Chapter 1

Introduction to Direct Digital Control Systems

Purpose of this Guide:

The purpose of this guide is to describe, in generic terms, the various architectures, hardware
components and software associated with Direct Digital Control (DDC) systems. To accomplish
this goal, a generic framework of the various components and configurations used in current
DDC systems has been defined. This framework is used as a yardstick for several DDC
manufacturers so readers may compare the relative features and benefits.

Intended Audience

Due to the complexity and proprietary nature of DDC systems, it has become difficult to stay
current with the designs, installations, operation and maintenance of DDC systems. This guide
was developed specifically to help building owners and consulting/specifying engineers with
these issues.

What is an Energy Management System?

For the purposes of this guide, an energy management system (EMS) is defined as a fully
functional control system. This includes controllers, various communications devices and the full
complement of operational software necessary to have a fully functioning control system. This
guide addresses approximately twenty of the DDC vendors who serve the institutional and
commercial marketplace in the United States. Vendors who supply a complete line of all the
necessary hardware and software are included. This guide does not cover specialty markets
(retail grocery, hotels), nor does it cover industrial or process controls.

What is Control?

The process of controlling an HVAC system involves three steps. These steps include first
measuring data, then processing the data with other information and finally causing a control
action. These three functions make up what is known as a control loop. An example of this
process is depicted in Figure 1.
Basic Control Loop

The control loop shown in Figure 1 consists of three main components: a sensor, a controller and
a controlled device. These three components or functions interact to control a medium. In the
example shown in Figure 1, air temperature is the controlled medium. The sensor measures the
data, the controller processes the data and the controlled device causes an action.

The Figure 1 could be an example of a pneumatic or electronic control system, where the
controller is a separate and distinct piece of hardware. In a DDC system, the controller function
takes place in software as shown in Figure 2.

Sensor
The sensor measures the controlled medium or other control input in an accurate and repeatable
manner. Common HVAC sensors are used to measure temperature, pressure, relative humidity,
airflow state and carbon dioxide. Other variables may also be measured that impact the controller
logic. Examples include other temperatures, time-of-day or the current demand condition.
Additional input information (sensed data) that influences the control logic may include the
status of other parameters (airflow, water flow, current) or safety (fire, smoke, high/low
temperature limit or any number of other physical parameters). Sensors are an extremely
important part of the control system and can be the first, as well as a major, weak link in the
chain of control.

Controller

The controller processes data that is input from the sensor, applies the logic of control and causes
an output action to be generated. This signal may be sent directly to the controlled device or to
other logical control functions and ultimately to the controlled device. The controllers function is
to compare its input (from the sensor) with a set of instructions such as setpoint, throttling range
and action, then produce an appropriate output signal. This is the logic of control. It usually
consists of a control response along with other logical decisions that are unique to the specific
control application. How the controller functions is referred to as the control response. Control
responses are typically one the following:

Two-Position
Floating
Proportional (P only)
Proportional plus Integral (PI)
Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID)

Controlled Device or Output

A controlled device is a device that responds to the signal from the controller, or the control
logic, and changes the condition of the controlled medium or the state of the end device. These
devices include valve operators, damper operators, electric relays, fans, pumps, compressors and
variable speed drives for fan and pump applications.

Chapter 2
Control Responses
Two-Position Control

Two-position control compares the value of an analog or variable input with instructions and
generates a digital (two-position) output. The instructions involve the definition of an upper and
lower limit. The output changes its value as the input crosses these limit values. There are no
standards for defining these limits. The most common terminology used is setpoint and
differential. The setpoint indicates the point where the output pulls-in, energizes or is true. The
output changes back or drops-out after the input value crosses through the value equal to the
difference between the setpoint and the differential.

Two-position control can be used for simple control loops (temperature control) or limit control
(freezestats, outside air temperature limits). The analog value can be any measured variable
including temperature, relative humidity, pressure, current and liquid levels.

Time can also be the input to a two-position control response. This control response functions
like a time clock with pins. The output pulls-in when the time is in the defined on time and drops
out during the defined off time.

Figure 3, shows an example of two-position control in a home heating system, where the
thermostat is set to energize the heating system when the space temperature falls below 70 F and
turn off when the temperature rises to 72 F in the space. This is an example of a setpoint of 70 F
with a two-degree differential.

Floating Control

Floating control is a control response that produces two possible digital outputs based on a
change in a variable input. One output increases the signal to the controlled device, while the
other output decreases the signal to the controlled device. This control response also involves an
upper and lower limit with the output changing as the variable input crosses these limits. Again,
there are no standards for defining these limits, but the terms setpoint and deadband are common.
The setpoint sets a midpoint and the deadband sets the difference between the upper and lower
limits.
When the measured variable is within the deadband or neutral zone, neither output is energized
and the controlled device does not change - it stays in its last position. For this control response
to be stable, the sensor must sense the effect of the controlled device movement very rapidly.
Floating control does not function well where there is significant thermodynamic lag in the
control loop. Fast airside control loops respond well to floating control. An example of floating
controls is shown in Figure 4.

Proportional Control

A proportional control response produces an analog or variable output change in proportion to a

varying input. In this control response, there is a linear relationship between the input and the
output. A setpoint, throttling range and action typically define this relationship. In a proportional
control response, there is a unique value of the measured variable that corresponds to full travel
of the controlled device and a unique value that corresponds to zero travel on the controlled
device. The change in the measured variable that causes the controlled device to move from fully
closed to fully open is called the throttling range. It is within this range that the control loop will
control, assuming that the system has the capacity to meet the requirements.

The action dictates the slope of the control response. In a direct acting proportional control
response, the output will rise with an increase in the measured variable. In a reverse acting
response, the output will decrease as the measured variable increases. The setpoint is an
instruction to the control loop and corresponds to a specified value of the controlled device,
usually half-travel. An example is shown in Figure 5.
In a proportional control system, the value of the measured variable at any given moment is
called the control point. Offset is defined as the difference between the control point and the
desired condition. One way to reduce offset is to reduce throttling range. Reducing the throttling
range too far will lead to instability. The more quickly the sensor feels the effect of the control
response, the larger the throttling range has to be to produce stable control.

Proportional plus Integral (PI) Control

PI control involves the measurement of the offset or error over time. This error is integrated and
a final adjustment is made to the output signal from the proportional part of this model. This type
of control response will use the control loop to reduce the offset to zero. A well set-up PI control
loop will operate in a narrow band close to the setpoint. It will not operate over the entire
throttling range (Figure 6).
PI control loops do not perform well when setpoints are dynamic, where sudden load changes
occur or if the throttling range is small.

Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID) Control

PID control adds a predictive element to the control response. In addition to the proportional and
integral calculation, the derivative or slope of the control response will be computed. This
calculation will have the effect of dampening a control response that is returning to setpoint so
quickly that it will overshoot the setpoint.

PID is a precision process control response and is not always required for HVAC applications.
The routine application of PID control to every control loop is labor intensive and its application
should be selective.

Definition of Direct Digital Control (DDC)

DDC control consists of microprocessor-based controllers with the control logic performed by
software. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converters transform analog values into digital signals that a
microprocessor can use. Analog sensors can be resistance, voltage or current generators. Most
systems distribute the software to remote controllers to eliminate the need for continuous
communication capability (stand-alone). The computer is primarily used to monitor the status of
the energy management system, store back-up copies of the programs and record alarming and
trending functions. Complex strategies and energy management functions are readily available at
the lowest level in the system architecture. If pneumatic actuation is required, it is accomplished
with electronic to pneumatic transducers. Calibration of sensors is mathematical; consequently
the total man-hours for calibration are greatly reduced. The central diagnostic capabilities are a
significant asset. Software and programming are constantly improving, becoming increasingly
user-friendly with each update.

Benefits of DDC

The benefits of direct digital control over past control technologies (pneumatic or distributed
electronic) is that it improves the control effectiveness and increases the control efficiency. The
three main direct benefits of DDC are improved effectiveness, improved operation efficiency and
increased energy efficiency.

Improved Effectiveness

DDC provides more effective control of HVAC systems by providing the potential for more
accurately sensed data. Electronic sensors for measuring the common HVAC parameters of
temperature, humidity and pressure are inherently more accurate than their pneumatic
predecessors. Since the logic of a control loop is now included in the software, this logic can be
readily changed. In this sense, DDC is far more flexible in changing reset schedules, setpoints
and the overall control logic. Users are apt to apply more complex strategies, implement energy
saving features and optimize their system performance since there is less cost associated with
these changes than there would be when the logic is distributed to individual components. This
of course assumes the user possesses the knowledge to make the changes.

DDC systems, by their very nature can integrate more easily into other computer-based systems.
DDC systems can integrate into fire control systems, access/security control systems, lighting
control systems and maintenance management systems.

Improved Operational Efficiency

Operational improvements show the greatest opportunity for efficiency improvements in direct
digital controls. The alarming capabilities are strong and most systems have the ability to route
alarms to various locations on a given network. The trending capabilities allow a diagnostic
technician or engineer to troubleshoot system and control problems. They also allow the data to
be visualized in various formats. These data can also be stored and analyzed for trends in
equipments performance over time.

Run-times of various equipment can be monitored and alarms/messages can be generated when a
lead/lag changeover occurs or if it is time to conduct routine maintenance.

The off-site access/communication capability allows an owner/operator to access their system

remotely. Multiple parties can also be involved in troubleshooting a problem. The control
vendor, design engineer and commissioning authority can use these features to more efficiently
diagnose and visualize problems.

Increased Energy Efficiency

There are many energy-efficient control strategies employed in pneumatic logic that can be
easily duplicated in DDC logic. Due to the addition of more complex mathematical functions
(easily obtained in software), there are many additional energy-efficient routines that can be used
with DDC.

Strategies such as demand monitoring and limiting can be more easily implemented with DDC
systems. The overall demand to a facility can be monitored and controlled by resetting various
system setpoints based on different demand levels. If a DDC system is installed at the zone level,
this could be accomplished by decreasing the requirement for cooling on a zone-by-zone basis.

By storing trends, energy consumption patterns can be monitored. Equipment can also be
centrally scheduled on or off in applications where schedules frequently change.
Chapter 3
Elements of a Direct Digital Control System
Points

The word points is used to describe data storage locations within a DDC system. Data can come
from sensors or from software calculations and logic. Data can also be sent to controlled devices
or software calculations and logic. Each data storage location has a unique means of
identification or addressing.

Direct digital controls (DDC) data can be classified three different ways - by data type, data flow
and data source.

Data Type

Data type is classified as digital, analog or accumulating. Digital data may also be called discrete
data or binary data. The value of the data is either 0 or 1 and usually represents the state or status
of a set of contacts. Analog data are numeric, decimal numbers and typically have varying
electrical inputs that are a function of temperature, relative humidity, pressure or some other
common HVAC sensed variable. Accumulating data are also numeric, decimal numbers, where
the resulting sum is stored. This type of data is sometimes called pulse input.

Data Flow

Data flow refers to whether the data are going into or out of the DDC component/logic. Input
points describe data used as input information and output points describe data that are output
information.

Data Source

Points can be classified as external points if the data are received from an external device or sent
to an external device. External points are sometimes referred to as hardware points. External
points may be digital, analog or accumulating and they may be input or output points. Internal
points represent data that are created by the logic of the control software. These points may be
digital, analog or accumulating. Other terms used to describe these points are virtual points,
numeric points, data points and software points.

Global or in-direct points are terms used to describe data that are transmitted on the network for
use by other controllers. These points may also be digital, analog or accumulating.

Analog input points typically imply an external point and represent a value that varies over time.
Typical analog inputs for HVAC applications are temperature, pressure, relative humidity,
carbon dioxide and airflow measurements. Typical analog outputs include control signals for
modulating valve positions, damper positions and variable frequency drive speed.

Typical digital inputs for HVAC applications represent the status (example: whether or not the
motor is running) of fans, pumps, motors, lighting contactors, etc. A temperature high limit is
considered a digital input because, although it is monitoring an analog value (temperature), the
information that is transmitted to the controller is a digital condition (whether or not the
temperature has exceeded a defined value). Digital outputs are typically motors or other devices
that are commanded on or off. Digital outputs include fans, pumps, two-position (solenoid)
valves, lighting contactors, etc.

A true analog output (voltage or current) is a varying DC voltage or milliamp signal that is used
to drive a transducer or controlled device. Another type of analog output is pulse width
modulation (PWM). PWM is accomplished by monitoring a timed closure of a set of contacts.
The amount of time the contacts are closed is proportional to a level of performance for the
controlled device.

Software Characteristics

There are basically three common approaches used to program the logic of DDC systems. They
are line programming, template or menu-based programming and graphical or block
programming.

Line programming-based systems use Basic or FORTRAN-like languages with HVAC

subroutines. A familiarity with computer programming is helpful in understanding and writing
logic for HVAC applications.

Menu-driven, database or template/tabular programming involves the use of templates for

common HVAC logical functions. These templates contain the detailed parameters necessary for
the functioning of each logical program block. Data flow (how one block is connected to another
or where its data comes from) is programmed in each template.

Graphical or block programming is an extension of tabular programming in that graphical

representations of the individual function blocks are depicted using graphical symbols connected
by data flow lines. The process is depicted with symbols as on electrical schematics and
pneumatic control diagrams. Graphical diagrams are created and the detailed data are entered in
background menus or screens.

Architecture

System architecture is the term used to describe the overall local area network or LAN structure,
where the operator interfaces connect to the system and how one may remotely communicate to
the system. It is the map or layout of the system.

The network or LAN is the medium that connects multiple intelligent devices. It allows these
devices to communicate, share information, display and print information, as well as store data.
The most basic task of the system architecture is to connect the DDC controllers so that
information can be shared between them.

Controller

A control loop requires a sensor to measure the process variable, control logic to process data, as
well as calculate an instruction, and a controlled device to execute the instruction. A controller is
defined as a device that has inputs (sensors), outputs (controllable devices) and the ability to
execute control logic (software) (Figure 7).

LAN Communication

Communications between devices on a network can be characterized as peer-to-peer or polling.

On a peer-to-peer LAN, each device can share information with any other device on the LAN
without going through a communications manager (Figure 8).

The controllers on the peer-to-peer LAN may be primary controllers, secondary controllers or
they may be a mix of both types of controllers. The type of controllers that use the peer-to-peer
LAN vary between manufacturers. These controller types are defined later in this section.

In a polling controller LAN, the individual controllers can not pass information directly to each
other. Instead, data flows from one controller to the interface and then from the interface to the
other controller (Figure 9).
The interface device manages communication between the polling LAN controllers and the
higher levels in the system architecture. It may also supplement the capability of polling LAN
controllers by providing the following functions: clock functions; buffer for trend data, alarms,
messages; and higher order software support.

Many systems combine the communications of a peer-to-peer network with a polling network. In
Figure 10, the interface communicates in a peer-to-peer fashion with the devices on the peer-to-
peer LAN. The polling LAN-based devices can receive data from the peer-to-peer devices, but
the data must flow through the interface.

Controller Classification

Controllers can be categorized by their capabilities and their methods of communicating

(controller-to-controller). In general, there are two classifications of controller - primary control
units and secondary control units

Primary controllers typically have the following features:

 Real-time accurate clock function
Full software compliment
Larger total point capacity
Support for global strategies
Buffer for alarms/messages/trend & runtime data
Freeform programming
Downloadable database
Higher analog/digital converter resolution
Built-in communication interface for PC connection.

Secondary controllers typically have the following features:

Not necessarily 100% standalone

Limited software compliment
Smaller total point count
Freeform or application specific software
Typically lower analog-to-digital converter resolution
Trend data not typically stored at this level
Typical application is terminal equipment or small central station equipment.

Operator Interfaces

The next critical element in the system architecture is an operator interface. Operator interfaces
are required to:

See data
Program the system
Exercise manual control
Store long term data
Provide a dynamic graphical interface.

There are five basic types of operator interfaces. They include:

Desktop computers which act as operator workstations

Notebook computers which act as portable operator workstations
Keypad type liquid crystal displays
Handheld consoles/ palmtops/ service tools
Smart thermostats

Desktop computers are centralized operator workstations where the main function is
programming, building and visualizing system graphics; long term data collection; and alarm and
message filtering.

Notebook computers may connect to the LAN through a communication interface that stands
alone or is built into another device. The notebook computer connected to the LAN at a
particular level may not have the same capability as a computer connected to the LAN at a
higher level.

Keypad liquid crystal displays typically are limited to point monitoring and control. They may
have some limited programming capability, such as changing a set point or time schedule.

Handheld consoles, palmtops and service tools are proprietary devices that connect to primary
controllers or secondary controllers. Typically they allow point monitoring and control,
controller configurations (addressing and communication set-up), and calibration of inputs and
outputs.

Smart thermostats are sensors with additional capabilities. They connect to secondary controllers
and have a service mode to allow for point monitoring, control and calibration. They also have a
user mode that allows point information to be displayed, setpoint adjustment and an override
mode.

PC/Network Interface

The communications interface shown in the Figure 11 is a communication interface device. It

provides the path between devices that do not use the same communications protocol. This
includes computers, modems and printers.

It may be a stand-alone component or it may be built into another device as shown in Figure 12.
Each communications interface on Figure 12 may:

Translate protocol
Provide a communication buffer
Provide temporary memory storage for information being passed between the network
and the external PC, modem or printer (mailbox function)

Larger System Architectures

When systems become larger than the capacity of a single sub-network, a higher level of
architecture is added to allow the use of multiple sub-networks.
The site LAN wide area network or WAN is used to connect multiple sub-networks and site
computers. Multiple sub-networks can be connected to a single site LAN/WAN that allows
information sharing between devices on different sub-networks (Figure 13). There may be a
limitation on the number of site computers. The site LAN/WAN may include routers if TCP/IP is
used. If no routers are used, the protocol can be totally proprietary. If TCP/IP is used, the EMS
site LAN/WAN can be the information system backbone within the facility or between facilities.

Multiple site computers can be added to the site LAN/WAN. They can connect the site
LAN/WAN via a communications interface, which may be a router. Site LAN/WAN computers
can send and receive information from the entire system. Information can be received by each of
the site computers, but can not be subsequently shared from one computer to another. Sub-
network computers may only be able to see their own sub-network.

Site LANs allow multiple computers to communicate with each other. They may use
commercially available computer network software and hardware. Messages, alarms and other
data can be re-routed to other computers on the primary site LAN. Information stored in other
computers can be remotely accessed. This includes graphics, programming and stored trend and
operational data.

Combined Components

Some vendors combine multiple functions into a single device. In the following system
architecture, Figure 14, the communication interface is built into the primary controller. A peer-
to-peer LAN or sub-network is connected directly to the device.

In Figure 15, the key component in the system consists of a communication interface, a primary
controller and an interface to the secondary polling network.
The addition of a site LAN allows a system to gain size in terms of the number of devices that
are served, but in some applications, the location of the devices, rather than the number of
devices, is the bigger challenge. In this situation, modem-based communication is used to expand
the geography of the system.

Auto-Answer/Auto-Dial System Architecture

In auto-answer/auto dial systems, a specialized communication interface is substituted which

introduces a modem and phone lines into the standard architecture. These communication
interfaces are made with built-in modems or use external commercial modems. Auto-
answer/auto-dial configurations are used to provide monitoring and access to remote buildings.
They are used where traditional direct-wiring methods are impractical; and where central site
monitoring is desired; or where remote access to controllers is desired.

In an auto-answer/auto-dial system, the central communications interface may call the individual
sites or vice versa. Information and data can be passed to and from the layer above the central
communications interface (Figure 16).
The auto-answer/auto-dial LAN architecture is typically used by installations with multiple
facilities where control and monitoring needs to be centralized. Multiple LANs are used to
maintain the groupings of devices, or to separate controllers into defined groups.

Multiple Dial LAN Support

In a systems architecture, the local sites have the ability to call an alternate communication
interface, if the primary is not available (Figure 17).
One-Way Dial System Architecture

One-way dial systems, Figure 18, are typically used to enable system owners to access their
systems from a remote location, such as their home. It is used where auto-dial monitoring is not
required. It can also be used by the installation and service company or by the commissioning
authority to troubleshoot and program from remote locations. One-way dial can also be used to
dial into remote site LANs or sub-networks.

Two modems are required, one located at the remote computer and one at the system site.
Typically, the DDC operating software must be installed on the remote computer.

Communication
Communication between two different devices controlling equipment, requires a common
protocol, a common communication speed and known data formatting. Vendors build their
devices around these criteria, so communication between devices by the same manufacturer is
routine.

Third Party Interfaces

In many installations, it is desirable for a proprietary building DDC system to communicate with
other proprietary DDC systems controlling pieces of equipment. Examples would include a
building DDC system and a chiller DDC system (Figure 19) or a fume hood DDC system.
Communication between the two systems will require an interface or gateway, due to different
proprietary protocols, communication speeds and data formatting.

The gateway or interface translates protocol between the two proprietary systems. The proper
operation of the gateway is dependent on the continued use of the specific revised levels of
software on both systems. It typically requires the support of the manufacturer at the corporate
level to implement and cooperation between the manufacturers. In addition, the costs can vary
widely.

Protocols

In the DDC world, there are the three classifications of protocols: closed protocol, open protocol
and standard protocol.

A closed protocol is a proprietary protocol used by a specific equipment manufacturer. An open

protocol system uses a protocol available to anyone, but not published by a standards
organization. A standard protocol system uses a protocol available to anyone. It is created by a
standards organization.

Open Systems

An open system is defined as a system that allows components from different manufacturers to
co-exist on the same network. These components would not need a gateway to communicate
with one another and would not require a manufacturer specific workstation to visualize data.
This would allow more than one vendors product to meet a specific application requirement.
The sole use of an open or standard protocol does not guarantee that a DDC system will be an
open system. A manufacturer has the ability to use open or standard protocols, yet create a closed
system, thus continuing a building owners dependence on a single manufacturer. This can be
accomplished by using unique communication speeds, unique data formatting and by not
adopting the full range of an open protocol.

Note: A building owner/engineer should thoroughly research a manufacturers claim of an open

system.

BACNET

BACNET is a standard protocol published by a standards organization (American Society of

Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers or ASHRAE). It is a specification for a
protocol. DDC vendors create a communication protocol that complies with this specification.

BACNET is a relatively complex standard. The standard defines protocol implementation

conformance statements (PICS) that define different levels of compliance. A given vendor may
or may not support the level required for a given application. In other words, a vendor could
meet a very low level of compliance and be BACNET-compatible. The key question is, At what
level?

In Figure 20 the chiller control units DDC will communicate with the building DDC system if
each has a BACNET gateway and their PICS match.

Native BACNET

If a vendor states their product is native BACNET, they are using the BACNET protocol in lieu
of a proprietary protocol on their LAN. In Figure 20, a native BACNET building system would
be able to communicate to the chiller control DDC with one less gateway.

Overlay Systems

An overlay system is a high-end workstation that communicates with multiple manufacturers

proprietary EMS systems. An overlay system supplier creates drivers to talk to the different
systems. The vendors must have a cooperative relationship and revision control is important for
continued successful use. The workstation typically displays data, allows manual control and
setpoint changes, and handles alarms and messaging. Any detailed editing of the control
sequence will still require knowledge of the underlying proprietary software.

LON

The Echelon Corporation has created an open protocol that uses a standard processor and a set of
standard transceivers, which allows components from different manufacturers to co-exist on the
same LAN. The protocol is available to anyone and is called LONTALK. A unique chip is
required for any device that uses LON. Standard network variable formats have been established
to allow the transfer of data from one device to another regardless of origin.

Presently, various vendors are competing to become the defacto standard for the network
database structure. The network database is a map of the components and the relationship of the
data moving between them. The operator workstation needs this structure to visualize the data.

Software suppliers providing the software for the operator workstation may be independent of
those providing the software for the database structure and the EMS vendors.