THE EQUATION OF THE UNIVERSE

(According to the theory of Relation)

Russell Bagdoo
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract

A new equation is found in which the concept of matter-space-time is mathematically

connected; gravitation and electromagnetism are also bound by space-time. A mechanism
is described showing how velocity, time, distance, matter, and energy, are correlated. We
are led to ascertain that gravity and electricity are two distinct manifestations of a single
underlying process: electro-gravitation. The force of gravitation arises of
electromagnetism inherently much stronger divided by the cosmological space-time.
The radius of space-time belongs to the family of electromagnetic waves: the wavelength
is the radius (1026 m) of the universe and the period (10l7 s) is its cosmological age. For
the first time, the cosmological time, considered as a real physical object, is integrated
into a "cosmological equation" which makes coherent what we know regarding the time
(its origin, its flow), the matter, and space. It sets up a mathematical model allowing us
to interpret dark energy (or cosmological constant) as being both "negative" and "tired"
energy. In fact, it is an equation of quantum cosmology that operates the reconciliation
between the macrocosm and the microcosm to draw up a coherent view of the behavior
of matter through space and time.

Keywords: theory of Relation, irreversible cosmological time, , new variable, negative

energy, electro-gravitation, relativity, quantum theory

1 Introduction

1.1 History of unifications

Historically [1], Newton`s discovery of the law of gravitation can be appreciated as the
first "unification", combining the laws of heaven and earth. The next great leap took
place in the mid-1860`s with Maxwell`s theory of electromagnetism uniting electricity
and magnetism. In 1905, Einstein created the special theory of relativity connecting space
and time and associating the concepts of matter and energy. In 1915, he proposed general
relativity, which explained gravitation as the marriage of space-time and matter-energy.
In the 1960`s, the works of S. Weinberg, A. Salam and S. Glashow led to the unification
of the electromagnetic interaction and the weak nuclear interaction. The next step,
namely the unification of the electroweak and strong interactions, drove to the
electronuclear theory (GUT) whose predictions were the object of no conclusive result.
As for the ultimate synthesis the unification of gravitation and GUT , it has defied all
attempts.

1
More than seventy years ago, Paul Dirac suggested that more than a coincidence was at
work between the age of the universe in atomic time units and the ratio of the electric
force between an electron and a proton to the gravitational force between the two [ ke2 / (G
MpMe-) = 1040] [2, 3]. The most fundamental unit of time would be one associated with
atomic processes, because it would depend only on basic natural constants, such as the
electric charge (e), the mass of the electron (M e-), or the speed of light (c). This time unit,
which appears throughout physics as the basic time scale for atomic and nuclear
processes, is roughly the time required for light to travel the electron radius: 10 -15 m / 108 s
= 10-23 s. Thus the evaluated age of the universe (1017 s) in atomic time units is 1017 s / 10-
23
s = 1040. Dirac postulated that the near equality of these two numbers was a
manifestation of some as yet the unknown deeper law of nature that required them to be
nearly equal for all time. The problem is that the age of the universe is increasing. If the
quantity between the two 1040 is to be maintained, then one of the other numbers must
change with time. For many physicists, the gravitational constant (G) seems the only
plausible candidate which can vary in spite of general relativity, which states that G is a
physical constant whose numerical value is fixed.

Our reflections and insights on this issue have made us discover the theory of Relation
whose mode of action decrypts the order of the cosmos. It proposes a model of quantum
cosmology through an equation that builds a relationship between electromagnetism,
Newtonian gravitation, special relativity, quantum physics and general relativity.

2 Equation of the theory of Relation

2.1 The equation

Let us compare the electrostatic and the gravitational forces between two protons in the
same nucleus, with a distance of 0.2 nanometers [4]. We will use the MKS system which
has the advantage of incorporating the constants of the permittivity of free space and of
permeability of free space. The value of the Coulomb constant k is 1 / 4o = 8.987 5 x
109 Nm2/coul2. The value of the constant o, called permittivity of free space, is 8.8542 x
10-12 coul2/Nm2. According to Coulomb's law, the electrostatic repulsive force is Fe = q2 /
(4oR2) = 5.775 x 10-9 N; e2 / [(4(8.8541878 x 10-12) (0.2 x 10-9)2]. The attractive
Newtonian force is GMop2 / R2 = 4.666 x 10-45 N. The ratio is Fe / Fg = ke2 / GMp2 = 1.23 x
1036.

Let us pursue Dirac`s suggestion on the time, and replace the ratio by a universal time
factor with the constants G and c: Fe / Fg = toc / G; Fe = Fg toc / G. And suppose we
relativize the masses of the protons, in accordance with special relativity, as if they were
moved with a speed of 200 000 km/s, we would obtain

k e2 / [Ro(1 v2/c2)1/2]2 = G[Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 / [Ro(1 v2/c2)1/2]2 [toc / G], (1)

thus we would have

ke2 = Mvp2 toc. (2)

2
[Mop is rest-mass; Mop(1 / (1 v2/c2)1/2) gives Mvp, i.e., rest-mass + kinetic energy (T);
v = 200 000 km/s = 2/3c].

Note that in this model, the speed of the relativized protons is identified with the
estimated speed of the recession of galaxies and that it determines all other variables. We
found reasonable to adopt the speed 2/3c. Since this is dependent on astronomical
observations which are constantly evolving, the speed will be adjusted accordingly.

Particles come in pairs, each with a counterpart antiparticle

ke2 = [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 toc (3)

2.3069 x 10-28 kg m3s-2 = [(1.6725 x 10-27 kg) / (1 4/9)1/2]2 (1.5283 x 1017 s) (3 x 108)
2.3069 x 10-28 kg m3s-2 = (2.2439 x 10-27 kg)2 (1.5283 x 1017 s) (3 x 108 m/s).

We ascertain that the link between the charge squared and the relativized proton`s mass
squared confers a universal time of 1.5283 x 10 17 s multiplied by c. That time gives 4.84
billion years [(1.5283 x 1017) / (365.24 x 24 x 60 x 60)].

2.2 Linear time and transverse time

This time for a speed of 200,000 km/s gives a time well below the 13 to 15 billion light
years expected. Relativized protons should be with a much lower rate to obtain these
ages. Therefore, the radius (toc) of about 15 billion light years could be confused with
both an electromagnetic wave and a gravitational wave. The two are transverse.
However, since we assimilate the speed of the relativized protons to the velocity of
recession of galaxies and that the latter is not evaluated less than 200,000 km/s or 2/3c,
we exclude this possibility.

The other alternative is to consider that the cosmological time of equation (2) is a
mathematical "linear time" that evolves as a "longitudinal" ray of light. A point particle
on a cosmological space-time ray will go straight ahead, such as a Euclidean space-time
line, from one point to another. It will cross the radial radius toc (= A-Z), in 4.84 billion
light years. This radius can then become confused with a longitudinal gravitational wave
or a longitudinal electromagnetic wave. Although we do not know these waves, they
cannot be forbidden in theory. We believed for a long time that sound waves were
exclusively longitudinal while they are also transverse.

Linear time, that is to say, the time required for a particle to travel a distance A-Z in a
straight line as would make a longitudinal wave, matches with 15.21 billion years in
circular time, or linear time multiplied by . The circular time expresses the required time
for a particle can travel the same length in rotating around the line, as would a transverse
wave [5].

One can imagine that a wave rolled up around the radial line A-Z would travel it in the
5.21 billion years, which is linear time multiplied by . It fits a transverse
electromagnetic wave

ke2 = Mvp2 () toc. (4)

3
Of this expression, one must keep in mind that is used for winding the particle spirally
around the radial length toc. It could be a transverse electromagnetic wave but it could
also be a transverse gravitational wave. Mathematically, the equation should be

() ke2 = Mvp2 () toc. (5)

From a physical point of view, we prefer however the equation (4), because it allows
highlighting, for the same distance, the transverse character (and thus electromagnetic)
with respect to the linear character. It can be said that the second of the longitudinal
wave is worth the second of the transverse wave divided by . It means that a particle
will browse transversely a distance A-Z while in the same time another particle will
cover a radial distance A-Z x . We estimate that it is adequate and corresponds roughly
to the observations. The photon is the boson of the transverse electromagnetic wave of
space-time.

It has been shown that space-time is electromagnetic (vacuum minimum energy, etc.).
So, using the basic unit of time, the second, considered electromagnetic, the universe
was estimated at about 15 billion light years. Our equation, calculated for a relativistic
velocity of 2/3c for the protons, gives 15 billion light years using . We estimate that it
is adequate and consistent with the observations. The photon is the boson of the
transverse electromagnetic wave of space-time.

If this transverse electromagnetic wave was unfolded into a longitudinal

electromagnetic wave, the distance A-Z would be multiplied by , what would give 47
billion longitudinal light years. We would have, always at the speed of light, distances
at least three times the length of the distances presently estimated. The seconds of this
longitudinal electromagnetic wave would have a time three times shorter than the seconds
of the transverse wave.

The particles that may be associated with longitudinal electromagnetic waves and
longitudinal gravitational waves could be the neutrino and the graviton. The
longitudinal electromagnetic wave already exists. The gravitational wave, which has
always been considered to be transverse, would have been captured in 2015. This does
not exclude the existence of a longitudinal gravitational wave [6].

2.3 Formula of the expansion

We know that nucleons are forming 99.97% of the known matter. Neutron and proton are
two states of the nucleon. Suppose that the protons of our equation are galaxies which
move away at 2/3c, then we get a "cosmological equation" that determines the age and
distance of the universe in relation to the speed of recession of galaxies. The more the
speed of recession of distant galaxies decreases (velocity ~ c 2/c2 at the beginning toward
lower speeds: v2/c2), the more they move away from the Earth and the more the age of the
universe increases. Velocity, distance, and age are correlated for the first time in an
equation. The flight of the galaxies at 2/3c corresponds to 15 billion years. Both numbers
are roughly consistent with the real estimates of science.

4
The equation (4), in the form

ke2 () = Mvp2 toc () (6)

is the equation of the expansion. It establishes a clear mathematical link between

electromagnetism and gravitation. The term " toc" corresponds to the radius of the
universe. To the right-hand side, matter (Mvp2), space and time (toc) are mathematically
related into one whole.

It can be seen in the equation [1] that the expression G[Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 / [Ro (1
v2/c2)1/2]2 links Newtonian gravitational force and relativity. We get a relativized
Newtonian gravitation, which means, firstly, that gravity is a reality everywhere and,
secondly, that special relativity is not only a mathematical utility, not just a Galilean
reference frame without gravity. Both are linear theories applied to a tri dimensional
Euclidean geometry with linear-plan space-time. These are applied to a linear two-
dimensional Euclidean space-time with flat linear theories. In addition, electromagnetism
is also a linear theory.

In Newton`s theory of gravitation, the force GMm / r 2 transmits instantaneously an

energy or a signal. Newton was unhappy with the instantaneous or "action at a
distance" phenomenon associated with gravity. Poincar (1904), Minkowski (1908),
and de Sitter (1911) agreed that gravity must propagate with the speed of light. For
according to special relativity nothing moves faster than light, not even gravity.
None of the several gravity theories even from Einstein, that was consistent with
special relativity in that the speed of the propagation of gravity was the speed of
light was satisfactory. In the proposed equation, the combination of the Lorentz
transformation and t oc ensures that the velocity of light or gravity does not go faster
than the velocity of the universal constant c [7].

According to the theory of Relation, gravity is not a separate force, but an aspect of
electromagnetism. Both forces are joined by the four-dimensional space-time. In fact, the
gravity results from the dissolved energy of the expanding electromagnetism which does
not stop creating the space-time. Deep down, electric and gravitational forces are part of a
common superforce: electro-gravitation. Like magnetism and electricity are two sides of
electromagnetism [8]. In subatomic particle physics, electro-gravitation takes the aspect
of the electrostatic force, and the gravitation force, 1036 weaker, plays no direct role there.
When the pair of particles with both positive electric charges which repel and move away
at nearly the speed of light, creating the "space-time" between them, electromagnetism
decreases with distance and takes the name gravity. On the large scale, electro-gravity
becomes gravity. We are led to think of the gravitational forces as being electromagnetic
forces with attractive charges acting in space-time instead of in the subatomic world. The
driving force of expansion, caused by the initial explosion, would result from the
repulsive charges of the electromagnetic forces operating in the universe [9].

2.4 Other relativistic expressions

Here are other relativistic expressions that express the mass variation of a moving proton

5
as a function of velocity and cosmological time. They do not take account here of as if
toc was longitudinal and not transverse. The same applies to the rest of the paper.
(Mop is the rest mass; Mop [1 / (1 v2/c2)1/2], or Mp, is the kinetic energy T; Mvp is the
relativized mass with kinetic energy; v = 2/3c)

ke2 = Mop + {Mop [(1 / (1 v2/c2)1/2) 1]}2 toc (7)

2.3 x 10-28 = [(1.6725 x 10-27) + (5.71 x 10-28)]2 (1.52 x 1017 s) (3 x 108),

or
e = (Mop x Mp)2 toc
k
2
(8)
2.3069 x 10 = [(1.6725 x 10-27) (1.3416)]2 (1.5283 x 1017s) (3 x 108).
-28

Relativistic expression for kinetic energy of a moving proton (quantum mass)

T = Mvpc2 Mopc2 = Mopc2 [(1 / (1 v2/c2)1/2) 1]. (9)

Potential energy for the electrostatic field of point charges united to potential energy for
the gravitational field [13]

ke2 / [Ro (1 v2/c2)1/2] = {G [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 toc} / {[Ro (1 v2/c2)1/2] G}. (10)

Formula of the total energy of the proton in function of e, c, and to

k e2 = Mvp2 toc; Mvp = (ke2 /toc)1/2; Mop = (1 v2/c2)1/2 (ke2 / to c)1/2

E = Mop c2 + T = Mvp c2 = (ke2 c3 / to)1/2. (11)

E = Mopc2 = [(1 v2/c2) (ke2 / toc) c4]1/2 = [(1 v2/c2) (ke2 c3 / to)]1/2. (12)

This is for the fermion. New formula of energy for the boson (mo) is

E = moc2 = Mvp2 hc / ke2 (13)

(ke2 = Mvp2 toc; ke2 = Mvp2 h / moc; ke2 = Mvp2 hc / moc2).

This means that electricity is a manifestation of energy like energy and matter are
equivalent. Proton (and neutron) and electron are grains of electricity. The masses of
proton and electron have EM origin: Mvp = (ke2 / toc)1/2, and the matter is composed of
grains of electricity. Matter atom is done of a multitude of elementary particles that are
electricity, so properties of matter must be explained by properties of electricity.

On the basis of ke2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 2GMo / c2 = Mvp2 2GMoc2 / c4, the new formula of the
energy of the ordinary matter of the universe will be

E = Moc2 = ke2c4 / (Mvp22G). (14)

3 Cosmological time

6
The equation (2) [ke2 = Mvp2 toc] is written with a real and cosmological time (neither
relative nor absolute) that governs the infinitely small and the infinitely large. It allows
considering time as a real entity which contains in itself the difference between the past
and the future. It can open a new chapter of the physics because so far, the more the
physical theories have been developed, the more the notion of time has become
evanescent. First with the introduction of relativity in 1905 which made it lose its
absolute character; the notions of present or of duration turning dependent on the
observer; an overt indifference where time becomes intimately linked to space for which
this distinction has no meaning. Then with quantum mechanics, two decades later, who
dived in the "fuzzy" the idea of time. The laws of microphysics show no preferred flow
direction. At such an extent that for physicists if a broken glass is never spontaneously
repaired, it is not because we cannot go back in time, but simply because the
configuration "repaired" is less probable than "broken" [10].

Nevertheless, in the cosmological theories of Einstein, de Sitter and Lematre, new ideas
related to the character of universal space had been introduced, but no corresponding
progress was achieved regarding the idea of time, except to the extent that the
phenomenon of expansion tended to suggest a finite past, rather than an infinite past. Just
as Einstein did make the progress that is known by analyzing concepts like that of
simultaneity, similarly the next progress of physical theory will be obtained by taking
again the analysis of time to the point where he left it.

The cosmological time found in the equation would be the age of the universe. The
reference is the beginning of space-time from the Planck time. It would recover a
character not absolute as before the relativistic revolution, but universal that would
integrate the difference between the past and the future with the acquirements of this
revolution that unites time and space. The energy associated with the immateriality and
the mass associated with ordinary matter could be stored in two opposite and
complementary structures. This "new" time and this new energy and mass ratio would
redefine general relativity, making it global and compatible with the quantum rules [9].

If we admit that the universe is a kind of expanding super-atom that gives the age of the
universe, then we have an arrow to the future which is the same of at least three arrows of
time that distinguish the past from the future: thermodynamics (disorder increases)
cosmological (universe expansion rather than contraction), psychological (we remember
the past, not the future) [11]. The flat space-time, i.e., zero curvature, makes the universe
seem as being very close to the special case, intermediate between open and closed
universe. The closed universes collapse eventually, and may then undergo further cycles
of expansion and collapse, like a bouncing balloon. A universe closed by gravity is the
equivalent of a black hole. We assume that the universe is at the highest of his jump and
is about to plunge forward, which means that the cosmological time continues by
orienting towards the big crunch, while the thermodynamic time passes from cold to hot
[20].

In any event, the colossal amount of kinetic energy contained in the original proton
varies with time. In fact, energy relieved by two energetic protons which move away

7
from each other engenders the radius of the universe. The term "t oc" corresponds to
the radius of the universe and represents the cosmological time linked to the
universal thermodynamics. We say that this cosmo-thermodynamics time, that
shapes the radius of the universe, stems from two charges in the form of relativized
protons which run away from each other creating so the space-time of this universe.
One could say that the pairs of protons go away simultaneously from the center in
all directions and two opposite directions constitute geometrically the diameter. This
simultaneity suggests another time behind the thermodynamic time that we could
call "duration". The velocity v of the Lorentz transformation indicates both the
speed of the proton which decreases with expansion and its remaining mass (rest +
kinetic energy). The released energy is propagated with velocity c, as an
electromagnetic wave, which suggests that the frequency decreases with time [12].

4 The flow of time and the universal constant G

Lancelot L. Whyte in a short essay, Archimedes or the Future of Physics (1927) [13],
pointed out that in each of the two major physical theories of the twentieth century, the
fundamental role was played by a particular natural constant: In relativity by c, the
velocity of light in vacuum, and in quantum theory by h, the Planck constant. He
suggested that the next progress would be associated with a new fundamental constant
that would concern the flow of time. The idea that time can be an active factor of
causality means from the mathematical point of view that t must appear in the expression
of the law. Such a law would express the fact of the historical and irreversible duration,
or the "flow". The irreversible flow of time (cosmological time), linked to the irreversible
phenomenon of expansion and our consciousness of the one-way flow of time, becomes a
necessary element of any theory of the structure of nature. Thus, while the first principle
of thermodynamics, that of conservation of energy, concerns time only as a simple
"duration," the second principle implies the idea of flow. This notion of flow is
fundamental and we consider that the expansion of the universe is its supreme
manifestation.

Based upon the fundamental unit of time and on the fundamental physical constants, this
cosmological time confirms the intuition of Paul Dirac, namely that the dimensionless
number 1040 is not a constant but a variable of time in relation to the age of our universe.
He thought that this number was determined by particle physics and also by the
gravitational influence of the entire universe. In 1937 and in1938, he proposed that G
varies like the inverse age of the universe, so as the universe expanded from the big bang,
the gravitational constant, or force, became weaker and weaker as time passed until today
when we experience the present very weak force of gravity. But he was unable to apply it
to Einsteins gravity theory [14].

For our part, we postulate that the gravitational mass of the universe varies
proportionally to the age of the universe [15, 7]. If we assert that the electric forces and
the gravitational force which are exerted between two particles of identical mass are
disproportionate, the gravitational interaction is reduced to almost nothing. We have
previously (section 2.1) replaced the numerical difference 1036 (for protons) by the factor

8
(toc / G). Although Dirac has concluded that it is G which varies with time, we note that
G is excluded from the equation, just like for special relativity: [ke2 / rv2 = (GMvp2 / rv2) /
(toc / G) = ke2 = Mvp2 toc]. It is the mass Mvp which varies rather than the constant G. In
fact, even if G retains its status of an invariable constant of nature, as for general
relativity, it turns out to vary through his substitute, the mass, which is amended from
time. This confirms the intuition of Dirac and entails a modification of the gravity
leading to a new kind of cosmology in which it is as much the mass of the particles as the
mass of the whole universe which changes with time.

Ultimately, the theory of Relation considers that the mass of elementary particles changes
with time (we do not speak here of the naked mass which remains invariant), that G is a
fixed constant of the nature and that the space-time of the theory of Relation (toc) is
almost the same as that of special relativity (tc): a four-dimensional Euclidean space-time
continuum [11], except that he contains an electromagnetic aspect.

5 Link between quantum mechanics and general relativity

5.1 Theory of Relation

According to the theory of Relation [16], the classical gravitation is almost zero at the
Planck time because its energy is entirely in the potential state, the inverse of the kinetic
energy of the electromagnetic interaction. Thus in equation

k e2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 2GMo / c2, (15)

the kinetic energy of the squared mass of the relativized proton (Mvp2) decreases in an
inversely proportional way to the time and to the mass of the ordinary matter (Mo). The
time generated by the expansion is inversely proportional to the quantum mass which
decreases and proportional to the ordinary mass which grows, while we keep G of
general relativity as a fixed constant of nature. Although t oc looks like the Euclidian four-
dimensional space-time continuum of special relativity [11], it is dissociated by its
irreversibility and its electromagnetic aspect.

If we write ke2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 h / mc, the cosmological time which extends from 10 43 s
to 1017 s, associated with h and c, reveals the quantum structure of space-time itself,
which means a limit to the divisibility of space and above all to the divisibility of time.

One can imagine big implications if we write

ke2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 h / mc = Mvp2 2GMo / c2. (16)

5.2 Structure of expansion and quantum theory

In this proposed model of quantum cosmology, there are two associated structures
(expansion and condensation) of the world and a time scale incorporated into two
different theories, quantum mechanics and relativity, each of which is of fundamental
importance. In

9
 ke2 Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2 h / moc Mop / (1 22/32)1/2 h / moc (17)

or

ke2 Mvp2 h / p, (18)

we associate electromagnetism, Newtonian gravitation, special relativity and quantum

physics. The formula toc = h / moc expresses the electro-gravitational field bound to Mvp2.

Protons (Mvp2) represent the stable particles of matter of the expanding universe. They
move in every given direction at a speed less than c. So at any epoch posterior to the
Planck era, the system fills the inside of a Euclidian sphere of radius toc. The nearest
particles from the center, which emerge from the Planckian era, seem to move away with
a speed v very close to c. At the beginning, their rest mass is covered with a huge kinetic
energy. The speed of the expansion decreases and the kinetic energy of protons is subject
to a transformation into a sort of frozen energy, in bodies with mass. We suppose
arbitrarily that the speed of the particles of the current universe is 2/3c [17]. The proton
likened to a galaxy because it consists of protons will be livened up at the most in a
uniform motion at a constant speed when he will have exhausted almost all its kinetic
energy and will be close to its rest mass (1.6725 x 10-27 kg). It is a motion at zero speed
and this could mean that the expansion will be replaced by a contraction into a new
region that did not exist before and that the universe will go towards a new space-time
bounce [18].

By uniting E = moc2 of the relativity with E = hv of the quantum theory, we obtain toc =
h / moc. This field produces energy packets which are bosons. The particle mediator mo
represents as much the quanta-photon as the quanta-graviton. The latter (we are talking
about the graviton from the big bang) carries the gravity and is similar to the photon of
electromagnetism. Both are moving at the speed of the light, have energy but no rest
mass. Their paths can be represented by straight lines in Euclidean space. If we talk of an
electromagnetic field for the photon, we speak of an electro-gravitational field for the
graviton. The electro-gravitational wave "toc" could belong to the family of
electromagnetic waves. A de Broglie wave is associated with their motion and is
affiliated with the speed of the proton.

5.3 Structure of condensation and general relativity

The term GMo / c2 represents the structure of condensation, and general relativity dealing
with a more global aspect than local. Einstein saw a possibility to obtain a geometrical
interpretation of gravitational forces analogous to centrifugal forces. Centrifugal forces
and gravitational forces are proportional to the mass of the body which they are applied
[19]. The equivalence between inertial, gravitational and centrifugal forces is F = Ma =
GMM / r2 = Mv2 / r. Radius is GM / v2. With velocity c, r = GMo / c2. This expression of
the radius of general relativity is, in fact, the Schwarzschild radius. In equation (4), we
said that toc was the radius of the universe. So R = toc = GMo / c2. For reason of symmetry,
we will take 2GMo / c2 as the relevant universal radius. Assuming a relativistic cosmic
speed of 2/3c, the mass of the present universe will be

10
 ke2 = [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 2GM o/ c2 (19)
2.3069 x 10-28 = (2.2439 x 10-27)2 2GMo / c2.

We then obtain Mo = 9.82 x 1051 kg. Because the mass is related to toc and that to is a
"linear time", the mass is 9.82 x 1051 kg x = 3.08 x 1052 kg. This is approximately the
estimated mass of the universe, which tends to confirm the version of Machs principle
incorporated into Einsteins theory [20].

According to this, the structure of space-time depends on the average distribution of all
matter in the universe. And inertia of an object depends on the structure of space-time.
Einstein's equations produce the adequate Machian influences in a closed universe in
which there is enough matter to gravitationally bend space on itself.

The expression 2GMo / c2 means that the radius of the universe must be compressed so
that the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light [21].

5.4 Planck time

At Planck time ( / c = 3.5177 x 10-43 s), if we apply

ke2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 h / moc = Mvp2 2GMo / c2, (20)

the mass of the "baryon-proton" Mvp will be 1.479 x 103 kg (2.3069 x 10-28 = Mvp2 3.51 x
10-43 c).

The wavelength =: toc = R = h / 2 = = 1.05458 x 10-34 m. We use with the Planck

time and the Planck length: this is consistent with toc, which is linear, not circular

With the de Broglie wave that travels at the speed of light as that of the particle mo, the
boson mo gives 2.09 x 10-8 kg (ke2 = Mvp2 h / moc). We employ h / moc because quantum
mechanics describes a particle, not a radius

With ke2 = Mvp2 2GMo / c2, general relativity determines the mass of the universe at
Planck time, Mo = 2.26 x 10-8 kg. We utilize 2GMo / c2 (not GMo / c2), considering that
the term describes a mass with a circumference, not a radius.

Instead of having Mplanck = (hc / 2G)1/2 = 2.1768 x 10-8 kg, which seems to be one of two
similar masses, we have Momo= hc / 2G, which are two different masses: mo = 2.09 x 10-
8
of quantum theory and Mo = 2.26 x 10-8 of general relativity. The Planck mass 2.1768 x
10-8 kg is actually the average of these two distinct masses (Momo)1/2. Their numerical
value corresponds to Planck mass and that makes think of the famously hidden variables.

5.5 New variable: M2vp

The new parameter M2vp, or [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2, is an essential element. Its value changes
throughout the expansion. It can be suspected of being the non-zero mean value in the
vacuum of the Higgs field. It would be the scalar field of the Higgs ocean at the origin of
the inertia of matter which measures the force that must be applied to an object to provide

11
it a given acceleration. One can also conjecture that it is a hidden variable in the sense
that Einstein understood it: the mass of the particle associated with the wave that would
commit a serious infringement of Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty [22, 23]. It would
then be possible to predict with precision any future state of the universe; the associated
wave would say more than the probabilities of the particle found in different places. It
could also be a mathematical tool to grasp what was really under Planck's values; at
microsecond 10-43, the universe is thought to have had a size close to zero and to have
been infinitely hot [11, 24]; it is the birth of the universe, but it is not the zero point of the
singularity.

The Lorentz transformation of this variable [12] inscribes the equation in a relativistic
cosmology (although our mathematical model is central and global whereas general
relativity is above all peripheral and local). The velocity v of this transformation, starting
from the speed of light and moving towards 0 (it would be about 2/3c today), constitutes
a variable velocity of light. Thus the limit of a signal it was thought up till now to be that
first measured with the light waves was much greater at the beginning of the history of
the universe. The exchanges of heat could, therefore, be made much faster, which would
have led the cosmos to have the same temperature everywhere. This would explain the
remarkable precision with which the spectrum of fossil radiation appears to us today as
that of a quasi-perfect black body. And that's what we are observing today. The
measurements made by the COBE, WMAP and Planck satellites show that the cosmic
background radiation is rather homogeneous and isotropic from the point of view of its
temperature on the sky, which implies that it is the same for the density of matter. And if
one attempts to understand these observations in the classical models of the expansion of
the universe discovered by Friedmann, Lematre, Robertson, and Walker in relativistic
cosmology, one cannot succeed.

5.6 Principle of compensation

The important point is that by virtue of the principle of Compensation of the theory, mo
and Mo are related. When mo decreases (as well as Mvp2 on whom mo depends), Mo, which
represents the global mass of the universe, increases. M vp2 and mo form the kinetic energy
of the universe which decreases, whereas Mo constitutes the potential energy that grows
as heavy weight.

5.7 A time scale associated with the clocks of two opposing spacelike theories
The cosmological time to does not stop growing at the speed of rays of light and it is
interpreted as the "age" of the system. The term toc is at the same time the radius of the
expansion and the wave of the expansion. Its metric yields the clock of the universe. It
indicates that contrasting energies of particles follow the same course of time (order of
1060 between 10-43 s and 1017 s between 10-35 m and 1025 m). The different speeds v of Mvp2
correspond to various values of to.

One can find a mathematical relation binding the times that the quantum clock and the
clock of general relativity assign respectively to a series of events. This relationship can
be used to compare, or convert, the epochs in one scale in epochs in the other. Unlike
those who think that these two clocks have no common point, that anyway we need

12
"mass" to build a clock by pointing out that mo has no mass, we believe we can build a
clock universal without necessarily needing a rest mass [17].

You can take the content of the energy of mo, by converting into a no rest mass or a
virtual mass [18]. In this respect, we got toc = h / moc ; mo = 4,824 x 10-68 kg = 2,7 x 10-32
eV. The moving mass (moc) pilots an associated wave, also at the speed of light (toc =
4.58 x 1025 m) with a period of 1.5283 x 1017 s. Or ( toc = 4.58 x 1025 m) with a period
of x 1.5283 x 1017s. The specific frequency will be v = moc2 / h. Even if their
frequencies will be below zero, and that the time between two beats of the current clock
in the vacuum is as long as the age of the universe, it does not prevent building a cosmic
clock that will be as significant than a clock within the ordinary matter according to the
relation toc = GMo / c2.

These two clocks are interconnected due to the principle of Compensation. Thus, the
particles which weigh 10-68 kg are the photon or the graviton of the empty space-time
grafted to the mass of the current universe (~1052kg). At the Planck epoch, the ordinary
mass of relativity and the quantum mass of the photon (or graviton) had substantially the
same value, about 10-8kg.

6 Negative energy

6.1 Ocean of negative energy of the theory of Relation

In the theory of Relation, there are more than two interconnected clocks (4) that allow us
to speak of the universe as a sort of universal metronome. Always by virtue of the
principle of Compensation, there is a transformation of so-called "negative" energy into
"positive" energy. The flat space-time ocean of special relativity merges here with Higgs
ocean, also assimilated with Dirac ocean, themselves amalgamated with ether ocean
(minimal energy of the vacuum). Even if each ocean retains its specficity, misunderstood,
it is part of a vast ocean, the matrix of atom and vacuum. According to our equation,
there would be a transformation of a space-time more and more flat into space-time more
and more locally curved. (Einstein gave his power to the idea of local curvature of space
by postulating that the geometry of the universe was curved by the masses it contained
and that this geometry determined the movement of material objects within it).

It is presumed that at the beginning, as much matter as antimatter were created. Why has
matter triumphed? Almost all of the specialists believe that a dissymmetry would have
tipped in favor of matter. We do not believe that a surplus generated by the asymmetrical
reaction of the particles, during a great annihilation, would have made a tiny difference
favoring a bit of matter that would have structured itself to become our world [25]. We
also adopt the hypothesis of an originally symmetrical universe, but we differ on the
mechanism that would have favored matter. According to us, from the initial spark, there
would have been a universe shared in equal parts between positive and negative matter,
but part of positive matter would have taken the direction of the nascent universe, while
the negative counterpart would return to the sea of negative energy. And this
progressively throughout the expansion, even today, though feebly. This transformation
of negative energy into positive energy is a long quiet river and not a titanic flash of light

13
of a fraction of a second. The universal dynamic is that energy is transformed into matter,
under the impulse of a decelerating expansion that began with a speed close to that of
light. The universal dynamic is that energy is transformed into matter under the impulse
of an expansion which decelerates with time and which began with a speed very close to
that of light. Particles and antiparticles from negative energy (Dirac sea, Higgs ocean)
materialize. A separation mechanism allows antiparticles of negative energy to go in the
opposite direction to the ocean to form the lands (matter), thus becoming particles of
positive energy, while the positive energy antiparticles plunge into the ocean of negative
energy. In conclusion, the sea of negative energy ebbs and the islands of positive matter
rise. One could imagine lands that emerge while the ocean level drops.

But if it does not look that way and physicists seem to want to impose a violation of the
CP symmetry which would leave an excess of matter, it is precisely because they have
suppressed the negative energy.

6.2.1 Invalidation of negative energy

We are thus at the heart of a problem which goes back to the conflict of ether in the
nineteenth century. Einstein stopped this war in 1905, declaring that the luminiferous
aether, the supposed carrier of light, to be unobserved, hence nonexistent. Around 1930,
Dirac pointed out that the energy-momentum-mass relation

E2 = c2p2 + m2c4, (21)

associated with special relativity, has two roots. It calls for both positive and negative
energy:

E = (c2p2 + m2c4)1/2. (22)

He asked himself what to do with the negative energy solutions

E = (c2p2 + m2c4)1/2. (23)

Since all negative-energy states have lower energy than any positive-energy state, Dirac
wondered why there were any filled positive states, since according to Hamiltons law all
entities tend to seek the lowest-energy state. He suggested that all of the negative energy
states must be filled, like the filled electron shells in the Pauli exclusion scheme. Then,
unless a vacancy occurred, positive energy particles would float on the surface of the
negative-energy sea and stay positive.

Diracs sea of filled negative energy states, while it satisfied the equation, did not
satisfy the physics community. Heisenberg, Pauli, Jordan and others excluded those
solutions that have a negative E to get over the difficulty in the classical theory. They
refused the requirement of a sea of negative-energy states, insisting that theory should be
based on observables alone.

14
6.2.2 Principle of causality preserved with the commutation of spacelike particle
and antiparticle
It has been decreed that only positive energy is real. This certainty has been
mathematically padlocked with the positive energy theorem. Rules have been established
not to violate the principles of Relativity (not to exceed the speed of light) as well as the
principle of causality (not to allow travel in time that would authorize backward
causation on a cause that has already produced its effects), and which are compatible with
quantum theory (by adding "constraints" to its formalism which guarantee that the
creation of a particle necessarily precedes its annihilation). Thus, causality is expressed
by means of rules of commutativity of fields operators. We speak of particles and
antiparticles which must have the same mass and opposite electric charges. A creation
operator *(x) of a particle at the space-time point x and the annihilation operator of this
same particle (y) at the space-time point y must commute to a separation of x and y of
the spacelike and not commute for a timelike separation. These rules prevent a particle
from propagating on a spacelike line (which would mean that the particle would
propagate faster than light) and, for propagation on a timelike line, that the creation of the
particle preceded its annihilation. These rules can be satisfied only if the decomposition
in plane waves of the field operators has negative frequency modes. And what do we do
with these modes which, in quantum physics, correspond to negative energies, i.e., the
particles that go back in time? They are reinterpreted as positive energy antiparticles that
follow the normal course of time [26]. The final argument is always that negative energy
is impossible, with no imaginable physical meaning.

6.3 Validation of negative energy

We believe that this is how Physics has missed half of reality. Although it seems that we
live in a universe of matter without constituted antimatter, there is no reason to eliminate
solutions with negative energy in quantum mechanics [27]. Furthermore, negative mass is
natural in the general theory of relativity and one can exclude it only by an ad hoc
assumption extraneous to the Einsteins theory.

We specify that the relation electrostatic charge - gravitational relativized mass, which is
associated with a cosmological and thermodynamics time, has two roots

[ke2]2 = [Mvp2 toc]2. (24)

It calls for both positive and negative universe:

ke2 = [Mvp4 to2c2]1/2. (25)

We are convinced that the recognition of the negative energy solution can find
mathematical rules in the quantum theory of fields that allow the concept of antiparticle,
and that of antimatter in general, to be compatible with relativity and causality [26]. Like
the solution of positive energy where the principle of causality is preserved with the
commutation of spacelike particles and antiparticles. The original theory of Dirac would
be valid. His model, according to which space is not at all empty but occupied by an
infinite sea of invisible particles of negative energy, constitutes a necessary physical
theory. Positive energy matter lies above this bottomless sea of negative energy states.

15
This is in consonance with the theory of Relation, which encompasses the atom and the
vacuum, and in line with its principle of Compensation similar to Pauli's exclusion
principle , which would greatly prohibit transitions to the sea, but would favor the
transition of negative energy antiparticles from the sea towards the positive energy
emerged lands.

6.4 Allais effect and negative energy

The idea of negative mass must be taken seriously because of the desperate theoretical
situation into which physics has been thrust by the anomalous behavior of discovered
phenomena which cannot be explained by Newtonian gravitation and general relativity.
The Allais eclipse effect is one of those. In the 1950s, Maurice Allais, interested in the
influence of gravitational and magnetic fields on the movement of the paraconical
pendulum, detected an exceptional deviation of the pendulum movement during the solar
eclipses of 30 June 1954 and 2 October 1959. Allais, Saxl, and Jeverdan carefully
observed the behavior of three types of pendulums during solar eclipses. The pendulums
exhibited significant abnormal behavior at the beginning of the phenomenon, indicating
that the Moon strongly interfered with the gravitational connection between Earth and
Sun at that moment. This physical anomaly, dubbed Allais effect, linked to perturbations
of motion of pendulums or instruments of gravitational measurement, was also observed
with varying degrees of success by others during solar eclipses [28].

The pendulums detected disturbances that sometimes indicate a drop in gravity

sometimes an increase. Either a kind of antigravity, as if the involved celestial bodies lost
positive energy-mass (mass Mo decreases) or a kind of over-gravity as if they were
impregnated with an increased gravity (the mass Mo increases) [29, 30, 5]. To explain the
antigravity phase, one can say that the body which is eclipsing breaks symmetry and
adopts a code of behavior that belongs to a negative mass. In principle, positive mass
attracts negative as well as positive mass, while negative mass repels both types of mass
[31]. If masses of negative energy existed, they would behave as unexpected way as the
Moon during a solar eclipse.

During the eclipse, the Moon interferes strongly with the Earth-Sun gravitational
connection. In an unstable equilibrium on the point of conjunction between the curvature
of the Earth which makes it its satellite and the curvature of the Sun which would make it
its satellite, the Moon would then act as a negative mass. It would repel the Earth and the
Sun which attract it: an anti-gravity disturbance detected by the pendulum on Earth. This
conclusion could be erected as a principle that we will call the "macroscopic exclusion
conjecture": The bodies which improvise themselves as a satellite around the central
celestial body can only provoke repulsion, comparable to the principle of exclusion
concerning the atom.

7 The "new" gravitational force: electro-gravitation

The equation

k e2 = Mvp x mve- 1836.1 toc (26)

16
represents the super-hydrogen atom of the universe. The proton is contained in the
nucleus, while the electron rotates around the nucleus at very high velocity in a circular
orbit [19, 23]. Mvp is 1836.1 times more massive than Me-. The number 1836.1 indicates
that the fundamental level of the hydrogen atom is in precarious equilibrium above a well
of negative energy states. Dirac proposed that the principle of exclusion of Pauli forbid to
an electron any transitions below the fundamental state because states were occupied by
an infinite sea of invisible particles of negative energy. The empty space (1836.1 toc) is
not empty. Dirac asserted that if the Pauli principle forbade transitions to the sea, nothing
prevented an upward transition of the electrons from the sea to a positive energy level.
This implies that particles and antiparticles can be created from an infinite and invisible
reservoir of negative energy. There may be annihilation (the energy of their mass is
conserved and transformed into photon), but it may also be that the negative energy
particle returns to the sea, while its antiparticle would go in the opposite direction, so
becoming a positive energy particle. There would be a continuous creation effect of
positive energy. The matter would thus be incessantly created throughout the expansion
[32].

+
{[Mop / (1 v /c ) ] [Moe- / (1 v2/c2)1/2] 1836.1 G}/ [Ro (1 v2/c2)1/2]2
2 2 1/2

+
= ke2 G / Rv2 toc = Mve- v2 G / (Rv toc). (27)

The gravitational force exerted by the proton on the electron of a hydrogen atom has the
same magnitude as the electrostatic force of the super-hydrogen atom, in which the
attraction between the positive charge of the proton and the negative charge of the
electron keeps the electron in orbit around the nucleus at a distance of the order of the
radius of the universe.

The two equations, ke2 = me- v2 Re- and ke2 = h2 / (me- Re-), are for a hydrogen atom, with
an electron that moves around a proton at an average distance of 5.29177 x 10 -11 m and at
a speed of c / 137.036. We write ke2 = Mvp x mve- 1836.1 toc = me- v2 Re- = h2 / (me- Re-).
Classical gravitational charge me- = Mvp x mve- 1836.1 toc / (v2 Re). Relativistic
gravitational charge mve- = k e2 / (Mvp 1836.1 toc). By substituting, mve- = me- v2 Re- / (Mvp
1836.1 toc), and then using me- = h2 / (ke2 Re-), we obtain mve- = h2 v2 / (ke2 Mvp 1836.1 toc).

Here we have a new aspect of gravitation. In electro-gravitation, the gravitational mass is

also called gravitational charge and proves to be the same thing as the inertial mass,
within the principle of equivalence of general relativity [19]. Consequently, the
gravitational masses have signs, as for electric charges: attraction between opposite
charges and repulsion between same charges. Thus, gravitational force is not exclusively
an attraction. Gravitation would be the electromagnetic force diluted by space-time. Two
repellent protons in a helium nucleus, separated by a fermi [33]

++ ++
F. EM = ke / [Ro (1 v /c ) ] = {G [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 toc}/ {[Ro(1 v2/c2)1/2]2 G}
2 2 2 1/2 2

17
 28)
++ ++
F. GRAV. = G [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 = ke2 G / toc. (29)

If we replace in the macrocosm the proton by a star and the electron by a body which
orbits in a circle around, we obtain the Newtonian formula of the universal gravitation in
relation to electromagnetism. Theoretical heresy? Einstein tried in vain to unify
gravitation and electromagnetism because the electromagnetic forces are proportional to
the charge and not to the mass. By assuming that gravitation is a manifestation of
electromagnetism, maybe it will be easier to bridge the gap with general relativity, which
gives a geometrical interpretation of force mathematically consistent with gravitation.

8 Variable global mass during the great expansion

8.1 Cyclical universe

The theory of Relation advocates the concept of a cyclic universe at variance with the
"increase of entropy forever", while it does not dispute that the present stars are melting
away into radiation [34]. After a sufficient time, the total entropy would reach a
maximum and the universe would be "heat death" [35], Electro-gravitation should then
pull the entire universe back towards a final "big crunch," which is the mirror image of
the initial big bang in reversed time [36]. But it is actually a forward descent that
happens, like a balloon that makes leaps. In this way, the macroscopic laws would not be
a reversal of the invariable time but a reversal of the thermodynamic time which would
go from the cold to the warm. The story of the universe would then consist of a long
journey from a big repulsive singularity to a big attractive singularity. A closed
universe that would have undergone a series of alternating cycles of compression and
expansion.

8.2 Variable mass of the universe. As the expansion expands, the overall mass of the
universe increases while the mass of the elementary particles decreases
The ordinary mass of the universe increases with expansion. M of GM / c 2 increases on a
cosmological timescale oriented towards the future. On the other hand, the mass of the
elementary particles decreases [37]. We have seen in 5.1 that the classical gravitation is
almost null at the time of Planck because its energy is entirely at potential state, in
opposition to the kinetic energy of the electromagnetic interaction. And in 5.5, that when
Mvp2 and mo, which form the kinetic energy of the universe, decrease, then Mo, which
constitutes the potential energy, grows as a gravitational mass.

With ke2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 2GMo / c2, general relativity determines the mass of the
universe at Planck time; Mo = 2.26 x 10-8 kg. With ke2 = Mvp2 toc = Mvp2 h / moc, the de
Broglie wave which travels at speed of light, like its particle, determines the boson
"intrinsic" mass (or the non-rest mass corresponding to kinetic energy or energy of
motion); mo = 2.09 x 10-8 kg. The mass of Planck 2.1768 x 10-8 kg is, in fact, the average
of these two distinct masses (Momo.)1/2; the former grows with the expansion to become
the mass of the current universe, while the latter diminishes to become the boson of the
present space-time. It is quite clear that during the expansion the mass of the elementary

18
particles decreases in an order of magnitude ~1060 and that the global mass of the
universe increases by the same order of magnitude.

At Planck's time (h / c = 3.5177 x 10 -43 s), the mass of the "baryon-proton" Mvp is ~ 1.479
x 103 kg. Mvp2 shapes a boson worth ~2.17 x 106 kg. The inverse of this number gives ~
4.608 x 10-7 kg, which is near the mass (Mo = 2.26 x 10-8 kg) of the universe at Planck
time. The assessed mass of this boson for the current universe is worth (2.2439 x 10 -27
kg)2 = 5.035 x 10-54 kg. The inverse of this number gives ~1.986 x 10 53 kg, which is close
to the overall mass of the current universe (~3.08 x 1052 kg). Some will see a coincidence
in these numbers, where we see a connection, i.e., a coincidence that is not a coincidence.

Let us stress that the mass of the proton (or electron) is a universal constant which
remains invariant whatever the epoch. What changes with expansion is not the naked
mass, it is the electromagnetic energy that forms a solid mantle; this mantle gets rid of his
threads throughout the time to wrap and increase the gravitational mass. In equations (7)
and (8), {Mop [(1 / (1 v2/c2)1/2) 1]} and Mp represent the kinetic energy which
envelopes the rest mass of the elementary particle.

8.3 As the expansion progresses, the atomic dimensions raise at the rate of the mass
of the elementary particles which diminishes
On a cosmological time scale from the beginning towards the current age, the masses of
all the elementary particles would have decreased while the atomic dimensions would
have enhanced. The mass of an atom decreases with time, but its electric charge remains
the same. As a result, electrons should orbit farther and farther from the atomic nucleus.
The electrons would reach lower energy levels, which would require a lower energy input
to dislodge them; conversely, a smaller amount of energy would be released when an
electron falls into an internal orbit. The radiation emitted by a current atom would be less
energetic and would have a wavelength longer than that of an atom of the past.

A body traveling a spatial length in the empty space would undergo this effect coming
from that electromagnetic space itself whose wavelength increases with distance. And
paradoxically, according to the principle of Compensation of the theory of Relation, this
same body would undergo the effect of the global increase of the universe. This is what
would explain the Pioneer anomaly. The difference between the observed trajectory and
the expected trajectory of a number of not piloted space probes traveling outside the solar
system or on its margins, especially the Pioneer 10 and 11 probes, would be caused by
the space-time which undergoes inertia (decrease of vacuum energy) for the benefit of an
increase in classic gravitation. This has allowed measuring a tiny but constant
deceleration of the order of (8.74 1,33) 10-10 ms-2, as a blue-shift for probes [9].

8.4 Cosmic past

Within a great contraction, the galaxies approach each other by accelerating. Inside the
galaxies takes place the phenomenon of the shrinkage of the atomic dimensions while the
masses of the elementary particles increase. The electrons should orbit more and more
near the atomic nucleus and attain higher energy levels, which would require a higher
energy input to expel them. More energy would be released when an electron falls into an

19
internal orbit; the radiation emitted by such an atom would be more energetic and would
have a wavelength shorter than that of a current atom.

With the equation

k e2 Mvp2 toc or k e2 Mvp2 , (30)

we can have a mathematical look back into the cosmic past. If the universe was
contracting, the velocities of the protons-galaxies (Mvp2) would be reversed, so that the
wavelength of the space-time wave (toc) would decrease and mass of the protons-galaxies
would increase. Particle and wave are equivalent and interchangeable, as are mass and
energy [38, 20]. The gravitational energy is then transformed into an electromagnetic
energy.

This suggests that in distant galaxies, presumed old, the atoms that emitted light would
have been smaller than the atoms of the present galaxies. The wavelength of this light
would be shorter and this light would be less red than that produced by the same atoms in
a terrestrial laboratory. The cosmological redshift could be explained in terms of
shrinkage of atoms and of the ensuing weaker reddening of light [37].

In 1998, two independent teams of astrophysicists, relying on the observation of distant

type 1a supernovae, announced that the expansion of the universe did not slow down as
previously thought, but was accelerating. We have already expressed our disagreement
with this interpretation [9, 39]. First, because the determination of spatial distances in the
universe is extremely imprecise. In fact, it is inconsistent to establish a link between the
analysis of supernovae observations that belong to galaxies animated by movements
governed by unknown equations (galaxies sometimes attracted to a galactic center, others
towards the outside) and an acceleration of the expansion of space that cosmologists are
unable to describe. Secondly, because it could quite possibly be a case involving the
assumption of temporal distances. Seeing far into space still means seeing early,
according to the theory of Relation. These supernovae turned out to be less luminous and
more distant than what could be deduced from their redshift because they accelerate
towards the origin.

9 Spontaneous breaking of symmetry and variation of masses

In the equation

ke2 Mvp2 toc Mvp2 h /moc Mvp2 2GMo / c2, (31)

the arrow indicates the direction towards the future of the great cosmic expansion. The
global mass Mo grows while the mass Mvp2 and mo of the particles lessen.

This relation between the standard model of cosmology (that of the big bang) and that of
particle physics gives close exchanges between these two models, what establishes a
maximum fundamental state of matter counterbalanced by a fundamental state of

20
minimum energy for space-time. The boson Mvp2 can be amalgamated to a scalar boson of
zero mass of a scalar field forming part of a global symmetry of the space-time
continuum. The bosons would be like marbles in the channel (the bottom) of a Mexican
hat. It is the true vacuum, that of the fundamental state of minimum global energy in
which the field of matter does not nullify: the marbles can roll into the trench without
energy spending [40].

But this symmetry at the level of the equation can sometimes be broken at the level of the
solutions. Under the effect of uncontrollable fluctuations (thermal, quantum, etc.), the
dynamics of a system with some symmetry temporarily reaches a state that does not have
this symmetry. One can invoke this spontaneous symmetry breaking mechanism as well
at the microscopic level -- such as the Higgs mechanism in electro-weak unification
than at the macroscopic level, like the Allais anomaly.

When the broken symmetry is a local symmetry, the arrows in the equation are
momentarily inverted

ke2 Mvp2 toc Mvp2 h / moc Mvp2 2GMo / c2, (32)

which implies a drop in energy in the form of matter (gravitational) in favor of energy in
the form of radiation. The particles of Mo become null while the boson Mvp2 and mo
behave like marbles in the channel which are going to settle down at the top of the hat in
unstable equilibrium. They are in a state of false vacuum with a higher local energy,
which causes the emergence of the masses of the intermediate bosons of the electroweak
unification. Mo takes back its mass when the marbles run in the continuum of stable
minimum state of energy.

A similar mechanism would apply to the Allais effect, discussed in section 6.4. The
eclipse acts as an intermittent cosmological constraint that triggers a phase transition
mechanism. The pendulum detects disturbances that sometimes indicate a drop in gravity
sometimes a rise. Either a kind of antigravity, as if the marbles were hoisted at the top of
the hat (mass Mo decreases) in unstable equilibrium; Or a kind of over-gravity, as if they
were descending to a lower level by piercing the channel, with lower energy and more
gravity (mass Mo increases) [29, 30, 5].

10 Energy, matter and expansion

The cosmological time of this space-time is coming from the kinetic energy of protons. It
is an indicator of the energy propagated at the speed of light. The element "t oc" refers to a
radius from the center point of a sphere created by the initial great boom (in this case, the
Planck length of the Planck sphere, but it may shrink going towards the absolute zero.)
Probably due to an earlier big crush, the universe began in a "cosmic fireball" and the
proton was nothing else than a gigantic kinetic energy. This garnered energy is
electromagnetic and by parting from the barrier c, the inertia of the particle began to
fall vertiginously. When the speed went down to 99.999 % of the speed of light, its
mass was not more than the rest mass multiplied by 500. The decreased speed of a

21
thousandth entailed a division by two of the kinetic energy, and the expansion of the
latter served more and more to decrease the speed. The proton, as a grain of quantum
matter, is quickly emptied of most of its kinetic energy, and its rate of expansion for the
present universe would be rendered to 2/3c or 200 000 km/s. Its relativized mass is
2.2439 x 10-27 kg. The deceleration decreased inertia and moves closer to its rest mass.

The equation theoretically binds energy to matter via the expansionist space-time at the
speed of light. It transforms electromagnetic kinetic energy into gravitational mass, by
considering the latter as a potential energy. Such a transformation, inconceivable in the
modern physics, tidies up in two well-separated categories, the mass connected to the
material world and the energy associated with the immateriality. According to the
equation, the same quantity of energy which decreases since the era of Planck, on one
side, and the same quantity of matter which increases by the other one. Such a
dichotomy is made in the context of two structures: the structure of the expansion for
the kinetic energy which decreases with cosmological time, and the structure of
condensation which increases over the same cosmological time to become the present
universe [16].

Thus in equation (4) [ ke2 = Mvp2 () toc], Mvp2 decreases and toc increases. In the
equation written in the form (3) [ ke2 = [Mop / (1 v2/c2)1/2]2 () toc], the increase of
quantum mass obtained by the relativization, or the Lorentz transformation, going from
v2 to c2, is nothing else than the huge kinetic energy of the universe when it began in a
"cosmic fireball."

The energy expanded creating space-time, and cooled. We can see this freezing in the
formula in two ways because there are two speeds. First, the decrease of the speed of
"Mvp2" cause a gradual drop in the temperature and a slowing down of the rate of
expansion falls, and a concomitant increase in the gravity. These fermions, a priori in a
state of radiation, were at their maximum speed until around 300,000 years. The
decoupling of matter from radiation took place when the velocity passed under c. Second,
the velocity c of the electromagnetic wavelength of space-time: When the universe
became the one of today, T and density of radiation were reduced; "t oc" transports some
less energetic bosons, each second contains less energy-event, and the universe as a
whole does not significantly change at every second.

Our model is able to give regions of the observable universe the time to exchange heat
since the big bang. Thermal equilibrium would have had time to settle and temperatures
to become uniform. This allows us to refute the inflation phase at the beginning (with a
factor of expansion and contraction of space of at least e 55), the proposed solution to solve
the problem of causally separated regions.

According to the equation, the kinetic energy can be converted into time. Conversely,
time can become kinetic energy. With relativity, mass and energy have been found to be
interchangeable; now mass, energy and time can be considered as different
manifestations of the same physical quantity. In this regard, time is a container of energy
and has a mass. The electro-gravitational wave carries energy.

22
This radial movement is an electromagnetic wave. We can say that the radius of space-
time belongs to the family of electromagnetic waves; the wavelength is the radius (~10 26
m) of the universe and the period (~10 l7 s) is its age. Like in Maxwell`s electromagnetic
theory of light, the wave of space-time is a wave of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields propagating in space [41]. We can call it an electro-gravitational wave or
electromagnetic wave of space-time. It carries energy and momentum. In fact, it is the
stationary electromagnetic wave, or the "background" radiation at 2.7 K, or the energy
of the empty space. The ratio between space-time wavelength and cosmic gamma rays
wavelength is (1026 m / 10-14 m) 1040.

11 Electromagnetic energy, space-time and entropy

The idea embodied in the equation "ke2 = Mvp2 toc" is that the energy-mass is transformed
in space-time. Space-time becomes a part of physics based on the conservation of energy,
rather than an arena in which that physics takes place. The way in which the
transformations work in the equation reveals that electricity, energy-matter, space-time,
are inextricably linked, and should be regarded as forming our universe in a four-
dimensional continuum. It implies that the principle of conservation of electricity is as
important that the principle of conservation of energy [42]. The charges keep always their
contents during the transformation energy-matter-space-time.

The first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy, is quantitative and

considers the time as a simple "duration", while the second principle is qualitative and
involves the flow idea. The passage of time is irreversible as much as the expansion is
irreversible and suggests a finished past [17]. The second law of thermodynamics says
that entropy never decreases for an isolated system. The universe as a whole has the
character of an isolated system, and the law of entropy which grows in the time provides
the arrow toward the future.

The growth of entropy characterizes the degradation of energy. The processes

transformers of one form of energy into another are also irreversible (we are always
going from "hot" to "cold".) Entropy can be written in the thermodynamic form S = Q /
T (Q: quantity of heat given to a system; T: absolute temperature) [43, 44, 38]. If a
quantity of heat does not change, and T decreases, S increases, meaning that the
preservation of the quality of the energy quantities is not preserved.

We can make the equivalence with our equation:

ke2 / dMp2 dtoc

Q / dT dS. (33)

The term ke2 contains the quantity of heat, the total energy of the isolated system; M vp2 is
rest mass + T, and toc contains entropy of the empty space-time. The latter is not a

23
vacuum but actually a plenum of particles and antiparticles being created and annihilated
[32].

With time, the total entropy of the isolated system goes up moving toward a state of
maximum probability. The variation of entropy is positive because the system receives
heat. If we take the relation Q = M c o To (Q: quantity of heat. M: mass. c o: specific heat.
To: temperature), S = Q / To = M co To / T = M co = to c. We may say that space-time toc
possess a mass with a specific heat M co.

However, the energy cannot come down indefinitely. It will reach the last level of the
availability and will have no more transformation capacity [43, 34]. The universe would
then undergo a re-contraction in accordance with the closed model of Friedmann-
Lemaitre in which space is finite and of positive curvature, and in which the expansion is
decelerating.

12 Inflationary aberration

12.1 Accelerated expansion

The observation says that the expansion of the universe is almost offset by the gravity
exerted by all matter. The universe dilates at a singular speed close to the critical line that
separates the big freeze universe of the big crunch universe. We are very close to a point
of balance between expansion and gravity. If all the energy released by the big bang was
lower of a tiny fraction, the matter would return back and would collapse into a giant
black hole. If it were slightly stronger, the matter would disperse so quickly that galaxies
could not even form.

Although the world seems near its critical point, making it impossible to determine with
certainty what will be its evolution, the provisional consensus is that the universe will end
in big freeze, because it was found that the expansion was going by accelerating. It is
postulated that there is some unknown energy that annoys gravity and causes the
accelerated expansion of the universe. Einstein called the "cosmological constant" that
element which could counteract the contraction caused by gravity. Rejected, then restored
it is now called "dark energy". One might think officially, since 1998, that dark energy
exerts a negative pressure which has the effect of causing the acceleration of the universe.
But it turns out that the interpretation as much as the facts are inconclusive.

12.2 1a Supernovae
We have questioned (section 8.4) the interpretation of observational data in mid-1990 of
type 1a supernovae (SNe 1a). By measuring with unequaled precision the remains of
fourteen supernovae at distances varying between 7 and 10 billion light years,
astronomers discovered that the light coming from them was 50% dimmer than it
should have been according to the estimates of their distances. They interpreted the
dimness as evidence that the supernovae were 10 to 15% farther away than they
should have been if the expansion of the universe was slowing down. [7] The
calculations obtained by the Hubble space telescope, then by telescopes located in
Hawaii, Australia and Chile, were published in 1998 [45]. They too easily ruled out the
criticisms which underline the decrease of the radiant energy by absorption

24
(interstellar dust absorbs light that becomes bland), or something of the evolutionary
process of the supernovae that has been misunderstood [39]. It has been suggested
that the "inflection point" where the rate of expansion has ceased to decline and
begin to rise under the effect of dark energy would have occurred some 5 to 8
billion years ago. Others believe that the expansion has started to speed up over 1.5
billion years ago. The acceleration of the universe has been confirmed as were the
Ptolemy epicycles in the past.

12.3 Cosmological blunder

We believe that the basic rules of cosmology were truncated to the point of creating a
cosmological anachronism. Previous to the estimation of recessions exceeding c, the
radial flight of the galaxies was interpreted as a process translating a general expansion
of space. It has often been proposed as an example of the expansion of the space that of
a rubber balloon on the surface of which are stuck confetti which represent the galaxies.
If the balloon is inflated, its surface is stretched and the confetti are moving away from
each other with an apparent speed which is increased in so far as the radius of the
balloon is growing. In space-time, "length" may refer to temporal length as well as
spatial length. So we can receive the radiations emitted in the distant past by a system
that reached speeds close to c, to which the expansion of space-time gives an apparent
flight velocity greater than c. This way of thinking seems long gone because it involves
the center the universe [7, 43]. However, our equation claims this center of the
universe. In the expression Mvp2, or [Mop/(1 v2/c2)1/2]2, of our equation, the speed v is
almost c, if not c, at the beginning, then decreases as the space-time is created. There is
not an alternative. The expansion continues, the clusters of galaxies into which matter
is distributed, are becoming more widely separated, but the rate of expansion also
continues to decline from c towards 0.

In astronomy, telescopes are machines to go back in time. To see far into space, we
must see far in time. Further we see, weaker we see. The more a galaxy is distant,
the more it moves quickly toward the big bang, primordial explosion which gave
rise to the expanding universe [7]. Conversely, it decelerates as it gets closer to us
[46]. But since 1998, the film of the history of the universe upside down until his
first picture seems an anachronism. See far, which means see "sooner", became
"later" with the telescopes. The cosmologists concluded that the more supernovae
appear pale, the more galaxies recede from each other and accelerate towards tomorrow,
towards the big freeze.

With this different astronomical vision, fundamentally spatial, whose velocity v

starts from 0 to increase towards c, the flight of galaxies is today construed as a
process of acceleration of isolated systems relative to other isolated systems. For
theorists, it is as if, undeniably, the galaxies were moving away from each other
with speeds which are all the greater in that the distance between them is itself
larger. There are galaxies which recede from us at a speed close to ninety-five percent
of that of light. Based on the Doppler effect of emission-line quasars, some redshifts are
so important that in applying the Hubble formula, they display some radial velocities
such as our galaxy and the quasars seem to be moving apart from each other at speeds

25
exceeding the speed of light. No matter if, in the first place, a source of radiation that
would exceed the speed of propagation of light, would necessarily be invisible since, in
second place, the farce of the epicycles of inflation, that continues to accelerate the
universe, will necessarily render it hyperbolic [43].

12.4 Relativity with inflationary sauce

With relativity, the center is everywhere in the universe, which means that there is no
real center. Strong with this a priori which excludes the irreversible time (and
sometimes time itself), the reasoning of the modern astronomers led to this: the
observer that I am and that I perceive as being at rest on Earth is part of a galaxy is,
from that point of view, also in movement with a speed of expansion where there comes
a time when it will be higher than the speed of light [18]. No matter the objection in
principle of special relativity.

Since there is no center of the universe, one would think that the explanation according
to which the radial escape of galaxies is the consequence of the initial explosion could
not be retained. To explain the big bang, on the contrary, one will become Copernican
again, and one will make general relativity to assert that space expands faster than light,
because space represents neither matter nor energy. Which is senseless, because to
explain the flatness of the present universe, Alan Guth suggested that the universe had
ended up in a "false vacuum" at the time of the era of G.U.T. (10 -35 s), and this excited
state would look like an empty space, but filled with energy. In general relativity, the
energy and pressure are sources of gravitation, and a negative pressure causes a
gravitational repulsion. This repulsive effect would have provoked a period of
exponentially accelerated expansion. The universe would have swollen to the size of the
present universe. Around 10 -32 s, the false vacuum would de-excited towards the true
vacuum, the flatness, and all the energy of the false vacuum would have been released
in the form of particles and heat. The universe would have restarted with a dark energy
that would have made the flat space [32].

Apart depreciate relativity by making it appear that the false vacuum energy did not
contain energy whereas the high expansion rate of the latter exceeded the speed of light,
the theory of inflation brings an insoluble problem for the multiple theories of inflation:
a dark energy that would contain the infinite kinetic energy, essential to the evolution of
the hyperbolic universe, and that would have a density of 10 122 times greater than that
found in the empty space [45].

12.5 Cosmological constant: 10122 or 10~0

The experimental indications of a positive value for the cosmological constant also come
from independent measurements of primordial density fluctuations observed in the
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). The raw data from the experiences of scientific
teams WMAP, COBE, Boomerang, and Maxima which have performed measurements
on the fluctuations of CMB radiation favor the model of inflation. Inflation is a model
produced from the high-energy physics, according to which the universe would have
recorded, in the first fractions of a second of its evolution, a wildly high expansion rate,
so that space would have become flat [45]. The teams concluded that the total density
parameter (tot) was = 1 for a Euclidean universe. Both methods (supernovae and
26
CMB) suggest that m (m: matter) is close to 0.3 and that it is needed to get to a flat
universe, to add a contribution = 0.7, coming from a cosmological constant with a
positive value. The cosmological constant plays the role of an energy density. Its value
can be expressed in the same units as the density of matter, for example in grams per
cubic centimeter. The factor is convenient for assess the contribution of the
cosmological constant to the total density of the universe.

However, in the present situation, even though everyone seems to agree on the existence
of a cosmological constant, its value deducted from astronomy is absolutely not
compatible with that calculated by theoretical physicists. Several models are possible to
calculate the value of within the framework of the theories of unification, but the
predicted value in most cases is 10122 times superior to the limits prescribed by
astronomical observation. Dark energy should be very dense, which is the opposite of the
density of the vacuum.

12.6 Astrophysical calculations just for laughs

The dominant cosmology, starting from the cosmic microwave background radiation,
considers that the big bang occurred about 13.8 billion years ago. That is an obvious
dilemma since astronomers observe stars older than the universe [46]. In 1995, they had
already observed them with the Hubble Space Telescope. Estimates from observations
dating back to 2000 placed the star HD 140283, which lies a mere 190 light years from
Earth in the constellation of Libra, as old as 16 billion years. In 2013, it seems this star,
nicknamed Methuselah, was 14.46 billion years old. Astronomers (Howard Bond, of
Pennsylvania State University and the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore)
were puzzled because it seems the star was still older than the universe itself. Of course,
they add a margin of 800 million years, meaning that the star might actually be 13.7
billion years old, barely younger than the universe as it is currently understood. If that
pattern continues, we can expect to observe some clusters of "galaxies older than the
universe" to complete the picture of the problem of "stars older than the universe" [47].

12.7 Inflation lobby

There is no question to minimize the importance of data collected by the experiments
since never observational cosmology has reached such precision. But the bundle of more
or less plausible assumptions to extract the cosmological parameters from observational
data, error bars to calculate a range of angular spectra of CMB fluctuations which are
then compared to the observed spectrum, the adjustment "at best" of various parameters
that can be deduced, have left the door open to biased analyses and interpretations that
should have been taken with much more caution.

For some silent scientist, the fine analysis of the angular fluctuation spectrum rather
suggests that the maximum likelihood is 1.2 . The experimental balance would tip in
favor of a spherical space, finite volume, although in a large radius of curvature, and ever
expanding thanks to the cosmological constant. However, the lobby of inflation,
strengthened by the fact that = 1 is consistent with the data of four scientific teams,
focused its efforts towards the scenario of a spectrum of fluctuations caused by inflation.
The goal is to find the worst adjustments between various cosmological parameters which

27
would give <1. The model of inflation has played in cosmology for over half a century
the role of an original concept which became an orthodox thought. Disguised under the
noble term of paradigm, it would have exercised a real intellectual terrorism to any
opposite thought [45].

13 Energy, velocity and cosmological constant

According to the theory of Relation [9] that we stand for, based on the dynamic equation
of quantum cosmology, and consistent with the big bang and the scenario of the
decelerated expansion, the kinetic energy of the beginning (amalgamated with negative
energy and dark energy) creates not only space-time but also ordinary matter, and
therefore the macroscopic gravity. Given the brute force of the big bang, the energy
released at the time of creation of the universe was immeasurable. Given the brute force
of the big bang, the energy released at the time of creation of the universe was
immeasurable. From the first minutes, the expansion quickly converted most of this
energy into ordinary matter. The energy of the primordial proton was at first moved at
speed of light which has the value c. With speeds approaching that of light, we get a
Planck time (10-43 s) and a relativized proton has a mass of 10 3 kg, which is a
fundamentally new value in physics. Then the speed decreased gradually as the energy
spread and turned into matter as we know it.

Since galaxies are moving away at a constant speed estimated 200 000 km / s, the
cosmological time is about 15 billion light years and the relativized proton weighs 2.2439
x 10-27 kg, according to results given by the formula above. It appears that 2/3c is the
speed where there is no longer a deceleration (from c to 2/3c) observable. It would
be close to the critical point where there seems to be an extraordinary coincidence
between gravity and expansion. A speed of 100 000 km/s would give about 26 billion
light years. The proton would then have exhausted its kinetic energy, reached its rest
mass and the universe would seem moved by a movement at zero speed.

Certainly, a general dilation of the space-time would be unverifiable because we

undergo it ourselves. Unless the solution is included in the cosmological constant
(density measurement). The kinetic energy of the proton, which poured his energy into
creating the space-time of our universe, is assimilated to a negative cosmological
constant and a dark energy. It comes into play in larger scales and affects the expansion
of the universe. It decreased by nearly 100%, from 10 122 to around 10 ~0 at the present
time. Because of the decreasing rate of speed, the universe expands more slowly. The
kinetic energy acts as a positive pressure gas that binds the galaxies and slows the
expansion. It exercises a tension which retains and brings things together, at the same
time it spreads in the manner of a stretched elastic. It causes the deceleration of the
universe [16, 18].

Our equation is the first to include the irreversible time. During this time, energy
constitutes a variable field, very high in the phases of the primordial universe, in
agreement with the calculations of physicists, but which falls very low during cosmic
evolution, in accordance with the value now measured by astronomers. Dark energy (or

28
cosmological constant) would be a "tired" energy. Bear in mind to not confuse the tired
dark light with the tired white light, which stipulates that the light could have been
energetically degraded and thus redshifted, during his trip through space intergalactic.
However, although the light undergoes the redshifts under the influence of the Doppler
effect due to the recession velocity of distant galaxies, there is no evidence that today
allows to permanently eliminate the theory of tired light [37]. The theory of Relation,
which combines the degraded dark light of the structure of the expansion with the shifted
white light of the condensation structure, is part of the big bang theory.

We get a model of the universe that has the "temporal" behavior of closed models (in
expansion-contraction), and which has the "spatial" behavior of spatially finite models. It
can be likened to the oscillatory universe of Einstein-Tolman (1931), the Euclidean
model of Einstein-de Sitter (1932), or the closed Friedmann-model (1922) [45, 48].

14 Conclusion

The equation [ke2 = Mvp2 () toc] of the theory of Relation seems to be the mathematical
confirmation of the standard big bang theory, in which all the energy-matter began in an
instant of time in a colossal explosion, expanding the universe at its maximum rate, then
a gradually decreasing rate slowed by gravitational attraction, giving now a sphere of
radius near 15 billion light years. The formula distinguishes three kinds of masses:
fermionic, bosonic, matter of the universe. And it introduces a cosmological time at the
core of a physics that has never made the essential distinction between past and future. A
cosmologic, thermodynamics "space-time", going from the past to future, joins
electromagnetism, Newtonian gravitation, special relativity, general relativity, and
quantum physics. This relationship holds for any state of mass-energy in "irreversible"
time. We can find the state of the fermion in relation with the exact moving mass of the
boson, and with the state of the universe. It is consistent with the theory of Yukawa [20,
49] postulating that there is an infinity of particles corresponding to an infinity of
possible states of the matter, and with the idea of supersymmetry interchanging fermions
with bosons, and vice versa. In this way, this equation of quantum cosmology is God`s
Formula [35].

29
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