e n t t h e partial p r e s s u r e of the active center. This is
c r e a t e d due t o molecular collisions at high relative velocities, and can

I42
lead under suitable temperature conditions t o the development of the
chemical process. The quantity PZ is the partial p r e s s u r e of the gas minus
the concentration of the active center. The following equality w i l l then hold:

P = P1 + Pz.
When the gas is not ignited its p r e s s u r e p fluctuates with t i m e about
s o m e mean value.
The Volterra equations can be written in the f o r m

_
dPl -
d l - PI (a1 - P I P ~ ) , = -Pa (az- ~ L P ~ ) .

If the first equation is multiplied by pz and the second by PI, and t h e

resulting two equations then added, the following is derived:

Pz
dP1
a't + PI
dP2
= a1Pzp1 - azP1pz.
Now multiply the f i r s t equation by zz/pl and add the r e s u l t s . This yields

When t h e s e l a t t e r two equations a r e added, we have

This equality is easily integrated and yields

o r alternatively

F (pl, pa) = e-P@le-p@*pa.pa-

1 2
= const.

In the ( p l . pz)-planethe integral r e p r e s e n t s a closed oval curve, which

reduces t o a point under certain conditions. A definite value of the total
p r e s s u r e corresponds t o every pair of points on this curve. This p r e s s u r e
will fluctuate with a period corresponding t o the time taken t o make a
circuit of the oval curve.
Suppose z r e p r e s e n t s the concentration of the active center, where

z = E!..
P
The Volterra equations, expressed in t e r m s of z, will now have t h e f o r m

If the first equation is multiplied by the molecular weight m, of the active

center, the second by t h e molecular weight m, of the second component

143
 (which may be the mean molecular weight of any g a s mixture), and t h e
notation

introduced, equation ( 1 3 ) may be combined t o yield

d M = [ a l m l z -aazm4(1 - z ) ]p
dt +[ m & ( l - z)z - m & (1-z)]p2=
=F1(T, 4P+F2(T1,4PZ.
The following additional notation is introduced:

Consider a slow variation in the t e m p e r a t u r e n e a r the ignition point.

The mean t e m p e r a t u r e T of t h e gas is at first independent of z , s i n c e t h e r e
is no ignition reaction and no heat is liberated, although t h e number of
active c e n t e r s will i n c r e a s e slowly. At t h e ignition t e m p e r a t u r e z must
a s s u m e a c r i t i c a l value, s i n c e it determines the beginning of the chemical
reaction of combustion. The mean t e m p e r a t u r e will then depend on the
variable z, and t h e r e f o r e on the variable a s well.
The natural assumption which can be made about t h e ignition conditions
reduces t o the a s s e r t i o n that the relationship between the mean t e m p e r a t u r e
of the gas and M has a minimum, i. e.

dT=u=o.
dM

For the c a s e considered condition (4a) can be rewritten a s follows:

5 u)
(I++ [(%-+ PFl) p + (S+ 2PFz) P q = 1.
When condition ( 3 ) is observed, it follows that

[(S

+ + (S+PFl) p 2PFz) PZ] = $

where r e p r e s e n t s the coefficient of volume expansion of the g a s e s , givenby

We s h a l l determine the beginning of ignition with r e s p e c t t o t h e t e m p e r

a t u r e T, and p r e s s u r e p s . Obviously, this t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e s a t i s f y
(16).
If T , is kept constant and t h e p r e s s u r e increased, the mixture will burn.
Finally, a t a p r e s s u r e corresponding t o the second root of equation (16),
the mixture will again be nonignitable.
Thus, f o r every composition of the combustible mixture t h e r e exist
t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e regions of nonignition. Although we s t a r t e d
f r o m Volterra's equations in establishing the kinetic equality (14), the

144
whole c o u r s e of our reasoning, leading t o the existence of two ignition limits
with r e s p e c t t o the p r e s s u r e , shows that this phenomenon is wholly
determined by second-order reactions. Therefore, whatever model of
chemical transformations we attempt t o construct, given the two ignition
l i m i t s in t e r m s of p r e s s u r e , the leading reaction must always be of second
order.
Following Semenov it can be shown that t h e r e exist ignition regions
defined by c u r v e s having t h r e e roots with r e s p e c t t o t h e p r e s s u r e .
According t o our reasoning, a t h i r d - o r d e r leading reaction must exist in
this case.

3. THE CONCENTRATION LIMITS O F INDUCED

IGNITION

The reasoning of the preceding section can be extended t o the c a s e of

induced ignition. Consider a closed volume, such a s a sphere, filled with
a combustible gas mixture. Let a heat s o u r c e , whose t e m p e r a t u r e exceeds
the ignition t e m p e r a t u r e of the combustion gas mixture, be placed at the
c e n t e r of this volume. A s before, 9 is the coefficient of heat t r a n s f e r
f r o m the heat s o u r c e t o the gas, and S is its surface. With the ignition
of the gas mixture a burning zone of thickness d appears about the heat
s o u r c e . Equality (7), written in the f o r m

w i l l then hold for this zone. The mean values a r e chosen t o satisfy the
identities

s o that this equality now takes the form

This relation holds for the g a s ignition, i. e., for the formation about
the heat s o u r c e of a combustion front propagating throughout the g a s volume.
It is a l s o valid when a burning zone, which is incapable of propagating
throughout t h e gas volume, is formed about the heat s o u r c e . The l a t t e r
can be realized for very s m a l l values of P,. Since this magnitude (accord
ing t o equality (17))depends on the p r e s s u r e , it i s obviously possible t o
attain minimum values of P,. The displacement r a t e of the burning zone

I45

w i l l then be very low, and the whole g a s volume w i l l only ignite after a
l a r g e time interval. In fact, P , can be expressed by

where r is the formation t i m e of the burning zone.

It follows f r o m the identities obtained that for given reaction r a t e and
heat flux, P, depends on the displacement r a t e of the combustion front. For
low P, the displacement r a t e g of the front will likewise be s m a l l .
The p r e s s u r e for which P, attains a minimum value is t e r m e d the
minimum p r e s s u r e of the gas mixture.
For the minimum value of P, formula (17) can be approximated t o the
following :

The following equalities clearly hold:

-
VSAT = Q = -q -
d x
d t Sd = - 4 ( F l p + F2p2)Sd,
I p TSAT 9 (&P + F2PZ) .
d 8 - SdAM - AM

Equation (18) t h e r e f o r e becomes

where AM is the minimum quantity of reacting m a t e r i a l about the heat

source.
Hence, it follows that

However, according t o (14)

F1 ( T , Z ) =- + ( ~ z m+s ) = -b
~ 1 m lz
+ biz,
F,(T, z ) = (P2mz- (1 - 2 ) z = a ' ( l -
P1ml) 2) 2.

These relations enable ( 2 0 ) t o be rewritten in the f o r m

[- b + b l A M ) + b,;
"P = - a' [- A M - (1- 2 A M ) z-+ 91 '

146
 The roots of the quadratic expression in t h i s equation a r e positive for
all values of A M , however small. We can therefore w r i t e

where c1 and c2 a r e t h e roots of the quadratic expression. This equality

implies the existence of lower and upper l i m i t s subject t o t h e following
inequality:

b
a*
- . b l L

a*
AM - f >0.
Formula ( 2 2 ) was corroborated experimentally.

147

G . D . Salamandra

VIBRATIONAL FLAME PROPAGATION

IN A TUBE

The vibrational propagation of a flame is a self-oscillating process.

Any self-oscillating s y s t e m consists of the oscillating s y s t e m proper, an
energy source, and s o m e mechanism supplying the energy t o the oscillating
system. In the case of the vibrational propagation of a flame, the oscillating
s y s t e m is represented by the gas along which the flame propagates. The
energy s o u r c e is the heat energy liberated during combustion. (The
possibility of maintaining oscillations by means of thermal energy was first
noted by Rayleigh / l / . ) The mechanism supplying the energy to the s y s t e m
remains an open question, Its explanation is of considerable interest,
since it may provide a means for controlling the process. The present
paper deals with this question.
W e investigated the vibrational propagation of the flame in c i r c u l a r
tubes o f 3 0 m m diameter, a n d c r o s s s e c t i o n 36x36"' and 50X50mm2.
Combustible mixtures consisted of rapidly burning hydrogen-oxygen
mixtures and slowly burning carbon monoxide-air mixtures. The p r o c e s s
was photographed i n the f i r s t case by a high-speed SFR camera, and in
the second c a s e by the SKS-1 c a m e r a . The motion picture record was
supplemented by the continuous photography of the p r o c e s s . The gas
flow ahead of the flame front was visualized by the method described
in 1 2 1 . The Topler method was used f o r the photography. Both
conventional black-and-white and color Schlieren photogrFphs of the
p r o c e s s w e r e obtained, the l a t t e r with the aid of a lattice of color
filters 1 3 1 . Figure 1 shows the development of the combustion p r o c e s s
of an hydrogen-oxygen mixture, containing 67% 0, and 3 3 % Hz. On the
left is the continuous time scan of the p r o c e s s in a tube of 30"
diameter and 167" length, and on the right a s e r i e s of instantaneous
photographs of the s a m e process in a tube of 50X 50"' c r o s s section.
The flame front was recorded on the photographs in the f o r m of a d a r k
zone against a grey background. Artificially created inhomogeneities,
moving together with the gas, a r e clearly visible ahead of the flame
front.
The following conclusions were drawn f r o m an analysis of the
photographs :
1) the gas ahead of the flame is brought into motion by compression
waves generated by the flame front. The gas velocity is constant along
each of the disturbances;
2) the gas motion ahead of the flame front can be considered a s
one -dimensional.

148
 The gas motion ahead of the flame front was calculated by the method
of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The construction of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for a plane
isentropic gas flow in a bounded space was t r e a t e d in detail in 14, 51.
The method of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s was used in / 6 / t o calculate the gas s t a t e
ahead of the flame front, propagating in long tubes, when the combustion
is accompanied by the formation ahead
. of it of a shock wave o r a transition
d b into detonation. This method gave
r e s u l t s agreeing satisfactorily with
experimental r e s u l t s .
F o r combustion in s h o r t tubes, the
calculation is complicated somewhat
by the necessity of allowing f o r the
influence of the waves reflected
f r o m both the tube end and the
flame front. Figure 2 r e p r e s e n t s
a part of the wave diagram of the
p r o c e s s shown in Figure 1 , a . The
a b s c i s s a r e p r e s e n t s the distance x,
and the ordinate the t i m e t . The
flame is represented by the bold line.
The position of the walls is
indicated by vertical lines with
coordinates x = 0 and r = 1 6 7 mm. The
f i g u r e s I, 11, IIIdesignate the artificially
created inhomogeneities. The ( 5 ,t )
plane is covered by a grid of c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s , constructed a s follows.
The slope of the characteristic
0-0, starting f r o m point 0 is
determined by the sound velocity in
the undisturbedgas, equalto 3 9 4 m / s e c .
This characteristic i n t e r s e c t s the wall
at Oo. The region 0, O,,x corresponds
t o the state of r e s t . To construct the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c starting f r o m point 1
it is n e c e s s a r y t o know the gas velocity
u and the sound velocity a at this point.
The gas velocity ahead of the flame
front is determined f r o m the t i m e
r e c o r d of the process 161. The sound
velocity was determined f r o m the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c in the ( u , a)-plane
(Figure 3). Due t o a suitable selection
of the s c a l e , this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
FIGURE 1. Combustion o f a hydrogen-oxygen r e p r e s e n t s a straight line inclined at
mixture containing 67 qo 0, and 33 q n HI:
I
an angle of 45" t o the coordinate axes.
a-continuous time scan of the process: b
Knowing the value of u and a at 1, we
series of instantaneous photographs. Rate of draw a straight c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t a r t i n g
photography 200000 f r a meshec; 1- flame; f r o m point 1 in the ( 5 , t )-plane (cf.
2-artificially created inhomogeneity. F i g u r e 2). Its equation is dxldt = u f a .

149
 Through 0, we draw a straight c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ofthe second family dxidt = -a,,
where a, is the sound velocity in f r e s h a i r . The intersection of the two
straight c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s determines the point O1. The characteristic
s t a r t i n g f r o m 2 is constructed similarly. The point 0,lies at the i n t e r s e c
tion of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s starting f r o m points 2 and 0,. The slope of the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c O,,O, is determined by the sound velocity at 0,, equal to the
sound velocity at 1. To find the values of u and a, necessary f o r construct
ing the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 0,, 1, we draw the straight line u - u1 = - (2Iy - 1) x
X(a--a,) through point 1 in the ( u, a)-plane. This straight line, making an
angle of 90" with the characteristic 1, ... , 7, intersects the ordinate axis a t
l , , whose coordinates a r e the required values. The slope of the c h a r a c t e r
istic 0, , l , is determined by the coordinates of the point of intersection
of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the ( u, a )-plane, drawn f r o m points 1, and 0,.
The remaining c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e plotted in the s a m e manner.

FIGURE 2. Wave diagram of the process shown i n Figure 1, a .

F r o m the wave d i a g r a m of the p r o c e s s it is possible t o construct the

distribution of the gas velocities between the flame front and the tube end
at any moment. The corresponding construction f o r five different moments

150
is given in Figure 4, where the a b s c i s s a axis r e p r e s e n t s t h e distance
traveled by the flame f r o m the ignition point, and the ordinate axis
r e p r e s e n t s the gas velocity. The vertical line indicates the flame
position at the instant under consideration. The horizontal line is
drawn at a level corresponding t o the flame velocity at the given time.
The points indicate the experimentally obtained gas velocities, with
which the calculation a g r e e s satisfactorily, Note t h e coincidence of
the oscillation phases at a l l sections along the tube; this is c h a r a c t e r
istic for a standing wave in a medium at rest.
The compression waves propagating in the burning medium affect
the shape of the flame front by altering the quantity of g a s burning
in it. Although the question of
2 the interaction between the
- a , m/sec
Y-1 c o m p r e s s i o n waves and t h e flame
front is of great i n t e r e s t ,
sufficient data does not yet exist
on the variation of the flame
front shape during vibrational
combustion.
It is known that Schlieren
photography visualizes regions
in which the first derivative of
the refraction index differs f r o m
zero. Since the gradient of the
refraction index is maximum in
the zone of heating, this zone
is always recorded in t h e
S c N i e r e n photographs. F r o m its
variation one obtains an idea
about the variation .in the flame
front shape (assuming that during
interaction with the acoustic waves
the burning zone is deformed in
the s a m e manner as the heating
zone). The photographs in Figure 5
(on p. 1 5 5 ) show that this is not so.
According to the f i l t e r a r r a n g e m e n t
in the lattice used in the experi
ments, the undisturbed field of the
Schlieren photograph is r e d [ g r a y
background], the region of s m a l l
gradients of the refraction index is
green [fringes], and the region of
l a r g e gradients is blue [band
between fringes]. When inter
preting color Schlieren photographs
one must b e a r in mind that due
t o the finite width of t h e l a t t i c e
0 20 40
s t r i p s every color includes
U,m/sec
certain angles of deviation. T h e
FIGURE 3. Characteristics in the ( Y, a 1-plane. wider t h e lattice s t r i p s , the

151
 l a r g e r the region of deviations c o r
responding t o the s a m e color. W e
u s e d a l a t t i c e ofstripwidth0.5 mm.
The Schlieren photograph
shows that t h e development of
the p r o c e s s is accompanied not
only by a variation in t h e total
width of the zone recorded on
the photograph, but a l s o by a
redistribution of t h e regions with
different refraction-index gradients
inside this zone. The leading
boundary of t h e heating zone, which is
habitually used f o r outlining the shape
of the flame front, v a r i e s much m o r e
Distance, m m
slowlythanthe combustion zone. F o r
FIGURE 4. Distribution of the gas velocities between a detailed study of the flame front
the flame fmnt and the end of the tube at different s t r u c t u r e t h e n u m b e r of filters in
instances of time: the lattice must be increased.
1-3*10-4sec; 275*10-4;3--7*10-4; 4- 8.10-4; The following conclusions can be
5--10-'. drawn f r o m here.
1. For the vibrational propaga
tion of a flame in a tube, the gas ahead of the flame front is s e t in motion
by the disturbances generated by the front. The problem of the gas
motion ahead of the flame front can be considered as one-dimensional.
The calculations of the gas s t a t e ahead of the flame front by the method
of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a g r e e satisfactorily with experimental r e s u l t s .
2. F o r a m o r e detailed study of the flame front s t r u c t u r e in the c a s e of
vibrational combustion it is n e c e s s a r y t o u s e color Schlieren photographs.

Bibliography

1. L o r d R a y l e i g h . Theory of Sound, Vol. 11.-Dover Publications,

New York. 1896.
2. S a l a m a n d r a , G.D. and I.K. F e d o s e e v a . Izmerenie s k o r o s t i
gaza v s r e d e , sposobnoi k vosplameneniyu (Gas Velocity in an
Inflammable Medium).-IFZh, Vol. 7, No. 7. 1964.
3. S a 1a m a n d r a, G. D. Poluchenie tsvetnykh t e p l e r o g r a m m bystropro
tekayushchikh protsessov s pomoshch'yu pribora IAB-51
(Obtaining Color Schlieren Photographs of Rapid P r o c e s s e s
Using the IAB-51 Instrument).-Jn this collection, p. 153.
4. K o c h i n , N . E . , I.A. K i b e l ' , and N.V. R o z e . Teoreticheskaya
gidromekhanika (Theoretical Hydromechanics).- Part 11, Moskva,
Gostekhizdat. 1948.
5. Z e l ' d o v i c h , Ya.B. a n d Y u . P . R a i z e r . F i z i k a u d a r n y k h v o l n i
vysokotemperaturnykh gidrodinamicheskikh yavlenii (Physics of
Shock Waves and High-temperature Hydrodynamics ). - Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo Fiziko-Matematicheskoi Literatury. 1963.
6. S a 1a m a n d r a, G. D. Formirovanie potoka gaza pered frontom plameni
(Formation of a Gas Flow ahead of the F l a m e Front).-Sbornik
"Xssledovaniya PO fizicheskoi gazodinamike, 'I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka. 'I 1966.
152
G . D . Salamandra

OBTAINING COLOR SCHLIEREN PHOTOGRAPHS OF

RAPID PROCESSES USING THE IAB-451 INSTRUMENT

Optical methods f o r visualizing inhomogeneities in transparent media

have found many applications in various fields of science and engineering.
One of the most widely used optical methods is the Tijpler Schlieren method,
which enables one t o visualize regions in which the refraction-index gradient
differs f r o m zero.
The optical inhomogeneities a r e represented in Schlieren photographs
by differently illuminated zones against a uniform grey background,
corresponding t o the undisturbed field.
By means of a simple modification of Topler's s c h e m e color photographs
can be obtained on which the inhomogeneities a r e differently colored, each
color corresponding t o a definite gradient of the refraction index. Since
the eye is m o r e sensitive t o a variation in color than t o a variation in
background illumination, color photographs give considerably m o r e
information about inhomogeneities than the usual black-and-white ones.
They a r e particularly convenient f o r interpreting p r o c e s s e s n e a r the
boundary of a solid. The color photographs enable estimates to be
made rapidly of the distribution of refraction-index gradients in an
inhomogeneity, and often allow a quantitative a s s e s s m e n t t o be made a s
well. To obtain a color Topler image, the illuminating part of Topler's
s c h e m e must be adjusted somewhat by placing a p r i s m on the path of the
beam f r o m the light source to the first lens. This p r i s m d i s p e r s e s the
incident light into a s p e c t r u m /1--5/. Alternatively, the knife edge can be
replaced by a lattice of color filters /4, 6 / .
When the first method is used, the knife edge in the focal plane of the
second lens is replaced by a slit cutting out a part of the spectrum. A s
long a s the medium is homogeneous, the image plane w i l l be monochromatic.
If an inhomogeneity is placed on the beam path, a part of the s p e c t r u m is
shifted and light of a different wavelength passes through the slit. Color
zones appear in the image plane, i. e., the image of the given optical
inhomogeneity. The second method is s i m p l e r , since the illuminating part
of the s c h e m e remains unaltered. The lattice replacing the knife edge is
placed such that in the absence of an inhomogeneity t h e image of the light
s o u r c e appears at the center of the middle s t r i p . When an optical inhomo
geneity appears in the instrument's field of vision, the light r a y s passing
through the inhomogeneity a r e shifted through s o m e angle, thus causing the
image of the light s o u r c e t o appear on a different lattice s t r i p .
Differently colored zones, corresponding t o the image of the optical
inhomogeneity, appear in the image plane against the colored background,
which designates the location of the imdeflected rays. In view of the finite

I53

 width of the lattice s t r i p s , a single color will e m b r a c e a certain range of

deviation angles. Depending on the shape of the light s o u r c e used, t h e
lattice takes the f o r m e i t h e r of differently colored narrow s t r i p s (for a
line c o u r s e of light), or of colored rings (for a point s o u r c e of light).
In s p i t e of the obvious advantages of color Schlieren photographs over
black-and-white ones, color photography has s o f a r not been widely applied
because v e r y few Schlieren instruments produced in Russia a r e suitable
f o r color photography. Such instruments a r e v e r y difficult t o set up under
laboratory conditions. No l e s s difficult is the preparation of color lattices.
Lattices produced photographically a r e unsuitable for obtaining color
photographs. Lattices consisting of s t r i p s of colored optical g l a s s a r e even
m o r e difficult t o make, since the number and width of the s t r i p s , a s well a s
t h e i r alternation must be varied in accordance with the nature of the object
studied. Another factor hindering the development of color Schlieren
photography is the unavailability of color films of the required sensitivity
for photographing high-speed phenomena.
To obtain color Schlieren photographs of rapid p r o c e s s e s using t h e IAB
451 instrument, it was first n e c e s s a r y t o find a simple method of preparing
color lattices, and then t o select the light s o u r c e and developing conditions
t o e n s u r e the recording of high-speed phenomena on photographic m a t e r i a l
of low sensitivity. Our experiments established that foil filters a r e
satisfactory for the preparation of color lattices. Simple attachments enable
both s t r i p s and rings of any dimefisions t o be easily punched from foil
filters.
When photographing high-speed p r o c e s s e s at r a t e s of up t o 4000 f r a m e s
p e r s e c , the light s o u r c e comprised a light-pressure DRSh-1000 m e r c u r y
lamp. Alternatively, the IFP-800 flash bulb was used in conjunction with
a high-speed SFR c a m e r a , with a r a t e of s e v e r a l thousand f r a m e s p e r
second.
In the first variant the p r o c e s s was recorded on a r e v e r s i b l e OTs-2 f i l m
of sensitivity 22 GOST9; units, and in the second one on a negative f i l m of
sensitivity 35 units. The negative film was developed with the aid of
thallium s a l t s , which i n c r e a s e the light sensitivity of the film s e v e r a l t i m e s
in the course of i t s development /7-9/.
Figure 1 shows a s e r i e s of instantaneous Schlieren photographs of the
vibrational propagation of a flame in a mixture of carbon monoxide and a i r .
The photographs w e r e taken by an SKS-1 c a m e r a a t a r a t e of about 3000
f r a m e s p e r s e c . The color f i l t e r s of the lattice a r e s o arranged that t h e
undisturbed field is colored r e d [gray background], the region of s m a l l
gradients of the refraction index in white [fringes], and the region of l a r g e
gradients in blue [center band]. The variation in the flame front s t r u c t u r e
during vibrational combustion can be followed on the photographs, which
is not the c a s e with black-and-white photographs.
F i g u r e 2 shows a s e r i e s of Schlieren photographs of the flame
propagation n e a r the closed end of the tube. The photographs w e r e taken
by a high-speed SFR camera, at a r a t e of about 300000 f r a m e s p e r s e c .
The photographs clearly show the flame front and the compression
waves running ahead of it, which cannot be resolved on black-and-white
photographs.

* [Gosudarstvennyi obshchesoyuznyi standart-All-Union State Standard. ]

5437 154
FIGUREl. Schlieren
photographs of the
vibrational propaga
tion of the flame:
Rate of photography
about 3000 frames
per sec .

FIGURE 5.. Series

of Schlierenphoto
graphs of the
vibrational propa
gation of a flame
in a mixture of
carbon monoxide
FIGURES. Schlieren
and air in a tube
photographs of the
of cross section
fl a m e propagation
3 6 x 36"':
in a stoichiometric
mixture of hydro Rate of photogra
gen and oxygen: phy about 3000
frames per sec.
Rate of photo
graphy about [This figure
300000 frames refers to the
per sec. previous paper. ]

155
Bibliography

1. S c h a r d i n , H. Schlierenverfahren and i h r e Anwendungen.- Ergebn.

exakten Naturwiss., Vol. 20. 1942.
2. H o l d e r , D.W. and R.J. N o r t h . Colour in the Wind Tunnel.-
Aeroplane, Vol. 82. 1952.
3. H o l d e r , D.W. and R. J. N o r t h . A Schlieren Apparatus Giving an
Image in Co1our.-Nature, Vol. 169, No. 4298. 1952.
4. H o l d e r , D.W. and R. J. N o r t h . Schlieren Methods. Notes on Applied
Science.-London, Dept. of Scient. and Indust. Research,
No. 31. 1963.
5. V a s i l I e v , L.A. Usovershenstvovanie pribora IAB-451 (Improving
the IAB-451 Instrument). - Nauchnye Doklady Vysshei Shkoly,
Mashinostroenie i Priborostroenie, No. 4. 1953.
6. A n a s h e v , M.D., V.D. M i k h a i l e n k o , and N . F . B e l y a e v a .
Primenenie tsvetnogo r a s t r a dlya kolichestvennykh issledovanii
s h l i r opticheskim metodom T e p l e r a (Use of Color Photography
f o r t h e Quantitative Study of Schlieren Photographs by T o p l e r ' s
Optical Method). - Trudy Instituta dvigatelei, No. 6, Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. 1962.
7.
G a r n o v , V.V. and V. V. S h c h a u r o . Vysokoskorostnaya fotografiya
samosvetyashchikhsya protsessov na tsvetnoi plenke (High-speed
Photography of Self-luminous P r o c e s s e s on Color Film).- ZhN
i PFiK, Vol. 8, No. 4. 1963.
8. M i k h a i 1o v, V. Ya. Vliyanie uslovii proyavleniya na svetochuvstvitel'
nost' i balans tsvetnoi negativnoi plenki (Influence of the
Developing Conditions on the Light Sensitivity and Balance of a
Color Negative Film).-ZhN i PFiK, Vol. 1, No. 1. 1956.
9. M i k h a i l o v , V.Ya. Aerofotografiya i obshchie osnovy fotografii (Air
Photography and Fundamentals of Photography). - Moskva,
Geodezizdat. 1959.

I56

N . K . Fedoseeva

APPAh'ATUS FOR PROJECTiNG S T I L L S

Various optical-mechanical instruments have been invented for studying

rapid p r o c e s s e s (detonation, shock waves, explosion, etc. ), and s e v e r a l
million f r a m e s p e r second can be obtained with t h e i r aid. High-speed s p a r k
photography is a l s o used widely 11- 3 1 . However, the films a r e unsuitable
for motion-picture projection, since the f r a m e s a r e arranged nonlinearly
and nonuniformly spaced (see Table).

'ilm width, Frame dimen- Number of

Camera Frameshec Arrangement of frames
mm sions. mm frames

SSKS-1 2. 105 190 5, 9 or 15 rows 5.22- 3.6.6 330- 4800

FP-36 2.5. 104 320 Horizontal 7.5'7.5
SFR-2h4 5.105-2.5.106 35 Two series, four series 010 60
0 5 240
LV-1 2.106-33.3* lo6 35 One series, two series 0 12 30
0 5 150
ZhLV 3 . lo4 -4.5. lo6 35 One series, two 0 15 125
series, four s e r i e s j o k 2 0 10 300
UVIS 106 35 One series (nonuniform 0 5 1500
frequency) - 300
.-

By projecting rapid processes, one can study t h e i r dynamics, gain an

insight into the physical essence of the phenomena, and observe the
p r o c e s s e s slowed down by a s much a s a fraction of tens of thousands.
To obtain a motion-picture film the original film must be reprinted such
that the a r r a n g e m e n t of the f r a m e s and the intervals between t h e m c o r r e s p o n d
t o the specifications of a standard film.
It is seen f r o m the table that the majority of c a m e r a s operate with a
35 m m film, and f o r such c a m e r a s w e have assembled an apparatus whose
optical layout is s i m i l a r to that described in 141.
The stills w e r e rephotographed by a KSR-1 c i n e c a m e r a with m i r r o r
obturator capable of taking stills a s well. In o r d e r t o utilize fully the film
a r e a (16-22 mm'), the stills w e r e enlarged during reprinting. The general
layout of the apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The illuminator 1 of the film
consisted of a condenser and an STs-63 l a m p (12v, 35 w), whose heating
was controlled by a rheostat.
The 35 m m film w a s held by the c a s s e t t e of a "Kiev-2" c a m e r a . The
unit holding the film being projected w a s held by a special device 3, shown
in Figure 2. Pintles 4 w e r e placed on the prop 1 (Figure 2 ) with which t o
fasten the c a s s e t t e holding the film 2 and the f r a m e 3.

157
 FIGURE 1. Generdl view of the apparatus forprojecting films

The illuminator and the film holder w e r e mounted on an optical bench 10

on special props 11, t o enable adjustments to be made in t h r e e directions.
The image of each f r a m e on the film 2 (cf. Figure 2 ) was formed by a
s y s t e m of l e n s e s 4 and 8 in the focal plane of the c i n e c a m e r a 5. The optical
s y s t e m was focused by movingu
lens 8, and diaphragmed by the
diaphragm of lens 4. When the
f r a m e s were reprinted f r o m the
film of the SFR c a m e r a (in the c a s e
3
of two-series framing), the lenses
Yu-8 and Yu-11 w e r e selected a s
lenses 4 and 8. The Yu-11 was
theworkinglens ofthecinecamei,a5.
4-
The "Moment- 1" central action
shutter 9 was fastened between
t h e m on adapters. The shutter,
which ensured exposures of up t o
11250 sec, was opened before the
photography. When the handle 7
FIGURE 2. Layout of the unit holding the film being
was rotated the m i r r o r obturator
projected.
c r o s s e d the optical channel. The
f r a m e setting was controlled visually
by a direct-focusing magnifying glass 6 , s o enabling each subsequent f r a m e
t o be set in a fixed position on the screen.
After the next f r a m e was s e t , the shutter was closed, the obturator
opened the optical channel, and the photography s t a r t e d .
In view of the high speeds of the processes studied and the s m a l l number
of f r a m e s on the SFR film, every f r a m e had t o be repeated t h r e e times.
This did not impair the smooth motion of the object on the s c r e e n .
The exposure time during reprinting was selected by t r i a l and e r r o r .
A "Micr*at-2001'f ilm w a s used for reprinting. In this way, we obtained
films of the interaction between a shock wave and a flame front, the
vibrational propagation of a flame in a tube (at a frequency of 5 . l o 5
f r a m e s / s e c ) , etc,

158

Bibliography

1. Inform. Sbornik. NIKFI, No. 3. 1960.

2 . D u b o v i k, A. S. Fotograficheskaya r e g i s t r a t s i y a bystroprotekayushchikh
p r o t s ess ov (Photorecording Rapid P r o c e s s e s ). - Mos kva,
Izdatel'stvo "Nauka'l. 1964.
3. S a l a m a n d r a , G.D. and I.K. S e v a s t ' y a n o v a . Ustanovka dlya
vysokoskorostnoi iskrovoi s ' e m k i (Apparatus for High-speed
Spark Photography).-IFZh, Vol. 3, No. 9. 1960.
4. G a r n o v , V. V. and A.S. D u b o v i k . Ob ekranizatsii snimkov
sverkhskorostnoi registriruyushchei ustanovki SFR (Photographic
Projection by the High-speed SFR Recording Apparatus). -
PTE, No. 5. 1960.

159
S . G . Zaitsev, E . V . Lazareva, E . 1. Chebotareva

THE BOUNDARY L A Y E R BEHIND A SHOCK

WAVE IN ARGON AND NITROGEN

When solving various problems of physical g a s dynamics in shock tubes

one must allow for the influence of the boundary layer on the shock front
and s t r e a m .
The effect of the boundary layer on shock-wave damping, the variation
in the s t r e a m p a r a m e t e r s behind the wave and the length of the plug w e r e
studied theoretically in 11-31. The boundary l a y e r behind the shock wave
was assumed to be either completely laminar or completely turbulent.
These papers cannot pretend t o describe correctly the p r o c e s s e s a c c o m
panying shock-wave motion, since they do not take into account phenomena
on the contact surface, whose influence on the plug and shock front was
corroborated experimentally; the process of the opening of the diaphragm
is likewise not considered.
A full treatment of t h i s phenomenon must include the transition of a
l a m i n a r l a y e r into a turbulent one.
The boundary layer in the shock tube was studied with thin-film probes
14-71 and interferometric methods 17-81. The r e s u l t s showed that at a
certain distance f r o m the shock front the heat fluxes increase sharply a s
a result of the transformation of the laminar boundary l a y e r into a turbulent
one. The interferometric method was used t o determine the density
distribution in the boundary layer, its thickness and r a t e of increase. The
p r o c e s s can be better understood by measuring the density profile in the
boundary layer of different gases over a wide range of Mach numbers, in
addition t o the p a r a m e t e r s ahead of the shock front, and then comparing
these data with the values calculated urider general assumptions.
We describe below the experimental determination of the boundary-layer
thickness and the density distribution in it for nitrogen and argon, where
po = 1 0 and 50 m m mercury, M , ~ 2 . 5 -9.

1. INTERFEROMETRIC METHOD O F DENSITY

MEASUREMENT

The Mach-Zender interferometer for studying gas s t r e a m s can be used

t o determine the density distribution in the s t r e a m , The standard inter
ferometric method of determining the density profile behind a shock wave
is based on the assumption of s m a l l deformation of the light-wave front
(the variation in the angle y of the n o r m a l t o the wave front a f t e r passing
through an inhomogeneity is much s m a l l e r than the angle o between the

160
interfering beams). This condition, which is usually fulfilled for the main
s t r e a m , makes the relations given below inapplicable in the immediate
vicinity of a wall. A s a result, the region within 0.2-0.3" of a wall is
inaccessible to measurements.
Consider the c a s e when the direction of the bands coincides with the
direction of the density gradient in the s t r e a m . The interference pattern
then makes it possible t o determine in a z e r o approximation the variation
of the density field, given by

where 1 is the length of the r a y path in the s t r e a m studied; k is the

Gladstone-Dale constant; A is the optical path difference, determined f r o m
the relation

S is the band width; 5 is the shift (Figure 1).

YI

FIGURE 2. Density measurement in the bound

ary layer with fringes oriented parallel to the
fairing.

Yt

FIGURE 1. Density meas

urement in the boundary

layer with fringes oriented

perpendicular to the FIGURE 3. Ray propagation i n a layer of

fairing. variable density.

If the density gradient is perpendicular t o the direction of the interference

fringes, this causes a change in the distance between them. Different
methods a r e therefore required to interpret such interferograms.
In the boundary l a y e r behind the shock wave t h e r e is a density gradient
both perpendicular and parallel t o the wall. As a result, the interference
fringes oriented along the w a l l (Figure 2 ) f o r m a fan in the boundary layer.
When determining the density profile in section 2, by formula (1) it is
assumed that the fringe width is invariable. The e r r o r introduced by this
assumption does not exceed 5 % f o r density-ratio m e a s u r e m e n t s .

161
 We shall estimate the e r r o r in the density caused by the bending of the
light r a y due t o an inhomogeneity. Its magnitude is determined by the
variation in the refractive index along the r a y trajectory in the volume
studied, and the variation in geometrical length of the ray path AC-AB
(Figure 3).
Let the r a y propagate along the straight line A B in the absence of a
density gradient, in a gaseous medium of refractive index nl. The equation
of this line is

y - yo = ax.
(3 )

When a density gradient appears, the ray trajectory is deflected f r o m A B

in the direction of density increase (line AC). If n = n ( y ) , w e can represent
the equation of the light-ray propagation in a medium of variable density,
in the f o r m

This equation w i l l be solved under the following assumptions:

1 ) the slopes of A B and AC coincide at point A , since the actual v a r i a
tions in the experimental values of the refractive index dia not exceed 0.01 70;
2 ) n(y) has the f o r m

n(y) = 'Z(Y0) + N(!/-Yo), (5 1

where

In the experiments considered, anlay < 0 for the coordinate f r a m e used

(cf. Figure 3 ) .
If ( 5 ) is substituted in (4),then

y" + N [I+ (y')*]* = 0. (6)

F o r the actual density gradients ly' - a i < 1.

In the apparatus used ( a [ < 1 0 - * . The solution of ( 6 ) takes the f o r m

N
y-yo=-
2 (x+ 7)
fas (7 1

t o an accuracy of t e r m s of o r d e r (y' - d 3 .
The light r a y propagating along AC continues beyond point C along a
straight line coinciding with the tangent t o A C at C ; this line i n t e r s e c t s A B
at the point E . Therefore, in the approximation adopted, the inhomogeneity
considered does not disturb the plane in which the interference pattern is
localized. The angle between .4B and EC = ( W h y ) 1. F o r the regions of
the boundary l a y e r studied, y > 0.2 m m and y < When using interfer
ence fringes of width S equal to -0.2 m m (magnification of the interference

5431 162
.. . . - ....
._ .~ ~
. ___ .. . . .. __ . . .. . .. ..

pattern l : l ) ,the angle o between the interfering beams, determined from

will be N Thus, starting at a distance y y* for which 7 1: 0.1 o , one <

must account for the wave-front distortion, and therefore u s e a different
method t o interpret the interferograms, In this paper y * N 0.2-0.3".
The optical path difference caused by the inhomogeneity is determined
by the relation

\
A= n(y)C+mdx-
AC
\
AB
nll/l-+3dx.

Substituting ( 5 ) and ( 7 ) in ( 8 ) , using values satisfying N 1, a 1 in the < <

experiments, and r e s t r i c t i n g ourselves to t e r m s of o r d e r N2,we obtain

The f i r s t t e r m of this equation corresponds t o the variation in the optical

path difference caused by a change of refractive index, the variation of t h i s
index along the trajectory being neglected. The second t e r m corresponds
t o the variation in the optical path difference caused by a change of refractive
index along an invariable trajectory A B ; the third t e r m allows for the
variation in the geometrical length of the r a y path due t o the AC - A B density
gradient (cf. Figure 3 ) .
With the aid of the Gladstone-Dale relation betw'een the refractive index
and density, ( 9 ) takes the f o r m

AP = P1 (Yo)
where

2-3
Relation (10) enables one t o estimate the
e r r o r when t h e density variation is determined
f r o m the interferograms by relation (1).
In this paper, for y* 31 0 . 2 mm, max el 6 3 70.
Obviously, a s y v a r i e s f r o m y* t o 6 (the boundary
l a y e r thickness), the value of e, drops t o zero.
Consider the boundary-layer effect due t o
A-1/z the cover glass, on the density measurement
_L

in the s t r e a m , including the boundary l a y e r

t1/2 on the upper and lower walls. It is assumed
RGUm4. Ray propagation in the that the density distribution in the boundary
boundary layer. l a y e r on t h e cover g l a s s is the s a m e a s on the
upper and lower walls in t h e l a y e r s .
The optical path difference for the r a y A B (Figure 4), caused by t h e
s t r e a m , can be written a s
ID--Y
2k 5 A~(~)~~+Z~SAP(E)~S=A.

163
In this relation, the density on segment CD is taken a s invariable in the
direction of r a y propagation and determined by the distance f r o m the wall.
On segments D B and A C the density v a r i e s due t o the effect of the s i d e walls
y = 2 1 1 2 . T o estimate t h e s e t e r m s we used the density distribution in the
boundary l a y e r obtained by analyzing the interferograms on the b a s i s of (l),
i. e . , disregarding the effect under consideration.
The density variation is represented in the f o r m

where

Its magnitude is maximum for m e a s u r e m e n t s outside the boundary l a y e r

, and determined by the relation

h our experiments E* < 1 %.

2. SHOCK-TUBE DENSITY MEASUREMENTS NEAR

A WALL IN SUPERSONIC HIGH-TEMPERATURE
STREAMS

When m e a s u r i n g the density distribution in a boundary l a y e r , the axis

of the probing beam and the upper and lower walls of the chamber must be
parallel to within 0.1". Otherwise, the effects associated with the oblique
incidence of the r a y on a region of variable density (the second t e r m of (9))
would unnecessarily complicate the treatment.
A c o a r s e alignment of the chamber walls and the probing beam was
realized by a level, and the fine adjustment by a collimator in front of the
first dividing plate of the interferometer. The main position of the inter
ferometer is where t h e images of the collimator c r o s s w i r e coincide in the
two channels. A plane-parallel plate is then placed on the lower wall of the
chamber (with the cover g l a s s removed). When the probing beam and the
horizontal w a l l s of the chamber a r e not parallel, the collimator c r o s s w i r e s
diverge; they a r e then brought into coincidence by a s m a l l rotation of the
shock tube. This method provides an alignment accuracy of 0.1". A
s y m m e t r i c a l interference pattern of the p r o c e s s is obtained on the film,
and its s y m m e t r y is a c r i t e r i o n of the n e c e s s a r y alignment accuracy.
To increase the contrast between the fringes and weaken the background
created by the luminosity of the object being studied, diaphragms w e r e
placed before the lens, which focused the interference pattern on the film.
The m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e realized in monochromatic light with h = 4990A.
The image of the chamber walls on the interferograms w a s sufficiently

164
sharp, and the e r r o r in determining its position did not exceed 0.1 mm.
The boundary l a y e r behind the shock front was investigated by
interferograms with fringes oriented parallel (horizontal fringes) and
perpendicular (vertical fringes) t o the upper and lower walls of the chamber.
When vertical fringes w e r e used, the interferograms w e r e recorded on a
fixed film. Thus, each photograph gives an interference pattern of the
p r o c e s s in the measuring chamber at a given instant of time. To study the
variation in the boundary l a y e r along the plug, a number of interferograms
w e r e taken under the s a m e working conditions, but at different t i m e s during
which the light s o u r c e functioned. The reproducibility of the working
conditions was not lower than 0.1 M , and the light s o u r c e was a s p a r k of
duration l 0 p s e c .
When horizontal fringes were used, the interference fringes w e r e oriented
parallel to the upper and lower walls of the chamber. The film moved at
a speed of 0.117 m m / p s e c in the propagation direction of the shock wave,
and the a r e a of measuring chamber projected on it was r e s t r i c t e d by means
of an optical slit oriented parallel to the shock front. The photography thus
gives the variation with time of the interference pattern at a given section.
The light s o u r c e was an I F P - 8 0 0 flash l a m p of flash duration -800psec.
Since the density increases gradually in the boundary layer, the fringes
passing through the boundary layer region a r e inclined at an angle of
inclination which d e c r e a s e s toward the main s t r e a m . When the interfero
g r a m s were processed, we measured the displacement of the fringe center
at a distance y f r o m the wall relative t o the center of this fringe on the
shock front. A s I IL the method with vertical fringes, - the relationship pllp[y)
was established by means of formula ( l ) , and the boundary layer thickness
determined.

F I G W 5. Density variation in the boundary layer:

Nitrogen. M, = 8.9; P.= 30 mm mercury; x is the distance from

the shock front.

The second method is m o r e convenient when investigating the l a y e r a s

a whole (dependence of the layer thickness on z, etc. ), and the first method
is b e s t for a detailed study of the density variation at the initial development
stages of the layer.
The density in the wall region was calculated by the formula

165
where 5 is the displacement of the fringe center at a distance y f r o m the
wall relative t o the fringe center in the main s t r e a m ; S is the fringe width,
measured in the main s t r e a m . The measured values of E w e r e c o r r e c t e d
t o allow f o r fringe distortions caused by g l a s s imperfections. The r e s u l t s
were represented in the f o r m of the relationship pl/p(y) = f(y) ( F i g u r e 5).
The thickness of the boundary l a y e r was taken as the distance f r o m the
wall corresponding t o pl/p(y) = 0.99.

FIGURE 6. Interferogram of the stream behind the shock wave:

a-carbon dioxide: M, = 4: p 0 = 10 mm mercury. The fringes are oriented perpendicular to the wall:
b -nitrogen: M, = 3.5; P O = 50" mercury.

166
 d mm

U 100 200 300 q00 w ~ e c

FIGURE 7. Variation of the boundary layer FIGURE 8. Variation of the boundary layer
thickness with time, i n argon: thickness with time, in argon:
pa = 0.216. g/cm3. T. = 300oK, a. = og = 0.108. g/cm3, T.= 300%; 1- r.=
= 319 m/sec; 1- p 0 = 1 0 m m mercury; M, = = 50 inin mercury; ,ifs = 5. 8; u;= 1150 m/sec;
= 4.8; uf= 1 0 7 0 m/sec; TX = 2470%; P , = TI = 3440%; n o = 2.65. 1 0 - 4 ~ / ~ 1 n 3 P ,; 2150 inn1
7

= 0.518. 10-4g/cm3; p , - 289" mercury; mercury; 11:0.110. 10-2g/cni.sec; G ~ S 2

P =0.963.10-3 g / c m . s e c ; Re&=0.146.106; :0.818.106: 2-77,= 50; M . = 6.2; LL;- 1430;

2- p 0 = 10; ,we= 6.3; u;= 1455; ~ , = 4 0 1 0 ; T , = 3820; ~ , = 2 . 7 5 . 1 0 - ' ; ol= 1870; P =
p, = 0.55. 500; u = 0.132. lo-';
PI= = 0.128. 10.'; l(rg=O. 840. 10'.
neg = 0.155.106: 3-Pp.: 10, M,=10, =;.
= 2420; T,=9020; p, = 0.637. p , = 1155;
P = 0.222. lo-'; neg= 0. 229, lo6.

The above method f o r determining the density profile n e a r the w a l l w a s

used t o study the boundary l a y e r on a cool wall, past which flows a high-
t e m p e r a t u r e supersonic s t r e a m of nitrogen or argon. The m e a s u r e m e n t s
in nitrogen w e r e conducted for shock front Mach numbers of 2 - 6 . Over
t h i s range t h e refraction changes caused by dissociation p r o c e s s e s could
be neglected. It was possible to u s e values of the constant k (relation (1))
measured a t room t e m p e r a t u r e s , s i n c e the variation in the polarizability
of the molecules caused by the excitation of the vibrational levels can be
neglected within the accuracy l i m i t s of the method.
In s t r e a m s of dissociated gas the Gladstone-Dale constant k i s determined
by the component refr?.ctions and the s t r e a m composition. The density
profile t h e r e f o r e cannot be found by the method described, s i n c e the
variation in the boundary-layer density is accompanied by a variation in
composition. Fringe bending n e a r the wall enables t h e boundary-layer
thickness to be determined in this c a s e as well.
In argon, the boundary l a y e r w a s m e a s u r e d for M , < 13. Over the
range 9 < &Is < 1 3 only i t s thickness was measured, s i n c e h e r e t h e ionization
p r o c e s s e s c a u s e a considerable variation in k. F i g u r e 6 shows typical
i n t e r f e r o g r a m s , used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e boundary-layer density profile and
thickness.
The values of the boundary l a y e r thickness in argon a r e given in F i g u r e s
7 and 8. The'gmitial p a r a m e t e r s ahead of the front and t h e s t r e a m p a r a
m e t e r s a r e given in the captions, where p o is the p r e s s u r e (in m m m e r c u r y )
ahead of the shock front; M,= udao is the Mach number of t h e shock front;
u * ~is the s t r e a m velocity (in m / s e c ) in a coordinate f r a m e linked with t h e
tube; T,,p,, p l , p are respectively the t e m p e r a t u r e , density, p r e s s u r e , and

167
viscosity in the s t r e a m ; Re6 is the boundary-layer Reynolds number,
determined by

The s t r e a m p a r a m e t e r s w e r e obtained by solving the shock-front conser

vat ion equations.
The method used t o determine the density has a constant absolute e r r o r .
As a result, the relative e r r o r in measuring the density profile increases
with a d e c r e a s e in the absolute value of the s t r e a m density. The boundary
l a y e r thickness in s t r e a m s of lower density w i l l therefore be underestimated.
The values of the boundary layer thickness in nitrogen a r e given in
Figures 8-10. The initial conditions ahead of the shock front and the
s t r e a m p a r a m e t e r s a r e given in the captions.

S;mm

d mm

U 100 ZOO 300 400 600

psec psec

FIGURE 9. Variation of the boundary layer FIGURE 10. Variation of the boundary layer thickness
thickness with t i me, in nitrogen: with time, in nitrogen:
P.= 0 . 1 5 0 ~1 0 - 4 g/cm3,T o = 3009(, 0,=353 m/sec; p 0 = 0.150.10-4 g/cm3, T.=3009(; 1- p 0 = 50 mm
l-.p.= 10 mercury; M,= 5.1; u;= 1470 m/sec; mercury; M,= 2.1; u r = 690m/sec; T , = 690K; p l =
T, = 1670%; p , = 0 . 8 3 1 . 1 0 - ~ g / c m ~ P; ,= 310 mm = 2.70. 10-4g/cm3; p l = 4 1 2 m m mercury; P
mercury; ~.r=0.552.10-g/cm.sec; Reg= L046, lo6; = 0.318.10-~ g/cm.sec; ~ e 6 1= .557.106; 2- P o = 50;
2-~0=10; M,= 5.4; =;=1570; T,=1820; P, = M, = 3.6; u;= 980; Tr = 1010; P.= 3.25. p,=
= 0.863, ~ 1 ~ 3 5 !J=
0 ; 0.598. io-; Re6 = 730; P = 0.406.10-3; Re6=2.67.1OS; 3 - P,= 50;
1.100. lo6. M , = 3.1; u;= 1010; T,=1050; P I = 3.30. PI=
= 770; P = 0.416.10-3; Re6=2.79, lo7; 4- p o = 50;
M s = 4.0; u;= 1120; T,=1160; p t = 3.63.
PI = 930; P = 0 . 4 0 io-; Reg= 3.63. io7; 5 - P o =
= 50; M,= 5.6; u;= 1640; TI=1930; & = 4.38.
R = 1880; P= 0.620. lo-; Reg= 5.75.10.

In the course of our investigation we m e a s u r e d the density in the main

s t r e a m behind the shock front up to the contact region. The m e a s u r e m e n t s
showed that when hydrogen or helium is used in the high-pressure chamber,
the density behind the shock wave propagating in carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
or argon, fluctuates 370 about the mean value pl. Toward the contact region
p1 remains invariable o r i n c r e a s e s within 3 t o 5 70. When an oxygen
hydrogen-helium mixture is used in the high-pressure chamber, the

168
variation pattern of the density in the plug remains the s a m e a s f o r hydrogen
or helium, but the fluctuation i n c r e a s e s . The fluctuation is affected by the
method of igniting the oxygen-hydrogen-helium mixture. If the ignition is
distributed (e. g., when a glow-lamp filament is placed along the whole high-
p r e s s u r e chamber), the fluctuations a r e a minimum.

3. DISCUSSION O F THE RESULTS

The values obtained for the boundary l a y e r thickness in nitrogen and

argon point t o the existence of two growth r e g i m e s of the boundary l a y e r
behind the shock front. If the l a y e r thickness i n c r e a s e s according t o
a(t) 'Y t n , then n = ' I , for the f i r s t regime. This is realized in the present
experiments f o r p o = 10 mm mercury.
F i g u r e s 7 and 9 give the calculated values of the boundary l a y e r thickness
6,(t) for an assumed fully laminar, boundary l a y e r . The method of calcula
tion was that used in 191. A comparison shows that the boundary l a y e r
thickness for po = 10 mm m e r c u r y l i e s within 20-30 70of the calculatedvalue.

CONCLUSION

It was shown that for boundary-layer Reynolds numbers below 1.1. lo6
and 0.3. l o 6 for the nitrogen and argon s t r e a m s respectively, the variation
of 6 ( f ) a g r e e s satisfactorily with the growth law of a fully l a m i n a r boundary
layer.

Bib1i o g r a p hy

1. M i r e 1s , H. Restriction of the operating t i m e of a Shock Tube due to

the Turbulent Boundary L a y e r at the Wall. - Russian translation
in Raketnaya tekhnika i kosmonavtika. Vol. 2, No. 1. 1964.
2. M i r e l s , H. Test Time in L o w - P r e s s u r e Shock Tubes.-Phys. Fluids,
Vol. 6, No. 9. 1963.
3. D e m ' y a n o v , Yu. A. Vliyanie pogranichnogo sloya na kharakter
techeniya gaza v trube za dvizhushcheisya udarnoi volnoi
(Boundary-Layer Effect on the Gas-Flow P a t t e r n in the Tube
behind a Moving Shock Wave).-PMM, Vol. 21, No. 4. 1954.
4. C h a b a i , A. and R. E m r i c h. Measurement of Wall Heat T r a n s f e r and
of Transitions t o Turbulence during Hot Gas and Rarefaction
Flows in a Shock Tube.-Dissertation A b s t r . , Vol. 1 9 , 2629-30.
1959.
5. M a r r o n e , P . V . and R . A . H a r t u n i a n . Thin F i l m T h e r m o m e t e r
Measurements in P a r t i a l l y Ionized Shock-tube Flows. - Phys.
Fluids, Vol. 2, No. 6. 1959.
6. H a r t u n i a n , R.A., A . L . R u s s o , a n d P . V . M a r r o n e . - B o u n d a r y
l a y e r Transition and Heat T r a n s f e r in Shock Tubes.- J. Aerospace
Sci., Vol. 27, No. 8. 1960.

169
7. M a r t i n , W. A. An Experimental Study of the Turbulent Boundary
L a y e r behind the Initial Shock Wave in a Shock Tube.-J.
Aerospace Sci., Vol. 25, No. 10. 1 9 5 0 .
8. S t e v e r , H., E. W i t m e r , and W. H e r m a n n . Development of the
Boundary Layer behind a Shock Wave. - In: "Boundary Layer and
Heat T r a n s f e r P r o b l e m s , " Gortler, H. and W. Tollmien, editors.
[Russian Translation 1960.1
9. M i r e 1s , H. Attenuation in a Shock Tube due t o Unsteady-boundary
layer Action.- NACA Tech. Note No. 3278. 1 9 5 6 .

170
R . G . Nemkov

A DELAY CIRCUIT FOR TRIGGERING SHOCK- TUBE

RECORDING INS T R UMENTS, A UT OMATICALL Y
CONTROLLED B Y THE SHOCK- WAVE VELOCITY

In shock-tube experiments it is s o m e t i m e s n e c e s s a r y t o v a r y the delay

T of the t r i g g e r pulse according t o s o m e law depending on the shock-wave
velocity u :

T = T (u). (1)

Suppose we wish t o light a flash bulb at the exact instant that a shock
wave p a s s e s through a section c - c' (Figure 1 ) of the shock tube. The
simplest procedure would be t o place a probe a t section c - c'to t r i g g e r
the bulb. However, this is sometimes impossible, e. g . , when t h e t i m e t o
light the bulb (to its maximum luminosity), although stable, is too s m a l l
compared with the t i m e taken f o r the wave t o pass the section. A probe
located u p s t r e a m f r o m section c - c'(cf. Figure 1) is then used, and the
problem is t o delay the pulse generated by it for a t i m e

T (u) z (u)- T', (2 1

where ~ ( is 4 the t i m e for t h e wave t o t r a v e l a distance r' is t h e delay

t i m e for lighting the bulb. This problem is most simply solved by means
of phantastrons.

FIGURE 1. Arrangement of the probes along the

shock tube:
b -probes; I-shock-wave front, propagating
(1.
h?=
a b

circuit:
1-control
Trigger pulse

FIGURE 2. Block diagram of the delay

circuit; 2-phantastron; 7,-flash

to the left; M -model placed in the section under bulb.
consideration.

Only one such study is known t o u s 111. A description is given below

of a delay circuit (simpler than that described in 11 1, where two phanta
s t r o n s a r e u s e d ) designed especially for shock-tube experiments.

171
 Figure 2 r e p r e s e n t s the block diagram of this delay circuit. The delay
T~~ of the phantastron is a l i n e a r function of its controlling voltage (Figure 3),
s o that

zph-= Cph(Uph- v), (3 1

where Cph is a constant.

Suppose the control circuit (Figure 4)is a l s o designed t o m e m o r i z e the
wave velocity a t section a - b of the shock tube, in the s e n s e that its output
voltage U, w i l l be proportional t o the passage t i m e of the wave A t , i. e.,

U, = c,At,

where cy is constant.
It is s e e n f r o m the block diagram that

UDh(t) = ";hf uY ( t ) ,

where u;h is the initial control voltage of the phantastron.

I I
+At -i
8

I
8 n n
Q b
-
t
FIGURE 3. The phantastron delay T~ as a FIGURE 4. Diagram of the functioning
function of iu controlling voltage Uph. of the control circuit:
A-output pulse as a function of time:
B-probe pulses.

The phantastron delay v a r i e s linearly with A t . If u'',, equals V , we obtain

a delay varying according t o the law T = c I v , where c = c (cphr cy) is s o m e
constant, obtained by selecting Cph and cy equal t o 1. Finally, f o r values of
u;h t o the left of V , we can satisfy the given relation ( 2 ) in s o m e region A
(cf. Figure 3).
Figure 5 r e p r e s e n t s a schematic diagra-m of the delay. The signals
f r o m probes a and b a r e amplified in the Kandiak t r i g g e r s / 2 / (the tubes
TIT2 and T,T,), which a r e h e r e threshold amplifiers with an adjustable
triggeringthreshold, s t a r t i n g a t 0.1 v. A s i m i l a r application of the Kandiak
t r i g g e r is given in 131. We have then a buffer stage (tubes T3 and T4),
which prevents the possibility of repeated triggering f r o m the vibration of
the probes, and induction f r o m the t r i g g e r pulse circuits. The tubes
T,, T,, T, belong t o the control circuit, and T,, T I , t o the phantastron.
The constants cpll and cy in relations ( 3 ) and (4)can be a l t e r e d by suitably
selecting C,I, and R,. The knob in t h e grid circuit of the t r i g g e r on tube T,
is t o set it in the initial position, indicated by MN-8. The potentiometer

172
 6N6P 6Kh2P TG3-0.1/1.3 6N1P 6N1P 6N6P

e
4
W

FIGURE 5. Schematic diagram of the delay circuit.

Rph is t o enable $,, t o be varied. Finally, the tubes T1,, T,, f o r m a second
Kandiak t r i g g e r , triggering t h e output a t TGI 1 - 3 / 1 (Tube TI4).
Such a delay was used in conjunction with Naboko in experiments on the
development of the Mach line slope f o r flow past a half-wedge. The basic
p a r a m e t e r s of the scheme w e r e 1 = 45 c m ; lab = 68.5 c m ; R, = 18 k Q ; c p h =
= 1OOOpf; u;,,=-lOv; flash bulb (IFP-500); diameter of the piezocrystals
10". The nonlinearity of the phantastron delay, i. e., of the function (3),
and the unavoidable s c a t t e r in triggering the different p a r t s of the circuit,
a r e negligibly s m a l l compared with the inconstancy of the shock-wave
velocity and the inaccuracy of At caused by the finite dimensions of the
piezocrystals.

Bibliography

1. M i s h i n , G. P. Avtomaticheskoe upravlenie fantastronnymi skhemami

zaderzhki (Automatic Control by Phantastron Delays),-PTE,
No. 2. 1964.
2. K a n d i a k , K. A Sensitive Pulse T r i g g e r with a Stable Threshold.-
P r o c . h s t . Electr. Engrs., 101(81):2. 1954.
3. B e r z i n , A.K., R . P . M e s h c h e r y a k o v , and R . G . N e m k o v . Novaya
skhema kontrolya maksimal'noi energii x-luchei (A New Scheme
f o r Controlling the Maximum Energy of X-Rays). - Izvestiya
Tomskogo Politekhnicheskogo Instituta, Vol. 87. 1957.

174
M . V . Gusev, V .A . Gordyushin, V . D . Lobanov

PULSE COUNTING CHRONOMETER FOR SHOCK-

VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

Many problems a r e being studied with apparatus employing shock waves

in gases. The gas s t a t e behind the shock wave is calculated f r o m the
conservation laws, using the initial p r e s s u r e PO in front of the shock wave
(measured in each experiment) and the shock velocity V,,.
The shock velocities a r e mostly determined by recording the change in
p r e s s u r e , temperature, o r illumination in a shock wave a s it passes by
s e n s o r s /I 1. The pulses f r o m two s e n s o r s positioned along the path of the
shock wave a r e recorded by an oscilloscope o r a chronometric device of
the IV-13M type. The average speed is calculated f r o m the time interval
between the pulses and the distance between the s e n s o r s .
A determination of the time interval by the sweep of the oscilloscope o r
a chronometric device is linked with the development of the photographic
m a t e r i a l s and t h e i r analysis under a microscope. Thus, information
concerning the operational r e g i m e of the device during the experiment
cannot be obtained during t h e experiment itself. To eliminate this s h o r t
coming, t h e r e has been much laboratory experimentation in designing
instruments which permit the t i m e interval between pulses to be obtained
during the experiment 12, 3 1 .

-
FIGURE 1. Principal schematic diagram of pulse-counting chronometer.

175
 Channel I Channel I1 Piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r s , which
.- w e r e designed in our laboratory 141,
a r e now being used as a pulse-counting
chronometer, and the pulse counter
used h e r e is t h e standard s c a l e r of
the PS-10000type.
The chronometer counts the pulses
with a frequency of 1MHz which a r r i v e
between two pulses f r o m the piezo
e l e c t r i c t r a n s d u c e r s ; it is a two-
channel electronic s h a p e r of the pulses
f r o m the piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r s
into rectangular pulses, which a r e
equal in length t o the t i m e interval
between the leading edges of the pulses
f r o m these s e n s o r s .
The principal schematic design is
shown in F i g u r e 1. The voltage
diagrams (by blocks) of this design
(Figure 2 ) clarify the operational
procedures of the blocks and t h e i r
functions.
The signals f r o m t h e s e n s o r s
(Figure 2, a ) at the separating inputs
of Channels I and I1 open up the
thyratrons of the shaping blocks
(Figure 2, c ) by t h e i r leading edges
a f t e r amplification in the f i r s t cascade
(Figure 2, b). As a result of thyratron
FIGURE 2. Diagram of the output voltage shaping, the instrument effects a single
from the instrument blocks: operation during the discharge t i m e
a-shape and characteristics of the signals and pileup of the capacitance charge
of the piezoelectric pressure sensors; b C6, at the anodes T, and T,. This time
amplifying stages (T1 and T5 - 6E5P): is regulated by the proper selection of
c-pulse-shaping stages (T1and Ts - RB,SIIand C6, , s o that it is much
TGI-O.1/1.3); d-trigger (T3 and T4 longer than the t i m e for a signal f r o m
6N6P); e-regulated generator (T, and
t h e piezoelectric s e n s o r , i. e . , the
T8-6F1P); f-coincidence circuit (T9
6Zh2P).
t i m e for attenuation of the wave
p r o c e s s e s in the shock tube. On
a r r i v i n g a t the t r i g g e r (Figure 2, d), the signals f r o m the thyratrons
alternately open it up (Channel I ) and cut it off (Channel 11) with t h e i r leading
edges. A rectangular voltage pulse a r i s e s at the t r i g g e r output and opens
up the coincidence circuit (Figure 2, f). At this moment, the coincidence
circuit becomes passable f o r sinusoidal oscillations of frequences 1 MHz
coming f r o m t h e generator. This generator is regulated by a quartz
resonator of the K-17 type (Figure 2, e). Negative pulses of duration
0.4psec and repetition frequency 1MHz a r e obtained at the output of the
coincidence circuit and recorded by the PS-10000 s c a l e r .

176
MEASUREMENT ERRORS

The s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r of a pulse-counting chronometer with an internal

generator is determined by t h e discrepancy ith t h e r e a l frequency of t h e
g e n e r a t o r taken f o r the frequency readings.
This discrepancy depends mainly on the tuning precision of t h e g e n e r a t o r
and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient of t h e frequency drift. F o r a g e n e r a t o r
with shock-wave excitation of oscillations, t h e tuning becomes a r a t h e r
tedious m a t t e r , and r e q u i r e s v e r y p r e c i s e apparatus.
Therefore, w e selected a g e n e r a t o r which is regulated by a high-precision
K-17 quartz resonator.
The K-17 quartz resonator has t h e following p a r a m e t e r s : n a t u r a l
frequency f = lo6 Hz k 7 Hz; t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient + 1.0. Hz.deg-' in
the range 20-50". With t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s , an e r r o r of l p s e c is possible
in measuring a t i m e interval of lO'psec, due t o the difference of * 7 Hz
between this frequency and the calculated one. The s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r due
t o a change in t e m p e r a t u r e of the c r y s t a l up t o 50" is l e s s than + I ~ s e cf o r
each second of the measured t i m e interval, N o special means w e r e taken
in this c a s e t o stabilize the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e quartz resonator, except
for removing it f r o m possible heat s o u r c e s . The m e a s u r e m e n t s showed
that the t e m p e r a t u r e of the c h a s s i s n e a r t h e r e s o n a t o r did not exceed 40C.
This provided the b a s i s on which t o d i s r e g a r d e r r o r s of the g e n e r a t o r in
measuring t i m e intervals up t o 1 0 ~ p s e c .
Random e r r o r s of the chronometer a r e determined according t o t h e
stability of the stage signals, in both voltage potential and duration of
the leading edge, s i n c e the s t a g e s of the device t r i g g e r the input pulses
f r o m the leading edges ( s e e F i g u r e 2 ) .
The piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r s f o r t r i g g e r i n g both channels of t h e
chronometer eliminate untimely actuation of either channel.
The random e r r o r for this circuit is determined by t h e r a t i o between
the input voltages and the triggering thresholds in s t a g e s , as well as the
discrepancy in t h e durations of the leading edges of t h e input voltages.
In determining the e r r o r , the triggering threshold of each stage is
calculated according t o the technological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the tubes used.
The power bands of the t r a n s d u c e r s , which depend on t h e r e g i m e in the
shock tube, a r e m e a s u r e d by a cathode-ray oscilloscope, the 10-4.
The deviation in the durations of the leading edges a r e m e a s u r e d by
determining the input voltages in s t a g e s .
A s for the f i r s t amplifying s t a g e s of both channels, i t was understood
that they t r a n s m i t the leading edge of a pulse f r o m t h e s e n s o r without
distortions, s i n c e the p a s s band of the amplifier is 5 MHz, which is much
g r e a t e r than t h e frequency corresponding t o t h e leading edge of t h e input
pulse (about 3 MHz).
F o r t h e shaping block, the t h y r a t r o n s w e r e identical i n t r i g g e r i n g
threshold. The possible deviation in t h e potentials of the s e n s o r s w a s
5 2 5 70. In this r e s p e c t , the duration of the leading edge depended on the
speed V, of the shock wave, and varied f r o m 0.35*0.15 t o 0.15f0.'psec f o r
V o = 1000 and 4000 m / s e c , respectively. T h e t i m e rrea,b etween t h e beginning
of t h e leading edges of t h e pulses at t h e input of t h e a m p l i f i e r s of both
channels w a s taken as the r e a l t i m e . T h e s e pulses p a s s through t h e
amplifying stage without distortions. Since all subsequent blocks actuate

177
 the input pulses f r o m the leading edges, the delays in the actuation of the
first channel produce a negative e r r o r , while those of the second channel
produce a positive e r r o r .
The variations in the delay for both channels a r e determined, not only
by the duration t of the leading edges, but a l s o by the r a t i o k between the
output voltage of each stage and the triggering threshold of the subsequent
stage.
Thus, the absolute e r r o r , e. g . , for the shaping stage, is expressed
a s follows:

where the s u b s c r i p t s a, b, c, etc., denote the stages; subscripts I and I1

r e f e r t o the channels of the design; t is the duration of the leading edge of
a pulse; At is the deviation in the duration of the leading edge; k = [ , , , l l I t , , ,
where U , I , is the triggering threshold of the stage and U,,, is the voltage
a t its input.
Let us write the expression for the absolute e r r o r of the blocks, f r o m
the amplifying t o the t r i g g e r stage, and then examine the effect on the
e r r o r of the s h o r t n e s s of the measured t i m e interval for the period of
oscillations of the generator.
The absolute e r r o r for the stage f r o m a to d i s

When A r a = 0 and the values of t , + A t and k a r e those presented in the

Table for V,, = 1000- 4000 m / s e c (respectively), we can calculate the values
of * A T .
TABLE
-.

Sign of
Stage ChI ChII
v,,=1000m/sec I-o = 4000m/sec

0.15 0. 15 0.1 2.0 1.0

1.0 2.0
0. I 5.35 5.35

+
0.25 0.25 m 1.0
_ _ ~

Since the duration of a rectangular pulse f r o m the t r i g g e r is considered

a s the t i m e between the appearance of the beginning of the leading edge and
the end of t h e trailing edge, trd = 0. The values presented above (measured
f o r many experiments ) permit u s t o calculate the following for shock-wave
velocities of 1000-4000 m / s e c :

ATmmax =
+ (0.78S--O.G12) wsec.
- (0.287-0.112)

5437 178
 Considering that the electronic tube (Stage f ) is open the e n t i r e t i m e
f r o m t h e beginning of the leading edge t o the end of t h e t r a i l i n g edge of a
t r i g g e r signal, as well as the fact that only t h e negative p a r t of the s i n e -
wave of t h e generator is transmitted in the PS-10000 device, we can expect
a difference between the measurable and measured t i m e of one pulse in the
+ 0.788
AT,,,,,<
1
s c a l e r , with a maximum random e r r o r of AT,,,^^ = -0.287 psec, since
T is the period of t h e oscillations of t h e generator.
Thus, f o r any m e a s u r a b l e time interval, the maximum possible random
e r r o r is f 1 psec. The relative e r r o r 6t in this c a s e is a value connected
l i n e a r l y with t h e measurable t i m e , and is equal t o 1 % for an interval of
1OOpsec.

Bibliography

1 . R a k h m a t u l i n , Kh.A. and S . S . S e m e n o v a , editors. Sbornik

"Udarnye truby" (Shock Tubes).- I. L . 1962.
2. B o r o n i n , A . P . and T . G . I g n a t ' e v a . Impul'snye zondovye
izmereniya v udarnoi t r u b e (Pulse Probing Measurements in
Shock Tubes). -Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva
gazov p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, Moskva, Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka. " 1 9 6 4 .
3. K a b a n o v , G. L. Izmerenie s k o r o s t i udarnykh voln v razryazhennykh
gazakh (Shock-velocity Measurements in Rarefied Gases). -
Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva gazov p r i vysokikh
temperaturakh, I' Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka". 1964.
4. G u s e r, M. V. and 0. I. L u n e v a . P'ezoelektricheskii datchik
davleniya (Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e Sensors ).- Sbornik "Issledo
vaniya PO fizicheskoi gazodinamike, 'I Moskva, Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka. 'I 1965.

179
 M . V . Gusev, V . D. Lobanov, V . A . Gordyushin

AN 1NSTRUMENT FOR CONTROLLING THE

HIGH-SPEED PHOTORECORDING OF THE
PHASES OF A PROCESS

High-speed Schlieren photography of flow patterns associated with shock

waves necessitates the u s e of triggered photorecorders, s i n c e the ordinary
high-speed SFR photorecorder cannot be synchronized with a shock-wave
formation p r o c e s s . When the SFR is used, photographs a r e taken a t the
chance coincidence of two processes: the a r r i v a l of the shock wave in the
experimental section, and the rotation of the SFR m i r r o r into position when
the image of the experimental section is incident on one of the SFR f r a m e s .
Simultaneously, a third p r o c e s s must take place, namely, the opening of
the SFR shutter, i f a constant light s o u r c e is used in the Topler a r r a n g e
ment, o r the flash bulb operation, whose flash duration z must be l e s s than
the period T of rotation of the SFR m i r r o r .

FIGURE 1. Basic diagram of the instrument.

180

. . . ... .... . ... ...,. I.. .I I m ..I. I... I I I I . , I,,

 The u s e of SFR r e c o r d e r s under the probability recording conditions
described above is efficient i f the recording probability is sufficiently high.
The recording probability depends on the r p m of the m i r r o r , and the
number of f r a m e s considered sufficient f o r evaluating the phase being
studied 11, 2 1 . When studying expanding flows in a shock tube we used the
SFR c a m e r a under probability recording
conditions. The photorecorder functioned
in conjunction with an electronic circuit
controlling the coincidence of the p r o c e s s
studied with the required position of the
SFR m i r r o r (Figure 1). The shock-wave
position relative t o the experimental
section was controlled by a piezoelectric
t r a n s d u c e r 121, placed ahead of the
experimental section. The pulse f r o m
the t r a n s d u c e r w a s amplified in the first
stage (Figure 2, a ) and shaped by the
thyratron stage (Figure 2, b), which
a l s o enabled the pulse t o be delayed, The
delay t i m e t depends on the integrating
circuit QC4 and varied between 100 and
1500psec. The leading edge of the pulse
overruns the triggered multivibrat or.
The r e t u r n of the multivibrator t o the
initial position is determined by the t i m e

kv
0
Lvasf constant of the circuit R,& (cf. Figure 1).
At the multivibrator output we obtain a
rectangular resolving pulse of controllable
width z (Figure 2,c), which is selected
t equal t o the duration of the p r o c e s s
FIGURE 2. Piagram of the output voltage studied. (By delaying the pulse f r o m the
from the instrument blocks: piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r during a t i m e t
t h e leading edge of the rectangular pulse
a-amplifying stage (TL-6E5P); b-thy
rafron stage for shaping and delaying the
has already been made t o coincide with
pulse (T, and T3-TGZ-0.3/1.3): c-multi t h e beginning of the p r o c e s s phase being
vibrator (T1, 5 -GN1P); d-phase-shifting studied in the experimental section. )
stage (T6-6NGP); e-coincidencecircuit The resolving pulse is fed t o the
(D,, D,. R 3 ; f-thyratron stage of the coincidence circuit D,, D,, Ra6 (Figure l),
control pulse (T7. T,, T,-TGI-O.3/1.3). and when a pulse reaches it simultaneous
ly f r o m the pickup located on the SFR
m i r r o r (Figure 2, d), a pulse of positive voltage appears at the output of
the coincidence circuit (Figure 2, e), which is then used t o t r i g g e r t h e
thyratron block. As a result, a control pulse (Figure 2, f ) was only obtained
when the phase under observation coincided with the correSponding position
of the SFR m i r r o r . The pulse f r o m the pickup of the SFR m i r r o r was taken
f r o m the outlet synchronization on t h e SFR control panel during its functioning
under controlled conditions. To bring t h i s pulse in correspondence with
the resolving pulse of the t r i g g e r e d multivibrator, it passed through the
phase -shifting stage of the circuit (T6lh 6N6P).
After i t s transformation in a high-voltage t r a n s f o r m e r ( T p , ) , the control
pulse triggered the flash bulb of the IAB-451 instrument (bulb IFP-500). The
film in the SFR was exposed while the s o u r c e was luminous.

181
 The flash of the IFP-500 bulb was selected t o satisfy t < ( U 2 ) T . since
the SFR m i r r o r was two-way; T is the period of rotation of the m i r r o r .
In the s c h e m e described the beginning of recording does not have t o be
synchronized with the f i r s t f r a m e , since the p r o c e s s studied required
10-15 f r a m e s when using one series of a two-series lens i n s e r t and an
SFR m i r r o r rotation speed of 30,000 r p m . This made it possible to
dispense with additional pulse shaping f r o m the SFR m i r r o r pickups and,
f o r a pulse width of 5Opsec, t o s t a r t recording the p r o c e s s f r o m any one
of the first six f r a m e s (for the above rotation speed).
The flash shows whether the image of the p r o c e s s was incident on the
film, and when n e c e s s a r y t o repeat the experiment without having t o
develop the film. This was impossible previously.

Bibliography

1. I o n o v , V . P . , G.N. N i k o l a e v , M.V. G u s e v , and 0 . I . L u n e v a .

Izuchenie potokov gaza v udarnoi trube s pomoshch'yu skhemy
Teplera i skorostnogo kadrovogo fotografirovaniya (Shock-tube
Investigation of Gas Streams Using Schlieren High-speed F r a m e
Photography). - Sbornik "Fizicheskaya gazodinamika i svoistva
p r i vysokikh temperaturakh, " Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. I '
1964.
2. G u s e v , M. V. and 0. I. L u n e v a . P'ezoelektricheskii datchik davleniya
(Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e Sensors). - Sbornik "Issledovaniya PO
fizicheskoi gazodinamike, " Moskva, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka. " 1965.

182
V .M . Eroshenko, A . V .Moray, Yu.N . T e r e n t ' e v

FRONT NATURE OF THE REACTION SURFACE

WITH THE MEDIUM

A new theory of heat propagation in chemically reacting media was

suggested by Mikhel'son /I and developed by Predvoditelev 1 2 , 3 1 , who
found a method of studying self-consistent combined p r o c e s s e s .
The method resolves existing difficulties in analyzing heat and m a s s
exchange between the surrounding medium and a solid, on whose
s u r f a c e a reaction of m a t e r i a l takes place (sublimation, erosion,
fusion, combustion, etc. ). The different phenomena a r e combined and
proceed a s a front, a s , e. g . , wave p r o c e s s e s . The somewhat unusual
physical model of front p r o c e s s e s is based on the experimental fact that
in such phenomena one can always find a s u r f a c e whose displacement obeys
t h e laws of motion of a wave front. Such a s u r f a c e could be the isothermal
s u r f a c e on which m a t e r i a l reaction takes place. Its motion obeys
not the laws of smoothing p r o c e s s e s , such a s F o u r i e r ' s law, but the laws
of motion of a front, such a s Huyghen's principle.
The concept of a front is considerably wider than that of a wave. A front
was found t o be formed only when heat t r a n s f e r or diffusion of m a s s is
accompanied by s o m e additional p r o c e s s e s , combined with the main t r a n s f e r
p r o c e s s e s . A study of front p r o c e s s e s enables quantitative and qualitative
relations to be established between the quantities controlling t h e
reaction r a t e of the m a t e r i a l and the geometry of the reaction s u r f a c e ;
the analysis is conducted in a region immediately adjacent t o the reaction
s u r f a c e . To determine the distribution of transformed m a t e r i a l o r
latent-heat liberation during the reaction, but f a r f r o m the reaction
surface, boundary-value problems must be formulated. Thus, the
problem considered involves the formulation of two basically different
mathematical problems. In our opinion, a complete solution of this problem
cannot be determined by boundary-value problems alone.
We shall consider Predvoditelev's method in m o r e detail. Excluding the
equilibrium s t a t e s , a l l the natural phenomena can be represented by two
basically different p r o c e s s e s , namely, propagation and smoothing. The
l a t t e r p r o c e s s is studied by introducing the concept of a s u r f a c e of equal
s t a t e s ; t h e isothermal s u r f a c e f o r heat-smoothing p r o c e s s e s , the surface
of equal concentrations or densities for material-diffusion p r o c e s s e s , etc.
The motion of such s u r f a c e s obeys parabolic partial differential equations.
Neither the medium p r o p e r t i e s nor its s t a t e suffer a discontinuity a c r o s s
a s u r f a c e of equal s t a t e s , even for discontinuous initial values. Quite
different a r e s u r f a c e s of equal s t a t e s appearing as a propagation p r o c e s s
develops, i. e., the fronts of a wave t r a n s f e r . They r e p r e s e n t possible

183
discontinuity s u r f a c e s in the medium s t a t e on which t h e initial discontinuities
a r e conserved during the e n t i r e development t i m e of the p r o c e s s . The front
s u r f a c e is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r s o m e wave propagation, and its motion is
described by a Hamilton-Jacobi partial differential equation. The solution
is based on Huyghen's idea that a t any instant of t i m e the wave front
propagating f r o m a s o u r c e may be regarded a s t h e envelope of t h e fronts of
s p h e r i c a l waves originating f r o m different points of the initial surface.
The interpretation of the front a s the envelope of a given family of s u r f a c e s
l e a d s t o Monge's representation of the front s u r f a c e a s consisting of the
contact lines of the enveloping surface with the enveloped s u r f a c e s . The
equation of the enveloping surface, which moves in s p a c e and is the front
of s o m e propagation process, can be written a s

E =const r e p r e s e n t s a continuous s e t of wave s u r f a c e s . An arbitraryfunction

6, (E) defines a continuous sequence of s u r f a c e s selected f r o m this set, and
s a t i s f i e s a s y s t e m of partial differential equations describing the waves.
This function enables the normal displacement velocity of the front s u r f a c e
t o be found in the f o r m

where H , is the first s c a l e factor of the function V ( x , y. z).

The displacement velocity of the front is easily found f r o m the wave
equation describing t h e wave process. However, s o m e phenomena can be
described by the model of wave p r o c e s s e s propagating in a front, but which
a r e t r e a t e d by heat -conduction o r diffusion equations describing smoothing
processes.
Consider the reaction surface of a m a t e r i a l in combined p r o c e s s e s .
Let t h e equation of heat conduction f r o m a s o u r c e and the geneal equation
of kinetics of an additional process be given. We t r a n s f o r m t h e given
s y s t e m of differential equations t o the variable E, and then solve them
relative t o t h e normal front velocity given by (2). Using physical consider
ations, the quantitative relations of the different p r o c e s s e s a r e established,
e. g., between the t e m p e r a t u r e and quantity of t r a n s f o r m e d material. The
s y s t e m of equations is therefore reduced t o an ordinary equation for the
function gE = - glH,, which is then analyzed. This p r o g r a m is now applied
to the dynamic melting of solids in a gas-dynamic s t r e a m . The heat
propagation during melting must obey

c , p ( a T / a t ) = kAT + q ( a M / a t ) ,
aM/at = / ( M ) . I
The first equation of this s y s t e m is the equation of heat conduction f r o m
a s o u r c e , where q designates the specific heat liberated o r absorbed
during the transformation of 1 g solid material; the second equation
controls the reaction r a t e of the m a t e r i a l , M representing the quantity
of t r a n s f o r m e d phase of the m a t e r i a l p e r unit volume. A combined p r o c e s s

184
is regarded a s one inwhich the basic quantities determining it a r e interrelated.
In o u r c a s e these a r e the temperature T and m a s s M . Therefore, in
combined processes they must be connected by the functional relationship
d M l d T , which is always assumed t o exist in these processes. Assumptions
relative t o higher o r d e r derivatives w i l l be made l a t e r . The first of
equations ( 3 ) now takes the f o r m

8T / a t = ( a l a ) AT, (4 1

where a = klc, p i s the t h e r m a l diffusivity, and

Since a frontal c h a r a c t e r has been assumed, a l l the quantities c h a r a c t e r

izing the process w i l l depend on t h e curvilinear characteristic 5 . T r a n s
forming t o the variable 5 141, we obtain

where we have used relation ( 2 ) and introduced the notation

P-(-/-...)

daT d T . (71
dt2 dS

In view of the existence of the first derivative of M , we can rewrite the

second equation of (3) a s

Differentiating (8) with respect t o time, this equation becomes

To simplify the following analysis, we shall make assumptions about

the value of the second derivative of M with respect t o T . If melting has
not s t a r t e d , no relation exists between the t e m p e r a t u r e T and m a s s M .
These two quantities become related only when melting commences. Suppose
the point in the ( M , T )-plane corresponding t o the initial t i m e is an inflexion
point of the function M = M ( T ) . The following condition must then be
fulfilled :

d a M / d T 2= 0 . (10)

If ( 1 0 ) holds throughout melting, (9) can be replaced by

aZT/ atz = -&(aT / a t ) . (11 1

Transforming (11)to the variable 5, and using ( 2 ) with notation (7),we

obtain
PgeH, = -2%dM . (12 1

185
 Hence, equation (6) becomes

g; + a H,, + --
a AV
--gc a dM = 0,
df

where dfldM is determined by the kinetics of the reaction.

The quadratic equation (13) is solved for gq;

The minus sign before the radical has been discarded, s i n c e it is physically
meaningless under certain conditions. In fact, the phenomenon can exist
even if the derivative dfldM vanishes. When the sign before the radical is
negative the equality dfldM=O l e a d s t o the vanishing of the velocity gE a s
well, which is inadmissible.
We now a s s u m e that

G(g)2-&<0.25,
i. e., the second t e r m under the r a d i c a l can be neglected.
This inequality is satisfied if any one of the cofactors of (15) is s m a l l .
The value of each can be determined for the p a r t i c u l a r phenomenon
considered. Thus, if (15) is valid, then
a AV
4=----'

a H,

We shall r e p r e s e n t the quantity a in a m o r e convenient f o r m . If the unit

volume of m a t e r i a l did not consume latent heat of transformation in its
transition t o the liquid phase, the m a t e r i a l would heat t o a t e m p e r a t u r e
T , given by

P9 = C"P (Tq - To), (17)

where To is the initial t e m p e r a t u r e .

Under the action of the gas-dynamic s t r e a m a certain quantity AM of
transformed m a t e r i a l is detached f r o m this unit volume, taking with it
q A M c a l o r i e s of heat. This quantity is completely r e s t o r e d a s a r e s i l t of
melting, and the volume of m a t e r i a l w i l l r e m a i n unchanged and heat t o the
stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e of the s t r e a m Too. The corresponding quantity of
heat is c,p(To0- T o ) . Here and in the following, we u s e mean values of t h e
specific heat and density. The energy balance equation is

c,p(T, - To)- c p (Too - To) +q M = 0. (18 1

Hence,

186

I
... ... - .. .
 F o r t h e complete removal of the transformed m a t e r i a l by t h e g a s -
dynamic s t r e a m , no considerable e r r o r is introduced if we take

T -To
q-.
Too - To

Consider now t h e conclusions which can be drawn about t h e motion of a

s u r f a c e of given initial geometry. If w e consider a s p h e r i c a l body, we have

For t h i s function t h e first and second s c a l e f a c t o r s a r e respectively

2
H,=1; A V = -
Allowing f o r (22), equation (16) can be written as

gr = - ( Z a / a r ) . (23)

For a spherically s y m m e t r i c body, gs c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t e of

variation of its radius, i.e.,
dr
g -- = -(2a/ar)
E - df
. (24)

Hence, s i m p l e transformations yield

where S is the s u r f a c e a r e a of the spherical particle.

If t h e values of a and a a r e substituted, then

It follows that for condition (15), constant values of k, c, and p, and

steady g a s flow past the spherical particle, the reaction s u r f a c e
a r e a of the m a t e r i a l v a r i e s at a constant r a t e . This w a s established
experimentally in 1882 by the Russian scientist Sreznevskii /4/while
studying the evaporation r a t e of liquid drops. He established that t h e
evaporation r a t e f r o m a unit s u r f a c e of t h e d r o p is inversely proportional
t o t h e d r o p radius, and that the r a t e of change ( d e c r e a s e ) of the d r o p
s u r f a c e is constant, i. e., dSldt = const. The applicability of Sreznevskii's
law t o a l l natural phenomena preceded by a front w i l l be established below.
This l a w will be considered as governing t h e s t r o n g physical interaction of
two combined p r o c e s s e s : heat t r a n s f e r in a solid, and the t r a n s f o r m a
tion of m a t e r i a l on i t s s u r f a c e with heat liberation o r absorption.
We shall now prove Sreznevskii's l a w by a different procedure. The
reaction s u r f a c e of the m a t e r i a l can move in space, varying its a r e a
according t o a l i n e a r l a w f o r constant o r variable c u r v a t u r e . Only experi
ments can show whether this is realized in practice. A specific formula

187
can however be derived theoretically. Consider a spherical body, f o r which
equation (14)(allowing f o r (22)) becomes

-
d t = --
dr ar (If v-;%).
Integrating and performing a number of elementary transformations, we
obtain

where

and

p = L L
a dM'

If (15) holds a s before, i. e., prz is s m a l l compared with unity, then

If the first two t e r m s of (31a) and the first t h r e e of (31') a r e retained

and substituted in (29), then

Hence, equation (2 8 ) can be transformed t o the f o r m

where f = ( d f / d M ) , and expression (30) replaces p.

Expressing equality (33) in t e r m s of the surface S of the sphere, we
obtain

For sufficiently s m a l l values of the product it the exponential function in

expression (34)can be expanded in a s e r i e s . This r e s u l t s in the approxi
mate equality

5'= So - G t , (351

188
where

Equation (35) e x p r e s s e s Sreznevskii's l a w , i. e., the l i n e a r relationship

between t h e body s u r f a c e and time. This derivation enables another law
t o be derived which is obeyed under definite conditions by the motion of t h e
reaction s u r f a c e of the material.
Expression (36)yields the following value of the initial Gaussian
c u r v a t u r e of the s u r f a c e of a spherically s y m m e t r i c body:

4n = _1 =
_ i (37 1
So r2 (C/4n)-4(a/a) .
This equation implies that i f the phenomenon under observation develops
according t o Sreznevskii's law, t h e reaction r a t e of the m a t e r i a l
v a r i e s such that the Gaussian curvature of the s u r f a c e r e m a i n s constant.
This can be realized only i f t h e r e exists a plane dividing the s p h e r e into
two p a r t s , in which t h e m a t e r i a l i s transformed at different r a t e s . This is
observed in t h e presence of n a t u r a l convection, or when the m a t e r i a l
react+-ontakes place in a moving medium. The integration of ( 2 7 ) i s
possible only when n i s independent of the radius r of the spherical particle.
The Sreznevskii l a w is therefore m o r e general than t h e conservation law
of the Gaussian curvature of the reaction surface, and can be satisfied
in the f o r m of (26), while the Gaussian curvature of the s u r f a c e can vary.
T h e r e is one corollary f r o m t h e l a w s established, concerning the
geometry of t h e moving reaction s u r f a c e of the material. Gauss' famous
t h e o r e m a s s e r t s that the total (Gaussian) curvature of the s u r f a c e
depends only on the l i n e a r elements (and t h e i r f i r s t - and second-order
d e r i v a t i v e s ) on the surface, and t h e r e f o r e does not change with t h e defor
mation of the s u r f a c e , It follows that e v e r y s u r f a c e of constant Gaussian
curvature is applicable t o (can be deformed into) any other s u r f a c e of the
s a m e curvature. We r e c a l l that two s u r f a c e s S and S * a r e isometric, i. e.,
the s u r f a c e S i s applicable to the s u r f a c e S* (or S* r e p r e s e n t s a deformation
of S ) if t h e i r line elements a r e equal. It follows f r o m Gauss' t h e o r e m that
developable s u r f a c e s (surfaces enveloping the oo-family of tangent planes
t o a s p a c e c u i v e ) , cones, and cylinders a r e applicable t o a plane. Thus,
s i n c e the material transformation takes place under specific conditions,
fulfilling the Sreznevskii l a w and conserving the Gaussian curvature of the
surface, the motion of the reaction s u r f a c e can be represented a s
an uniform and continuous deformation of the whole s u r f a c e o r individual
p a r t s of it. If the solid p o s s e s s e s s p h e r i c a l symmetry, the surface
is transformed with t i m e in such a way that s y m m e t r y w i l l be p r e s e r v e d
for the front and back of the surface, subject t o different exchange conditions
with t h e surrounding medium. For bodies of conical, cylindrical, o r any
other developable s u r f a c e the dynamic transformation of t h e m a t e r i a l will
proceed such that even when Sreznevskii's law is obeyed and the Gaussian
c u r v a t u r e is conserved f o r t h e whole s u r f a c e o r its individual p a r t s , t h e
body shape can be altered substantially by deformation (e. g., transformed
into a plane).

189
 The r e s u l t s listed r e p r e s e n t only s o m e of the advantages of the proposed
model, whose simplicity considerably facilitates t h e study of many pheno
mena of various combined p r o c e s s e s .
The theoretical model proposed does not contradict published data o r
our own experimental r e s u l t s , which a r e considered below.
One of the first papers emphasizing the importance of Sreznevskii's law
was 151, where the law was applied t o the evaporation kinetics of liquid
drops and volatile solid bodies. Zubkov /6/ observed the evaporation
kinetics of naphtalene and camphor s p h e r e s , over an air-velocity range of
0.5-lOm/sec, and air t e m p e r a t u r e of 15-120". These a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s
enabled both pure sublimation and evaporation through a liquid phase t o be
studied. The investigations showed that t h e r e is no difference between the
evaporation kinetics of naphtalene in liquid and solid phases, i. e., that
although the d e c r e a s e in m a t e r i a l p e r unit t i m e is different, the p r o c e s s is
the s a m e qualitatively. This is understandable in the f r a m e of the model
discussed. Figure 1 shows c m s e c u t i v e stills of an evaporating naphthalene
s p h e r e . The evaporation proceeds at different r a t e s on different portions of
the surface. A zone of minimum evaporation r a t e is c l e a r l y visible, and
it divides the s u r f a c e of the s p h e r e into front and back p a r t s . The zone of
minimum evaporation is situated where the impinging s t r e a m divides. By
observing t h e shape of the front and back parts, the naphtalene was s e e n
t o evaporate at different but comparable r a t e s . According t o Zubkov's data,
in a first approximation, both the front and back p a r t s p r e s e r v e a s p h e r i c a l
shape during evaporation. In addition, Zubkov's calculations of t h e r a d i i
of the front and back s u r f a c e s showeu that they vary linearly, i. e., following
Sreznevskii's law. Similar r e s u l t s w e r e obtained by Aksel'rud /7/ for
compressed s a l t p e t e r s p h e r e s and sodium chloride dissolved in a liquid
s t r e a m . Figure 2 r e p r e s e n t s successive stages in the dissolution of the
s a l t p e t e r s p h e r e s . A comparison of Figures 1 and 2 indicates that both
p r o c e s s e s obey the s a m e law.

FIGURE 1. Successive stills of the evaporation of naphthalene spheres for low subsonic speeds of the air stream.

FIGURE 2. Successive stages in the dissolution of saltpeter spheres:

Aksel'rud's experiments.

190
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
- 2, sec

FIGURE 3. Typical shapes FIGURE 4. Displacement of the stagna

of naphthalene spherical tion point of lead conical models, as a

models during sublimation function of time in a gas-dynamic

in a subsonic stream. stream:

1-cone with apex angle IOo; !&Zoo;

3-30? 4-40',

The authors of this paper conducted experimental studies of the sublima

tion of naphthalene models for a i r speeds between 50 and 2 7 0 m / s e c
(subsonic s p e e d s ) and Mach numbers M = 1.7 (supersonic speeds), and
s t r e a m stagnation temperatures between 6 0 and 150C. The r e s u l t s showed
that the sublimation of the spherical particles obeys Sreznevskii's law,
and that the Gaussian curvature of the front part of the surface is conserved.
The center of the radius of curvature moves according t o a linear law. The
a i r s t r e a m at the back part of the spherical model was considerably
disturbed by the holder; we have accordingly refrained f r o m analyzing this
part of the model. Figure 3 shows typical shapes of naphthalene spherical
models during sublimation at high subsonic speeds of the gas. The shape
of the models remains qualitatively unchanged during t h e i r sublimation in
a supersonic s t r e a m . The surface variation of the front p a r t of the
sublimating model a r e presented in the following paper 181.
Donald /9/ described the melting of hemispherical ice models in a hot
humid a i r s t r e a m , and pointed t o the linear displacement of the leading
stagnation point. His photographs of the process show that the dynamic
transformation of the material is preceded by a front in accordance with

191
 Sreznevskii's law, and conserves the Gaussian curvature of the melting
surface.
We conducted experiments on the melting of cylindrical ice models with
hemispherical heads, placed lengthwise in a water s t r e a m . Sreznevskii's
lzw w a s obeyed, and the Gaussian curvature of the hemispherical nose
surface and the cylindrical part of the model s u r f a c e was conserved.
The numerous experiments conducted at the Power Institute im.
Krzhizhansvskii on the melting of various metals and alloys in gas-dynamic
s t r e a m s corroborate the front c h a r a c t e r of the displacement of the
reaction surface. The shortening of the conic s a m p l e along its axis
obeyed a l i n e a r function of time, undisturbed by the variation in cone
angle. If the cone length versus time is plotted, a straight line is obtained
whose slope d e c r e a s e s with increasing cone angle (Figure 4).
Experimental characteristics of the dynamic melting and sublimation of
axisymmetrical bodies, data on the contraction of the models, and values
of the radius of the models' noses a r e given in / l o / . The varying geometry
of the reaction s u r f a c e of the material draws attention to the complex
interconnected p r o c e s s e s taking place. The approximate theoretical
calculation of the reaction surface does not, in our opinion, elucidate the
t r u e development mechanism of the investigated phenomenon. Stetson's
r e s u l t s s e e m t o indicate that the phenomenon of dynamic melting and
sublimation developed according t o the model of front dynamic processes.

FIGURE 5. Successive stages in the buming of a coal particle :

a-sphere @I" in an oxygen stream: M = 1.3; T*= 820C. T i m e interval 0.5sec between the stills;
b-sphere @I" in an air stream; M = 3; T*= 870C. Time interval 5 min E t w e e n the stills.

192
 We conducted an experimental study of the combustion of s p h e r i c a l and
cylindrical coal particles in a supersonic a i r and oxygen s t r e a m f o r M =
= 1 . 3 - 3 . 5 and s t r e a m stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s between 780 and 950". The
r e s u l t s (Figure 5 ) show that t h e model of front p r o c e s s e s is a l s o applicable
t o combustion processes. The a r e a of the reaction s u r f a c e of the s p h e r i c a l
coal particle varied linearly with t i m e : it was a l s o established that the
Gaussian curvature is conserved on the front and back p a r t s . These
observations a r e illustrated in F i g u r e s 6 and 7. The r e s u l t s obtained a r e
qualitatively s i m i l a r t o those of Blinov and Khaikin on the combustion of
carbon in low-speed gas s t r e a m s . T h e i r r e s u l t s a r e discussed in detail by
Predvoditelev 1 3 1 f r o m the viewpoint of front p r o c e s s e s .

FIGURE 6. Outlines of the successive combustion stages of a sphere in

a supersonic oxygen stream:

M 1 4; T * = 8 2 0 T .

S, c m 2 s.105 cm2
160

I20
0 2 4 6 T,sec D 20 40
a b

FIGURE I. Variation in the surface area of spherical models 6 I mm from coal particles
during combustion in a stream of air and oxygen:
a-oxygen; M = 2; T*= 82OOC; b-air: M = 2.5; 1- T * = 82OoC; 2- T*= 860; 3- T*= 950.

193
 Of considerable i n t e r e s t a r e t h e experimental r e s u l t s on the interaction
between graphite s p h e r i c a l bodies and a high-enthalpy supersonic s t r e a m
(M = 2 . 4 ) of a i r , argon, and nitrogen / l l / . The paper presents data on the
stable s u r f a c e shape acquired by the cylindrical graphite bodies in a plasma
j e t of a i r and two other gases at stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s above 8000" and
s t r e a m speeds about 3000 m / s e c . The authors established that graphite
rods rapidly acquired a stable conic s u r f a c e geometry with a s h a r p nose,
which remained invariable throughout the experiment. These r e s u l t s a r e
illustrated in Figure 8. They a l s o presented data on the contraction of the
s a m p l e and the removal of transformed m a s s a s a function of time, and
showed that both phenomeca a r e described by l i n e a r relationships. The
experiments w e r e therefore found t o obey both laws of motion of the
reaction s u r f a c e of the m a t e r i a l in combined p r o c e s s e s developed
by a front.

FIGURE 8. Variation in the geometryof cylindrical graphite

bodies during interaction with a supersonic high-enthalpy
stream of gases:
a , b-photographs of the graphite rod before and after the
interaction with the gas stream; c-outline of the variation
in the cylinder surface for a time interval of 1 min.

Bibliography

1, M i k h e 1 I s o n , V. A. 0 fizicheskoi t e o r i i plameni Bunzena (Physical

Theory of the Bunsen Flame).-ZhRFKhO, Vol. 2 2 , 3A. 1890.
2. P r e d v o d i t e 1e v, A. S. 0 frontovom p r o t s e s s e ispareniya i subli
m a t s i i sfericheskikh chastits (Front P r o c e s s of Evaporation and
Sublimation of Spherical P a r t i c l e s ) . -Trudy Odesskoga Gosu
darstvennogo Universiteta im. I. I. Mechnikova, Seriya Fiziches
kikh Nauk., Vol. 150, No. 7. 1960.
3. P r e d v o d i t e 1e v, A. S. 0 gorenii sfericheskikh chastits (Combustion
of Spherical Particles).- Trudy Odesskogo Gosudarstvennogo
Universiteta im. I. I. Mechnikova, Seriya Fizicheskikh Nauk.,
Vol. 150, No. 7. 1 9 6 0 .
4. S r e z n e v s k i i, B. I. Ob isparenii zhidkostei (Evaporation of Liquids ).-
ZhRFKhO. Vol, 14, 7A. 1882.
5. F e d o s e e v, V. A. Kinetika ispareniya kapel' zhidkosti (Evaporation
Kinetics of Liquid Drops). - Trudy Odesskogo Gosudarstvennogo
Universiteta im. I. I. Mechnikova, Seriya Fizicheskikh Nauk.,
Vol. 150, No. 7. 1960.

194
 6. Z u b k o v , V. I. Ob isparenii sharikov tverdykh t e l v potoke gaza
(Evaporation of Solid Spheres in a Gas Stream).-Doklady AN
SSSR, Vol. 123, No. 5. 1958.
7. A k s e 1 r u d, G. A. K voprosu o kinetike rastvoreniya tverdoi
chastitsy, dvizhushcheisya v potoke zhidkosti (Dissolution
Kinetics of a Solid Particle, Moving in a Gas Stream).-Zhurnal
Fizicheskoi Khimii, Vol. 28, No. 10.
8. E r o s h e n k o , V.M. a n d Y u . N . T e r e n t ' e v . Analiz sublimatsii
tverdykh t e l v sverkhzvukovom Potoke (The Sublimation of Solids
i n a Supersonic Stream).- In this collection, p.196.
9. D o n a l d , J. The Melting of Ice in a Hot Humid S t r e a m of Air.-J.
Fluid Mech., Vol. 8, p a r t I. 1960.
10. S t e t s o n , N, Issledovanie ablyatsii konicheskikh modelei (Investiga
tion of the Ablation of Conic Models).- VRT, No. 2. 1966.
11. C h r i s t e n s e n , D. and R . D . B u h l e r . O n t h e Stable Shape of an
Ablating Graphite Body.-J. Aero. Sci., Vol. 26, No. 1. 1959.

195
V . M . Eroshenko, Yu.N . Terent' ev
THE SUBLIMATION OF SOLIDS IN A
SUPERSONIC STREAM

The sublimation of bodies in a supersonic s t r e a m was studied in a

continuous open-circuit wind tunnel with Eiffel chamber. The a i r para
m e t e r s in the experiments were: p r e s s u r e in the stilling chamber 1 atm;
static p r e s s u r e in the jet prt= 0.2 atm; Mach number M = 1.7. The outlet
a r e a of the De Laval nozzle was 27x2'7 mm. A i r f r o m the atmosphere
entered an electric stove through a filter. It was then heated t o the required
temperature, passed through the stilling chamber and flowed out through
the De Laval nozzle into the low-pressure chamber. The necessary
p r e s s u r e drop in the low-pressure chamber was created by RMK-4 fore-
vacuum pumps. Chemically pure naphthalene was u s e d for studying the
sublimation. The selection of naphthalene was due to its intense sublimation
at relatively low temperatures. To eliminate, o r at least d e c r e a s e t o the
minimum, the mechanical removal of material by the impinging a i r s t r e a m ,
models of sufficient mechanical strength were manufactured by compression
in a hydraulic p r e s s at a p r e s s u r e p = 2000 kg/cm2. This method enabled
t h e m t o be processed mechanically on different lathes.
The shape and dimensions of the models a r e given in Figure 1. Before
the experiment the models were stuck on the thread end of a wooden holder.
The wood acted a s heat insulator and reduced the distortion of the temper
a t u r e fields inside the model. To reduce the effect of the holder on the flow
past the models, its thread end was made a s thin a s possible. Figure 2
illustrates how the models were introduced into the s t r e a m . A two-position
l e v e r was mounted in the low-pressure chamber for introducing the models
in the working section of the s t r e a m . The model and the holder were kept
in the r e f r i g e r a t o r of the low-pressure chamber until the required conditions
were created in the apparatus. In this way, the initial given dimensions of
the model and its initial temperature could be preserved. The gas-dynamic
s t r e a m was considered thermally stationary if in the course of 10 min the
temperature in the stilling chamber varied by no m o r e than 0.3". The
sublimation of the models in the supersonic s t r e a m was observed through
the optical windows of the low-pressure chamber by means of an IAB-451
instrument. Simultaneously, the different stages of the process w e r e
photographed over fixed t i m e intervals. The sublimation of the models was
investigated f o r stagnation temperatures of 20--85C.
Figure 3 shows Schlieren photographs of the different stages of the
evaporation of spheres. The photographs of the variation in the surface of
the s p h e r e w e r e processed on a small microscope with s c a l e divisions of
0.01 mm. Consequently, it was possible t o determine with sufficient

196
accuracy the coordinates of t h e model contour at different s t a g e s of its
evaporation. This is illustrated in F i g u r e 4. Besides t h e experimental
points, the figure shows c i r c l e s whose radius equals that of the initial
sphere, but relative t o a point situated at a distance f r o m t h e initial center
equal t o the displacement of the leading stagnation point of the surface. It is
s e e n f r o m Figure 4 that the experimental points characterizing t h e front
s u r f a c e of the model at different sublimation t i m e s are located n e a r t h e
a r c s of the c i r c l e of initial radius, plotted by t h e method described above.

13.5

._
FIGURE 1. Naphthalene samples FIGURE 2. Scheme of the mounting and introduction
of models in the stream :
1-model; %lever for introducing the model in the
stream; 3-refrigerator; 4-De Lava1 nozzle; 5-low
pressure chamber.

Stream directi

Commencement of the process

FIGURE 3 . Schlieren photographs FIGURE 4. Contoun of the successive evaporation stages of
of the successive stages of the naphthalene spherical models.
evaporation of naphthalene spheri
c a l samples.

197
 Thus, when a s p h e r e evaporates in a supersonic s t r e a m , t h e front
s u r f a c e of the model conserves a s p h e r i c a l shape with its initial radius.
In other words, t h e front s u r f a c e evaporates as if the c e n t e r of a s p h e r e
with constant radius (equal t o its initial value) moves downstream. A
s i m i l a r pattern was observed f o r models of 7 and 10 d i a m e t e r and other
stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s . The radius of the front p a r t of the s p h e r e
remained unchanged up t o v e r y extensive evaporation. In many experiments
the displacement of t h e leading stagnation point reached 70- 85 % of the value
of the initial radius, without any change in the total curvature of the s p h e r i c a l
model surface. Experimental plots of Ah = f(z) a r e given in F i g u r e 5, with
Ah representing the distance between the leading stagnation point of the model
at the initial moment of the p r o c e s s and the stagnation point corresponding to
s o m e instant z during evaporation. The relationship At = f ( z ) is linear, i. e.,
for given shape and dimensions of the model the displacement velocity of
the leading stagnation point r e m a i n s almost constant for invariable s t r e a m
parameters.

Ah, mm
20

2.0

0 I.0 2.11 4.a 60 20 80

Z, min
FIGURF: 5. Displacement with time of the leading stagnation point of a.naphthalene sphere:
l-T*= 85C; 2- T * = 75; 3- T*= 65; 4 - T * = 35.

Figure 5 shows that the i n c r e a s e in stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e is accom

panied by a s h a r p i n c r e a s e in the sublimation r a t e . It is difficult t o draw
quantitative conclusions about the evaporation kinetics of the back p a r t of
the mode? s u r f a c e , in view of the influence of the holder on t h e flow pattern.
Nevertheless, the experimental r e s u l t s indicate that the back p a r t of the
s u r f a c e evaporates much slower than the front part. At relatively low
stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s of the s t r e a m the evaporation r a t e of the front p a r t
of the s u r f a c e is roughly t n i c e that of its back part. This r a t i o i n c r e a s e s
f r o m two t o five with a rise in stagnation temperature. A comparison of
the c u r v e s Ah = f(z) f o r s p h e r e s of 7 and 1 0 m m diameter.under identical
flow conditions (cf. Figure 6 ) shows that higher dispIacement velocities of
the front point correspond t o lower values of the diameter.
F i g u r e 7 shows photographs illustrating the development with t i m e of the
evaporation of conical models. These photographs show that the front p a r t
of the cone evaporates f a r m o r e than its back and s i d e p a r t s . The variation
in the cone s u r f a c e during its evaporation in a supersonic a i r s t r e a m was
estimated quantitatively by a microscope.

198
 --
Ah. nun

I-
J

min
FIGURE 6. Displacement of the leading FIGURE 7. Schlieren photographs
stagnation point of naphthalene spheres of of the successive stages in the
different initial diameters under identical evaporation of conical naphthalene
flows conditions: models.
1-sphere $7"; 2-$ 10".

Curves of A h = f(z) for conical models a r e given in Figure 8, where A h

r e p r e s e n t s the distance between the cone apex at the initial moment of the
p r o c e s s and the leading stagnation point at some instant z' of the evaporation.
The relationship A h = /(T) is l i n e a r for spherical models. F o r conic models
a d e c r e a s e (from 2 t o 5 70)with t i m e in the displacement velocity of the
leading stagnation point was observed. However, since this d e c r e a s e was of
the s a m e o r d e r of magnitude a s the mean experimental e r r o r , the relation
ship Ah = I(T)can also be considered a s linear in this case. It follows f r o m
Figure 8 that an i n c r e a s e in the stagnation temperature of the impinging
s t r e a m is accompanied by a s h a r p i n c r e a s e in the evaporation r a t e of the
conical model.. Comparing the curves Ah = /(T) for the cone and sphere, w e
conclude that under identical conditions the displacement velocity of the
leading stagnation point is much higher for the cone than the sphere. It is
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for the evaporation of the conical model that i t s nose is rounded
with time, acquiring the shape of a paraboloid of revolution. In addition,
when the stagnation temperature of the s t r e a m is low (30"), the initial angle
of the model remains unchanged; at higher values of the stagnation t e m p e r
a t u r e (75") the cone angle i n c r e a s e s . Such an i n c r e a s e in cone angle is due
t o an intense evaporation of the front part of the model surface.
The contours bf the successive evaporation stages of the cones f o r
stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s of 30 and 75" a r e shown in Figure 9.
The experimental r e s u l t s on the sublimation of s p h e r i c a l particles in a
supersonic s t r e a m a g r e e with the conclusions drawn f r o m a theoretical
model of the front motion of the s u r f a c e of evaporating m a t e r i a l 111.
The experimental r e s u l t s on the sublimation of spherically s y m m e t r i c
bodies in a supersonic s t r e a m are s i m i l a r t o those f o r s p h e r i c a l bodies at
low subsonic s t r e a m velocities / 2 1. Although the total curvature of the
s u r f a c e of the front and back p a r t s remained constant in the c o u r s e of the
sublimation experiments described in /2 /, the total curvature of the

199
s p h e r i c a l front and back regions varied with t i m e . In addition, both the
total s u r f a c e of the s p h e r i c a l particle studied, and its front and back
s u r f a c e s , v a r i e d linearly with time.
Thus, the r e s u l t s of / 2 / a r e qualitatively s i m i l a r t o our r e s u l t s &d can
be explained by the front model of the motion of the evaporation s u r f a c e .

Ah. mm

FIGURE 8. Displacement velocityof the leading stagnation

point of the cone as a function of time for different stag
nation temperatures:
1- T'= 85C; 2- T'=75; 3- T
'
= 50; 4- T+= 30.

process 1 'a
FIGURE 9. Contours of the successive sublimation stages
of naphthalene cones for stream stagnation temperatures
of 30" and 75C.

We shall now consider in m o r e detail the motion of the leading stagnation

point of conical bodies by the model describing the front p r o c e s s . The
following equation was obtained in /1/ for this model:

200

- -- '- -- --- -- - -
where gc is the n o r m a l displacement velocity of the reaction surface
of the material; a is the thermal diffusivity; H,, and AV a r e the first and
second s c a l e factors of the reaction surface V ; dfldM is the derivative
of the function controlling the reaction kinetics with respect to the
quantity of transformed material. The quantity a is defined a s

where q is the latent heat of transformation of the m a t e r i a l ; c,, p a r e the

heat capacity and density; T,, is the c r i t i c a l temperature at which the
material transformation s t a r t s ; TOOis the stagnation temperature of the
gas flowing around the body. The t e m p e r a t u r e I;, is defined a s the
t e m p e r a t u r e to which the transformed part of the material would be heated
in the absence of latent-heat absorption during the reaction. Its value
is given by the formula

P9 = C"P ( T , - TW). (3 1

If the cone is approximated by a paraboloid of revolution, w e have

V = 2 + - br2
R* '
where r = v v ; R is the radius a t the cone base; b is the distance
f r o m the cone apex t o the base.
This means that the evaporation of the cone is determined by the velocity
of the reaction surface of the m a t e r i a l in the direction of the solid
residue. The first and second s c a l e factors of the surface V have the f o r m

We shall now consider the displacement velocity of the reaction

surface along the z-axis, for which

dz
H" = 1; 4 = Zi
If the m a s s variation p e r unit volume obeys the l i n e a r l a w

aM
- = (7
at kM,
where k is a proportionality constant, then

In a steady s t a t e the cone apex is transformed into a sphere. The

product xb2MqEH, can therefore be considered as the flux of transformed
m a s s a c r o s s a s u r f a c e of a r e a ab2. This product must be equal t o 8 M l a t .
Therefore, f r o m (8), we obtain

20 1
 For a cone of unit volume we have

nR2bJ3= 1; R2= 3 Jnb.

With the aid of (lo), (9) takes the f o r m

_ddfM_ - - 3
36
&?EH,* (11

Allowing for (5), (6), and ( l l ) ,we can write equation (1)in the f o r m

ba
gefDgE=O. (12

When formula (6) is substituted f o r &,

d r = - _ ba
_
dt aR2 '

Integration of this equation yields

z = -
-t
ba
zRZ
+ const.
It is easily shown that the constant has the value b, if the coordinate
f r a m e is selected a s follows:

As a result (14) becomes

Ah = z - b = - -t.
ba
aR*

The quantity Ah is determined when processing the experimental material.

Let the generatrix of the cone have a common point with s o m e section of
the paraboloid of revolution formed by a plane passing through the z - a x i s ,
and let that point be z = 0, r = R . Then,

_ddzr --_ _ - - c t g (180 - 0) = c t g 0,

where 0 is the cone semiangle.
With the aid of (16) one can express (15) in the f o r m

ctg 0
Ah = --ta
aR 2

or

if the value of a is replaced by the approximate value in formula (2).

202

. . .
 This is the final f o r m of the equation which must be obeyed by t h e l a w
of variation of the cone length. To u s e it, w e must determine T , , and T , .
Suppose a c r i t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e T,, exists below which no sublimation of
the m a t e r i a l is observed. This t e m p e r a t u r e corresponds t o t h e melting
t e m p e r a t u r e in metals. F o r sublimating bodies it a l s o depends on the
manufacture of the material. The m o r e friable the material, the lower t h e
sublimation temperature. Its value w i l l be highest f o r a compressed
sublimating m a t e r i a l with a polished s u r f a c e .
In o u r experiments t h e samples w e r e made of compressed naphthalene,
which hardly sublimated during many hours in a gas-dynamic s t r e a m at
t e m p e r a t u r e s around 25". This t e m p e r a t u r e was adopted as t h e c r i t i c a l
sublimation t e m p e r a t u r e . To calculate T, by formula (3), one must
determine the heat of m a t e r i a l transformation (i. e., the heat of sublimating
1 g m a t e r i a l ) a s follows. Before a molecule leaves t h e solid material, it
must do work in o r d e r t o approach the surface. This work is equivalent
t o the escape of a molecule f r o m the s p h e r e of influence of the other
molecules (namely, a distance f r o m the s u r f a c e l a r g e r than t h e radius of
influence of the cohesion forces), and i s equal t o t h e heat of fusion. After
the molecule has reached the surface, it must do work against the s u r f a c e
forces. Only a f t e r t h e s e forces have been overcome can it evaporate. This
work i s identified with the heat of evaporation o r sublimation.
Designate by Q the total latent heat of evaporation, by q r the sublimation
heat, and by q , the heat of fusion. The following equality holds:

The total latent heat of evaporation of naphthalene is 75 cal/g, and the

heat of fusion 35 cal/g. The sublimation heat of naphthalene is t h e r e f o r e
q s = 40 c a l / g . The t e m p e r a t u r e difference T,, - T,, is determined by
formula ( 3 ) and equals 121K. The t h e r m a l diffusivity of naphthalene for
mean values of k, c,, and p is a = 2 2 . 6 - m2/hr.
With t h e s e values, the motion of the leading stagnation point of the
naphthalene conical model is

By this formula the tangents of the sublimation lines of naphthalene w e r e

calculated; they were also determined experimentally for gas-dynamic
s t r e a m s with different stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s . The experimental contours
of the front stagnation point a r e shown in F i g u r e 9. The experimental and
theoretical r e s u l t s a r e given in the following table, where Tio,= a r e
the experimental and theoretical stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s , " C ; m, is the
tangent of t h e sublimation lines (experiment); m 2 ,m 2 a r e the tangents
calculated by ( 2 0 ) for Tio,Eand TiO.Trespectively:

TOO. E

30 75 0.00450 0.00475
50 85 0.00570 0.00572

203
 Satisfactory agreement is observed between the theoretical and experi
mental r e s u l t s . Thus, in addition t o examining the qualitative laws of
sublimation in a gas-dynamic s t r e a m , we have established the suitability
of the model of front p r o c e s s e s f o r analyzing the complex phenomenon of
heat and m a s s exchange.

B i b l i og r a p hy

1. E r o s h e n k o , V . M . , A . V . M o r a r , a n d Y u . N . T e r e n t ' e v . Frontovoi
kharakter poverkhnosti prevrashcheniya veshchestva p r i vzai
modeistvii s vneshnei s r e d o i (Front Nature of the Reaction
Surface with the Medium).--In this collection, p. 183.
2. Z h u b k o v , V. I. Ob isparenii sharikov tverdykh tel v potoke gaza
(Evaporation of Solid Spheres in a Gas Stream). - DAN SSSR,
Vol. 123, No. 5. 1958.

204
Yu.N . Vorontsov, V .M . Eroshenko, A . V .Moray,
Yu.N . Terent ' e v

A METHOD FOR VISUALIZING ISOTHERMAL

SURFACES

In recent y e a r s , interest has grown in methods of reducing the disinte

gration of the structure of solids by aerodynamic heating. It is important
in this connection to be able to visualize the p r o c e s s of propagation of
the heat front in the solid for an invariable surface geometry.
To this end, we conducted a s e r i e s of experiments in a supersonic wind
tunnel, using spherical models made of polytetrafluoroethylene [Teflon] and
placed in an a i r s t r e a m with T * = 600- 900K and M = 2.5.
Polytetrafluoroethylene is a dense substance in which amorphous and
crystalline zones a r e uniformly distributed. The degree of crystallinity
depends on the manufacturing conditions of the samples and v a r i e s between
50 and 70 7'. The crystallites of polymers differ however in s e v e r a l
respects f r o m the crystals of simple substances. Thus, the transition of
the polymer crystallites into an amorphous s t a t e takes place over a wide
temperature range, without any discontinuous variation in the properties
of the substance. The melting temperature of the crystallites is accordingly
defined a s the temperature above which no crystallites a r e present in the
sample /1/. The melting temperature of the crystallites of polytetrafluoro
ethylene is 327"C, and the glass point of the amorphous zones is 120C.
Under n o r m a l conditions polytetrafluoroethylene is a white opaque
material. When heated above 327C all the crystallites melt completely
and the substance becomes transparent. Up to 415C polytetrafluoroethylene
does not pass f r o m a state of high elasticity to a viscous one. At 415C
polytetrafluoroethylene s t a r t s to decompose slowly, the p r o c e s s being
accelerated with a r i s e in temperature. The decomposition of the m a t e r i a l
in the experiments was negligible, although the stagnation temperature of the
s t r e a m s o m e t i m e s reached 900'K; this was due to the fact that the models
w e r e only kept in the s t r e a m f o r a short while (less than 2min).
The models studied w e r e spheres of 7 m m diameter. Porcelain and b r a s s
rods w e r e used a s holders. Figure 1 shows the successive stages of the
motion of the recrystallization front' of the spherical model.
The models w e r e photographed in reflected light with weak background
lighting. The experimental conditions w e r e identical f o r porcelain and
b r a s s holders.
Figure 1, a, b show how the holder m a t e r i a l affects the propagationof the
heat flux f r o m t h e r e a r zone into the model. The holder m a t e r i a l substantially
affected the time necessary f o r the spherical model t o become translucent.
The geometry of the moving surface separating the highly elastic region
and the region with crystalline zones was not noticeably affected.

205
 I
a b c
FIGURE 1. Successive stages in the motion of the isothermal
translucent surface of polytetrafluoroethylene in spherical
models of @ = 7 mm for M= 2.5 and T k = 770K:
a-brass holder; b, c-porcelain holder. The time interval
between the frames i s 10 sec.

In the c o u r s e of the experiment t h e relationship between the velocity of

motion of the heat front and the gradual translucence of the model m a t e r i a l
was recorded, a s well a s the t i m e interval between the introduction of the
model in the s t r e a m and the instant at which the entire model became
translucent. The experimental r e s u l t s a r e shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Measurements of the radius of the frontal zone of the s u r f a c e of the
translucent heat front (cf. F i g u r e 1) and the analysis of t h e experimental
r e s u l t s (cf. F i g u r e 2 ) yielded the following information:
t h e radius of c u r v a t u r e of the isothermal s u r f a c e of the translucent front
r e m a i n s f o r a long time constant and equal t o the radius of the s p h e r i c a l
model;
the velocity of motion of this front s u r f a c e is l i n e a r for a long t i m e ;
the radius of t h e spherical s u r f a c e of the melting front of t h e polymer
c r y s t a l l i t e s begins t o vary at the s a m e t i m e that the velocity of motion of
t h e leading point of the front begins t o deviate f r o m t h e l i n e a r values (cf.
Figure 2);
f o r the b r a s s holder, the displacement velocity of the leading point of
t h e front deviates f r o m the l i n e a r law before the radius of the s p h e r i c a l
s u r f a c e of the heat front v a r i e s f r o m its constant value. The displacement
velocity is m o r e clearly expressed in this case.

206
 It is seen f r o m F i g u r e 3 that for s t r e a m stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e s over
the range 600- 900"K, t h e t i m e of complete recrystallization of a spherical
polytetrafluoroethylene model v a r i e s according t o a near-exponential l a w .
At t e m p e r a t u r e s above 900K t h e recrystallization is independent of the
s t r e a m stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e , and is determined only by internal
p r o c e s s e s , i. e., the maximum recrystallization r a t e .

t. m m

t, sec

FIGURE 2. Velocity of motion of the isothermal FIGURE 3 . Total time taken by a polytetrafluoro
translucent surface i n a spherical model for Y=2.5: ethylene sphere to become translucent as a function
of the stagnation temperature of the stream.
1- Ti0-7630K; 2-793"; 3-813'; 4-833".

Near the phase transition point (327C) t h e r e was a plane stationary

recrystallization boundary (cf. Figure 3, the left-hand branch of the curve),
which assumed a spherical shape as the stagnation t e m p e r a t u r e increased,
and s t a r t e d t o move inside the model according t o the laws described above.
The appearance of a plane boundary at the reaction s u r f a c e of the m a t e r i a l
under the conditions of a gas-dynamic flow has a l s o been observed in
naphthalene sublimation experiments, but s o f a r t h i s effect lacks a satis
factory explanation.
With the exception of the region affected by t h e holder (the end of the
p r o c e s s ) , the phase transition proceeds under invariant Gauss c u r v a t u r e
of the reaction s u r f a c e of the material, while the leading point of this
s u r f a c e moves at a constant velocity, the a r e a varying according t o a l i n e a r
law, i. e., the p r o c e s s obeys Sreznevskii's l a w 121. The experimental
r e s u l t s a g r e e satisfactorily with the conclusions drawn f r o m t h e theory
based on the model of the motion of the front of an isothermal surface, or1
which the additional p r o c e s s e s of m a t e r i a l transformation combined with
the p r o c e s s of heat equalization take place 131.
The method proposed f o r visualizing isothermal s u r f a c e s is a l s o suitable
f o r bodies of f a i r l y complex configuration and a r b i t r a r y law of heat exchange.
The method is s i m p l e and is useful in calibration experiments when studying
the ablation of various substances in gas-dynamic high-enthalpy s t r e a m s .

Bibliography

1 . C h e g o d a e v, D. D. , et al. Ftorplasty (Fluoroethylene P o l y m e r s ) . -

Moskva, Fizmatgiz. 1960.

207
2. S r e z n e v s k i i , V. Ob i s p a r e n i i zhidkostei (Evaporation of Liquids).-
ZhRFKhO, vol. 14. 1882.
3. P r e d v o d i t e l e v , A.S. 0 frontovom p r o t s e s s e ispareniya i subli
m a t s i i sfericheskikh chastits (Front Process of Evaporation and
the Sublimation of Spherical P a r t i c l e s ).-Trudy Odesskogo
Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, Seriya Fizicheskikh Nauk, No. 7.
1960.

208
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