Diffgeom PDF
Diffgeom PDF
Diffgeom PDF
James Emery
5/29/2015
Contents
1 Introduction 2
3 Frame Vectors 6
6 Curve Examples 8
6.1 The Circular Involute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9 Normal Curvature 16
10 Bilinear Forms 17
11 Quadratic Approximation 20
13 Envelope Surfaces 23
1
14 The Covariant Derivative On a Surface 25
15 Christoffel Symbols 25
18 The Bracket 30
19 Differential Manifolds 31
20 Riemannian Geometry 32
22 Bibliography 33
1 Introduction
Differential Geometry is the study of curves and surfaces and their abstract
generalization: the differential manifold. More generally it is the study of
the calculus of curves and surfaces and involves definitions of curve tangents,
normals, and curvature. In higher dimensions we study surfaces and man-
ifolds and various kinds of curvature and so on. Some related subjects are
Vector Analysis, Algebraic Geometry, Tensor Analysis, Differential Topology,
Metrics and metric spaces, Riemanian Geometry, Differential Manifolds, and
General Manifold Theory, and so on. Areas of physics that use differential
geometry include General Relativity Theory, various subjects in Theoretical
Physics, Mechanics, Particle theory, and String Theory.
2
change , it moves a distance s = r. The ratio is a measure of the
curvature
1
= = .
s r r
The angle change of the tangent is here equal to the angle change , so
we can use the tangent angle in our definition of the curvature. So suppose
we are given a general curve in the plane
r = x(t)i + y(t)j.
Let us write
dx
= x,
dt
dy
= y,
dt
d2 x
= x,
dt2
d2 y
= y.
dt2
Then we have
d 1 y x yx
=
dt 1 + (y/x)2 x2
y x yx
= .
x2 + y 2
We have
ds q q
= (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = x2 + y 2
dt
So the curvature is
d d/dt
= =
ds ds/dt
y x yx 1
= 2 2
2 .
x + y x + y 2
3
y x yx
= .
(x2 + y 2 )3/2
We excluded the case where dx/dt = 0. However, we can just as well
define the tangent angle as
" #
1 dx/dt
= cot .
dy/dt
If we carry out a similure derivation to the one above we shall find that we
get the same formula for the curvature. Hence as long as at least one of
dx/dt or dy/dt is not zero, the formula holds.
Suppose we have a function y = f (x). This is a curve with t = x as the
parameter. Then x = 1, x = 0, and the curvature formula reduces to
d y
= = ,
ds (1 + y 2)3/2
where
d2 y
y = ,
dx2
and
dy
y = .
dx
Notice that in this formula the curvature can be either positive or negative. In
the case of a 1-dimensional function the curvature determines if the function
is concave up or down. In the more general definition in three space, the
curvature is always positive. So the new curvature will be defined to be the
absolute value of the 2d curvature defined above.
In three dimensional space there is no obvious tangent angle. So we must
define curvature using another approch. Let
The velocity is
dr
v= = dx/dt(t)i + dy/dt(t)j + dz/dt(t)k.
dt
The magnitude of the velocity is
q ds
v= x2 + y 2 + z 2 = .
dt
4
The unit tangent vector T is defined as
v dr/dt dr
T= = = .
v ds/dt ds
T is a unit vector so
T T = 1.
We have
d(T T)
= dT/ds T + T dT/ds = 0,
ds
which implies that
2T dT/ds = 0.
So T and it derivative are orthogonal. Thus dT/ds is a vector normal to the
curve. The unit normal vector N is defined as
dT/ds
N= .
kdT/dsk
Thus
dT/ds = kdT/dskN.
We can define the curvature as
= kdT/dsk,
because we can show that for a two dimensional curve this agrees with the
two dimensional curvature.
Indeed, in two dimensions the unit tangent vector T can be written as
T = cos()i + sin()j,
So q
kdT/dsk = |d/ds| sin2 () + cos2 () = |d/ds| = .
Notice that here the curvature is always nonnegative. We can therefore
write
dT/ds = N.
5
3 Frame Vectors
Let the curve R(s) in Euclidean 3-space be parameterized by arc length.
Define the tangent vector by
dR
T= ,
ds
and the curvature by
dT
= .
ds
The normal vector is defined to be
1 dT
N= ,
ds
and the binormal vector is defined by
B = T N.
6
By definition the right hand expression is equal to . So we conclude that
a1 is equal to the curvature .
Define the torsion to be a3 . Thus
dN
= T + B.
ds
Let
dB
= b1 T + b2 N.
ds
dB dT
b1 = T = B = B N = 0.
ds ds
Then
dB dN
N = B = B (T + B) = .
ds ds
Thus
dB
= N.
ds
Therefore we have the Serret-Frenet transformation,
T0 0 0 T
N 0
=
0
N
B0 0 0 B
Notice that the matrix of the transformation is antisymmetric, and that the
top right element of the matrix is zero. An antisymmetric matrix has a zero
diagonal. The lower triangular part has negative elements. These facts might
aid one in remembering the formula.
b = (n a)n.
7
Notice that if we use the other normal we get the same vector b,
(n a)(n) = (n a)n = b.
c = a b,
a = b + c.
For the reflected ray, the component in the direction of n is the negative of the
original component, but the orthogonal component is in the same direction
as the original orthogonal component. Therefore the reflected ray is
d = b + c = c b.
That is
d = (a b) b = a 2b.
As a check we see that
n d = n a 2n b = n a.
6 Curve Examples
6.1 The Circular Involute
The involute of a curve C is a curve generated by unwinding a string wrapped
around C.
In the case of a circle of radius a centered at the origin, let t be the
angle at the string tangent point on the circle, as the string is unwrapped to
generate the involute. Then we find the parametric equation of the involute
to be
x = a(cos(t) + t sin(t))
y = a(sin(t) t cos(t)).
8
Figure 1: Two caustics (envelope curves of reflected rays) from the involute
curve. The two curves are formed from two sets of parallel rays, the first
making a zero angle with the horizontal, and the second making a twenty
degree angle with the horizontal. The smaller caustic comes from the zero
angle rays.
9
Figure 2: A caustic (envelope curve of reflected rays) from the involute curve.
This curve is produced from reflections from a set of parallel rays making an
angle of zero degrees with the horizontal axis. Notice that the cusp point
occurs at a height equal to the height of the circle.
10
Figure 3: Reflections of parallel rays from the right at zero degrees from an
involute curve.
11
The position vector of the curve is
R(t) = xi + yj.
We have the derivatives
dx
x = = r( sin(t) + sin(t) + t cos(t)) = rt cos(t)
dt
dy
y = = r(cos(t) cos(t) + t sin(t)) = rt sin(t)
dt
d2 x
x = 2 = r(cos(t) t sin(t))
dt
d2 y
y = 2 = r(sin(t) + t cos(t)),
dt
and the derivative of the arclength
ds q 2
= x + y 2 = rt
dt
The tangent vector is
dR dR dt
T= =
ds dt ds
= cos(t)i + sin(t)j
The normal vector is
dT dT dt
N= =
ds dt ds
= sin(t)i + cos(t)j.
c from involute.ftn
c+ function fx definition
real*8 function fx(t)
implicit real*8(a-h,o-z)
a=1.
c=1.
fx=a*(cos(t) + c*t*sin(t))
return
end
c+ function fy definition
real*8 function fy(t)
implicit real*8(a-h,o-z)
a=1.
c=1.
fy=a*(sin(t) - c*t*cos(t))
return
end
12
7 The Covariant Derivative in Rn
Given any curve in Rn with P = (0) and
d
(0) = X,
dt
the covariant derivative of the vector field Y in the direction X at the point
P is
d
X Y (P ) = Y ()(0).
dt
The chain rule may be used to show that the definition does not depend on
the curve .
This definition may be applied to a two dimensional surface patch em-
bedded in R3 . Let be a surface patch mapping an open set in R2 to R3 .
Suppose is a curve in the domain of so that (t) = ((t)). Then
d
X Y (P ) = Y () =
dt
dY (((t)))
=
dt
Y ((+ )) Y (( ))
.
4t
This is a central difference approximation where
= (4t/2),
and
+ = (4t/2).
The tangent vector X is
d((t))
X=
dt
(+ ) ( )
.
4t
Richardson extrapolation can be applied to these central difference approx-
imations. An intrinsic covariant derivative may be defined on the patch,
which is derived from the covariant derivative in R3 . This is accomplished
by subtracting the normal component of the R3 covariant derivative (see
Hicks, p26).
13
8 The Weingarten Map, The Shape Operator
Let N be a unit normal vector field on the surface. The Weingarten map,
sometimes called the shape operator, is the mapping from the tangent space
at P to itself, defined by
W (X) = X N(P ),
W (u ) v = u N() v
N()
= v
u
N()
=
u dv
= N() ( )
u dv
= N() ( )
v du
N()
=
v du
= W (v ) u .
We have used the fact that N is perpendicular to the tangent space and
hence to tangent vectors
,
v
and
.
u
We will present a method for determining W numerically when surface
patch values are available, but derivatives values are not. In addition we
suppose that the surface normal is available (although it could be computed
numerically from patch values).
14
Let 1 be a curve in the uv coordinate space defined by
X1 = b11 Z1 + b12 Z2
and
X2 = b21 Z1 + b22 Z2 .
We have
Xi Z j
bij = .
kZi k2
Then using the linearity of W we get the vector equations
and
W (X2 ) = b21 W (Z1 ) + b22 W (Z2 ).
We may solve these equations for the x, y and z components of W (Z1) and
W (Z2 ). Then let
W (Z1 ) = c11 Z1 + c12 Z2
and
W (Z2) = c21 Z1 + c22 Z2 .
Z1 and Z2 are perpendicular, so we have
15
Zi W (Zj )
cij = .
kZi k2
The matrix representation of the Weingarten transformation in this basis is.
" #
c11 c21
c12 c22
9 Normal Curvature
Define the normal curvature of a surface in the direction of a curve , at a
point p, by
n = W (0 ) 0 ,
where a(0) = p, and 0 = 0 (0). This turns out to be the component of the
curvature of the curve in the direction of the surface normal, when is
parameterized by arc length. Let N be the surface normal restricted to .
Then N is a curve, and
dN()
W (0 ) = 0 N = = N 0.
ds
We have
0 N = 0.
So
00 N = 0 N 0 .
But
d0 dt
00 = = = n.
ds ds
So
n = N 0 0 = 00 N = n N = cos(),
where is the angle between the surface normal N and the curve normal n.
From the definition one sees that the normal curvature depends only upon
the direction of the unit vector t = 0 . Hence notice that given two curves
that pass through a given point p and have the same direction at that point
have the same surface normal component of their curvature vector. Also if
the curve lies in a plane which contains the surface normal, then the curve
16
normal coincides with the surface normal so the normal curvature is the same
as the curvature of the curve. If is an eigenvalue of W with eigenvector t
then the normal curvature is
n = W (t) t = t t = .
10 Bilinear Forms
The classical fundamental bilinear forms defined on pairs of tangent vectors
include the first fundamental form
B1 (T1 , T2 ) = T1 T2 ,
B2 (T1 , T2 ) = W (T1 ) T2 .
Q1 (T ) = T T.
17
g is called the metric tensor. Suppose X(u, v) is a coordinate patch, then we
have
ds2 = Q1 (ds) = Xu Xu du2 + 2Xu Xv dudv + Xv Xv dv 2 .
= Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2.
As an example, consider a spherical patch of radius a,
Then
Xu (u, v) = (a cos(v) cos(u), a sin(v) cos(u), a sin(u)).
and
Xv (u, v) = (a sin(v) sin(u), a cos(v) sin(u), 0).
Thus
E = Xu Xu = a2
F = Xu Xv = 0
and
G = Xv Xv = a2 sin2 (u).
The second fundamental quadratic form is
0 = Xu N = Xv N,
so
e = W (Xu ) Xu = Xu Nu = Xuu N,
f = W (Xv ) Xu = Xu Nv = Xuv N,
and
g = W (Xv ) Xv = Xv Nv = Xvv N.
The normal curvature in the direction of T is
W (T ) T Q2 (T )
n = W (T /kT k) T /kT k = = .
T T Q1 (T )
18
Proposition. The Gaussian curvature is given by
eg f 2
K(X) = ,
EG F 2
and the mean curvature by
Ge Eg 2F f
H(X) = ,
2(EG F 2 )
W (Ti ) = aji Tj
Then
W (T1 ) W (T2 ) = Det(a)T1 T2 = KT1 T2 .
and
These equations can be solved for the Gaussian curvature K and the mean
curvature H by dotting each equation by
T1 T2 .
We have
(W1 W2 ) (T1 T2 ) = K(T1 T2 ) (T1 T2 ).
The left side is
19
Thus
(W1 T1 )(W2 T2 ) (W1 T2 )2
K=
(T1 T1 )(T2 T2 ) (T1 T2 )2
If
T1 = Xu
and
T2 = Xv ,
then
eg f 2
K(X) = .
EG F 2
The mean curvature equation is proved similarly.
11 Quadratic Approximation
Let p be a point on the surface. We may assume a coordinate system in
which p is the origin and the normal is in the z direction. Thus we may write
the surface as
z = f (x, y).
We expand f in a Taylor series. Keeping only second order terms we obtain
a quadratic approximation to the surface. Now we could fit local data to
a quadric of this form using least squares and then obtain approximations
to the principal curvatures. However, the least squares quadratic goes to
the quadratic approximation only as the data approaches p. In effect we are
approximating second derivatives, while the previous technique requires only
covariant derivatives of the first order.
df (c(t)) dc
Dv (f ) = = f = f v.
dt dt
This defines a functional Dv mapping functions to real numbers. It depends
only on the tangent vector v, not specifically on the curve c. It does not
20
depend on the coordinate system because
df (c(t))
dt
is coordinate independent. From the theory of differential equations, given a
tangent vector v at a point p, there exists a curve c so that
dc(0)
= v,
dt
and c(0) = p. Thus for every tangent vector there is a functional Dv . The
functional has the obvious properties
Dv (f + g) = Dv (f ) + Dv (g)
and
Dv (ag) = aDv (f ),
where a is a scalar. Dv is a linear functional. We have
df (c)g(c) dg(c) df (c)
Dv (f g) = = f (c) + g(c) =
dt dt dt
f (c)Dv (g) + Dv (f )g(c).
Functionals satisfying these properties are called derivations. Consider the
example of the x coordinate curve in Cartesian three space. We have c(t) =
tux where ux is the unit coordinate vector in the x direction. Then
dc
v= = ux
dt
and
f
Dv (f ) = f ux = .
x
We have shown that
Dv = .
x
Similarly if i is a local surface coordinate, then
,
i
21
is the derivation corresponding to its tangent vector. We have
(i ) = ji .
j
Hence
A={ : 1 i n}
i
is a linearly independent set of derivations. We shall show that tangent
vectors and derivations can be identified. So A is a basis of the tangent
space. Let v1 and v2 be tangent vectors ,then
f v1 + f v2 = Dv1 f + Dv2 f
If a is a scalar, then
Dav1 = aDv1 .
Therefore the mapping
v 7 Dv
is a homomorphism. Since the tangent space of an n-dimensional manifold
is n-dimensional, and there are tangent vectors mapping to A, the mapping
v 7 Dv is actually an isomorphism.
Now we no longer have to rely on a coordinate system in the embedding
space, in which the surface lies, to define a tangent vector. Given any curve
in the surface c, and a parameter point t0 , there is a derivation defined by
df (c)
Dc f = (t0 ).
dt
This is independent of the embedding. A local surface coordinate system can
be used to find the components of Dc with respect to the local tangent basis.
The covariant derivative X Y can be given as the action of the derivation
X on the vector field Y . Indeed let
X = x1 + x2 + x3
u1 u2 u3
and
Y = y1 + y2 + y3
u1 u2 u3
22
be tangent vectors in R3 and let X act as a derivation. Then
Y (c(t))
X Y = =
dt
y1 (c(t)) y2 (c(t)) y3 (c(t))
( , , ) = (X(y1 ), X(y2 ), X(y3)).
dt dt dt
Reference Abraham Goetz, Introduction to Differential Geometry, Addison-
Wesley 1970.
13 Envelope Surfaces
Given a one parameter family of surfaces
f (x, y, z, t) = 0,
f (x, y, z, t) = 0
and
f (x, y, z, t)
=0
t
(see Goetz p125). To establish this, let the envelope surface have parametric
equation
r(u1 , u2 ) = (x(u1 , u2 ), y(u1, u2 ), z(u1 , u2 )).
Given the coordinates of a point u1 u2 of a point p on the envelope, there is
an element of the family of surfaces that is tangent to the envelope at this
point. Let the corresponding parameter of this tangent surface be t(u1 , u2 ).
Now f is normal to this tangent surface. Hence
dr
f = 0.
du1
But let
23
g(u1, u2 ) = f ((x(u1 , u2 ), y(u1, u2 ), z(u1 , u2 ), t(u1 , u2)).
Then g = 0, so
dg dr f (x, y, z, t) dt
0= = f + .
du1 du1 t du1
Thus
f (x, y, z, t) dt
= 0.
t du1
Similarly
f (x, y, z, t) dt
= 0.
t du2
We shall assume that
dt
du1
and
dt
du2
do not vanish simultaneously. Thus
f (x, y, z, t)
= 0.
t
A canal surface is the envelope of a family of spheres. For example the
torus is a canal surface, and Dupin cyclides are also canal surfaces. A spheri-
cal Milling cutter produces a canal surface, other cutter shapes produce other
envelope surfaces. A rather general milling cutter may be considered the en-
velope of a family of flat disk like ellipsoids. Then a milled surface may be
considered the envelope of a two parameter family of surfaces
f (x, y, x, s, t) = 0.
The envelope surface is found by eliminating t and s from
f (x, y, z, s, t) = 0, ft (x, y, z, s, t) = 0, fs (x, y, z, s, t) = 0.
See Goetz.
The milled internal screw thread is an envelope of surfaces generated by
swept disks. It can also be considered a the envelope of a two parameter
family of algebraic surfaces and is thus algebraic.
An envelope of a one-parameter set of planes is called a developable sur-
face.
24
14 The Covariant Derivative On a Surface
Define the covariant derivative on the surface by
DX Y = X Y + < X N, Y > N.
We will show that this is the projection of the R3 covariant derivative to the
tangent space. For if we take the dot product with the normal N, we get
Then we have
DX Y = X Y < X Y, N > N,
which shows that DX Y is the projection of X Y to the tangent space.
The covariant derivative has an explicit coordinate representation, given
in terms of the soon to be introduced Christoffel symbols.
15 Christoffel Symbols
Let (u1, u2 ) be a surface patch (an inverse coordinate system). Write
2
ij = .
ui uj
We may express these derivatives in the moving basis
{1 , 2 , N}
We have
ij = kij k + ij N.
The kij are called the Christoffel symbols of the second kind. Taking inner
products we find that the ij are the coefficients bij of the second fundamental
form. Thus
ij =< ij , n >= bij , .
25
where
b11 = E, b12 = b21 = F, b22 = G.
Let us write the derivative of the normal as
ni = bki k .
Then we get
< ni , j >= bki gkj .
By differentiating
< n, j >= 0,
we get
< ni , j >= < n, ij >= bij
Thus
bij = bki gkj .
Then
bij g kj = bki gkj g kj = bki kl = bli ,
where
{g ij } = {gij }1 .
The Christoffel symbols are symmetric. In fact ij and bij are symmetric,
so
kij k = ij bij n = ji bji n = kji k .
Then
kij = kji,
because the i are linearly independent.
The Christoffel symbols of the first kind are defined by
ijl =< ij , l >=< kij k + bij n, l >= kij < k , l >= kij gkl .
They are symmetric in the first two indices because of the symmetry of ij .
It follows that
kij = ilj g lk .
Theorem
1 gjk gki gij
ijk = ( + ),
2 ui uj uk
26
and
g kl gjl gli gij
kij = ( + ).
2 ui uj ul
Proof. We have
gij < i , j >
k
= =< ik , j > + < i , jk >=
u uk
ikj + jki.
The permutation
i k, j i, k j
gives
gki
= kji + ijk = jki + ijk ,
uk
and the permutation
i j, j k, k i
gives
gjk
= jik + kij = ijk + ikj .
ui
Adding the last two equations and subtracting the first, we obtain the result
which was to be proved.
{1 , 2 , N}.
27
Taking the projection into the tangent space, (deleting terms involving N),
we get an expression for the surface covariant derivative
dy i dy j
DX Y = i + yi kij k =
dt dt
dy k i k duj
k + y ij k =
dt dt
dy k duj
( + y ikij )k
dt dt
which involves the basis vectors
{1 , 2 },
and the Christoffel symbols. The Christoffel symbols involve only the coef-
ficients of the first fundamental form and their derivatives. So the surface
covariant derivative is intrinsic, and depends only on the metric gij .
Let X = m and Y = n . Then
dy k
=0
dt
and
y i = ni ,
and
duj j
= m .
dt
Then
Dm n = kmn k .
28
We shall continue to write it as
X Y.
(2)D(af ) = aD(f ),
(3)D(f g) = f (c)D(g) + D(f )g(c).
The derivations play the roll of tangent vectors. The set of derivations con-
stitute the tangent space. A derivation may also be defined as a parametric
derivative along a curve.
In the Euclidean case suppose we have a vector
X = (a1 , a2 , ...., an )
In this case it is easy to see that property (3) of the derivation follows from
the rule for diferentiating the product of functions. Further in this Euclidean
case one can show that every derivation is of this form. If Y is a vector field
in this Euclidean space with ith coordinate yi, then a covarient derivative is
given by
X Y = (Xy1, ...., Xyn ).
Covariant derivatives have the following four characteristic properties:
(1)X (Y + Z) = X Y + X Z
(2)X+W Y = X Y + W Z
(3)f (p)X Y = f (p)X Y
(4)X f (p)Y = (Xf )Y + f (p)X Y
Property (4) follows from the property (3) of derivations.
29
Given a curve and a vector field Y defined along the curve, if T is the
curve tangent and
T Y = 0,
then the vector Y (0) is said to be parallel translated along .
If
T T = 0,
then the curve tangent is parallel translated along the curve and the
curve is a geodesic, a shortest path connecting the starting point and the
ending point.
Consider the case of translating a tangent vector around a path on a
sphere, say the earth. Say one starts at the north pole and suppose we
translate a vector along the zero degree meridian. Let the vector Y be per-
pendicular to the meridian as it is translated, that is it is always pointing
east, always making the same angle with the meridian, i.e. the geodesic
curve.
When we reach the equator the vector points east in the direction of the
equator, which is another geodesic. We keep it in the direction of the equator
until we get to say the 30thth degree meridian. The vector makes a 90 degree
angle with the 30th degree meridian as we translate it back up to the north
pole. When we reach the north pole we find that the translated vector is
pointing in a different direction from the starting direction. So on the earth
we have traveled along a spherical triagle path, always keeping our vector
pointing in the same direction with respect to what we consider locally as
straight lines. But when we return to our starting point we see that the
vector has been turned. So this tells us that our surface is curved. Because
on a flat surface this would not occur.
The geodesics are the paths of particles when they do not experience any
force. Their motion is the analogue of classical uniform motion.
18 The Bracket
If X and Y are C vector fields, their bracket is a C vector field (Hicks
P8) defined by
[X, Y ]f = X(Y f ) Y (Xf ).
The bracket has the following properties:
[X, Y ] = [Y, X].
30
[X, X] = 0.
[X1 + X2 , Y ] = [X1 , Y ] + [X2 , Y ]
and
[f X, gY ] = f (Xg)Y g(Y f )X + f g[X, Y ].
At a fixed point p on the manifold,
[X, Y ]p f
[X, Y ]p f
maps two vectors from the product tangent space to a real number. If it were
multilinear with respect to X and Y , then it would be a second rank tensor.
But property
The bracket comes from the Poisson bracket of mechanics, and was intro-
duced by Sophus Lie in his work on Lie Groups (originally called continuous
groups of transformations) and Lie Algebras in solving partial differential
equations.
19 Differential Manifolds
A differential manifold is a topological space M and a set of charts, where
each chart is a one to one mapping from an open neighborhood of M to
an open connected neighborhood in Rn . If 1 and 2 are overlapping charts,
then 1
1 2 is a C
map. M is covered by the domains of the set of charts.
The charts specify a set of local coordinates for the manifold. For example
on the spherical earth, the mapping of a point on the earth to its latitude
and longitude is a chart. It takes more than one chart to cover the earth.
Let us take the example of a 2d unit sphere embedded in R3 . The use of
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spherical coordinates constitutes a chart. That is a point on the sphere is
mapped to the , coordinates. The inverse of this chart is the mapping
x = sin() cos()
y = sin() sin()
z = cos()
Tangent vectors in these coordinate directions are the functionals (deriva-
tions)
, and .
20 Riemannian Geometry
A Riemannian Space is a differential manifold with a Riemannian metric. A
Riemannian Metric is a function < X, Y >, where X and Y are elements of
a tangent space. This is the distance between X and Y . In classical notation
this is written as g(X,Y), and has tensor components gij . The Riemannian
metric is real valued, bilinear, symmetric, and positive definite. The metric is
a quadratic form and is represented by a symmetric matrix. Positive definite
means that if X is not zero, then g(X, X) > 0. The eigenvalues of the matrix
are all positive.
A Semi-Riemannian metric is real valued, bilinear, and symmetric. But
is not necessarily positive definite, but must be nonsingular. The eigenval-
ues must be nonzero, but not necessarily positive. This is the case for the
Minkowski metric of relativity theory. A positive definite matrix is clearly
nonsinglular, so a Riemannian metric is a Semi-Riemannian metric. Clearly,
there can be a nonsingular matrix that is not positive definite, namely a diag-
onal matrix. A Riemannian metric tensor is given classically as a symmetric
quadratic form
n X
n
ds2 =
X
gij dxi dxj .
i=1 j=1
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21 The Unique Riemannian Connexion De-
fined by the Riemannian or semi-Riemannian
Metric
The properties 1-6 of the standard connexion on Rn (Hicks pp19-20) are
satisfied by this Riemannian connection properties 5 and 6 are additional
properties not necessarily satisfied by a covariant derivative or connexion
that is not Riemannian.
There exists a unique Riemannian connexion (pp 69-70) on a Riemannian
or semi-Riemannian manifold. The Christoffel symbols are given in terms of
the metric tensor. We have by definition
n
ijk Xi .
X
Xk (Xj ) =
i=1
The symbol g 1 is the inverse of the symmetric matrix of the metric quadratic
form. This is where the nonsingularity of the semi-Riemannian metric is
needed. This defines the connexion, because it has been defined for the basis
vector fields Xi .
22 Bibliography
[1] Auslander Louis, MacKenzie Robert E, Introduction to Differential
Manifolds, 1963, 1977 Dover.
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[5] Bishop Richard L, Goldberg Samuel L, Tensor Analysis on Manifolds,
1968.
[11] Emery J. D., Physics, JDEU Press, 1996, (See the chapter on Mechan-
ics.)
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[19] Helgason Sigurdur, Differential Geometry, Lie Groups, and Sym-
metric Spaces, Academic Press, 1978.
[25] Lovelock David, Rund Hanno, Tensors, Differential Forms and vari-
ational Principles, 1977,1989 Dover.
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[33] Spivak Michael, Calculus on Manifolds, W A Benjamin 1965.
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