A test tube, also known as a culture tube or sample tube, is a common piece of laboratory

glassware consisting of a finger-like length of glass or clear plastic tubing, open at the top,
usually with a rounded U-shaped bottom. A large test tube designed specifically for boiling
liquids is called a boiling tube.

Test tubes are available in a multitude of lengths and widths, typically from 10 to 20 mm wide
and 50 to 200 mm long.[1] The top often features a flared lip to aid pouring out the contents; some
sources consider that the presence of a lip is what distinguishes a test tube from a culture tube.[2]
Some test tubes have a flat bottom; some are made so as to accept a ground glass stopper or a
screw cap. They are often provided with a small ground glass or white glaze area near the top for
labeling with a pencil.

Uses

Louis Lumière with a microscope and some test tubes.

Test tubes are widely used by chemists to hold, mix, or heat small quantities of solid or liquid
chemicals, especially for qualitative experiments and assays. Their round bottom and straight
sides minimize mass loss when pouring, make them easier to clean, and allow convenient
monitoring of the contents. The long, narrow neck slows down the spreading of vapors and gases
to the environment.

A test tube filled with water and upturned into a water-filled beaker is often used to capture
gases, e.g. in electrolysis demonstrations.

Culture tubes are often used in biology for handling and culturing all kinds of live organisms,
such as molds, bacteria, seedlings, plant cuttings, etc.; and in medicine and forensics to store
samples of blood or other fluids.

A test tube with a stopper is often used for temporary storage of chemical or biological samples.

Test tubes are usually held in special-purpose racks, clamps, or tongs. Some racks for culture
tubes are designed to hold the tubes in a nearly horizontal position, so as to maximize the surface
of the culture medium inside.
Test tubes are sometimes put to casual uses outside of lab environments, e.g. as flower vases or
containers for spices.

[edit] Manufacture

Eight cavity test tube mold courtesy of Lake Charles Manufacturing.

Test tubes for physics and chemistry are usually made of glass for better resistance to heat and
corrosive chemicals and longer life. Tubes made from expansion-resistant glasses, such as
borosilicate glass, can be placed directly over a Bunsen burner flame.

Culture tubes for biology are usually made of clear plastic (such as polystyrene or
polypropylene) by injection molding [3] and are often discarded after use.

[edit] References

Test tube
Two small test tubes in a test tube rack Other names Culture tube Uses Chemical reaction
Related items Vacutainer
Boiling tube

Centrifuge tube
 A
n Erlenmeyer, commonly known as a conical or E-Spot, is a widely used type of laboratory
flask which features a flat, conical body, and a cylindrical neck. It's named after the German
chemist Emil Erlenmeyer, who created it in 1861.

The Erlenmeyer is usually marked on the side (graduated) to indicate the approximate volume of
contents, and has a spot of ground glass or enamel where it can be labeled with a pencil. It differs
from the beaker in its tapered body and narrow neck.
Original drawing of the Erlenmeyer flask.

The opening usually has slight rounded lips so that the Erlenmeyer can be easily stoppered using
a piece of cotton wool. Alternatively, the neck may be fitted with a female ground glass joint to
accept a glass stopper. The conical shape allows the contents to be swirled or stirred during an
experiment, either by hand or by a shaker; the narrow neck keeps the contents from spilling out.
The smaller neck also slows evaporative loss better than a bigger neck. The flat bottom of the
conical makes it unlikely to tip over and spill.

[edit] Uses

Conical flask used in a Titration setup.

Erlenmeyers are used in chemistry labs for titration, especially of pH.

Erlenmeyer flasks are often used to heat liquids, e.g. with a Bunsen burner. For that purpose, the
flask is usually placed on a ring held to a ring stand by means of a ring clamp. A wire gauze
mesh or pad is usually placed between the ring and the flask to prevent the flames from directly
touching the glass. An alternative way to set up the apparatus is to hold the flask by the neck
with a test tube clamp fixed to the stand.

If the flask is to be heated in an oil or water bath, a 'C' shaped lead or iron weight may be placed
over the conical part of the flask to prevent it from floating in the bath.

Erlenmeyers are also used in microbiology for the preparation of microbial cultures. Plastic
Erlenmeyer flasks used in cell culture are pre-sterilized and feature closures and vented closures
to enhance gas exchange during incubation and shaking.

An iron clamp is a piece of laboratory equipment used to hold things and is placed in an iron stand to
elevate other equipment.
 An iron ring is attached to a ring stand and is used to support laboratory equipment above the work
surface. Wire gauze is placed on top of the iron ring to support beakers and flasks when heating them. A
clay triangle is placed on top of the iron ring to support a crucible when it is being heated.
top

Ring Stand
Used in many lab activities as the support for other apparatus.

Iron Ring
Often attached to ring stand to use as support for a beaker.

edicine dropper-used to tube measuring administrating liquid

by drop.
Clay triangle is used to hold a crucible while the crucible is heated.

Crucible tongs are welded steel tools used to lift a hot crucible from a furnace or for other items you
may not want to handle with your hands. Crucible tongs may also be used to prevent any inaccuracies
regarding mass measurements as any moisture or oil will affect the readings and accuracy.

A crucible is used to hold small amounts of chemicals during heating at high temperatures. The
lid covers the bowl so nothing escapes, or to keep oxygen out of the reaction.

See the related questions and links below for more information

se and variations
Pipettes are commonly used in molecular biology as well as medical tests. Pipettes come in
several designs for various purposes with differing levels of accuracy and precision, from single
piece glass pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes. Many pipettes types work
by creating a partial vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this
vacuum to draw up and dispense.

Pipettes that dispense between 1 and 1000 μl are termed micropipettes, while macropipettes
dispense a greater volume of liquid. Two types of micropipettes are generally used: air-
displacement pipettes and positive-displacement pipettes. In particular, piston-driven air-
displacement pipettes are micropipettes which dispense an adjustable volume of liquid from a
disposable tip. The pipette body contains a plunger, which provides the suction to pull liquid into
the tip when the piston is compressed and released. The maximum displacement of the plunger is
set by a dial on the pipette body, allowing the delivery volume to be changed. Whereas for larger
volumes cylindrical pipettes, such as volumetric or graduated pipettes are used and driven by a
pipette aid.

[edit] Piston-driven air displacement pipettes

Single-Channel Pipettes designed to handle 1-5ml and 100-1000µl with locking system
Main article: Air displacement pipette

These pipettes are the most precise and accurate type of pipette, they operate by piston-driven air
displacement. A vacuum is generated by the vertical travel of a metal or ceramic piston within an
airtight sleeve. As the piston moves upward, driven by the depression of the plunger, a vacuum is
created in the space left vacant by the piston. Air from the tip rises to fill the space left vacant,
and the tip air is then replaced by the liquid, which is drawn up into the tip and thus available for
transport and dispensing elsewhere. These micropipette were invented and patented 1960 by Dr.
Hanns Schmitz (Marburg/ Germany). Afterwards, the co-founder of the biotechnology company
eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and initiated the global and general use of
micropipettes in labs. In 1972, the adjustable micropipette was invented at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison by several people , primarily inventor Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy,
hence one of the bigger producers is the original company called Gilson Inc., as a result they are
colloquially referred to as Gilsons [1] [2].

A graduated cylinder is a piece of laboratory glassware used to accurately measure out volumes of
chemicals for use in reactions. They are generally more accurate and precise for this purpose than
beakers or erlenmeyer flasks, although not as precise as a volumetric flask or volumetric pipet. They
come in a variety of sizes for different volumes, typically 10 mL, 25 mL, 50 mL, or 100 mL and up to as
large as 1 or 2 liters.

A separatory funnel, also known as separation funnel, separating funnel, or colloquially sep
funnel, is a piece of laboratory glassware used in liquid-liquid extractions to separate (partition)
the components of a mixture between two immiscible solvent phases of different densities.
Typically, one of the phases will be aqueous, and the other a non-polar lipophilic organic solvent
such as ether, MTBE, dichloromethane, chloroform, or ethyl acetate. Most organic solvents float
on top of an aqueous phase, though important exceptions are most halogenated solvents.

A separating funnel has the shape of a cone surmounted by a hemisphere. It has a stopper at the
top and stopcock (tap), at the bottom. Separating funnels used in laboratories are typically made
from borosilicate glass and their stopcocks are made from glass or PTFE. Typical sizes are
between 50 mL and 3 L. In industrial chemistry they can be much bigger and for much larger
volumes centrifuges are used.
To use a separatory funnel, the two phases and the mixture to be separated in solution are added
through the top with the stopcock at the bottom closed. The funnel is then closed and shaken
gently by inverting the funnel multiple times; if the two solutions are mixed together too
vigorously emulsions will form. The funnel is then inverted and the tap carefully opened to
release excess vapor pressure. The separating funnel is set aside to allow for the complete
separation of the phases. The top and the bottom tap are then opened and the two phases are
released by gravitation.

A graduated cylinder, also known as a measuring cylinder, is a piece of laboratory equipment

used to accurately measure the volume of an object. Water displacement can be used to find out
the volume of an object. Graduated cylinders are generally more accurate and precise for this
purpose than flasks and beakers. Often, the largest graduated cylinders are made of
polypropylene for its excellent chemical resistance or polymethylpentene for its clarity, making
them lighter to ship and less fragile than glass. Polypropylene cylinders have excellent chemical
high resistance and do not shatter when dropped, although one problem with this type of cylinder
is that it can not be heated. Polypropylene is easy to repeatedly autoclave (sterilize); however,
autoclaving of some polypropylene graduated cylinders may affect their accuracy.

[hide]
v • d • e
Laboratory eq

Glass rods are sometimes used as stirrers in laboratory environments.

Glass rods are often used to spread liquids evenly onto something. A example would be to coat
glass surfaces with liquids to look at them under a microscope.

Glass rods rubbed with silk or fur were used in early demonstrations of electrical energy

thermometer (from the Greek θερμός (thermo) meaning "warm" and meter, "to measure") is a
device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of different principles.
A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury
thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with temperature, plus some means of
converting this physical change into a value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer).
Thermometers increasingly use electronic means to provide a digital display or input to a
computer.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Primary and secondary thermometers

 2 Temperature
 3 Early history
 4 Calibration
  5 Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility
 6 Uses
o 6.1 Other types of thermometers
 7 See also

Evaporating Dish The Evaporating Dish is used to heat and evaporate liquids.

Gauze was traditionally woven in Palestine and the etymology of the English word derives from
the place name for Gaza (Arabic: ‫ غزة‬ghazza), a center of weaving in the region.[1][2] Despite a
prohibition on trade with non-Christians from religious authorities in medieval Europe, a fine
type of silk known as gazzatum was imported from Gaza as early as the 13th century.[3] Though
members of religious orders in Europe were forbidden to wear it, the fabric won a place for itself
and emerged into modern life as gauze.[3] Hence also the French: gaze, and the Spanish: gasa.[4]

[edit] Uses and types

Gauze was originally made of silk and was used for clothing. It is now used for many different
things, including gauze sponges for medical purposes. When used as a medical dressing, gauze is
generally made of cotton. It is especially useful for dressing wounds where other fabrics might
stick to the burn or laceration. Many modern medical gauzes are covered with a plastic porous
film such as Telfa or a polyblend which prevents direct contact and further minimizes wound
adhesion. In film and theatre, gauze is often fashioned into a scrim.

Modern gauze is also made of synthetic fibers, especially when used in clothing. It can also be
made of metal, such as a wire gauze placed on top of a Bunsen burner, used in a safety lamp or
spark arrestor, or used as a fence.

A tripod is a general term for a stand or support

with three legs. It is often used to support a camera
gun, or to place above the bunsen burner in the science lab
to heat/boil anything.

In the science laboratory, a metal gauze is placed on top of it to

give support to the beaker (An iron ring clamp with a ring stand
can often be used instead and an iron ring allows for easy height adjustment).

A mortar and pestle is a tool used to crush, grind, and mix solid substances (trituration). The
pestle is a heavy bat-shaped object, the end of which is used for crushing and grinding. The
mortar is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, marble, clay, or stone. The substance to be
ground is placed in the mortar and ground, crushed or mixed with the pestle.

Contents
[hide]
  1 Etymology
 2 Medical use
 3 Food preparation
 4 Material
 5 Automatic mortar grinder
 6 Folklore
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 External links

[edit] Etymology
The English “mortar” derives from classical Latin mortarium, meaning, among several other
usages, "receptacle for pounding" and "product of grinding or pounding". The classical Latin
pestillum led to the English "pestle", meaning "pounder". The Roman poet, Juvenal, applied both
mortarium and pestillum to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of
the mortar and pestle as a pharmacist’s or apothecary’s symbol.[1] The antiquity of these tools is
well documented in early literature, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of c. 1550 B.C. (the
oldest preserved piece of medical literature) and the Old Testament (Numbers 11:8 and Proverbs
27:22).[2]

[edit] Medical use

Iconic pharmacist's mortal and pestle, displaying the ℞ symbol for medical prescriptions.

Mortars and pestles were traditionally used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to
preparing an extemporaneous prescription. The mortar and pestle, along with the Rod of funnel
is a pipe with a wide, often conical mouth and a narrow stem. It is used to channel liquid or fine-
grained substances into containers with a small opening. Without a funnel,spillage would occur.

Funnels are usually made of stainless steel, glass, or plastic. The material used in its construction
should be sturdy enough to withstand the weight of the substance being transferred, and it should
not react with the substance. For this reason, stainless steel or glass are useful in transferring
diesel, while plastic funnels are useful in the kitchen. Sometimes disposable paper funnels are
used in cases where it would be difficult to adequately clean the funnel afterwards (for example,
in adding motor oil to a car). Dropper funnels, also called dropping funnels or tap funnels, have a
tap to allow the controlled release of a liquid.

The term "funnel" is sometimes used to refer to the chimney or smokestack on a steam
locomotive and usually used in referring to the same on a ship. There is also a type of spider
known as a funnel-web due to its habit of building its web in the shape of a funnel. The term
"funnel" is even applied to other seemingly strange objects like a smoking pipe or even a humble
kitchen bin.

Asclepius, the Green Cross, and others, is one of the most pervasive symbols of pharmacology.[3]
For pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain,
while the handle of the pestle is made of wood. This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle
and originated in 1779. Today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is
known as trituration. Mortars and pestles are also used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to
speed up absorption when they are ingested, or in preparation for insufflation.

A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a common piece of laboratory equipment that
produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.[1][2][3][4]
[5]

Contents
[hide]

 1 History
 2 Operation
 3 References
 4 External links

[edit] History
When the University of Heidelberg hired Robert Bunsen in 1852, the authorities promised to
build him a new laboratory building. Heidelberg had just begun to install coal-gas street lighting,
so the new laboratory building was also supplied with illuminating gas. Illumination was one
thing; a source of heat for chemical operations something quite different. Previous laboratory
lamps left much to be desired regarding economy and simplicity, as well as the quality of the
flame for a burner lamp, for it was desirable to maximize the temperature and minimize the
luminosity. While his building was still under construction late in 1854, Bunsen suggested
certain design principles to the university’s talented mechanic, Peter Desaga, and asked him to
construct a prototype. (Similar principles had been used in an earlier burner design by Michael
Faraday as well as in a device patented in 1856 by the gas engineer R W Elsner.) The
Bunsen/Desaga design succeeded in generating a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing
the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion. Desaga created slits for air at the
bottom of the cylindrical burner, the flame igniting at the top. By the time the building opened
early in 1855, Desaga had made fifty of the burners for Bunsen's students. Bunsen published a
description two years later, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners
are now used in laboratories all around the world.[6]

[edit] Operation

Different flame types of Bunsen burner depending on flow through the throat holes (holes on the
side of the Bunsen burner -- not to be confused with the needle valve for gas flow adjustment). 1.
air hole closed (Safety flame) 2. air hole slightly open 3. air hole half open 4. air hole almost
open (this is the roaring blue flame)

The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas
(which is principally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture
of both.

The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the lab bench with rubber tubing. Most lab
benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as
vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows up through the base through a small
hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the
tube bottom to admit air into the stream via the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the
tube once ignited by a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the burner are
using a match or a spark lighter.

The amount of air (or rather oxygen) mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the
combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream
well mixed with air provides oxygen in an equimolar amount and thus a complete and hotter
reaction. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the
barrel, similar in function to the choke in a car's carburetor.
If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before
combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result. If the holes are closed, the gas
will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube
at the top. This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter
yellow which is often called the "safety flame" or "luminous flame". The yellow flame is
luminous due to small soot particles in the flame which are heated to incandescence. The yellow
flame is considered "dirty" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating. When
the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame it can be nearly invisible against some
backgrounds. The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the
whole inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the
needle valve will of course increase the size of the flame. However, unless the airflow is adjusted
as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed
with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen. The blue flame in a Bunsen burner is
hotter than the yellow flame. The hottest part of the blue flame is just above the unburnt gas. The
hottest part of the yellow flame is the chimney.

The burner will often be placed on a suitable heatproof mat to protect the lab bench surface.

The test tube brush is used to easily clean the inside of a test tube.

Test tube Holder The holder is used to hold test tubes when they are hot and untouchable.

Test tube Rack The testtube rack is used to hold testtubes while reactions happen in them or while they
are not needed.

Lab Equipment

Lab equipment is an important part of chemistry and science in general. In this page you will
learn about lab equipment and its uses.

Name Description Picture

Beaker Used to hold and heat liquids. Multipurpose and essential in the lab.

Bottle Bottles can be ued for storage, for mixing and for displaying.
 Bunsen burners are used for heating and exposing items to flame. They
Bunsen Burner
have many more uses than a hot plate, but do not replace a hot plate.

The buret is used in titrations to measure precisely how much liquid is

Buret
used.

Crucible Crucibles are used to heat small quantities to very high temperatures.

The Erlenmeyer Flask is used to heat and store liquids. The advantage
Erlenmeyer to the Erlenmeyer Flask is that the bottom is wider than the top so it
Flask will heat quicker because of the greater surface area exposed to the
heat.

Evaporating
The Evaporating Dish is used to heat and evaporate liquids.
Dish

The Florence Flask is used for heating subtances that need to be heated
evenly. The bulbed bottom allows the heat to distribute through the
Florence Flask
liquid more evenly. The Florence Flask is mostly used in distillation
experiments.

Food Coloring is used in many experiments to show color change and to

Food Coloring
make the experiment more exciting.
 The Funnel is a piece of eqipment that is used in the lab but is not
Funnel confined to the lab. The funnel can be used to target liguids into any
container so they will not be lost or spilled.

The Microspatula, commonly called a spatula, is used for moving small

Microspatula
amounts of solid from place to place.

Mortar and The Mortar and Pestle are used to crush solids into powders for
Pestle experiments, usually to better dissolve the solids.

Paper Towels are essential to the lab environment. They will be used in
Paper Towels
almost every lab.

The pipet is used for moving small amounts of liquid from place to
Pipet
place. They are usually made of plastic and are disposable

Ring stands are used to hold items being heated. Clamps or rings can be
Ring Stand used so that items may be placed above the lab table for heating by
bunsen burners or other items.

The stir rods are used to stir things. They are usually made of glass. Stir
Stir Rod
Rods are very useful in the lab setting.
 Stoppers come in many different sizes. The sizes are from 0 to 8.
Stopper Stoppers can have holes for thermometers and for other probes that
may be used.

Test tube Brush The test tube brush is used to easily clean the inside of a test tube.

Test tube The holder is used to hold test tubes when they are hot and
Holder untouchable.

The testtube rack is used to hold testtubes while reactions happen in

Test tube Rack
them or while they are not needed.

The thermometer is used to take temperature of solids, liquids, and

Thermometer
gases. They are usually in oC, but can also be in oF

Tongs are used to hold many different things such as flasks, crucibles,
Tongs
and evaporating dishes when they are hot.

The triangle is used to hold crucibles when they are being heated. They
Triangle
usually sit on a ring stand
 The Volumetric flask is used to measure one specific volume. They are
Volumetric
mostly used in mixing solutions where a one liter or one half a liter is
Flask
needed.

The watch glass is used to hold solids when being weighed or

Watch Glass
transported. They should never be heated.

Lab Equipment

Lab equipment is an important part of chemistry and science in general. In this page you will
learn about lab equipment and its uses.

Name Description Picture

Beaker Used to hold and heat liquids. Multipurpose and essential in the lab.

Bottle Bottles can be ued for storage, for mixing and for displaying.

Bunsen burners are used for heating and exposing items to flame. They
Bunsen Burner
have many more uses than a hot plate, but do not replace a hot plate.

The buret is used in titrations to measure precisely how much liquid is

Buret
used.
Crucible Crucibles are used to heat small quantities to very high temperatures.

The Erlenmeyer Flask is used to heat and store liquids. The advantage
Erlenmeyer to the Erlenmeyer Flask is that the bottom is wider than the top so it
Flask will heat quicker because of the greater surface area exposed to the
heat.

Evaporating
The Evaporating Dish is used to heat and evaporate liquids.
Dish

The Florence Flask is used for heating subtances that need to be heated
evenly. The bulbed bottom allows the heat to distribute through the
Florence Flask
liquid more evenly. The Florence Flask is mostly used in distillation
experiments.

Food Coloring is used in many experiments to show color change and to

Food Coloring
make the experiment more exciting.

The Funnel is a piece of eqipment that is used in the lab but is not
Funnel confined to the lab. The funnel can be used to target liguids into any
container so they will not be lost or spilled.

The Microspatula, commonly called a spatula, is used for moving small

Microspatula
amounts of solid from place to place.
Mortar and The Mortar and Pestle are used to crush solids into powders for
Pestle experiments, usually to better dissolve the solids.

Paper Towels are essential to the lab environment. They will be used in
Paper Towels
almost every lab.

The pipet is used for moving small amounts of liquid from place to
Pipet
place. They are usually made of plastic and are disposable

Ring stands are used to hold items being heated. Clamps or rings can be
Ring Stand used so that items may be placed above the lab table for heating by
bunsen burners or other items.

The stir rods are used to stir things. They are usually made of glass. Stir
Stir Rod
Rods are very useful in the lab setting.

Stoppers come in many different sizes. The sizes are from 0 to 8.

Stopper Stoppers can have holes for thermometers and for other probes that
may be used.

Test tube Brush The test tube brush is used to easily clean the inside of a test tube.
Test tube The holder is used to hold test tubes when they are hot and
Holder untouchable.

The testtube rack is used to hold testtubes while reactions happen in

Test tube Rack
them or while they are not needed.

The thermometer is used to take temperature of solids, liquids, and

Thermometer
gases. They are usually in oC, but can also be in oF

Tongs are used to hold many different things such as flasks, crucibles,
Tongs
and evaporating dishes when they are hot.

The triangle is used to hold crucibles when they are being heated. They
Triangle
usually sit on a ring stand

The Volumetric flask is used to measure one specific volume. They are
Volumetric
mostly used in mixing solutions where a one liter or one half a liter is
Flask
needed.

The watch glass is used to hold solids when being weighed or

Watch Glass
transported. They should never be heated.

Chemistry
That branch of science which treats of the composition of substances, and of the changes which
they undergo in consequence of alterations in the constitution of the molecules, which depend
upon variations of the number, kind, or mode of arrangement, of the constituent atoms. These
atoms are not assumed to be indivisible, but merely the finest grade of subdivision hitherto
attained. Chemistry deals with the changes in the composition and constitution of molecules. See
Atom, Molecule.

An application of chemical theory and method to the consideration of some particular subject; as,
the chemistry of iron; the chemistry of indigo.

chemistry is about us as individuals and everything around us. it affects our lives in most profound ways.
knowledge of chemistry can help us as we deal with many different products around the home so as to
avoid damaging our selves.

he Definition of "Psychology"
by Gene Zimmer

The word "psychology" is the combination of two terms - study (ology) and soul (psyche),
or mind. The derivation of the word from Latin gives it this clear and obvious meaning: 

The study of the soul or mind. 

This meaning has been altered over the years until today, this is not what the word means
at all. The subject of psychology, as studied in colleges and universities, currently has very
little to do with the mind, and absolutely nothing to do with the soul or spirit. 

Let's see what a few dictionaries have to say and how a word could alter and lose it's true
and actual meaning. 

"Psyche" is defined as: 

1. The spirit or soul. 

2. The human mind. 
3. In psychoanalysis, the mind functioning as the center of thought, emotion, and behavior. 

And defining "soul", we have: 

1. the spiritual or immortal elements in a person. 

2. a person's mental or moral or emotional nature. 

Most of us would agree we have a "psyche" per the above definitions in the sense of
"mind", thought, and emotions. Most would also agree they have a "soul" per the second
definition above relating to man's mental, moral or emotional nature. We might all have
different notions about what these ultimately are, but few could sanely disagree they exist. 
The derivation of "psyche" comes from Latin and the Greek psukhe - breath, life, soul. To
get a better "feel" for this term think of it as the invisible animating principle or entity
which occupies and directs the physical body. 

We are not dealing with opinions or beliefs here. This is simply what the words and terms
mean. Get clear on this first and understand what the words and terms mean, before you
start getting into the opinions of others on the subject. If you choose to decide the "mind"
refers to nothing real after understanding what the words and definitions mean, despite the
fact that almost 10,000 years of thinking men have seriously and carefully looked into this
subject, and after no real investigation on your own part, that's your decision. Also, realize
you will be basing this decision on "thinking" and "reason", both of which are only
subsidiary to and part of any one mind, and neglecting to use a greater aspect of your mind
- your personal awareness and direct observation. Basing a decision on what other people
say about a mind involves only concepts and ideas about a mind. Observation involves
experiencing the mind itself - your own mind. 

What is the Mind?

Originally, and for thousands of years, the subject of psychology involved the study of the
human spirit, soul or mind. This involves things and functions not obviously visible to the
physical senses. You can't see a mind with one's eyes. You can't "feel" a thought with one's
hands. You can't place an emotion on a scale and weigh it. You can't detect imagination,
even with sophisticated electronic detection devices. Modern "scientific" fields, since they
haven't been able to study or detect these things with the physical senses or measuring
devices have taken a drastic leap and declared that these things therefore don't exist, don't
deserve recognition, and should be ignored in any "legitimate" study of man and the mind
(and human behavior). John Watson, a typical behavioral psychologist has this to say: 

The extent to which most of us are shot through with a savage background is almost
unbelievable.... One example of such a religious concept is that every individual has a soul
which is separate and distinct from the body.... No one has ever touched a soul, or seen one in
a test tube, or has in any way come into relationship with it as he has with the other objects of
his daily experience .... 

The behaviorist asks: Why don't we make what we can observe the real field of psychology?
Let us limit ourselves to things that can be observed, and formulate laws concerning only
those things. Now what can we observe? We can observe behavior - what the organism does
or says. And let us point out at once: that saying is doing - that is, behaving. . . - John
Watson, behaviorist

Strangely, the study of the mind has come into the peculiar position of being a study which
denies the mind! That's like biology denying the existence of biological organisms, but
going on pretending to still be the science of biological organisms while actually dealing
with something else entirely. A subject can't exist if it denies the very basis of it's own
existence by definition. That is the state of modern western psychology and psychiatry.
Mmmm? They can't and shouldn't exist, but they do. The entire structure of these subjects
as they currently exist is a sham. 

Let's take a closer look at this. We each are quite aware we have a mind, emotions, and
thoughts, even if we are not so clear or sure about the "soul" and "spirit". We know we are
aware and possess self-awareness, but what the nature, qualities and potentials are of
awareness is largely anybody's guess. We each know we possess consciousness. In fact, we
are aware of our own consciousness as much or more than anything else, yet modern
"science" ignores and even denies it. But the truth, despite what "science" or
"professionals" say, is that the mind exists to and for each of us as an obvious and
observable fact of direct experience. A quick look can tell us many obvious things. 

I doubt any of us would suggest we don't have a mind, awareness, thoughts or feelings even
though none of these things can be detected or perceived with the physical senses or
"scientific" measuring gadgets. We don't immediately run off and deny their existence, and
we correctly assume others have similar minds, thoughts, feelings and emotions. They do.
Modern psychologists and psychiatrists, for all practical purposes, completely deny every
aspect of the invisible world known to you as your mind. It is invisible to physical detection,
but it does exist. 

There is constant activity within each of our "invisible worlds" - analyzing problems,
entertaining thoughts of tomorrow's occurrences, recalling yesterday's failures, wallowing
in the sadness of a loss, concentrating on the creation of a musical composition, day-
dreaming, the ever-changing feelings and emotions about everything we experience, and
the endless parade of judgments and commentary about what we see. Actually, for many of
us, we have too much mind - it goes on and on, a constant source of images, memories and
ideas intruding themselves upon our awareness. Most of us can't control any of this and
simply accept as inevitable this continual parade of images and ideas across the landscape
of our mind. 

In a very real manner all problems with any mind, such as things psychiatry calls
"depression", "anxiety", "compulsive disorder", "Attention Deficit Disorder" (ADD or
ADHD), and even "suicidal ideation", are ultimately and solely uncontrollable aspects of
one's own mind which intrude upon the person's awareness. It's not that these things don't
exist in some way, but they don't exist in the way psychiatry understands and claims to
solve them. A better way to handle these problems would be to assist the person to increase
control over the content of their own mind. There are many ways to do this, although they
have never been all pulled together, adequately investigated, codified and organized into a
straight-forward workable compilation of methods. Modern "science" has simply
discarded the notion of the mind, and from that point on, never bothered to investigate it
closely with the aim to understand, solve or improve it. 

First, this invisible world is totally real. It is not imaginary or a hallucination. My invisible
world isn't directly real to you, and your invisible world isn't directly real to me, but they
are each real nonetheless. The person who wants to argue this fact is simply a fool, dull,
unable to comfortably observe his own mind (because it is possibly filled with degraded and
evil things), and probably addicted to the objects of physical sensation and perception to
the exclusion of everything else (a modern materialist). 

Second, this "invisible" world of mind involves many different aspects, functions and
potentials. Imagination, attention, intellect, awareness, intention, reason, will,
responsibility, memory, and many other things exist in each of us. They are a vital and
important part of us - some might venture to say some of these things ARE us. There is
much to each of these areas and a short essay cannot begin to even scratch the surface of
their nature, functioning, possible development and capabilities. But they definitely do exist
and deserve recognition and attention. Any subject calling itself "psychology" would have
to address these things in detail. The failure of modern psychology and psychiatry to do so
is glaringly apparent. These subjects now only address behavior, physiology, genetics and
biochemistry, and the mind is of no concern.

Psychology Definition Altered

Let's return now to the dictionary definitions of "psychology". 

From the Oxford American Dictionary: 

1. the study of the mind and how it works. 

2. mental characteristics, can you understand his psychology? 

That's fine. 

From the Concise Oxford Dictionary: 

1. the scientific study of the human mind and it's functions, esp. those affecting behavior in
a given context. 
2. a treatise on or theory of this. 
3.a. the mental characteristics or attitude of a person or group 
3.b. the mental factors governing a situation or activity (the psychology of crime) 

Definition 1 has slyly added the idea of "affecting behavior". The original definition had
nothing to do with this. 

From the American Heritage Dictionary: 

1. The science that deals with mental processes and behavior. 

2. The emotional and behavioral characteristics of an individual or group. 

These definitions have further altered the true meaning. In actual practice, modern
psychology deals almost exclusively with physiology (genetics) and the behavior of the
biological organism (stimulus-response), completely disregarding and ignoring the mind
(man's inner self, and more to the point, man's true and vital self). The dictionaries will
sooner or later remove the concept of "mind" completely from the definition following the
lead of "official" psychology as taught in western universities and colleges. The dictionaries
are written by members of the educational establishment, and the educational
establishment is entrenched in modern psychological theories. Let's return to the correct
definition of the word. 

Adhering to the strict definition of the word, psychology would involve the study of man's
invisible world as described above, and nothing else. By definition this is what the study
would deal with. This is not an opinion or bias - this is according to exactly what the word
means and nothing else. Of course, relations to behavior could be studied, but the subject
in itself, by definition is the study of the mind or soul. A more correct name for the modern
subject of psychology and psychiatry would be "people control" because that's what it
actually is. It's a study of how to alter behavior and control people - behaviorism. Naturally
governments and totalitarians love the subject. They also fund it in large way. 

Contemporary psychology deals with a vast range of topics; while at the same time looks into
human behavioral patterns and mental processes from the cultural level to the neural level.
Psychologists study all matters pertaining to human mental issues that begin right from birth and
continue up until the death of the person. So, by gaining full understanding of the history of
psychology, you will be able to better understand how the individual topics are studied and what
has been learnt so far.

Questions put forward during the Formation of Psychology

Right from the very beginning, the study of psychology has been faced with a number of difficult
questions. The first question of how is psychology defined established it as a separate science,
separate from philosophy and physiology. Other additional questions that psychologists were
also faced with throughout the history of the subject were:

 What issues and topics should the subject of psychology deal with?
 What methods of research should be used when studying psychology?
 Should research be used in order to influence education, public policy and other aspects
of human behavior?
 Is psychology a science?
 Should psychology focus on internal mental processes or on observable behaviors?

The Emergence of Psychology: Physiology and Philosophy

While psychology did not really emerge as a separate science until the latter half of the 19th
century, its initial history can be traced right back to the ancient Greeks. During the 1600’s, the
famous French philosopher, Rene Descartes, introduced the concept of dualism, which stressed
on the fact the body and the mind were basically two separate entities that interacted together to
form the normal human experience. Many of the other issues that are still debated by
psychologists today, like relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are deep rooted in these
early philosophical concepts.

So why is psychology different from philosophy? While many of the early philosophers relied
heavily on methods like logic and observation, the psychologists of today tend to use methods to
study and come to conclusions about the human behavior and thought. Physiology also made
large contributions towards the eventual emergence of psychology as a science. Early physiology
research on behavior and brain had a very dramatic impact on psychology as it is today,
ultimately leading to the application of many scientific methodologies that study the human
behavior and thought.

Psychology as a Separate Scientific Discipline

During the mid 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt, a German physiologist started using scientific
research methods to look into reaction times. His works outlined many of the most important
connections between physiology and psychology.

So what were Wundt’s views on psychology? He looked upon the subject as a study of the
human consciousness and even sought to apply certain experimental methods in order to study
the internal mental processes. While this process today is known as introspection and is
considered to be highly unscientific and unreliable, in those days it helped set the stage for all the
future experimental methods. And although his influence began to dwindle in the years to come,
this impact on the subject is definitely unquestionable.

hemistry (from Arabic: ‫ كيمياء‬Latinized: chem (kēme), meaning "value")[1] is the science of
matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but
while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized,
being concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of matter, as well as
the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[2] It is a physical science which studies of
various atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or
combination, which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in relation to the
spontaneity of chemical processes.

Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the
kind of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter; organic
chemistry, the study of organic (carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study of substances
found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using
physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry,
the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and
structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry
the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).

Contents
[hide]

 1 Summary
 2 History
 3 Etymology
 4 Definitions
 5 Basic concepts
 o 5.1 Atom
o 5.2 Element
o 5.3 Compound
o 5.4 Substance
o 5.5 Molecule
o 5.6 Mole
o 5.7 Ions and salts
o 5.8 Acidity and basicity
o 5.9 Phase
o 5.10 Redox
o 5.11 Bonding
o 5.12 Reaction
o 5.13 Equilibrium
o 5.14 Energy
o 5.15 Chemical laws
 6 Subdisciplines
 7 Chemical industry
 8 Professional societies
 9 See also
 10 References
 11 Further reading

Summary
Chemistry is the scientific study of interaction of chemical substances[3] that are constituted of
atoms or the subatomic particles: protons, electrons and neutrons.[4] Atoms combine to produce
molecules or crystals. Chemistry is often called "the central science" because it connects the
other natural sciences such as astronomy, physics, material science, biology and geology.[5][6]

The genesis of chemistry can be traced to certain practices, known as alchemy, which had been
practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world, particularly the Middle East.[7]

The structure of objects we commonly use and the properties of the matter we commonly interact
with are a consequence of the properties of chemical substances and their interactions. For
example, steel is harder than iron because its atoms are bound together in a more rigid crystalline
lattice; wood burns or undergoes rapid oxidation because it can react spontaneously with oxygen
in a chemical reaction above a certain temperature; sugar and salt dissolve in water because their
molecular/ionic properties are such that dissolution is preferred under the ambient conditions.

The transformations that are studied in chemistry are a result of interaction either between
different chemical substances or between matter and energy. Traditional chemistry involves
study of interactions between substances in a chemistry laboratory using various forms of
laboratory glassware.
Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne

A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more other substances.[8]
It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. The number of atoms on the left
and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is most often equal. The nature of
chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are
constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.

Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies.
Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase as well as their chemical
compositions. They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and
chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists.[9] Most
chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines.

Organic Chemistry

This specific type of chemistry is concerned with elements containing

carbon. Carbon is only the fourteenth most common element on earth, yet
it creates the largest number of different compounds. This type of
chemistry is important to the petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and textile
industries. All living organisms contain at least some amount of carbon in
their body.

Inorganic Chemistry

This branch of chemistry deals with substances not containing carbon and
that are not organic. Examples of such substances are minerals found in
the earth's crust and non-living matter. There are many branches of
inorganic chemistry. They include bioinorganic chemistry, nuclear science
and energy, geochemistry, and synthetic inorganic chemistry, just to name
a few.

Physical Chemistry
 This type of chemistry deals with the discovery and description of the
theoretical basis of the behavior of chemical substances. This means also
that it provides a basis for every bit of chemistry including organic,
inorganic, and analytical. This chemistry is defined as dealing with the
relations between the physical properties of substances and their chemical
formations along with their changes.

Biochemistry

Biochemistry is a science that is concerned with the composition and

changes in the formation of living species. This type of chemistry utilizes
the concepts of organic and physical chemistry to make the world of living
organisms seem much clearer. Some people also consider biochemsitry as
physiological chemistry and biological chemistry. The scientists that study
biochemistry are called biochemists. They study such things as the
properties of biological molecules, including proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Other topics they focus on are the
chemical regulation of metabolism, the chemistry of vitamins, and
biological oxidation.

Analytical Chemistry

This kind of chemistry deals mostly with the composition of substances.

All these branches of chemistry must deal with each other one way or
another. If they didn't work in unison it would be impossible for these
chemistries to perform the functions we need for experiments. For
example you wouldn't be able measure the change of an organic substance
without knowing how to use analytical chemistry.

The History of psychology dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of
psychological thought in established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James McKeen
Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program of mental
testing in the 1890s. In Vienna, meanwhile, the psychiatrist Sigmund Freud developed an
independent approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis, which has been widely
influential.

The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This
contributed to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.
F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed limiting psychological study to that of overt behavior, because
that could be quantified and easily measured. Behaviorists considered knowledge of the "mind"
too metaphysical to achieve scientifically. The final decades of the 20th century saw the decline
of behaviorism and the rise of cognitive science, an interdisciplinary approach to studying the
human mind. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using
the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and
neurobiology. This form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human
mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such
as artificial intelligence.