AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

M.Sc. in Civil Engineering, Structural department

CES 645: Special Topics in Foundation

Treatment of Collapsible
Soil

Done by: Madonna Nabil Roshdy

Under the supervision of: Dr. Hoda Abdel Hady
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Table of Contents
1.0 Collapsible soil ...........................................................................................3
1.1What is a collapsible soil? ........................................................................3
1.2Collapsible soil behaviour under load: ........................................................4
1.3General characteristics of collapsible soil ................................................. 4
1.4 Deposit Mechanisms ............................................................................... 5
1.5 Types of Collapsible soils ......................................................................5
1.5.1 Aeolian soils ......................................................................................5
1.5.2 Residual soils ............................................................................................5
2.0 Testing & Identification ...........................................................................................6
2.1Double Oedometer Test ...........................................................................6
2.2Single Oedometer Test ............................................................................7
3.0 Field Tests ........................................................................................7
3.1 Sausage test ....................................................................................................7
3.2 Plate load Tests ...............................................................................................8
3.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the plate load test ...............................8
3.3Cone penetration test ......................................................................................9
4.0 Stabilization of Collapsible Soils ...............................................................................9
4.1Soil Replacement ............................................................................................9
4.2Prewetting ................................................................................................... 10
4.3Controlled Wetting .................................................................................... 10
4.4Moisture Control ................................................................................. 10
4.5Compaction Control ........................................................................... 10
4.5.1 Rollers ................................................................................................. 11
4.5.2 Displacement piles ................................................................................. 11
4.5.3 Heavy tamping (dynamic compaction) ...................................................... 12
4.5.4 Vibration (vibroflotation) ................................................ 14
4.6 Chemical Stabilization or Grouting ................................................ 15
4.7 Heat Treatment ...................................................................................... 16
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1.0 Collapsible soil

1.1 What is a collapsible soil?

Collapsible soil exhibit large decrease in strength at moisture contents approaching

saturation, resulting in collapse of soil skeleton and large decrease in soil volume.
Collapsible soils are also known as metastable soils. They are susceptible to large
volumetric strains when they become saturated. The sudden and usually large volume
change could cause considerable structural damage. The volume change may or may
not occur due to an additional load.

Collapsible soils are encountered in arid and semi-arid regions. Such soils cause
potential construction problems due to their collapse upon wetting. The collapse
phenomenon is primarily related to the open structure of the soil.

These weak soils usually have low dry densities and can be identified with various
types of laboratory and field tests. Because of their very low bearing capacity (when
wetted) they are not considered for any types of foundations or pavements in their
original or natural conditions. Their load-bearing capacity can be improved by various
measures, such as the use of sufficiently strong footings that will remain undamaged
in spite of possible differential settlements, or by transmitting the structural loads to a
deeper and stronger soil layer by means of various types of piles. Also, whenever
feasible, the weak soil should be treated with cementing agents such as Portland
cement, or preloading techniques should be used to strengthen the collapsing soils and
carry the actual loads further.

Several soil collapse classifications based on parameters such as moisture content, dry
density, Atterberg limits and clay content as indicators of the soil collapse potential.
Direct measurement of the magnitude of collapse, using laboratory and/or field tests,
is essential once a soil showed indications of collapse potential. Treatment methods
such as soil replacement, compaction control and chemical stabilization showed
significant reduction in the settlement of collapsible soils. The design of foundations
on collapsible soils depends on the depth of the soil, magnitude of collapse and
economics of the design. Strip foundations are commonly used when collapsing soil
extends to a shallow depth while piles and drilled piers are recommended in cases
where the soil extends to several meters. This report provides a comprehensive review
of collapsible soils. These include the different types of collapsible soils, mechanisms
of collapse, identification and classification methods, laboratory and field testing,
treatment methods and guidelines for foundation design.
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1.2 Collapsible soil behaviour under load:

Figure 1: Behavior of collapsible soil under load

Where;
ab: is determined from the consolidation test on a specimen at its in-situ
moisture content.
e1: is the equilibrium voids ratio before saturation.
e2: is the equilibrium voids ratio after saturation.
cd: is the curve that ensues from additional loading after saturation.
1.3 General characteristics of collapsible soil

Collapsible soils are those that:

Appear to be strong and stable in their natural (dry) state, but which rapidly
consolidate under wetting, generating large and often unexpected settlements.
This can yield disastrous consequences for structures unwittingly built on
such deposits. Such soils are often termed collapsible or metastable and
the process of their collapsing is often called any of hydro-consolidation,
hydrocompression,or hydro-collapse

Collapsible soil deposits share two main features:

(i) they are loose,cemented deposits; and

(ii) they are naturally quite dry. Loess soilsconsist primarily of silt sized
particles loosely arranged in a cemented honeycombed structure (Fig. 2).
The loose structure is held together by small amounts of water softening
or water soluble cementing agents such as clay minerals and CaCO3. The
introduction of water dissolves or softens the bonds between the silt
particles and allows them to take a denser packing under any type of
compressive loading.
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Loose dry soil structure before Densified soil structure

inundation after inundation with water

Figure 2: Hydrocollapsible soil before (a) and after (b) inundation with water.

1.4 Deposit Mechanisms

Since collapsible soil deposits are necessarily loose, they are generally created by
deposition mechanisms that yield loose deposits. For example, alluvial (water
deposited) and colluvial (gravity deposited) soils are usually deposited loosely and in
a saturated state. As the water eventually drains from these soils, the last amounts of
moisture are drawn by capillarity to the contact points between grains. As the water
evaporates, minerals are left behind at the soil contact points, cementing them
together. Collapsible colluvial and alluvial soil deposits are common in desert
portions. Deposits can range from depths of a few meters to tens of meters. Collapses
of 2 or 3 feet are common, and up to 15 feet have been reported. Wind deposited
(aeolian) soils are fine sands, volcanic ash tuffs, and loess. In particular, loess consists
of clay-coated or bonded silt sized particles.

Collapsible loess deposits are characterized by high porosity n50% and low dry unit
weights (d=70-90 pcf or 11-14 kN/m3). Thick loess deposits of up to 60m are not
unusual. Other soil deposits that are potentially collapsible are residual soils formed
by extensive weathering of parent materials. For example, weathering of granite can
yield loose collapsible soil deposits.

1.5 Types of Collapsible soils

1.5.1 Aeolian soils
They are the most common examples of this type of collapsible soil.
Typical aeolian soils are wind-deposited sands and or silts, such as loess, aeolic
beaches, and volcanic dust deposits.
They are characterized by showing in-situ high void ratios and low unit weights. They
are typically granular or only slightly cohesive.
1.5.2 Residual soils
Residual soils, which are a product of the in-situ weathering of local parent rocks may
also have a potential for collapse.
The weathering process produces soils with a large range of particle size distribution.
The soluble and colloidal materials are leached out by weathering, resulting in large
void ratios and thus unstable structures.
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Types of Collapsible Soils:

Loess Deposits
Quick clays (highly sensitive)
Loose sands subject to liquefaction
Loose sands held together by apparent cohesion
Saprolites with high void ratio

2.0 Testing & Identification

Once the geotechnical engineer recognizes the possibility that collapsible soils are
present, tests are sometimes done to quantify the collapse potential of the soils. If lab
tests are to be performed, undisturbed samples must be obtained using Shelby tubes.
Once undisturbed samples are collected, two types of direct tests are generally
performed:
(a) double oedometer tests; and
(b) single odeometer tests. The oedometer is the apparatus in which dry or wet stress-
controlled confined compression or consolidation tests are performed on soil
specimens.

2.1 Double Oedometer Test

In this test, two identical soil specimens are placed in oedometers and subjected to
confined compression tests. One of the specimens is tested at natural insitu water
content, which is generally quite low. The other specimen is fully saturated before the
test begins, and then subjected to an identical compression test. Two stress versus
strain curves will be generated, one for the dry soil and one for the saturated soil. If
the soil is strongly hydro collapsible, the stress-strain response for the saturated curve
will be significantly different than that of the dry soil (Figure 3). For a given applied
stress n, the strain offset w between the two curves is called the hydro-collapse
strain for that stress level. Generally, for the dry specimen, there will be a critical
stress cr at which the loose structure breaks down and beyond which the two curves
converge.

Figure 3: Results of a doubleoedometer test on a hydrocollapsible soil.

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2.2 Single Oedometer Test

As the name implies, the single oedometer test uses only a single soil specimen. The
procedure is as follows:
1) An undisturbed sample is placed in the oedometer at its natural (dry) moisture
content.
2) A small seating load is applied to the specimen.
3) The soil is gradually loaded to the anticipated field loading conditions.
4) At this stress level, the sample is then inundated with water and allowed to saturate.
The resulting hydro collapse is then observed.
5) Loading of the specimen is then continued with consolidation permitted.

Figure 4: Typical results from a single oedometer test on a hydrocollapsible soil specimen.

The characteristic stress versus strain curve generated from such a test is sketched in
Fig. 4. Clearly, the larger the collapse strain w observed, the more collapsible the soil
is considered to be. Collapse strains on the order of 1% are considered to be mild,
while those on the order of say 30% are considered to be very severe.

3.0 Field Tests

Field tests are frequently used to identify collapsible soils.

3.1 Sausage test

A very simple field test is the sausage test (Clemence and Finbarr 1981). A block of
soil of about 500 cm3 is taken from the test trial pit and broken into two pieces, and
each is trimmed until they are approximately equal in volume. One specimen is then
wetted and molded in the hands to form a damp ball. The volume of this ball is then
compared with the volume of the undisturbed specimen. If the wetted ball is
obviously smaller, then collapse may be suspected. This test is only a guide as to
whether or not a soil can collapse.
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3.2 Plate load Tests

Plate load tests are the most common field tests for the evaluation of allowable
pressures under foundations. These tests are normally conducted near the ground
surface. In this test, the water is introduced to the loaded soil and the resultant
displacement due to wetting is recorded. The bearing plate settlement values for the
same load intensity and soil conditions depend on their dimensions as indicated in the
literature. It was reported that the former USSR Building Code specify that field test
loading may be performed in open pits on circular rigid plates with areas of 600,
2500, and 5000 cm2. The results of bearing plate tests are shown in the form of plate
load-settlement curve (Figure 5) where the proportionality limit (Ppr) on this curve is
accepted by the soviet engineers as the safe bearing capacity for foundations.

Figure 5. Diagram illustrating commonly used graphical construction for selecting a proportionality
limit using a load intensity-bearing plate settlement curve.

Po and Ppr = values of overburden pressure and proportionality limit; o and pr =

corresponding bearing plate settlements.

3.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the plate load test

Advantages:
The minimization of soil sample disturbance,
Larger volume of soil being tested,
The test followed the actual field situation.
Disadvantages:
Difficulties in extrapolating the plate load test to prototype foundations normally
preclude the estimation of settlement from field plate load test on collapsible soil.
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3.3 Cone penetration test

Collapsible soils may also be determined in the field using the cone penetration test
(CPT). Rollins et al. (1998) carried out CPT at six field locations in Nephi, Utah
(USA) according to the ASTM D-3441-86. They found that the tip resistance (qc) of
the soil at its natural moisture content (w = 7 % to 10 %) was typically between 3000
and 5000 kPa, but decreased to between 1,000 and 2,000 kPa for the wetter soil
profile.

4.0 Stabilization of Collapsible Soils

There are several methods that can be used to minimize or eliminate the collapse of a
particular soil. The choice of the appropriate method depends on the depth of the
collapsing soil, type of structure to be constructed, and the cost and practicality of the
method. These methods include
1. Soil replacement
2. Prewetting
3. Controlled wetting
4. Moisture control
5. Compaction control
6. Chemical stabilization or grouting
7. Heat treatment

4.1 Soil Replacement

A simple solution is to excavate to the required depth and remove the collapsible soil.
The removed soil can be compacted and used as the foundation soil. Such technique is
commonly used particularly when collapsible soil occurs at shallow depth. The
replaced soil should be compacted to a density of 95-100%. Jennings and Knight
suggested that the soil should always be compacted at a moisture greater than 2% less
than the optimum.

Figure 5: Soil replacement

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4.2 Prewetting

Prewetting means flooding or wetting the soil which is expected to exhibit collapse
upon saturation before the structure is built, so that soil collapse will be minimized
after the structure is built. Wetting the soil can be achieved through ponding or
trenches and boreholes. Although prewetting is useful for canals and roadways where
the induced loads are small, prewetting without preloading is not sufficient to prevent
future foundation settlement. Prewetting causes the soil to collapse under its existing
overburden pressure. Therefore, additional loads imposed by the foundation are not
compensated for and will result in additional settlement.

4.3 Controlled Wetting

Controlled wetting is similar to prewetting except that it is performed after the

structure is in place. The quantities of water should be approximately measured and
added in increments. This method is also used once a structure exhibit some damage
or tilt due to differential settlement. The added water should be introduced in a
carefully-monitored manner to correct the tilt .

4.4 Moisture Control

This method purports to prevent water ingress into the ground.

The measures that can be used to control wetting include:
(a) controlling water irrigation,
(b) placing landscaping in watertight planter boxes,
(c) restricting landscape vegetation adjacent to structure,
(d) placing pavement or buried geomembranes around the perimeter of the structures,
(e) placing effective surface and buried drainage systems,
(f) informing occupants of buildings of the problems associated with collapsible
soils.

4.5 Compaction Control

One of the most practical and effective methods of minimizing soil collapse is by the
use of compaction. Compaction has been used for both shallow and deep collapsible
soils.
Compaction helps to:
(a) decreases the amount of collapsible soil in the zone of significant stress;
(b) increases the depth to which water must percolate before it reaches collapsible
materials; and
(c) decreases the induced stress to which the collapsible soil is subjected. All of the
above improve the soil properties and its engineering performance.
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The compaction process is expected to be effective only up to about 5 m depth, with

the greatest improvement in the upper 3 m. If sufficiently large weights are dropped
from sufficiently great heights, then the effectiveness can extend some what deeper.
Compaction can be achieved by use of:
a) Rollers,
b) Displacement piles,
c) Heavy tamping (dynamic compaction), and
d) Vibration (vibroflotation or deep blasting).

4.5.1 Rollers

Rollers are used to compact soils with or without water. In this method, the soil is
removed to the required depth, stockpiled, and then compacted in place in layers.
Compaction techniques, with either conventional impact, or vibratory rollers may be
used for shallow depths up to about 1.5 m.

Figure 6: Soil densification by impact roller

Figure 7: Soil densification by vibratory roller

4.5.2 Displacement piles

Compaction by displacement piles involves the driving of displacement piles (i.e.

steel pile or precast concrete) and then withdrawing the piles and backfilling the holes
with soil. Densification of the surrounding soils can occur during the driving and
backfilling. Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as
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vertically as the pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground. With non-displacement
piles (or replacement piles), soil is removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete
or a precast concrete pile is dropped into the hole and grouted in.

Figure 8: Displacement piles

4.5.3 Heavy tamping (dynamic compaction)

Compaction by heavy tamping has been used to densify the collapsible soils by
dropping very heavy weights, up to 30 tons, from great heights, up to 40 meters, into
the soil. The weight upon hitting the ground surface imparts its energy into the soil,
creating a densifying effect immediately around and to a depth below the weight. It
has also been used to treat subgrade profiles consisting of collapsible alluvial
materials for highway projects. Bell and Bruyn (1997) indicated that if loess contains
a relatively high carbonate content, it may be difficult to achieve the desired results
with dynamic compaction.

Technique involves repeatedly dropping a large weight from a crane.Weight may

range from 6 to 172 tons. Drop height typically varies from 10 m to 40 m. Degree of
densification achieved is a function of the energy input (weight and drop height) as
well as the saturation level, fines content and permeability of the material.
A weight of 6 30 ton weight can densify the loose sands to a depth of 3 m to 12 m.
It is done systematically in a rectangular or triangular pattern in phases. Each phase
can have no of passes; primary, secondary, tertiary, etc.
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Figure 9: Dynamic compaction

Spacing between impact points depend upon:

Depth of compressible layer

Permeability of soil
Location of ground water level

Deeper layers are compacted at wider grid spacing, upper layers are compacted with
closer grid spacing. Deep craters are formed by tamping . Craters may be filled with
sand after each pass. Heave around craters is generally small.
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4.5.4 Vibration (vibroflotation or deep blasting)

Compaction also has been achieved by vibration either by vibroflotation or deep

blasting. Vibroflotation involves jetting a vibrating probe into place and gravel or
sand is dumped alongside the probe as it is withdrawn. Deep blasting is used to break
down the structure of the soil, so it will densify thoroughly under its own weight. In
both vibrating techniques, soil has been wetted beforehand.

A loose soil or non-homogeneous granular fill can be compacted to depth by the

penetration of vibrating probes or vibroflots. The main purpose of Vibrocompaction is
to increase the density of the insitu soils by vibration. The maintained vibrations and
the addition of water via jets along the probe lead to localized liquefaction of the soil,
allowing the grains to rearrange in to a denser arrangement. The grid and depth of
compaction points will depend on the initial characteristics and the design criteria to
be reached. A flexible design approach can then deliver a uniform result. The
objective in Vibro-compaction is to achieve densification of coarse grained soils with
less than 10-15% silt. The effect of the process is based on the fact that particles of
non-cohesive soil can be rearranged by vibration.

Figure 10: Particles arranged by vibro-compaction

4.5.4.1 Method of Vibrofloatation

Using the rigs pull down force, water jetting and sustained vibration allows the
probe to penetrate to the design depth.
Water jetting is then decreased, and the resulting soil cone facilitates the re-
arrangement of the soil particles. Granular fill can then be incorporated at the
surface (top feed) into the created void. The water flow down the vibrating
probe assists in the transportation of the backfill down to the compaction zone
at the vibrating probes base.
The vibrating probe is gradually lifted to produce a cylinder of compacted
ground of 2-4m diameter, depending on the soil and vibroflot used. This
densification creates a conical crater, that is then filled with the granular
backfill, as the probe is removed.
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Figure 11: Vibro-flot, vibrating unit

4.6 Chemical Stabilization or Grouting

Chemical stabilization by additives such as sodium silicate and calcium chloride has
been tried for many years with various degrees of success. The method develops
cementation within the soil structure and thus it resists collapse when wetted.
Penetration of chemical solutions into the desired depth is essential for the success of
the operation. The method is most applicable to fine sand deposits. The advantage of
grouting is that it can be used after a structure is already in place.

Grouting provides soil improvement by one or more of the three following

mechanisms:
a) If the grout viscosity is low enough and the soil permeability is high enough,
the grout simply permeats into the soil and greatly strengthens and stiffens it.
b) If the grout viscosity is high and the soil permeability is low, the grout bulb
compresses and densifies the surrounding soil. This process is called
compaction grouting.
c) The third mechanism can be called soil reinforcement. If enough grout is put
into the ground at enough locations and depths, then the stiff grouted zones
will tend to carry the overburden and structural loads while loose zones will be
unloaded to some extent.

Silicates stabilization is generally costly. Field and laboratory tests conducted in the
former Soviet Union indicated that prewetting with a 2% sodium silicate solution can
significantly decrease the compressibility and increase the strength of collapsible
loessial soil deposits. This method is used for both dry and wet collapsible soils that
are expected to subside under the added weight of the structure to be built. This
method consists of three steps:
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(a) Injection of carbon dioxide for removal of any water present and preliminary
activation of the soil.
(b) Injection of sodium silicate grout.
(c) Injection of carbon dioxide to neutralize the alkali.

Field tests on noncarbonate-type sandy soils pretreated with carbon dioxide have
shown strength increase of 20-25%. The injection of ammonia alone on wet soils has
been used. However, the effectiveness of ammonia is much less than that of sodium
silicates. Moreover, ammonia is also hazardous to use. The use of cement to reduce
the collapse potential was successfully attempted. The use of cement as an additive in
small quantities of 5% resulted in a significant decrease in the collapse potential
which did not exceed 0.5%. Lime and bitumen emulsions have been used to stabilize
loess soils, particularly in relation to road construction. Phosphoric acid has been used
for stabilizing loess soil.

4.7 Heat Treatment

The use of heat treatment of loess in south east Europe and Russia by burning gas and
fuel oil in pressurized boreholes. The boreholes are closely spaced and temperatures
are generated up to 1000 C , producing a stabilized soil column with a diameter of
1.5 - 2 m.
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