4.8.

Solar cells
Solar cells are p-i-n photodiodes, which are operated under forward bias. The intention is to
convert the incoming optical power into electrical power with maximum efficiency

4.8.1. The solar spectrum

The solar spectrum is shown in Figure 4.8.1. The spectrum as seen from a satellite is referred to
as the AM0 spectrum (where AM stands for air mass) and closely fits the spectrum of a black
body at 5800 K. The total power density is 1353 W/m2.

1800

1600
Power Density [W/m2um]

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Photon Energy [eV]

Figure 4.8.1 The solar spectrum under of AM1 conditions

The solar spectrum as observed on earth is modified due to absorption in the atmosphere. For
AM1 (normal incidence) the power density is reduced to 925 W/cm2 whereas for AM1.5 (45
above the horizon) the power density is 844 W/m2. The irregularities in the spectrum are due to
absorption at specific photon energies. The corresponding cumulative photocurrent is presented
in Figure 4.8.2 as a function of the photon energy.
 80.00

Cumulative Photocurrent [mA/cm2]

70.00

60.00

50.00

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Photon Energy [eV]

Figure 4.8.2 Cumulative Photocurrent versus Photon Energy under AM1 conditions

4.8.2. Calculation of maximum power

The current through the solar cell can be obtained from:

I = I s (eV a / Vt 1) I ph (4.8.1)

where Is is the saturation current of the diode and Iph is the photo current (which is assumed to be
independent of the applied voltage Va ). This expression only includes the ideal diode current of
the diode, thereby ignoring recombination in the depletion region. The short circuit current, Isc, is
the current at zero voltage which equals Isc = -Iph . The open circuit voltage equals:

I ph I ph (4.8.2)
Voc = Va ( I = 0) = Vt ln( + 1) Vt ln
Is Is

The total power dissipation is then:

P = Va I = I s Va (eV a / V t 1) I phVa (4.8.3)

dP
The maximum power occurs at = 0 . The voltage and current corresponding to the maximal
dVa
power point are Vm and Im .
 dP I V (4.8.4)
= 0 = I s ( eV m / V t 1) I ph + s m eV m /V t
dVa Vt

This equation can be rewritten as:

I ph + I s 1 V V (4.8.5)
V m = V t ln[ ] Vt [ oc ln( 1 + m )]
Is V Vt Vt
1+ m
Vt

by using equation (4.8.2) for the open circuit voltage Voc. A more accurate solution is obtained
by solving this transcendental equation and substituting into equations (4.8.1) and (4.8.3). The
maximum power can be approximated by:

V V (4.8.6)
Pm = I mVm I ph (1 t )(Voc Vt ln( 1 + m ))
V m V t

V V V (4.8.7)
Pm I ph (Voc Vt ln( 1 + m ) oc t )
Vt Vm

or

E (4.8.8)
Pm = I ph m
q

where

V V V (4.8.9)
Em = q (Voc Vt ln( 1 + m ) oc t )
Vt Vm

The energy Em is the energy of one photon, which is converted to electrical energy at the
maximum power point. The total photo current is calculated as (for a given bandgap Eg )

J ph ( E g ) = q (4.8.10)

and the efficiency equals:

P I ph E m (4.8.11)
= m =
Pin qPin
 4.8.3. Conversion efficiency for monochromatic illumination

This first order model provides an analytic approximation for the efficiency of a solar cell under
monochromatic illumination. We start with the result of section 4.8.2:
P I ph V V V (4.8.12)
= m = (Voc Vt ln( 1 + m ) oc t )
Pin Pin Vt Vm

Eg
and replace Voc by the largest possible open circuit voltage, , yielding:
q

Eg Eg (4.8.13)
Vm = Vt ln( 1 + )
q kT

and

I phVm 2kT Eg (4.8.14)

= = [1 ln( 1 + )]
Pin Eg kT

Eg
for a GaAs solar cell at 300K, = 55 so that the efficiency equals = 85%
q

4.8.4. Effect of diffusion and recombination in a solar cell

4.8.4.1.Photo current versus voltage

The photo current is obtained by first solving the continuity equation for electrons

d 2n dn n (4.8.15)
0 = Dn + n E + g op
dx 2 dx

as well as a similar equation for holes. The photo current is obtained from

d (4.8.16)
qA
I ph (Va ) = ( i Va ) ( n n + p p ) dx
d2 0

Once this photocurrent is obtained the total current is obtained from:

I = I s (eV a / Vt 1) I ph (Va ) (4.8.17)

To obtain the corresponding maximum power one has to repeat the derivation of section 5.3.2.
 4.8.5. Spectral response
Because of the wavelength dependence of the absorption coefficient one expects the shorter
wavelengths to be absorbed closer to the surface while the longer wavelengths are absorbed deep
in the bulk. Surface recombination will therefore be more important for short wavelengths while
recombination in the quasi-neutral region is more important for long wavelengths.

4.8.6. Influence of the series resistance

Vext = Va + IRs (4.8.18)

I = I s (eV a / Vt 1) I ph (4.8.19)

P = Vext I (4.8.20)

Repeating the derivation of section 4.8.2 one can show that the maximum power condition is
given by the following set of transcendental equations:

I ph + I s 1 (4.8.21)
Vm = Vt ln[ ]
Is V 2I R
1+ m + m s
Vt Vt

I m = I s ( eV m / V t 1) I ph (4.8.22)

while the maximum external power equals: Pm,ext = Im (Vm + Im Rs)