Mechanical Properties of Materials

Glossary

Glossary of Technical terms used in Materials Science

Addition A mechanism by which monomers with a double carbon (alkene)

polymerisation bond join end-to-end to form a much longer molecule or polymer.
Alloy A metallic mixture of two or more elements. These may form a
random solution of one metal in another or separate components
or phases of different composition.
Alloys may be interstitial (in which smaller alloy atoms occupy
interstices) or substitutional, in which one alloy element replaces
an atom of a similar sized element in a crystal structure.
Anions Negatively charged ions, usually of non-metals.
Anisotropy A feature of some materials that they do not exhibit the same
physical properties in all directions, e.g. long chain polymers
which have their polymer chains aligned, and the paper used by
most newspapers, which tears neatly in one direction, but
raggedly in another.
Anode The electrode to which anions are attracted and at which an
oxidation reaction takes place.
Austenite A solid solution of carbon in iron achieved at high temperature,
about 900C. This structure is only thermodynamically stable at
high temperature, but does exist at low temperatures due to the
slow movement/diffusion of atoms that prevents restructuring
into a more stable crystal form. The crystal structure of austenite
is fcc.
Bio-materials A growing branch of Materials Science dedicated to materials
used in medical applications. The specific environment of a
living body, being acceptable to the immune system,
compatibility with organic tissue, biochemistry of cells... and
much more make this an exciting field of current research.
Body-centred A crystal structure in which the basic repeat unit is a cube with
cubic crystal an atom at each corner AND an additional atom at the centre of
structure or bcc the cube, i.e. 9 atoms per unit cube.
Brittle A fracture with little of no plastic deformation. The opposite of
ductile.
Brownian Motion The agitation of small particles suspended in a fluid. Noted by
Robert Brown, 18th century. Not explained until Albert Einstein
used it to give evidence of the existence of atoms, early 20th
century. (It was this explanation in a paper that made Einsteins
reputation in the scientific community.)
Cast iron The name given to the iron based material which contains
between 1.7 and 6.67% carbon.
See also, Pure irons and Steels
Cathode The electrode to which cations are attracted and at which a
reduction reaction takes place.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Cations Positively charged ions, usually of metals.

Cementite Iron carbide, Fe3C, an intermetallic material is formed when the
composition of carbon in a steel reaches 6.67%. The carbon is
interstitial and gives rise to 3 x Fe atoms for each C atom. (The
formula is not implying a molecular structure nor a type of
bonding.) Grain boundaries or specific planes within the crystal
with wider atomic spacing, offer relatively low energy sites for
carbon to diffuse to: as it does, the local composition increases
eventually reaching the 6.67% composition needed for cementite
formation. At the same time, this depletes the carbon
concentration within the grains, allowing the formation of the
ferrite phase. Cementite therefore appears at grain boundaries
and in higher concentrations, along certain crystal planes,
forming parallel bands or lamellae. Because cementite is very
hard compared to the ferrite, the result is a strengthening of the
steel. Increasing carbon / cementite increases hardness but
reduces toughness and vice versa.
Ceramic A giant covalent compound typically formed between a metal or
metalloid and oxygen.
Colloid A two phase material, usually of very small solid particles
suspended in a liquid medium. Electrostatic forces keep the
particles separated.
Composite Materials made from more than one component in such a way as
Materials to maximise the combined properties of the material. Examples
include (natural) wood, bone, (synthetic) fibre glass, alloys.
Compression Loaded such that opposite ends are being squeezed together.
Compressive Stress which is squeezing a material, i.e. the material is in
Stress compression.
Condensation A mechanism by which monomers, typically containing carbonyl
polymerisation groups, join together and in which a small molecule such as
water is also formed during the reaction.
Contact Address Schools Liaison Officer, Tel. 01865 273710
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Contraction cavity In a large casting, the surface solidifies and contracts faster than
the centre. The effect of contraction is for the bulk material to
move to the outer surface. In a 3D casting this tends to leave a
gap or a number of gaps near to the centre.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Corrosion The electrochemical process by which a metal reacts with its

environment.
Creep The movement of atoms or molecules past each other under the
effect of a low stress. This is essentially a temperature-
dependent, self-diffusion process resulting in deformation.
Some plastics and lead are examples of materials that creep at
room temperature.
Crevice Corrosion In small, confined spaces, diffusion of oxygen to steel surfaces
in inhibited. The difference in oxygen concentration between
that over a small area in a crevice and a large area outside the
crevice is sufficient to set up a corrosion cell (essentially
differential aeration) in which the small are of the crevice is
subjected to a high corrosion current. Thus corrosion is
localised to a small area potentially with catastrophic results.
Cross Link A chemical bridge between two separate molecules joining them
together.
Dendrite A many branched crystal, such as a snowflake, in which
branches have branches and so on. Dendritic literally means
like a dendrite.
Dislocation A discontinuity in a crystal due to an extra plane of atoms
squeezed between two normal planes.
The edge of the extra plane distorts the crystal lattice causing
local stress.
Ductile A property due to the plastic deformation of materials which
allows the material to be drawn out into a wire or beaten into
shape.
Elastic The ability of a material to stretch under the influence of an
external stress / force, but to return to the original shape and
size once the stress / force is removed.
Elastomer Polymers with a large elastic range, that is are elastic for very
large strains
Electomotive The electrical potential between two electrodes of an
force, emf electrochemical cell when no current flows
Electrical Potential The work done when a unit positive electrical charge moves
from an infinite distance to that point.
The absolute value can not be determined, so values are
compared to reference or standard values, typically the
hydrogen electrode or the more practical calomel electrode.
The difference in potential (potential difference) between an
electrode and a reference electrode is referred to as the
electrode potential.
The SI unit used is the volt, V
Electrochemical An arrangement by which an electrical current can be produced
Cell from a redox reaction in which the reduction and oxidation half
reactions take place at separate electrodes.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Electrode The interface between an electrolyte and an external circuit at

which electrochemical reactions occur. There are two types of
electrode, namely anode and cathode.
Electrolyte A medium containing ions which are free to move (solution,
fused or molten state and even solid in some circumstances).
Like a conductor, the electrolyte allows charged particles to flow,
hence it conducts electricity. Unlike a conductor, it can be
changed, at the electrodes, by the passage of that current.
Extrude The forcing of a ductile solid through a hole so as to produce a
bar or wire with the external shape of the hole. Squeezing tooth
paste illustrates the process. Metals can also be squeezed
through a hole (or die) at very high pressures and elevated
temperatures. The technique is very versatile and can be used
to make, for example, copper wire or sections of railway
carriages (aluminium).
Face-centred A crystal structure in which the basic repeat unit is a cube with
cubic crystal an atom at each corner AND an additional atom at the centre of
structure or fcc each face, i.e. 14 atoms per unit cube.
Ferrite A stable form of crystalline iron at room temperature which
contains little or no carbon. The crystal structure of ferrite is
bcc.
Ferrofluid A magnetic liquid. A sol of magnetic nanoparticles in a liquid
(aqueous or hydrocarbon) phase. The particles exhibit
ferromagnetic behaviour individually, and the liquid as a whole
responds in a ferromagnetic way to magnetic fields. However,
the liquid does not retain any magnetism as a solid ferromagnet
would do.
Ferromagnetic Behaving like a magnetised piece of iron (ferrum, Fe).
Fracture Stress Stress at fracture, taking into account any necking occurring.
Galvanise A process of protecting iron by giving the surface a sacrificial
coating of zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron, therefore it is
anodic with respect to iron and corrodes preferentially.
Coatings can be applied by hot dipping, electrolysis or
painting.
Grain The name given to the crystals in a metallic structure.
Hardness A measure of a materials resistance to deformation. Tested by
measuring the extent of plastic deformation by a standard
indentation test.
Heat treatment Refers to the modifying of mechanical properties by holding a
metal at a specific set temperature for a period of time and the
rate at which it is allowed to cool.
Hyper-eutectoid A ferrous material which contains more than 6.67% carbon.
steel See also Cast irons, Pure irons, Steel.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Ingot A bar of metal formed by pouring liquid metal into a rectangular

mould and allowing it to solidify/freeze.
Inhibitor A chemical which slows down, or stops a chemical reaction, by
increasing the activation energy of the rate determining step,
that is an inhibitor is the opposite of a catalyst. The term is
frequently applied to chemicals which prevent corrosion in this
way.
Interstices The gaps between spherical atoms into which smaller atoms
can collect, such as happens when carbon atoms collect
between the physically much larger iron atoms. Alloys which
contain an alloying element in these interstices is said to be
Interstitial.
Martensite A microstructure producing very hard steel when austenite is
quenched rapidly from about 900C to below 300C. Martensite
is also obtained in other alloys, such as shape memory alloys,
for example Nitinol.
Materials Science The applied science that studies the useful and economic
substances on which manufacturing and engineering industries
depend. Branches include bio-materials, ceramics, composites,
corrosion, metallurgy, nano-materials, plastics, processing.
Materials Science is cross-disciplinary in nature and provides
much stimulation in the application of diverse disciplines to solve
real, practical problems.
Metallurgy The branch of Materials Science that specialises in metal.
Micron Unit of distance = 10-6m
Monomer A small molecule which can react with other molecules to form
larger chains or polymers.
Mould A container for a liquid which holds the liquid in a specific shape
until the liquid solidifies and adopts the shape of the inside of
the container.
Nano-material A general term applied to anything to do with properties of
nanoparticles.
Nanometre Unit of distance = 10-9m
(Approximately the diameter of 10 H atoms.)
Nanoparticle A particle that has dimensions of the order of magnitude in
nanometres. These particles generally contain up to a few
hundred thousand atoms and are so small that quantum effects
are still significant and they do not scatter light.
Necking Thinning due to plastic deformation in a ductile specimen under
tensile stress.
Oxidation Can be considered as that half of a chemical reaction in which
Oxygen is added, or
Hydrogen is removed, or
Electrons are lost, or
Oxidation number is increased.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Passivation Under certain oxidising conditions, a thin protective iron oxide

layer can be formed which behaves somewhat like that on
aluminium, but more fragile. The formation of this protective
oxide layer is called passivation.
Pearlite A microscopic feature of iron carbide lamellae within grains of
carbon steel. The lamellae (or platelets) develop along a crystal
plane appearing as parallel lines. These lines can interfere with
light to give a mother of pearl effect when viewed.
Phase A separate component in a heterogeneous chemical system.
E.g. a water and ice mix is two phases of the same substance
whereas a salt solution is a single phase made of two
substances. There can be many phases in metal systems either
due to different crystal structures or different chemical
composition.
Plastic The ability of a material to flow under sufficient stress allowing
changes in shape without breaking. Plastic deformation results
in permanent shape changes when atoms or molecules slide
past one another. Ideal plastic properties are illustrated by
Plasticine.
Plastics A type of polymer which have a stable shape under normal
conditions, but which exhibit plastic deformation at some stage
in their manufacture or use.
There are two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics.
Polymer A molecule (natural or synthetic) made up from repeat units of a
monomer molecule.
Potential The work done when a unit positive electrical charge moves
Difference from one point to another.
The SI unit used is the volt, V
Processing Reference to industrial scale manufacturing of materials or
objects. Steel making is an industrial process for producing a
material and the manufacture of plastic bottles is a process of
producing a finished product from a processed material.
Pure Irons The name given to iron with less than 0.03% carbon and has a
purely ferrite composition at 723C.
See also Steel and Cast iron.
Quench A rapid cooling of a material. In steel it usually refers to cooling
from over 860C to below 300C by immersing in water or oil.
The rapid cooling prevents diffusion of carbon atoms resulting in
meta-stable phase transformations. A range of microstructures
can be produced depending on composition, start and finish
temperatures and rate of cooling, One structure resulting from
quenching which gives rise to very hard steel, or shape memory
properties in some nickel / Titanium / Aluminium / Copper alloys
is described as Martensite.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Redox A full chemical reaction which can be separated into reduction

and oxidation processes which occur at the same time.
OIL RIG = Oxidation Is LOSS, Reduction Is GAIN of electrons
Reduction Can be considered as that half of a chemical reaction in which
Hydrogen is added, or
Oxygen is removed, or
Electrons are gained, or
Oxidation number is decreased.
Rusting The aqueous corrosion of iron to form rust iron oxide, Fe3O4.
Sacrificial A technique to protect a structural metal from a corrosive
Protection environment by connecting it to a more reactive metal. The
more reactive metal reacts anodically and is corroded, and the
structural metal is protected cathodically. Thus the reactive
metal is sacrificed to protect the structural metal. Examples
include galvanising, cadmium plating and bolting bars of zinc or
magnesium to the (iron) hulls of ships.
Samurai Sword The swords are made (only) for Samurai warriors by a method
which is a martial art in itself, the craftsman being a Master in
the art. The process was originally learned from the Chinese,
but perfected by the Japanese. Samurai swords are known to
have been made as early as the 7th century and are still made
today. Perhaps the peak of the art was in the 17th/18th century.
The process of changing the iron ore to finished sword can take
several months, including the construction of the furnace to
extract the steel from ore. Repeated layering and forge welding
can produced up to 30,000 layers in a single blade. Polishing
and sharpening the sword can take as long as the forge welding
process! More than one sword will be made at any one time,
with different swords at different stages of preparation.
Steel An alloy of iron containing between 0.03 and 1.7% carbon and
has an austenite structure at 1130C because all of the carbon
dissolves in the steel at this temperature. Other alloying
elements may be added to modify mechanical and chemical
properties of the alloy.
See also, Pure irons and Cast iron.
Strain The ratio of extension t original length of an object under stress.
x
=
l
Where = strain, a dimensionless quantity.
X = extension, m.
l = original length, m.
Strength The compressive or tensile load that can be withstood.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Stress Stress is a scalar quantity analogous to pressure and is defined

as force per unit area
F
=
A
where = stress, Nm-2.
F = force, N
A = Cross sectional area, m2.
See also, Fracture Stress, Yield Stress
Sword of A style of sword popularly, but erroneously, credited with being
Damascus made in Damascus where highly polished steel swords were, in
fact made and inlaid with gold. Damascus swords were actually
made in Persia (now Iran) but could be bought in Damascus. It
seems likely that the Damascus sword smiths may have
finished off some actual Damascus swords by polishing and
adding gold inlay. An expedition organized by Robert Boyle
yes, the Boyles Law Boyle) was sent to investigate and report
on Damascus swords.
The so-called Damascus swords were patterned, due to the
method used in forging the steel. They were produced by the
thermo- mechanical (heating and hammering) processing of a
hypereutectoid steel (crucible steel or wootz).
The confusion arises because the swords were thought to have
a pattern similar to that found on Damascus silk. Thus the
different, Western European, pattern-welding process that
produced similar patterns was called damascening. This was
intended to reproduce the structures seen on these swords and
is still used to this day to produce high quality shotgun barrels.
A display of this metalwork for guns is in the Pitt-Rivers Museum
in Oxford.
Temper colour Providing the steel surface is clean, when tempered in air,
oxides form on the surface. The thickness of these oxides is
determined by the temperature (NOT time) of tempering. The
crystal structure of the oxide layer then behaves as a grating
causing interference of the incident light and resulting in
different colours being seen. The thickness of the oxide and
hence tempering temperature can be estimated, therefore, by
the colour of the tempered surface
Yellow = 225C
Brown = 250C
Blue = 300C
Dark Blue = 315C
Note Values are subjective to estimating shades of colours.

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Glossary

Tempering One method of heat treating a steel by raising the temperature

of a quenched piece of carbon steel from room temperature to
the region of 200 to 300C and holding it for a time, depending
on its size. This allows diffusion and changes in crystal
structure to take place within the steel. The result is to improve
toughness and ductility of the final steel without losing too much
strength.
Tensile Stress Stress which is stretching a material, i.e. the material is in
tension.
Tension Loaded such that opposite ends are being pulled apart.
Thermoplastic A class of polymer which softens and become ductile on
heating. These may be addition polymers (polythene,
polystyrene, pvc) or condensation polymers (nylon,
perspex).
Thermosetting A class of polymer which hardens permanently due to cross
linking when heated (or cured). These are usually condensation
polymers (bakelite, epoxy resin, SBR after vulcanisation).
Thixotropic Property of becoming liquid when shaken or stirred then
returning to a gel state afterwards. Having high static shear
strength and low dynamic shear strength simultaneously
Toughness The ability of a material to absorb energy from an impact. To
illustrate, elastomers are soft and stretch easily. By stretching
they absorb energy from an impact and are, therefore very
tough. By contrast, ceramics are very hard, but are also brittle,
absorbing little energy of an impact these materials are NOT
tough.
Yield Stress Carbon steels have the onset of plastic deformation delayed by
the pinning of dislocations by interstitial carbon atoms.
However, eventually, the steel Yields and dislocations begin to
move, leaving carbon atoms behind. The dislocations are no
longer pinned and subsequent dislocation movement occurs at
a lower stress, that is, it becomes easier to bend the steel a
second time.
If the steel is tempered, carbon atoms can again, in time, diffuse
to the new sites of dislocations and pin them once more.
Youngs Modulus Elastic modulus represented by the ratio of stress to strain

E=

Where E = Youngs Modulus
= stress, Nm-2.
= strain, dimensionless

Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the following for corrections and amendments to my original text:-
Dr. Chris Salter, Department of Materials, University of Oxford.

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