1.

Earth Pressures

 Active earth pressures (Kaγ h) are considered to ensure that the abutment is stable.

 At rest earth pressures (Koγ h) are considered to ensure that the structural elements are
adequate.

 Passive earth pressures (Kpγ h) are only considered for integral abutments or where shear
keys are provided.

At rest pressures are initially developed on the back of the abutment wall during construction and
whislt the backfill is compacting. Consequently the structural elements have to be designed to
resist the effects of these pressures.
Any movements in the structure caused by the at rest pressure, either through rotation or
deflection will reduce the pressure on the back of the wall; a state of equilibrium is reached when
the pressure reduces to the active earth pressure value. Consequently the stability of the structure
can be checked by using active earth pressures.
Passive pressures are developed when the structure pushes against the soil. Since movements
required to develop passive pressures are considerably greater than that for active pressures, and
the structure is designed to ensure that the foundations do not slide under active pressures, then it
is unlikely that passive pressures will be developed in front of the abutment. There is also the
chance that, at some time in the future, the soil in front of the abutment may be removed
temporarily. This could happen if services, such as drainage pipes, water or gas mains, are
installed or repaired in front of the abutment. Consequently the structure needs to be designed to
be stable with no soil in front of the concrete footings.
If shear keys are required to prevent sliding then the key should be located under the rear half of
the base and a factored value of passive pressure is used.
Integral bridges experience passive pressures on the back of the abutment wall when the deck
expands. The design of integral abutments is covered in BA 42 and a number of publications,
such as Integral Abutments for Prestressed Beam Bridges by B A Nicholson give worked
examples.
 

2.Abutment Construction

Departmental Standard BD 30 gives recommendations for the layout of backfilled cantilever

 
Foundation level is usually set at least one metre below ground level to avoid deterioration of the
foundation material through frost action. If services, such as gas pipes, water mains, electricity
cables etc., may be installed in front of the abutment wall then the depth to foundation level may
need to be increased to allow the services to be installed above the concrete footing.

It is usual to provide granular backfill to the back of the wall which limits the material to Class
6N or 6P as defined in the Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works Volume 1
Specification Series 600 Clause 610 and Table 6/1. A typical value for the effective angle of
internal friction (ϕ') for Class 6N or 6P material is 35o. This equates to values of:

1. Ka = (1-Sinϕ') / (1+Sinϕ') = 0.27

2. Ko = (1-Sinϕ') = 0.43

 
3.Loading

Loading from the deck is applied to the abutment through the bearings. Maximum vertical
bearing loads are obtained from the deck analysis; these loads, together with the type of restraint
required to support the deck, will dictate the type of bearing provided.
Horizontal loads from the deck are produced by wind loading, temperature effects, creep
movements, traction, braking and skidding loads, collision loads when high level of containment
parapets are used, and centrifugal loads if the horizontal radius of curvature of the carriageway is
less than 1000 metres.
Longitudinal loads from temperature effects in the deck will be determined according to the type
of bearing used. Elsatomeric bearings are effectively 'glued' in place between the deck soffit and
the abutment bearing plinth so that the bearing has to distort when the deck expands and
contracts. The longitudinal force produced by this distortion is proportional to the shear stiffness
of the bearing and the magnitude of the movement.

Sliding bearings, on the other hand, produce a longitudinal load which is proportional to the dead
load reaction and the coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces. The cofficient of
friction (μ) varies between 0.01 and 0.08 depending on the type of bearing and bearing stress
(see BS 5400 Part 9:1, Tables 2 and 3).
 

Hold the mouse pointer over the diagrams

 
The longitudinal load from the temperature effect will act equally on both the fixed and free
abutment.

The deck is very stiff in the axial direction so horizontal loads will have negligible effect on the
length of the deck. Hence longitudinal loads due to traction, braking and skidding are assumed to
be transmitted to the fixed abutment only.

Transverse loads on the deck (wind loading, skidding loads, collision loads when high level of
containment parapets are used, and centrifugal loads if the horizontal radius of curvature of the
carriageway is less than 1000 metres) will be transmitted to the abutment through the fixed and
sliding-guided bearings only. These loads are unlikely to have an effect on the stability of a full
height abutment, but the bearing plinths need to be designed to resist the loads. The stability of
small abutments, such as bank seats, may need to be checked for these loads.
Live loading at the rear of the abutment is represented by a surcharge loading (see BS 5400 Part
2:2006 clause 5.8.2). Traction, braking and skidding loads can also act at the rear of the
abutment.

 
4.Stability

Stability of the abutment is determined by considering:

 Sliding

 Overturning

 Failure of the foundation soil

 Slip failure of the surrounding soil

A comprehensive Ground Investigation Report is essential for the design of the bridge structure.
Boreholes need to provide information about the nature of the ground below the foundations.
Adequate sampling and testing also need to be carrried out to obtain design parameters for
allowable bearing pressures, together with friction and cohesion values of the soil at foundation
level.

Sliding and overturning effects are calculated using nominal loads and active earth pressures. A
factor of safety of 2.0 is used to ensure that the abutment is stable against sliding and
overturning.

Several load cases need to be considered to ensure all loading conditions are catered for.

Construction sequences also need to be considered. The abutment wall will often be constructed
and backfilled up to bearing shelf level; this provides good access for the deck construction. A
surcharge load, equivalent to 30 units of HB, can be applied to the wall by the construction plant
used to compact the backfill. This surcharge load, together with the active backfill earth
pressures, will be acting on the back of the wall without the stabilising effects of the dead load
from the deck and can result in a critical loading case.

Allowable bearing pressures are obtained from the Ground Investigation Survey. An allowable
pressure is usually determined to limit settlement to about 20 to 25mm. As the allowable
pressure will be dependent on the size of foundation and loads applied then there will need to be
an initial assessment of the loads and foundation sizes before an allowable pressure can be given.
This results in some redesigning until the correct base size, applied loads and allowable bearing
pressyres are obtained.

BS 8002 says that instability of the earth mass involving a slip failure may occur where:

 the wall is built on sloping ground which itself is close to limiting equilibrium; or

 the structure is underlain by a significant depth of clay whose undrained strength

 the strata is founded on a relatively strong stratum underlain by weaker strata; or

 the structure is underlain by strata within which high pore water pressures may develop
from natural or artificial sources.
If none of these conditions are present then a slip failure analysis will not be necessary.