This document downloaded from All of the information, data and computer software

vulcanhammer.net
("information") presented on this web site is for
general information only. While every effort will
be made to insure its accuracy, this information
should not be used or relied on for any specific
application without independent, competent
professional examination and verification of its
accuracy, suitability and applicability by a licensed
professional. Anyone making use of this
since 1997, information does so at his or her own risk and
assumes any and all liability resulting from such
your source for engineering information use. The entire risk as to quality or usability of the
information contained within is with the reader. In
for the deep foundation and marine no event will this web page or webmaster be held
liable, nor does this web page or its webmaster
construction industries, and the historical provide insurance against liability, for any
damages including lost profits, lost savings or any
site for Vulcan Iron Works Inc. other incidental or consequential damages arising
from the use or inability to use the information
contained within.

Use subject to the fine print to the This site is not an official site of Prentice-Hall, the
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga,
Vulcan
right. Foundation Equipment or Vulcan Iron Works Inc.
(Tennessee Corporation).
All references to
sources of equipment, parts, service or repairs do
not constitute an endorsement.

Dont forget to visit our companion site http://www.vulcanhammer.org

 ENCE 361
Soil Mechanics

Site Investigations
Part I
 Site Investigation Plan

Planning for Field Investigations

Exploration Phase

Reconnaissance/Feasibility

Preliminary Exploration

Detailed Exploration

Construction/Post Construction Phases
Planning for Field Investigations

The initial phase of field investigations
should consist of detailed review of
geological conditions at the site and in its
general environs. This should include a
desktop study of available data including
remote sensing imagery, aerial photography,
and a field reconnaissance.

To the extent possible, borings should be
supplemented by lower cost exploration
techniques such as test pits, probes, seismic
refraction surveys, and electrical resistivity
surveys.
 Exploration Activities

Before Construction

Reconnaissance/Feasibility

Preliminary Exploration

Detailed Exploration

During and After Construction

Construction Phase

Post Construction Phase
Reconnaissance/Feasibility

Review of:

available topographic and geologic information

aerial and satellite photographs

data from previous investigations

site examination (important!)

These investigations reveal difficulties which
may be expected in later exploration phases
and assists in determining the type, number
and locations of borings required
 Field Reconnaissance

Nearby structures should be inspected to
ascertain their foundation performance and
potential to damage from vibration or settlement
from foundation installation. Also, the structure's
usages must be looked at to check the impact the
foundation installation may have (i.e. a surgical
unit, printing company, etc.).

On water crossings, banks should be inspected
for scour and the streambed inspected for
evidence of soil deposits not previously
indicated.
 Field Reconnaissance

Note any feature that may affect the boring
program, such as accessibility, structures,
overhead utilities, signs of buried utilities, or
property restrictions.

Note any feature that may assist in the
engineering analysis, such as the angle of any
existing slopes and the stability of any open
excavations or trenches.

Any drainage features, including signs of
seasonal water tables.

Any features that may need additional borings or
probing such as muck pockets.
 Exploration

Preliminary

May include borings to recover samples for
identification tests

Detailed

Borings

Disturbed and undisturbed Sampling for
laboratory testing

Standard penetration resistances (SPT) or other
penetrations tests (CPT, pressuremeter, etc.)

Test pits, piezometer measurements, pumping
tests
Results of Inadequate or
Nonexistent Investigation
Construction/Post Construction
Phases

Exploration does not end with the start of
construction

Further evaluation may be required during
the construction phase and after completion
of the work

In some cases (especially environmentally
sensitive ones) investigations may go on for
years after completion
Published Soil and Geological
Maps

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

Geological index map

Folios of the Geological Atlas of the United States

Geological Quadrangle Maps of United States

Bulletins, professional papers, circulars, annual
reports, monographs

Water supply papers

Topographic maps

Libraries
Published Soil and Geological
Maps

National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA, National Ocean
Survey (NOS)

Nautical Charts

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA, Soil
Conservation Service

Soil maps and reports
Published Soil and Geological
Maps

State Geological Surveys/State Geologist's
Office

Geological Society of America (GSA)

Monthly bulletins, special papers, and memoirs.

Geological map

Library of Congress

Worldwide National Earth- Science Agencies
Remote Sensing Data
Remote Sensing Data
Remote Sensing Data
Remote Sensing Data
Soil Borings, Test Pits and Deep
In Situ Tests

Soil Borings

Test Pits

Samplers

Disturbed Samples

Undisturbed Samples

Deep In Situ Tests

SPT (Standard Penetration) Test

CPT (Cone Penetrometer) Test

Menard Pressuremeter Test

Marchetti Dilatometer Test
Soil Borings
Soil Borings
 Aspects of Soil Borings

Depth of borings will vary depending on type
of structure, soil types and depth distribution

Borings should be extended through
unsuitable foundation strata (organic soils, soft
fine-grained soils, loose coarse-grained soils,
etc.)

Borings should be extended into rock where
quality of rock is unknown or questionable
(limestone is especially important)

Check borings should be made where
conditions are unknown
 Test Pits and Trenches

Test Pits

Test pits are used to examine and sample soils in situ, to
determine the depth to groundwater, and to determine
the thickness of topsoil.

They range from shallow manual or machine
excavations to deep, sheeted, and braced pits.

Hand-cut samples are frequently necessary for highly
sensitive, cohesive soils, brittle and weathered rock, and
soil formation with honeycomb structure.

Test Trenches

Test trenches are particularly useful for exploration in
very heterogeneous deposits such as rubble fills, where
borings are either meaningless or not feasible.
Test Pits
 Soil Sampling

Disturbed Sampling

Useful for determination of basic soil type, or
when testing itself is used to determine soil
properties (such as SPT testing)

Undisturbed Sampling

Necessary for many laboratory soil tests

Can be done with soil borings depending upon the
sampler being used

Important purpose of test pits is to obtain
undisturbed samples
Samplers for Disturbed Samples
Samplers for Disturbed Samples
Samplers for Disturbed Samples
 Rock Core Drilling

Done with with either
tungsten carbide or
diamond core bits

Use a double or triple
tube core barrel when
sampling weathered or
fractured rock

Used to determine Rock
Quality Designation
Samplers for Undisturbed Samples
Samplers for Undisturbed Samples
Samplers for Undisturbed Samples
 Insertion of Samplers

Impact

Standard is to use 140 lb. Weight dropped 30

Used for Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Test

Hydraulic pushing

Used for tests such as Cone Penetrometer Tests
(CPT)

Insertion

Menard Pressuremeter Test

Marchetti Dilatometer Test
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Definition

The number of blows required to drive a
standard split spoon sampler a distance of 12
inches after an initial penetration of 6 inches
is referred to as an "N" value or SPT "N"
value.

In the U.S., this is the most widely used
method of sampling soils, especially when
deep foundations are to be installed
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Apparatus

Drill Rig to advance sampler to desired
elevation

Standard 2-inch (O.D.) split barrel (or split
spoon) sampler

140 pound (63.6 kg) hammer dropping 30
(0.76 m) in free fall

Lifting and dropping apparatus, frequently
consisting of two wraps of a rope around the
cathead on the drill rig

Automatic rig also in use more efficient
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Procedure

Clean the boring of all loose material, and
material disturbed by drilling.

Insert sampler, verifying the sampler reaches
the same depth as was drilled.

Obtain a consistent 30-inch free-fall drop of
the hammer with two wraps of a rope around
the cathead on the drill rig. (Cables attached
to the hoisting drum should not be used
because it is difficult to obtain free fall.)
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Procedure

Drive the sampler 18 inches, or until normal
maximum resistance (refusal) is reached,
using the standard hammer and drop.
(Refusal is defined as a penetration of less
than 6 inches for 100 hammer blows.)

Count and record the number of blows
required to drive each 6 inches of
penetration.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Interpretation of Results

The blows are recorded per 6 of penetration

Three (3) consecutive sets of blow counts
are taken in a penetration distance of 18

The SPT value in blows/ft (blows/30 cm) is
the sum of the second and third blow counts
of the last two 6 penetration distances in an
18 total penetration
 Energy of SPT

Ideal Energy of Drop
E r
W s s
E r
140 lbs2.5'
350 ftlbs

Efficiency
En
e

Er
E n
e E r
 Energy of SPT

Ideal Striking Velocity of the Weight

v r
2gs
1 2

v r
232.22.5
12.69 ft  sec

1 2

Actual Striking Velocity of the Weight

1 2 1 2 1 2
v n
2egs
e v r
12.69 e
 SPT Efficiency Variations

Related to Mechanics of Drop

Inadequate stroke of weight

Restrictions on free drop of weight

Variations in weight

Other Variations

Incorrect contact of sampler and soil (poor
cleaning)

Soils unsuitable for split spoon (example: gravel)

Poor alignment of impact

Poor assembly of split spoon and drill string
Errors in
SPT Tests
Typical Efficiencies of SPT Tests
Factor for
Typical 60% Rod
Country Type Mechanism Efficiency Energy
Japan Donut Free-fall 78 78/60=1.30
Donut Rope & 67 67/60=1.12
Pulley with
Special throw
U.S.A. Safety Rope & Pully 60 60/60=1.00
Donut Rope & Pully 45 45/60=0.75
ArgentinaDonut Rope & Pully 45 45/60=0.75
China Donut Free-fall 60 60/60=1.00
Donut Rope and 50 50/60=0.83
Pully
SPT Efficiency Correction Factor
e
N 60
N m
N m ER m
60

Nm = blow counts measured with energy of the
rig actually used

N60 = blow counts corrected to 60% energy
ratio

e = efficiency of drop

ERm = Correction Factor for Efficiency
 Overburden Correction

Necessary to
correct when the
confining pressure
of the soil increases
and affects the
drivability of the
drill rod
 Total SPT Correction
e
N 60
C N N m
C N N m ER m
60

Nm = blow counts measured with energy of
the rig actually used

N60 = blow counts corrected to 60% energy
ratio

e = efficiency of drop

ERm = Correction Factor for Efficiency

CN = Correction for Overburden Pressure
 SPT Correlations

Density of Cohesionless Soils

Consistency of Cohesive Soils

Shear Modulus of Soils
 Density of Cohesionless Soils

Relative Soil Friction

SPT N Density, % Angle, Deg.
0-4 0-5 26-30
4-10 5-30 28-35
10-30 30-60 35-42
30-50 60-95 38-46
Consistency of Cohesive Soils

Unconfined
Compressio
n Strength,
SPT N Consistency kPa
0-2 Very Soft 0-25
2-4 Soft 25-50
4-8 Medium Stiff 50-100
8-15 Stiff 100-200
15-30 Very Stiff 200-400
>30 Hard >400
Shear Modulus of Soils
Cone Penetrometer (CPT) Test

Originally developed in Europe to address the
difficulties of the SPT Test

36 mm diameter penetrometer is usually
pushed into the ground instead of impact
driven

Direct reading of soil resistance both lateral
and direct is possible with 280 mm long
cone penetrometer

Allows considerable data to be obtained in a
short time

Does not allow for sample recovery
 Readings on
both bearing
and shaft
friction can be
obtained in the
two steps of
taking the
reading

Cone
Penetrometer
(CPT) Test
 Types of CPT Devices
Correlations

Types

Dutch (Delft) mechanical cone penetrometer

Fugro Penetrometer

Electrical Cone Penetrometer

Piezocone Penetrometer

Correlations

Soil Classifications

Can be used almost directly for pile capacity
determinations
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

Similar to the cone penetrometer test except, instead
of being pushed at a constant rate, the cone is driven
into the soil.

The number of blows required to advance the cone
in 6-inch (150 mm) increments is recorded. A
single test generally consists of two increments.

Tests can be performed continuously to the depth
desired with an expendable cone, which is left in the
ground upon drill rod withdrawal, or they can be
performed at specified intervals by using a
retractable cone and advancing the hole by auger or
other means between tests.
 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

Samples are not obtained.

Blow counts can generally be used to identify
material type and relative density.

In granular soils, blow counts from the second 6-inch (150
mm) increment tend to be larger than for the first increment.

In cohesive soils, the blow counts from the two increments
tend to be about the same.

While correlations between blow counts and
engineering properties of the soil exist, they are
not as widely accepted as those for the SPT.
Questions?