Chapter 1 Interworking pgs 1-50

CCNA Notes

You create an internetwork when you connect two or more LANs or WANs via a router and
configure a logical network addressing scheme with a protocol such as IP.

Internetwork=when you connect two or more LANS or WANS via a router and configure a logical
network addressing scheme with a protocol such as IP.

-Internetworking basics

- Network segmentation

-How bridges, switches, and routers are used to physically segment a network

- How routers are employed to create an internetwork

The basic network =LAN network

- Collision -The effect of two nodes sending transmissions simultaneously in Ethernet. When
they meet on the physical media, the frames from each node collide and are damaged. See
also: collision domain.
- One collision domain –the network area in Ethernet over which frames that has collided
will be detected. Collisions are caused by hubs and repeaters, but not by LAN switches,
routers, or bridges.
- Broadcast - A data frame or packet that is transmitted to every node on the local network
segment (as defined by the broadcast domain). Broadcasts are known by their broadcast
address, which is a destination network and host address with all the bits turned on. Also
called “local broadcast.” Compare with: directed broadcast.
- One broadcast domain - A group of devices receiving broadcast frames initiating from any
device within the group. Because routers do not forward broadcast frames, broadcast
domains are not forwarded from one broadcast to another.

Sally PC and Bob Pc talk on the same LAN connected with a multiport repeater (hub)

1. Bob wanted to Sally

Well, they’re both on the same LAN connected with a multiport repeater (a hub). So
does Bob just send out a data message, “Hey Sally, you there?” or does Bob use Sally’s IP
address and put things more like, “Hey 192.168.0.3, are you there?” Hopefully, you
picked the IP option, but either option are both wrong.
 Bob is going to start with name resolution (hostname to IP address), something that’s
usually accomplished using Domain Name Service (DNS). And of note, if these two are on
the same LAN, Bob can just broadcast to Sally asking her for the information (no DNS
needed)—welcome to Microsoft Windows (Vista included)!

Time Source Destination Protocol Info

53.892794 192.168.0.2 192.168.0.255 NBNS Name query NB SALLY <00>

Since the two hosts are on a local LAN, Windows (Bob) will just broadcast to resolve the name Sally
(the destination 192.168.0.255 is a broadcast address).

What this output shows is that Bob knows his own MAC address and source IP address but not
Sally’s IP address or MAC address, so Bob sends a broadcast address of all fs for the MAC address (a
Data Link layer broadcast) and an IP LAN broadcast of 192.168.0.255.
These are both listed as the source address at this point because this information was sent from
Sally back to Bob. I want you to understand that Sally still had to go through the same resolution
processes to communicate back to Bob

To complicate things further, it’s also likely that at some point you’ll have to break up one large
network into a bunch of smaller ones because user response will have dwindled to a slow crawl as
the network grew and grew. And with all that growth, your LAN’s traffic congestion has reached
epic proportions. The answer to this is breaking up a really big network into a number of smaller
one - sometimes called network segmentation. You do this by using devices like routers, switches
and bridges.

Here’s a list of some things that commonly cause LAN traffic congestion:

Take another look at Figure 1.2—did you notice that I replaced the main hub from Figure 1.1 with a
switch?
the reason I did that is because hubs don’t segment a network; they just connect network segments
together. So basically, it’s an inexpensive way to connect a couple of PCs together, which is great for
home use and troubleshooting, but that’s about it!
Now routers are used to connect networks together and route packets of data from one network to
another. Routers, by default, break up a broadcast domain—the set of all devices on a network
segment that hear all the broadcasts sent on that segment. Figure 1.3 shows a router in our little
network that creates an internetwork and breaks up broadcast domains.
Each host is connected to its own collision domain, and the router has created two
broadcast domains. And don’t forget that the router provides connection to WAN service as well!
The router uses something called a serial interface for WAN connections, specifically, a V.35
physical interface on a Cisco router.
Breaking up a broadcast domain is important because when a host or server sends a network
broadcast, every device on the network must read and process that broadcast—unless you’ve got a
router.

Even though routers are known for breaking up broadcast domains by default, it’s important to
remember that they break up collision domains as well. 
There are two advantages of using routers in your network:
 Unlike layer 2 switches, which forward or filter frames, routers use logical addressing and provide
what is called packet switching. Routers can also provide packet filtering by using access lists, and
when routers connect two or more networks together and use logical addressing (IP or IPv6), this
is called an internetwork. Last, routers use a routing table (map of the internetwork) to make path
selections and to forward packets to remote networks. Switches aren’t used to create
internetworks (they do not break up broadcast domains by default); they’re employed to add
functionality to a network LAN. The main purpose of a switch is to make a LAN work better—to
optimize its performance—providing more bandwidth for the LAN’s users. And switches don’t
forward packets to other networks as routers do. Instead, they only “switch” frames from one port
to another within the switched network.

By default, switches break up collision domain, A term used to describe a network scenario wherein
one particular device sends a packet on a network segment, forcing every other device on that same
segment to pay attention to it. At the same time, a different device tries to transmit, leading to a
collision, after which both devices must retransmit, one at a time. Not very efficient! This situation
is typically found in a hub environment where each host segment connects to a hub that represents
only one collision domain and only one broadcast domain. By contrast, each and every port on a
switch represents its own collision domain.

The best network connected to the router is the LAN switch network on the left. Why? Because
each port on that switch breaks up collision domains. But it’s not all good—all devices are still in
the same broadcast domain. Do you remember why this can be a really bad thing? Because all
devices must listen to all broadcasts transmitted, that’s why. And if your broadcast domains are too
large, the users have less bandwidth and are required to process more broadcasts, and network
response time will slow to a level that could cause office riots.

That’s because bridges and switches basically do the same thing—break up collision domains on a
LAN (in reality, you cannot buy a physical bridge these days, only LAN switches, but they use
bridging technologies, so Cisco still calls them multiport bridges). Switches do provide this function,
but they do so with greatly enhanced management ability and features. Plus, most of the time,
bridges only had 2 or 4 ports. Yes, you could get your hands on a bridge with up to 16 ports, but
that’s nothing compared to the hundreds available on some switches!

You would use a bridge in a network to reduce collisions within broadcast domains and to increase the
number of collision domains in your network. Doing this provides more bandwidth for users. And keep
in mind that using hubs in your network can contribute to congestion on your Ethernet network.
The bridge breaks up collision domains, but all the hosts connected to both hubs are still crammed
into the same broadcast domain. Also, the bridge only created two collision domains, so each device
connected to a hub is in the same collision domain as every other device connected to that same
hub. The three hubs at the bottom that are connected also connect to the router, creating one
collision domain and one broadcast domain. This makes the bridged network look much better
indeed!

The best network connected to the router is the LAN switch network on the left. Why? Because each
port on that switch breaks up collision domains. But it’s not all good—all devices are still in the
same broadcast domain. Do you remember why this can be a really bad thing? Because all devices
must listen to all broadcasts transmitted, that’s why. And if your broadcast domains are too large,
the users have less bandwidth and are required to process more broadcasts, and network response
time will slow to a level that could cause office riots.
Okay, here I’ve placed the LAN switches at the center of the network world so the routers are
connecting only logical networks together. But it is really important to understand that even though
you have a switched network, you still need a router to provide your inter-VLAN communication, or
internetworking. Don’t forget that! LAN switches with routers, correctly placed in the network, are
the best network design. Let’s go back to Figure 1.4 again. Looking at the figure, how many collision
domains and broadcast domains are in this internetwork? Hopefully, you answered nine collision
domains and three broadcast domains! The broadcast domains are definitely the easiest to see
because only routers break up broadcast domains by default. And since there are three connections,
that gives you three broadcast domains. But do you see the nine collision domains? Just in case
that’s a no, I’ll explain. The all-hub network is one collision domain; the bridge network equals
three collision domains. Add in the switch network of five collision domains—one for each switch
port—and you’ve got a total of nine.

each port on the switch is a separate collision domain and each VLAN is a separate broadcast
domain. But you still need a router for routing between VLANs. How many collision domains do you
see here? I’m counting 10—remember that connections between the switches are considered a
collision domain!

The Layered Approach

A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how communications should take place. It addresses
all the processes required for effective communication and divides these processes into logical
groupings called layers. When a communication system is designed in this manner, it’s known as
layered architecture.

If they are developing a protocol for a certain layer, all they need to concern themselves with is that
specific layer’s functions, not those of any other layer. Another layer and protocol will handle the
other functions. The technical term for this idea is binding. The communication processes that are
related to each other are bound, or grouped together, at a particular layer.

Advantages of Reference Models

The OSI model is hierarchical, and the same benefits and advantages can apply to any layered
model. The primary purpose of all such models, especially the OSI model, is to allow different
vendors’ networks to interoperate.

The OSI Reference Model

One of the greatest functions of the OSI specifications is to assist in data transfer between disparate
hosts—meaning, for example, that they enable us to transfer data between a Unix host and a PC or a
Mac.
The OSI isn’t a physical model, though. Rather, it’s a set of guidelines that application developers
can use to create and implement networking standards, device, and internetworking schemes.

The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups. The top three layers define how the
applications within the end stations will communicate with each other and with users. The bottom
four layers define how data is transmitted end to end. Figure 1.6 shows the three upper layers and
their functions, and Figure 1.7 shows the four lower layers and their functions.

When you study Figure 1.6, understand that the user interfaces with the computer at the
Application layer and also that the upper layers are responsible for applications communicating
between hosts. Remember that none of the upper layers knows anything about networking or
network addresses. That’s the responsibility of the four bottom layers.
In Figure 1.7, you can see that it’s the four bottom layers that define how data is transferred
through a physical wire or through switches and routers. These bottom layers also determine how
to rebuild a data stream from a transmitting host to a destination host’s application.
ISO developed the OSI reference model as the precedent and guide for an open network protocol
set. Defining the etiquette of communication models, it remains today the most popular means of
comparison for protocol suites.

Figure 1.8 shows a summary of the functions defined at each layer of the OSI model. With this in
hand, you’re now ready to explore each layer’s function in detail.
The Application Layer

The Application layer of the OSI model marks the spot where users actually communicate to
the computer. This layer only comes into play when it’s apparent that access to the network
is going to be needed soon. Take the case of Internet Explorer (IE). You could uninstall every trace
of networking components from a system, such as TCP/IP, NIC card, and so on, and you could still
use IE to view a local HTML document—no problem. But things would definitely get messy if you
tried to do something like view an HTML document that must be retrieved using HTTP or nab a file
with FTP or TFTP. That’s because IE will respond to requests such as those by attempting to access
the Application layer. And what’s happening is that the Application layer is acting as an interface
between the actual application program—which isn’t at all a part of the layered structure—and the
next layer down by providing ways for the application to send information down through the
protocol stack. In other words, IE doesn’t truly reside within the Application layer—it interfaces
with Application layer protocols when it needs to deal with remote resources.
The Application layer is also responsible for identifying and establishing the
availability of the intended communication partner and determining whether sufficient
resources for the intended communication exist.

These tasks are important because computer applications sometimes require more than
only desktop resources. Often, they’ll unite communicating components from more than one
network application. Prime examples are file transfers and email, as well as enabling remote
access, network management activities, client/server processes, and information location.
Many network applications provide services for communication over enterprise networks, but for
present and future internetworking, the need is fast developing to reach beyond the limits of
current physical networking.

Note- It’s important to remember that the Application layer is acting as an interface between the actual
application programs. This means that Microsoft Word, for example, does not reside at the Application
layer but instead interfaces with the Application layer protocols. Chapter 2 will present some programs
that actually reside at the Application layer—for example, FTP and TFTP.
The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer gets its name from its purpose: It presents data to the Application layer and
is responsible for data translation and code formatting. This layer is essentially a translator and
provides coding and conversion functions. A successful data-transfer technique is to adapt the data
into a standard format before transmission. Computers are configured to receive this generically
formatted data and then convert the data back into its native format for actual reading (for
example, EBCDIC to ASCII). By providing translation services, the Presentation layer ensures that
data transferred from the Application layer of one system can be read by the Application layer of
another one.

Tasks like data compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption are associated with this
layer. Some Presentation layer standards are involved in multimedia operations too.

The Session Layer

The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing down sessions between
Presentation layer entities. This layer also provides dialog control between devices, or nodes. It
coordinates communication between systems and serves to organize their communication by
offering three different modes: simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. To sum up, the Session layer
basically keeps different applications’ data separate from other applications’ data.

The Transport Layer

The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a data stream. Services located in the
Transport layer segment and reassemble data from upper-layer applications and unite it into the
same data stream. They provide end-to-end data transport services and can establish a logical
connection between the sending host and destination host on an internetwork. Some of you are
probably familiar with TCP and UDP already. You know that both work at the Transport layer and
that TCP is a reliable service and UDP is not. This means that application developers have more
options because they have a choice between the two protocols when working with TCP/IP
protocols.
The Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms for multiplexing upper-layer
applications, establishing sessions, and tearing down virtual circuits. It also hides details of any
network-dependent information from the higher layers by providing transparent data transfer.

Flow Control
Data integrity is ensured at the Transport layer by maintaining flow control and by allowing users
to request reliable data transport between systems. Flow control prevents a sending host on one
side of the connection from overflowing the buffers in the receiving host—an event that can result
in lost data. Reliable data transport employs a connection-oriented communications session
between systems, and the protocols involved ensure that the following will be achieved:
The purpose of flow control is to provide a means for the receiver to govern the amount of data sent by
the sender.

Bridges and switches read each frame as it passes through the network. The layer 2 device then
puts the source hardware address in a filter table and keeps track of which port the frame was
received on. This information (logged in the bridge’s or switch’s filter table) is what helps the
machine determine the location of the specific sending device. The real estate business is all about
location, location, location, and it’s the same way for both layer 2 and layer 3 devices. Though both
need to be able to negotiate the network, it’s crucial to remember that they’re concerned with very
different parts of it. Primarily, layer 3 machines (such as routers) need to locate specific networks,
whereas layer 2 machines (switches and bridges) need to eventually locate specific devices. So,
networks are to routers as individual devices are to switches and bridges. And routing tables
that “map” the internetwork are for routers as filter tables that “map” individual devices are
for switches and bridges.
After a filter table is built on the layer 2 device, it will forward frames only to the segment where the
destination hardware address is located. If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the
layer 2 device will block the frame from going to any other segments. If the destination is on a different
segment, the frame can be transmitted only to that segment. This is called transparent bridging.