Electromagnetic Field Theory

ECE1003

Del Operator,
and
Divergence, gradient, curl, and Laplacian

Prof. D. Kannadassan,
Mobile: 9944055243
Email: [email protected]
 Differential Calculus
Including scalar and vectors, the changes in field are required to
understand the nature of them, such study is called Differential
Vector Calculus
Let us suppose a function F(x), whose variable is x. If we take the
derivative w.r.t. the variable x
dF
F dF dx F
dx

dF

dF dx
Slope
x x
dx
The derivative of the function F defines how much and how fast the
function varies with an infinitesimal increment in variable x.
 Changes defined in Cartesian Coordinates
Line change: the rate of increment in a field (or any vector) can be defined as

Surface:
multiplication of two sides (cross product)

(depends what plane)

Volume: (vector triple product)

 In Cylindrical Coordinates
Line:

Surface

Volume
 In Spherical
Line:

Surface

Volume
 Integral Calculus Line Integral
The Line or Path integral is the integral of the tangential components
of A along the path L. Also known a Circulation
b dl

b
c
A dl A cosdl
L1 a
A
a

d
Where L1 is taken as an integral from a to b. If the path is abcda, then
b c d a

A dl A cosdl A cosdl A cosdl A cosdl

L a b c d

A dl
abcda
A dl
adcba
Except when A is conservative
 Integral Calculus Surface Integral
The Surface or Flux integral is the integral of the vector field A
along the normal of a differential surface dS enclosed by a smooth
surface S

S
A
an
dS

A dS A an ds A cosds
S S s

Signifies the net flux (number of A vectors) through the surface S

 Integral Calculus Volume Integral
The Volume integral is the integral of the scalar function inside the
volume V
y
V
dv
v
x

A closed surface integral will result in a

volume dV
z

Volume integral of a vector function is

Adv x Ax dx y Ay dy z Az dz
v
 Example-3

Finally
 Operator
Changes in point, line, surface and volume are elemental to understand the
nature of field. However, since these changes are having the direction of
increment and decrement, hence such changes are defined by Vectors, called
Vector Differential Operator, Popularly Del-Operators or Gradient
Operator
In the three dimensional space, the rate of change of a function in each
dimension can be obtained using Del or operator given in Cartesian
coordinates as

a x a y a z

x y z
In cylindrical coordinate system
1
a a a z
z
In spherical coordinate system
1 1
a r a a
r r r sin
 Gradient (of a Scalar)
Consider temperature distribution T(x,y,z) inside a box
y Observation 1
From the theorem of partial derivatives

T T T
dT dx dy dz
x y z T

z Observation 2
T T T
dT a x a y a z dxa x dya y dza z
x y z

T dl Del or is called the gradient of T

 Gradient
Defines the Maximum rate of increment of a scalar field with the direction,
so gradient of a scalar will be vector
For a scalar field V (distribution of potential or energy)

V V V
dV dx dy dz
x y z
V V V

ax
ay
a z dxa x dya y dza z
x y z

V V V
Then, the gradient of V is G a x a y a z V
x y z

We can find the maximum change in the potential with w.r.t a line (l)
dV
dV G.l G.l. cos G.dl G
dl MAX
 Understanding Gradient..
1. The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of change in
V (scalar distribution) per unit distance
2. V tells the direction of maximum, at a point the gradient will
be perpendicular to the surface or line of V
3. If Vector A=V, then V is scalar potential of Vector A.
Gradient in different Coordinates
 Calculus in gradient
A B A B
AB AB BA
A BA AB


2
B B

X n nX n 1X
Where A, B and X are Scalars and n is an integer
Example -4
Practice
 Divergence
For a vector A, the divergence describe the outward/inward flux per unit
volume (or a closed surface)

Mathematically divergence is the dot product of the Del or operator with a

given vector, and the result is a scalar

V a x a y a z v x a x v y a y v z a z
x y z
Divergence of a vector field is the total flux per unit volume

Positive Negative
Zero
Divergence; Divergence;
Divergence
Source Sink
 Divergence of a Vector
1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar product is involved).

2. The divergence of a scalar V, div V, makes no sense

3.

A . A B . A .B

4.

B . X . A X . A A.X

Surf
A.dS . A.dv
Vol

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the Gauss-Ostrogradsky

theorem.

Divergence theorem simply tells that closed path integration of a volumetric surface
is equal volumetric integration, this reduces the complexity of closed path integration
or volumetric integration
Example-3
Practice - 3
 Curl of a Vector, and Stokess Theorem
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area lends to zero and whose direction is the
normal direction of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation
maximum.

Mathematically curl is the cross product of the

Del or operator with a given vector and the
resultant is a vector
 Cartesian

(OR)

Cylindrical

Spherical
Properties of CURL

Zero curl
 STOKES'S THEOREM

Sadiku, 2008

Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a

(closed) path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open
surface S bounded by L.
Determine the curl of following vectors

Solution
Check out
 Second Derivatives
Divergence of Gradient v 2 v
2 2 2
Where 2 is Laplacian Operator 2 2
x 2
y z

Curl of Gradient v 0

Gradient of Divergence V is a vector

Gradient of Divergence is not Laplacian 2V V V

Divergence of Curl V 0

Curl of Curl V V 2V

Where 2 is now Laplacian of a Vector V