Gillen - Body by Design Fearfully and Wonderfully Made (2001)

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BODY
BY
design
The Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body
For thou hast possessed my reins: thou hast covered me in my mothers

womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made:
marvellous are thy works; and that my soul knoweth right well. My sub-
stance was not hid from thee, when I was made in secret, and curiously
wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see my substance,
yet being unperfect; and in thy book all my members were written, which
in continuance were fashioned, when as yet there was none of them.
Psalm 139:13-16
By
D r. A l a n L . G i l l e n

BODY
BY
First Printing: May 2001
design
Eighth Printing: May 2014
Copyright 2001 by Alan Gillen. All rights reserved. No part of this may be used or reproduced in any
manner whatsoever without written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations in articles
and reviews. For information write:
Master Books, P.O. Box 726, Green Forest, AR 72638
Master Books is a division of the New Leaf Publishing Group, Inc.
ISBN-13: 978-0-89051-296-8
Library of Congress Catalog Number: 00-102650
Graphic Artist: Mike Daily
Unless otherwise noted. scripture quotations taken from the King James (Authorized) Version of the Bible.
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Printed in the United States of America
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Dedicated to Jayne, Earl, and Barbara Gillen

BODY
BY
design
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
Preface............................................................................................4
Foreword by Inis Bardella ..............................................................5
1 Recognizing Design in the Human Body.......................................6
2 Origins of the Human Body ........................................................16
3 Discovering DNA, Cells and Tissue .............................................22
4 Exploring Development: Fearfully and Wonderfully Made .........30
5 Exploring the Skeletal System in the Multifaceted
Body Framework..........................................................................36
6 Exploring Interwoven Designs of the Muscular Systems .............46
7 A Voyage into the Multifaceted Digestive System ........................54
8 Inferring Designs in the Excretory System...................................62
9 A Journey into the Heart and Bloodstream .................................68
10 Investigating the Respiratory System and the Lungs ...................78
11 Exploring the Nervous System, the Brain, and Pain ....................86
12 All or None Sensory Systems: The Eye and the Ear ..................96
13 Investigating the Body in Balance: The Endocrine System........104
14 Detecting Diseases: The Human Body Defense Systems ...........118
15 Classic and Contemporary Explorations in the Human Body ......130
16 The Wisdom of the Body...........................................................140
References Cited.........................................................................152
Further Reading .........................................................................153
Glossary .....................................................................................154
Index ..........................................................................................158

Preface
Body by Design describes the wonder, beauty, and creation of the human body. While writing this book on the
human body I had the sense of working on several books at once. I wanted to capture the essence of its anatomy
and physiology, the interwoven components in each body system as creation evidence, and to provide special
explorations in each body system. These explorations include disease aspects of body systems, current events, and
classic (historic) and contemporary explorers. Although an evolutionary origin of humans is now assumed among
most professional biologists, this has not always been the case. Most of the foundation laid in human anatomy,
microbiology, and pathology was by done by scientists who believed in creation. Therefore, I have made it a goal to
tell biographically about some of the famous explorers of the human body. In addition, I also hoped to convey an
appreciation for the vast evidence that supports a creation or design view of the human body by rendering medical
facts in an appealing style.
This book, Body by Design, continues the approach I began in The Human Body: An Intelligent Design. It is
not a sequel in the strictest sense because each volume stands alone and is written at different reading levels. Also,
The Human Body: An Intelligent Design emphasizes physiological evidences for creation and Body by Design
emphasizes anatomical evidences for creation in the human body. It also follows a pattern begun with Fearfully
and Wonderfully Made and In His Image in that it gives credit to the Creator for forming and fashioning the
human body and denies it is a product of evolution. The two books by Dr. Paul Brand and Phillip Yancey empha-
size spiritual analogies of human body with the church, medical missions, and the varying roles within the body,
whereas my books focus on more in-depth human biology and apologetics of the Christian faith.
I begin each major section with a survey of the basic anatomical parts of each system in the human body and how
they function. Since Vesalius first declared the human body the most wondrous of the world's wonders, several
hundred years of scientific discovery have only served to underscore his words. The body is far more wondrous
than Vesalius could have imagined. Up until the late 18th century, science was seen as a direct search for God.
When Vesalius, Harvey, Leonardo da Vinci, and Newton made their discoveries, they believed their results taught
humanity about God as well. The created world, they felt, revealed His nature. Not many people approach science
that way any more.
The organization of the book is built around a universal organization of human anatomy, the systems approach. It
is like most texts, where most chapters are devoted to one of 11 body systems. Some medical texts use a regional
approach to anatomy, where one body region, such as the thoracic region, is treated at a time. Most popular books
on the human body, as well as most anatomy and physiology texts, assume an evolutionary origin of man. This
book is somewhat unique in that it is built around the widely accepted physiological themes but provides a dis-
tinct, creationist approach to the human body. I wrote Body by Design to help readers understand the human
body from a biblical perspective. The objectives for this book include 1) to describe the designed structures and
purposeful functions for each of the 11 systems in the human body; 2) to explain selective in-depth explorations in
each body system; 3) to compare and contrast the interwoven pattern observed in cloth/fabric with the design seen
in each human body system; 4) to provide examples of disease in each of the body systems from a clinical and/or
creation perspective; and 5) to explain the historical, classical, and contemporary explorations in anatomy and
physiology (beginning with Vesalius, Father of Modern Anatomy) and trace the design model of the human body
through the year 2000 (technology-based research projects of today). The book should serve as a reference for biol-
ogy students because it provides questions to study and definitions of basic biology terms. Many of these new
terms can be found in a glossary. Finally, after reading this book, the student should better understand that we
have been made fearfully and wonderfully and that we serve an awesome God.

Foreword
Marvelous Interweaving
Could we Homo sapiens have just come into existence through a series of evolutionary changes over thou-
sands of years? Careful examination of the human body reveals that macroevolution of Homo sapiens is not possi-
ble. The more intricately one explores human anatomy and physiology, the more obvious creation by a Master
Creator becomes. The more scientific research discovers about the functioning of the human body, the more obvi-
ous a planned, intelligent design by God becomes.
High school and college anatomy and physiology textbooks usually present an evolutionist view without presenting
accurate, truthful explanations of what is known and what is theory. Even in clinically oriented texts that used to
be neutral, such as human anatomy, physiology, and microbiology, we now see Darwinian philosophy and medi-
cine interwoven throughout. Logical reasoning and statistical explanations for these new developments of human
structure, function, and disease are not discussed. References from other scientists that mention God are not accu-
rately quoted, or worse, not acknowledged at all.
Body by Design presents human anatomy and physiology clearly, accurately, and truthfully. Purposeful, intricate
design of structure and function are discussed. The evidence for logical, deliberate design by God is interwoven
into a detailed explanation of the human body systems. Body system relationships to one another are explored.
Students are challenged to think through the evidence the facts as we know them today and to consider
the statistical likelihood of macroevolution. The end result is an effective, interwoven presentation of anatomy,
physiology, and creation.
Body by Design defines the basic anatomy and physiology in each of the 11 body systems, as do many texts.
However, the unique contribution of this book is the evidence it provides for design in each of these systems
through description of their basic biology. Body by Design also contains biographical information about famous
biologists like Vesalius, Harvey, Starling, Pasteur, Lister, and Cuvier, revealing that a design view of the body is not
new. Instead, this is a common view held through the ages. Only in recent times have biologists been so antagonis-
tic toward the idea of a Creator being responsible for the origin of mankind. Additionally, the book compares and
contrasts the viewpoints of creation/design with macroevolution on specific human traits.
Tables assist the reader with understanding relationships between design and purpose. Figures provide details of key
anatomical structures and physiologic principles. Clear examples are used to explain relationships between struc-
ture, function, and intelligent design. Focus boxes stimulate thinking and provide practical application of the
information presented. Check Your Understanding questions, at the conclusion of each chapter, go beyond rote
memory to stimulate process thinking and reasoning.
Body by Design achieves a marvelous interweaving of anatomy, physiology, and creation. Only high school and
college students who are willing to explore the intricacies of human anatomy and physiology in a logical, thought-
provoking manner should venture into this textbook.
Inis Jane Bardella, M.D., FAAFP

Assistant Professor
Department of Family Medicine and Clinical Epidemiology
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine

Recognizing Design
in the
Human Body
1
T
For thou hast possessed he powerful, unceasing beating of the heart,
the intricacy of blood clotting, the complex,
my reins: thou hast cov-
camera-like eye, the double helix pattern in
ered me in my mothers DNA, and the skillful hand of a surgeon are all
womb. I will praise thee; examples of intricate designs found in the human body. The
for I am fearfully and origin of these patterns is a topic that has fascinated biolo-
gists since the time of the ancient Greeks. It was not until
wonderfully made: mar- the time of Vesalius (151464), however, that the dissection
velous are thy works; and of cadavers was allowed in the study of human anatomy. It
that my soul knoweth was also during this era that the scientific method was first
used by William Harvey (15781657) in human physiolo-
right well. My substance
gy, and that good biology began to demand proof from
was not hid from thee, experiments, not just logical and speculative thinking.
when I was made in Beginning with the Reformation time period (and later
secret, and curiously during the Renaissance) man began to really understand
wisdom of the inward parts and to seek to understand
wrought in the lowest products of the Creators design and plan for the human
parts of the earth. Thine body. In those days, many explorers of the human body
eyes did see my substance, began thinking Gods thoughts after Him.
yet being unperfect; and
The Websters dictionary defines design as a plan, a
in thy book, all my mem- scheme, a project, or a purpose with intention or aim.
bers were written, which Today, many are asking whether these observed designs are
in continuance were fash- the product of evolution or if they are the fingerprints of
a master creator. Many biologists view man as the product
ioned, when as yet there of cosmic evolution from some hominid ancestor. Still other
was none of them biologists question this naturalistic model of human descent
(David, Ps. 139:1316). because there is a unique plan and pattern to the human
body. Today, many biologists are reconsidering design and
are seeing Homo sapiens (literally, man who is wise) as the
pinnacle of design because of his spectacular cell biology,
anatomy, and physiology.

The Fabrica View of the Human Body boldly challenged hundreds of Galens teachings on how the
body operates. Many traditional anatomists attacked
Thou didst form me from my mothers womb. Vesalius book, but failed in every attempt. No matter where
the opponents looked, they were rebuffed with the accuracy
T he Psalmist, in his song of praise to God, is beautiful-
ly picturing the weaving together of a human being
within the womb. However, the Psalmist had no idea of
of details he used in describing the human body and the
vivid drawings depicting the interwoven designs. Both text
how scientifically true his picture was. In the Old Testament and drawing could be verified by dissection of human
era, man had never heard of DNA or RNA, the helical and cadavers.
symmetrical molecules that are woven together to produce Everywhere a scientist studies in the human body, he is
the blueprint of life. Yet with great accuracy, the Psalmist confronted with a designer behind the seamlessly interwoven
depicts the skillful fabric of the human body. design of the lymphatic, immune, circulatory, respiratory, and
During the Great Reformation, a Belgian anatomist and digestive systems. Like the idea in Vesalius Fabrica, many
physician began to unlock the mysteries of the human body. body systems illustrate the blueprint of a divine weaver, crafts-
Andreas Vesalius (figure 1.1), born in Brussels in 1514, man, or artificer. The interwoven complexity, along with the
changed anatomy forever. Vesalius, a devout Roman organs intricacies, defies chance. The infinitely low probabil-
Catholic, understood there to be a Master Craftsman ity of macroevolution occurring by mutations and selection
behind the fabric design in the human body. During the points to an intelligent designer. There must have been a
1530s, Vesalius developed a great interest in anatomy by Creator to make such a beautiful fabric of the body systems,
studying the body parts of human cadavers. After complet- all originating from a microscopic blueprint called DNA.
ing a medical degree, he taught
young medical students by per-
forming dissections as he lec-
tured. Vesalius did not follow the
Figure 1.1
traditional approach of merely
reading from books as he taught
anatomy. Ancient Roman physi-
cians such as Galen had studied
the body parts by dissecting ani-
mals. Vesalius, however, turned
to human corpses for his dissec-
tions. His radical methods
enabled him to write the text De
Humani Corporis Fabrica (The
Fabric of the Human Body), the
most accurate and comprehen-
sive book on human anatomy
ever written in his time. The
seven-volume work was com-
pletely illustrated with hand-
made engravings by Vesalius
himself. These diagrams vividly
proved the theme of a divine
designer in the interwoven
human body.
Because of his great work,
Vesalius was appointed as royal
physician to Phillip II in Madrid. Andreas Vesalius, a devout Roman Catholic, understood
In 1564, Vesalius died in a ship-
wreck after a trip to the Holy that there was a Master Craftsman behind the
Land, but he lived on in his mas-
terpiece, Fabrica. This book
fabric-like design in the human body.
Body By Design 7

The intertwining design of the human body will be picture, one thread at a time. When the seamstress has fin-
shown in the manual by the fabric of DNA, embryonic ished her picture, she releases it from the loom.
development, muscle construction, alveoli of lungs, convo- All customers who look at the tapestry see only the one
luted tubules of kidneys, capillaries of lymphatic and circu- complete fabric. However, if one would look close enough, he
latory systems, intertwining nature of heart chambers, and could see all the individual threads seamlessly woven together.
many other body systems. Anyone looking at the rich tapestry and the vibrant colors
would immediately praise the designer, because they realize
that only a Master Designer could produce such a magnificent
BOOK OBJECTIVES work of art. Yet, the very same people will turn around and
claim that the complex human body happened by chance. The
The purpose of this book is to: body, however, is woven together just like a tapestry. For
Describe the designed structures and purposeful example, look at the interwoven complexity of a single skele-
functions for each of the 11 systems in tal muscle. When one initially glances at a muscle, he sees a
the human body; tough, translucent mass of tissue. Under the microscope, how-
Explain selective in-depth explorations for ever, the amazing interwoven design manifests itself. Each
interwoven components and body parts for muscle is composed of muscle fiber bundles (figure 1.5). In
each system; each fiber, many myofibrils and nuclei are enclosed within a
Compare and contrast the interwoven design common sarcolemma. Each myofibril contains numerous sar-
observed in cloth/fabric with the patterns seen comeres, arranged end to end in a single file. There are mil-
in each system of the human body; lions of sarcomeres in a single muscle with each overlapping
Provide examples of disease in each of the body the next one in a long string. These sarcomeres have two parts
systems from a clinical and/or creation to them. Thin actin filaments surround a thick myosin fila-
perspective; and ment. When the actin filaments contract across the myosin fil-
Explain the historical Reformation viewpoint ament, the muscle contracts. The muscle will not move until
of anatomy and physiology. every sarcomere is contracting the same way. Therefore, nerves
repeat the message to other neighboring muscle fibers.
We begin with Vesalius, Father of Modern
Anatomy, and trace the creation model of the
human body through the year 2000, including the
technology-based research projects of today. Figure 1.2
Many of the terms that are useful in discussing such a
plan can be found in the glossary.
T he complexity of the human body is direct evidence

against macroevolution. All the interwoven parts of the
body point to an intelligent Creator. In the early 1990s, Dr.
Charles Thaxton argued for the intelligent design of the
human body. His argument is called the principle of uniform
experience. To illustrate the complex nature of this principle,
one needs to look at the formation of a beautiful tapestry in a
weavers loom. First, a fabric designer needs to sit down and
design the blueprint for the tapestry. She needs to decide
which colors to use and what type of pattern she will use the
colors in. The seamstress must also decide what type of fabric Vesalius dissecting
she will use for the tapestry. She cannot randomly pick colors a muscle
and fabrics, for they must coordinate and complement each
other. Next, the weaver must decide how to mix and inter-
twine the strands of thread. On a simple loom, she will weave
the secondary threads under and over the primary threads.
Each individual thread meshes tightly against the next thread.
Slowly, carefully, the designer weaves together her beautiful
8 Body by Design

All of these individual parts are needed just to make one sin- ways. But this is no placid, subdued temple. It is far from it.
gle muscle contract. Yet, there are nearly 700 muscles in the Every cell of the body, every fiber of its being blazes with activi-
human body. Indeed, the complexity of the human muscle must ty. The human body is a bustling place, even when asleep. It is
have come from the blueprint of a master weaver. Just as one always building, renovating, reproducing, and growing. It con-
would acknowledge the intelligent causation of a tapestry, so also verts one energy form into another. It sends and receives mes-
must one acknowledge the intelligent designer of the human sages, it fends off intruders, and it performs the most amazing
body. This chain of logic, which compares the making of a tap- balancing acts.
estry to the formation of a human muscle, illustrates the princi- This human temple is constructed according to levels of
ple of uniform experience (figure 1.3). organization that increase in size and complexity. Cells form the
basic structural and functional units of life; they are the smallest
The Human Body and Its Design living parts of our bodies. The most complex level is the systems
level. Anatomical evidence of design can be seen in every level
What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason, from the simplest to the most complex levels of organization.
how infinite in faculty, in form and moving how express Humans are complex creatures; they require many levels of
and admirable, in action like an angel, organization to keep things running properly. Groups of similar
in apprehension how like a god! cells come together to form tissues; tissues unite to form
Shakespeare organs. Two or more organs, along with their associated struc-
tures, join forces to perform certain vital functions, such as diges-
A wesome, incredible, or ingenious are some of the adjectives

that men through the ages have used to describe the order
found in the human body. The splendor of the human body can
tion or reproduction. This group of organs working together is
called a system. The complete creature comprises various sys-
tems. Gods pride (declaring it very good), the human body, is
only be described in superlative terms! When one considers the composed of 11 distinct but interrelated systems. They all seem
movement in the hand of a concert pianist, the thought process- to possess an interwoven fabric design, bearing the signature of a
es in the brain of a heart surgeon, the eye focus required of a master craftsman (Eph. 2:10).
seamstress, and the muscle coordination that propels a world- From a biological standpoint, the ultimate goals underlying
class gymnast, it is difficult to imagine this body plan has hap- all the bodys internal activities are survival and reproduction.
pened by chance. A naturalistic explanation The Bible tells us that we are to be good stew-
alone cannot account for the incredible com- ards of the temple God has given us and that
plexity and optimal integration in human man is to be fruitful (for survival) and multi-
anatomy and physiology. All these life processes ply (for reproduction). With our large, sophis-
require precise movement, coordination, and ticated brains, we humans can set many goals
communication among the bodys cells. for ourselves, but our bodies are run largely by
The human body consists of 11 organ sys- systems designed to ensure that we survive and
tems, four basic body tissues, and dozens of dif- reproduce.
ferent specialized cells. The human body is The human body may be considered to
mostly made up of an estimated 30 to 100 tril- have 11 systems (table 1.1), each with its own
lion cells, with most estimates counting over 75 job but all highly interdependent. The main
trillion cells. This is quite a range. Perhaps this job of the skeletal system is to protect our
range is so vast because of the diversity of human sizes from Billy inward parts and to support us. Muscles help us move and
Barney, a famous circus midget, to Hakeem Olajuwon and respond to external stimuli. The task of the nervous and
Shaquille ONeil (NBA stars). Most of these cells can be seen endocrine systems are to maintain order among the bodys tril-
with a light microscope. Some 100 million are red blood cells lions of cells. Both the digestive and the respiratory systems pro-
(RBC) and several hundred million are nerve cells. The human vide raw materials for our daily lives and for growth and both
body is truly a highly organized and coordinated system! carry off wastes. The circulatory system transports nutrient- and
oxygen-rich blood throughout the body. The excretory system
Human Body Systems rids us of liquid waste, while the nervous system interprets and
responds to stimuli from outside our bodies as well as from those
The Bible calls the human body a temple (1 Cor. 3:16). If inside. The job of the reproductive system is to ensure the sur-
the body is a temple, it is surely the most elaborate one ever vival of mankind. The integumentary system holds the whole
wrought. It is a marvel of architecture, complete with domes, package together and helps protect us from invading microbes. It
windows, arches, and thousands of miles of intricate passage- works with the major systems that marshal protection against germs
Body By Design 9

O r g a n Sy s t e m s w i t h t h e i r Ma i n C o m p o n e n t s a n d Ma i n Fu n c t i o n s
10
Table 1.1
ORGAN SYSTEM DESIGNED STRUCTURE PURPOSEFUL FUNCTION INTERWOVEN COMPONENTS
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1. DIGESTIVE Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, Food processing (ingestion, digestion, villi: capillaries & lacteal
stomach, intestines, rectum, anus, absorption, elimination)
Body by Design
liver, pancreas, and gall bladder
2. CIRCULATORY Heart, blood vessels, blood Internal distribution of materials twisting (helical) inside arteries & veins;
capillary junctions with each body system
Page# 10
3. RESPIRATORY Lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes Gas exchange (uptake of oxygen) alveolus, capillaries
4. IMMUNE AND Bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, Body defense (fighting lymphatic capillaries, spleen, thymus
LYMPHATIC * spleen, lymph vessels, white blood cells infections and cancer) reticular fibers in spleen, lymph nodes
5. EXCRETORY Kidneys, uterus, urinary bladder, Disposal of metabolic wastes; juxtamedullary nephron with
and urethra regulation of osmotic balance of blood pertibular capillaries

6. ENDOCRINE Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas Coordination of body activities nerve/endocrine junction in pituitary stalk

between hormone-secreting glands
(e.g. digestion, metabolism)
7. REPRODUCTIVE Ovaries, testes, and associated organs Procreation, physical intimacy umbilical cord, uterine blood supply,
(egg and sperm) double helix in germ cells
Seminiferous tubules, epididymis
8. NERVOUS Brain, spinal cord, nerves Coordination of body activities; astrocytes and various neuroglial cells
sensory organs detection of stimuli cauda equina, plexuses, pain network
9. INTEGUMENTARY Skin and its derivatives (e.g. hair, Protection against mechanical dermis glands, hair, and nerve network
claws, skin glands) injury, infection, drying out
10. SKELETAL Skeleton (bones, ligaments, cartilage) Body support, protection of osteon (haversian system in compact bone)
internal organs
11. MUSCULAR Skeletal muscles Movement, locomotion sarcoplasmic reticulum, with T-tubules
* Anatomical structures in our bodys defense system are collectively known as the lymphatic
system and the functional body defenses system are known as the immune system.
and toxins. These body defenses include the immune system and of metabolism, or homeostasis; 3) interdependence among
the lymphatic system. body parts; 4) short-term physiological adaptation; 5) mainte-
If one system fails, the others are affected, either directly or nance of boundaries; and 6) the triple scheme of order, organ-
indirectly. Let us explore how these 11 systems do their jobs in ization, and integration. These themes are widely acknowl-
the chapters ahead, for herein lies the wonder that differentiates edged by physiologists and are consistent with a creation per-
our living bodies from even the most exquisite temple. spective of the human body. In fact, I believe each of these
themes are physiological evidences for a creation model of the
Human Body as a Machine human body.
The correlation of structure and function can be
A nother classic word picture used to describe the human

body is one that envisions it as a complex machine. The
body and a machine both perform work. This analogy is not
explained by stating that, in general, the physical form of
human tissue, organ, or system is related to its function. Two
examples of this are 1) the composition of bone that makes it
new. Renaissance scholars, including the famous artist and sci- both strong and relatively light to handle the bodys weight,
entist Leonardo da Vinci, used it. At the close of the 15th cen- and 2) the longitudinal separation in the heart that keeps
tury, Leonardo da Vinci made the most comprehensive study unoxygenated from oxygenated blood. Both are exquisite
of the human body, yet he saw neither superfluous nor defec- demonstrations of form being related to function.
tive structure in man. In fact, he described human anatomy as The human body maintains itself in equilibrium, a steady
one of beauty and complexity. In addition, he made sketches state known as homeostasis. This concept is based upon feed-
of the body in a study of proportions, and compared them back that prevents small changes from becoming too large and
with the most sophisticated machines of his time. Because the harmful. Changes occur between internal and external envi-
body was so masterfully engineered like a ronments, and between interstitial fluid (the
machine, it has been the subject of many fluid between our cells) and intracellular fluid.
artists works through the centuries. In this way the body stays in balance, but not
This machine analogy is still applicable everyones balance is exactly the same.
today. Each part of the body has its own job. Thermostat wars inside the house frequent-
The parts work together to keep the body ly happen when family members are at home
alive, much as the parts of an automobile one member is hot and the other is cold.
work together to make it run. The skin, for Clearly, the bodys hypothalamus or body
example, protects the body as paint protects thermostat has a unique best setting. The
the metal on a car. Food serves as fuel for the body will regulate its temperature by a nega-
body as gasoline powers a car engine. The tive feedback mechanism by either shivering
human body wears out and breaks down if to warm the body when it is cold or sweating
not properly maintained. If a machine requires a blueprint to cool the body when it is hot.
and an architect, how much more does the plan of the human Another example of homeostasis and negative feedback is
body logically demand that it have a Maker? glucose regulation by insulin and glucagon. The pancreas is
Remember, however, that the human body is not as simple considered both an exocrine and endocrine gland. The
as a machine made by people. If a car breaks down, its broken endocrine function of the pancreas secreting insulin in the
parts can be replaced. If some parts of the body wear out and blood is controlled by the amount of glucose in the blood.
break down completely, they cannot so easily be replaced to The pancreatic cells that control blood glucose levels are called
make the body as good as new. Many parts, such as the hair Islets of Langerhans. Insulin and glucagon work as a check
and outer layers of skin, however, are continually being and balance system regulating the bodys blood glucose level.
replaced as older portions die and fall off. Unlike a machine, Insulin is antagonistic to glucose. It decreases the blood glu-
the body can heal itself, within limits, as illustrated in the case cose concentration by accelerating its movement out of the
of a broken bone that forms a collar and a wound that disap- blood and through the cell membranes of the working cells.
pears as the tissue is restored. This topic will be explored in chapter 13.
As glucose enters the cells at a faster rate, the cells
Basic Themes of Human Physiology increase their metabolism of glucose. All sugary and starchy
foods, such as bread, potatoes, and cakes, are broken down
T here are basic principles, or themes, that can be observed

in all 11 of the human body systems. These themes
include 1) relationship of structure to function; 2) steady state
into glucose. In this form they can be absorbed by every cell
in the body, including the cells in the liver, which store glu-
cose in the form of glycogen. Cells absorb glucose and
Body By Design 11

generate ATP, using physiological adaptation.
the energy released An example of this would
Figure 1.3
from the sugar. be an adjustment of oxy-
ATP is generated in gen level in our blood-
the cells mitochon- stream as we change alti-
dria, resulting in ener- Exocrine tude. Oxygen pressure in
cells
gy storage and the pro- the atmosphere decreases
duction of carbon at higher altitudes. The
dioxide and water as athlete who is condi-
Pancreatic
byproducts. This aero- duct tioned at sea level wont
bic process is the breathe as efficiently at
bodys principle source Acinar high altitude stadiums
cells
of energy and it cannot compared with those
take place without who train at higher alti-
insulin. One type of tudes. If the body
diabetes occurs when Islets remains living and train-
the pancreas fails to Alpha ing at higher altitudes
secrete enough insulin cells over a period of months,
Beta
and so fails to regulate cells however, then it will
the glucose concentra- physiologically adapt to
tion in the blood. The this altitude by increasing
Cells of the Pancreas: Islet Cells
normal glucose level (Center), and Acinar Cells (Peripheral
the level of a hormone
for an average person is Regions surrounding the Islet Cells) called erythropoietin.
about 80 to 120 mil- This hormone increases
ligrams of glucose in the number of red blood
every 100 milliliters of blood. If the beta cells of the pancreas cells and, in turn, the oxygen available to body tissues also
secrete too little insulin, an excess of glucose collects in the increases. This adaptation gives greater wind to the athlete
bloodstream causing diabetes mellitus, the most common competing in mountain arenas.
disorder of the endocrine system. Every living organism must be able to maintain its
Many early anatomists believed that body parts share a boundaries so that its inside structures remain distinct from
common thread uniting them; they are interdependent its outside chemical environments. Every human body cell
with each other. These early workers noted that the body is is surrounded by a cell membrane that encases its contents
one unit, though it is made up of many different types of and allows needed substances to enter while restricting the
cells and tissues. They all form one body. Related terms that entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.
other scientists have used to describe this phenomenon of Additionally, the integumentary system, or skin, encloses
interdependence include an adaptation package, cell team, the whole body. The integumentary system protects internal
compound traits, emergent properties, interwoven com- organs from drying out, from bacterial invasion, and from
ponents, irreducible complexity, molecular team, and the damaging effects of an unbelievable number of chemical
synergism. This resulting condition of interdependent body substances and physical factors in the external environment.
parts working together is synergistic such that the sum of Finally, the triple theme of order, organization, and
their action is greater than the addition of separate, individ- integration can be clearly seen in many of the human body
ual actions. systems. These themes will be discussed most in chapter 11
Two examples of the marvelous advantage resulting from on the nervous system. The levels of organization from least
this cooperation at all levels from the molecular to the sys- complex to most complex are molecules, cells, tissues,
tematic are 1) the amazing interdependence of many parts organs, organ systems, and organisms. A plan and purpose
for focusing the lens in the human eye, and 2) the irreducible can be seen through the structure and function of an infor-
complexity involved in the cascade (meaning one effect must mation system, leading us to believe the parts of animal and
occur in order for the next level of effect to happen) of bio- human bodies are the work of an intelligent designer. This
chemical reactions required for blood clotting. argument may apply from the molecular level to the gross
Adaptation allows living cells to adjust to change in the anatomical level.
external environment. Short-term change is facilitated by
12 Body by Design

Design Focus 1.1
Aging Theory: Why does the body wear out?
O ne of the topics of great interest to cell biologists and

physicians is aging. Why do we age and are there
limits to how long we live? These are just two of the
Cell biologists have found that ordinary cells will
divide between 80 and 90 times. It appears that telom-
eres, on the tips of each chromosome, control the
questions that sci- number of times a
entists and theolo- cell can reproduce.
gians alike are ask- Every time the cell
ing. Evolutionists Chromosome divides, it is as if a
believe we can bead is snipped
extend human life off, shortening the
longer and longer if telomere. Once all
only we have the the beads are gone,
technology. Yet, the cell division can
Bible does seem to no longer take
indicate that we place. From then
will all die and that on, each cell runs
there are upper down and new
limits to how long ones do not
we may live. On replace it. Scien-
the other hand, Telomeres
tists discovered
creation scientists that DNA polm-
believe there was a erase copies only
time in human history that man could live to great ages, part of the DNA sequence at the telomere. Each time
even into the 900-year life span. (Most evolutionists scoff a chromosome replicates it loses 50100 DNA base
at such an idea.) This was prior to the great flood of Noahs pairs. Cell division ultimately stops when there is too
day. In this age, however, a median age between 70 and 80 much loss of DNA, and the cell dies because of dam-
is most common, with an upper limit of about 130 years. age it sustains in the course of aging. So even if you
avoid any sort of fatal accident or disease, you will vir-
Why do we age? tually succumb to organ failure and eventually death.
Cells in the human body will eventually wear out and Events like infectious disease, accidents, mutations,
die. It is enough to simply say that there are biological and environmental toxins may speed the process of
laws that dictate that all fixed structures will eventually decay. A basic physical law, entropy, only accelerates dis-
wear out. This is true, but biological machinery has a order, and thus, aging. Unfortunately, the bad news is
built-in program that has the ability to repair itself. that we are all going to die. The good news is that those
Human and animal cells dont keep dividing, repairing, who trust in Jesus Christ, the Creator, for their lives, will
and renewing our body parts forever. If worn-out cells someday get to trade in this old body for a new one.
could be replaced by newly manufactured ones, then This new body will never grow old and die. And that is
none of your parts would wear out and you could live for- something to celebrate!
ever. You might die of an automobile accident or micro-
bial infection, but you would not die of old age. Our
organs, however, do wear out. The cells within can multi-
ply for a while, but not forever. After a finite number of
times, they simply stop dividing and eventually die.
Body By Design 13

Figure Legends
Basic Terminology for body by design
Figure 1.4 a
Planes and Sections
of the Human Body
T he human body may also be described in terms of the
planes, or imaginary flat surfaces, that pass through it. A
sagittal plane is a plane that divides the body into right and left
sides. A midsagittal (or medial) (2) passes through the midline
of the body and divides the body into equal right and left sides.
A frontal, or coronal plane (1), is a plane that divides the body b
into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. A trans-
verse, or cross section (horizontal) (3) plane divides the body
into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) planes. When you
study body structure, you will often view it in a section, mean-
ing that you look at only one surface of the three-dimensional
structure. Figure 1.4 illustrates how three different sections
were prepared from the three planes of reference. Each section
can provide a different view of the thorax and its contents, the c
vital organs. The intelligent designer made our bodies in 3-D!
A good anatomy student can learn to visualize a body part
from any angle in his/her mind. This is a good skill to have
when entering the health professions or biology. Practice of
this skill will make you a better creation biologist.
Planes 1. Coronal 2. Midsagittal 3. Transverse

Sections a. Coronal section b. Sagittal section c. Transverse section
Figure 1.5 The Principle of Uniform Experience

A Living Design:
The Creation of a Human Muscle
T his chain of logic that compares the making of a tapestry to
the formation of a human muscle illustrates Dr. Thaxtons
principle of uniform experience. The hands of God and Adam,
DNA, myofibrils from a muscle fiber, a motor nerve unit, and
muscles of the arm are pictured. All of these individual parts are Creation of man
needed just to make one single muscle contract. Yet, there are near-
ly 700 muscles in the human body. Indeed, the complexity of the
human muscle must have come from the genetic blueprint of a
Master Weaver. In everyday experience, one would never conclude
that random chance events could produce a beautiful interwoven
tapestry but that it is the end product of a weaver (intelligent
designer). Logic demands that highly interwoven, intricate designs Genetic Blueprint for muscles A myofibril Bundle of
must also have an intelligent cause. muscle fibers Muscles and tendons making upp the arm
14 Body by Design

Two Views of Origins
1. How can you recognize design in the human body?
2. List the 11 systems in the human body. Which of

these systems is easiest to recognize? Hardest to recognize?
3. Name six physiological themes that are consistent with

the concept of intelligent design. Which of these themes
could be applied to all body systems?
4. How does the body reveal wisdom in the inward

parts (Job 38:36)?
5. The anatomical masterpiece De Humani Corporis

Fabrica was the work of Vesalius. Explain why he may have
been a creationist in thinking. Also, discuss the impact of
Vesalius on the advancement of anatomy and medicine
when he based his human anatomy upon cadaver
dissection rather than animal dissection.
6. Why must scientists be critical thinkers and sometimes

oppose the popular thinking of the day? How does
this apply to evolutionary dogma of this day?
Body By Design 15

Origins
of the
Human Body
2
T
If it could be demon- here are two basic views regarding the origin of
the universe, the earth, life, and man the nat-
uralistic view and the creation (or design) view.
strated that any complex The naturalistic view incorporates the belief in
macroevolution (molecule to man), which has never been
observed. It assumes that all life on earth is somehow relat-
organ existed, which ed and that the origin and descent of all living things can be
explained through a natural, mechanistic, random process.
could not possibly have This concept, in the extreme, does not allow for the possi-
bility of supernatural activity. Macroevolution has a long
history that dates back to the ancient Greeks, but it became
been formed by numer- more popular in the 19th century as it found new support
in speculations popularized by Charles Darwin in his book
The Origin of Species, published in 1859.
ous, successive slight mod-
Darwins Theory of Macroevolution
ifications, my theory
would absolutely break

T he essence of the Neo-Darwian theory is that all life
can be traced to a single ancestor through purely natu-
ral means. The plants, animals, and other organisms that
surround us are products of random mutation, acted upon
by natural selection. This is commonly referred to as
down. descent with modification. According to Darwin, nature
acts like a breeder, scrutinizing every organism. When use-
(Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species) ful new traits appear, nature preserves them and passes them
on to succeeding generations, while harmful traits are elim-
inated. Over time, these small changes accumulate until
organisms develop new limbs, organs, or other parts.
Eventually, organisms change so drastically that they bear
no resemblance to their original ancestor.
Many evolutionists believe that all this happens with no
purposeful input. In their view, chance, physiochemical
laws, and nature run the whole show. In The Origin of
Species, for example, Darwin wrote,
16

If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ that evolution can produce any conceivable structural
existed, which could not possibly have been formed by change. For example, life forms do not have and probably
numerous, successive, slight modifica- will never have electronic gadgets. But evolu-
tions, my theory would absolutely break tion may be used as an explanation for com-
down. But I can find no such case. plex structures, if we can imagine a series of
In Darwins time, however, no one appre- small intermediate steps leading from the
ciated the amazing complexity of living simple to the complex.
things. Back then, cells were thought to be Because natural selection will act on every
little more than tiny blobs of gel. In recent one of those intermediate steps, no single
years, Richard Dawkins, a biologist at one can be justified on the basis of the final
Oxford University, in his book, The Blind structure toward which it may be leading.
Watchmaker, has popularized the neo- Each step must stand on its own as an
Darwinian theory. The essence of Richard improvement that confers in itself an advan-
Dawkins argument is that given enough time (millions of tage on the organisms that possess it. Some changes will
years) and materials (billions of individuals), many genetic lead upward in overall evolutionary progress; still other
changes will occur so that, as a result, slight improvements changes, usually temporary ones, will go downward. It is
occur in structures such as the eye. Natural selection will like a parking garage with ramps leading to different levels.
favor these small improvements and they will spread You must travel the ramp to ascend or descend. Sometimes
through a population over many generations. evolution goes three steps forward and two steps backward
Little by little, one improvement at a time, the system (like the so-called imperfections in life forms), but the over-
becomes more and more complex, eventually resulting in a all progress is still forward.
fully functioning, well-adapted organ. This does not mean
Table 2.1 Pre d i c t i o n s o f t h e Hu m a n B o d y
CATEGORY MACROEVOLUTION CREATION SCIENCE

Body parts Low level of order Highly ordered
Numerous vestigial organs No useless organs
(useless organs that are leftovers) All have some function from the creation
Development Several vestigial organs Organs fully functional
Development repeats evolution Purposeful development
Versatile use of embryological structures
Inheritance Blending/gradual transitions Mosaic design
between offspring Distinct traits, kinds separate
Mutations Occasionally beneficial Basically harmful or lethal with only a few
which are beneficial in certain environments
Natural selection Creative process Conservation process
Weed-out device for harmful mutations
Nature of man Slightly different from Distinctive and superior from all primates
other primates No misfits
Misfits are disposable All have value
Organization Chaotic at times Ordered most of the time
A product of tinkering by nature Divine craftsman
Race* Various races represent different All races are equal, descended from
levels of evolution one family; nations of the earth have
Came from multiple stocks varying skin color, but all are people in the
Some races viewed as inferior human race. Variation adds richness
with less fit traits. to culture and human experience.
Relationship among body Independent parts Interdependent parts
Mechanistic properties Coordinated properties
*Race is frequently defined as a population within a species that is genetically distinct in some way. In humans, skin color and
other physical features usually determine the definition for various races. Traditionally, Homo sapiens have been divided into three
to six races based upon skin color (amount of melanin), cultural patterns, and prominent nose features. The classical evolution-
ary depiction of race frequently led to prejudice. In contrast, creationists view all people groups as equal. From a biblical view-
point, terms like nations, people groups, or tribes better describe diversity seen in man.
Body By Design 17

Disease Focus 2.1
Changes in the Common Cold
W hat does microevolution, or variation, look like up ment in their antigen or protein coat. There are four
close? Biologists have found that there are more viral protein antigens on the outer capsid (VP1, VP2,
than 100 serotypes of rhinoviruses that are responsible VP3, and VP4). The reason that we keep catching the
for most of our common colds. The diversity of colds common cold is because there are so many different rhi-
can be attributed, in part, to various rhinoviruses that noviruses each classified by their particular antigen
have been modified over time. Rhinoviruses have an combination. Even when our body can build immunity
RNA genome, whereas living organisms usually store against one virus, there may be another hundred that it
their genetic information as DNA. Most importantly, has to defend against. It takes a lifetime to build immu-
replicating RNA, unlike DNA, lacks proofreading nity to the majority of cold viruses in ones environment.
enzymes to check that the correct bases have been added
to the growing chain. Since RNA lacks the ability to Boundaries to Common Cold Changes
proofread its genetic message, RNA viruses change more
rapidly than do DNA viruses. As the RNA replicates, it The story of common cold viruses is like that of dog
averages about one mistake per 10,000 nucleotides breeds. Although there are many different breeds
copied. As DNA replicates its complementary strand, it descending from a common ancestor in the distant past,
makes one mistake in every million to ten million dogs are still dogs. We see this in rhinoviruses, as well as
nucleotides. It is estimated that up to 2 percent of the in plants and animals. DNA and RNA allow for many
nucleotides in the RNA genome in a virus are altered variations on a common theme. Although there may be
every year. Consequently, antigenic drift of rhinoviruses great diversity to rhinoviruses, there are boundaries to
can be attributed, in part, to point mutations. their change. The genetic blueprint in all living things
When a mutation in RNA occurs within a virus, a has its limits set by the disastrous consequences that
change may also occur on the viral protein coat. This inevitably happen when too many mutations add up.
viral protein coat contains antigens that elicit varying There are boundaries to a given gene pool. This fits with
antibody responses in the the concept of stasis, or limited
human body. The Electron Micrograph of Rhinoviruses change seen in nature. The
immunoglobulin A (IgA) principle that like begets
antibodies are produced by like seems to be corroborated.
plasma cells in the mucous Variation has it limits. There
membrane of the nose. IgA are boundaries to how far the
binds antigens on the capsid changes can occur. This
of the virus particle preventing microevolution of rhinoviruses
the virus from attaching and is an example of recombina-
penetrating the cell. This tion and stasis, not a model of
interaction leads to recovery. naturalistic descent with modi-
The protein coat in a cold fication. Despite these many
virus changes over time. This minor changes, those pesky
gradual change is sometimes viruses that cause the common
referred to as antigenic varia- cold will not mutate into an
tion. This factor may help HIV (the AIDS virus), nor
account for the diversity of Ebola, nor even the related
rhinoviruses, the variety of influenza virus. Finally,
cold symptoms, and cold although we may keep catching
severity. the common cold, there is no
Each rhinovirus has 20 need to worry that someday
outer protein coats that can your disease will turn into
vary in composition. When AIDS, hemorrhagic fever, or
common cold viruses change even the flu. Relax it is just
over time, it is the rearrange- a cold and gone in two weeks!
18 Body by Design

Table 2.2 Ma c ro v s . Mi c ro Evo l u t i o n *
TYPES MACRO MICRO

Gene Pool Expansion Same, conserving,
There are no misfits oscillating genes
Direction Upward, vertical Sideways, horizontal
Selection Creation of new, Conservation of
good phenotypes good phenotypes
New Forms Expansion of kinds Expansion of subspecies
All life from one (or more) Possible expansion of species
common life forms. No new kinds
Variation
* Evolution = change, change in gene frequency, change in morphology
Predictions About the Nature In contrast, proponents of intelligent design, while agree-
of the Human Body ing that current life forms may differ somewhat from
their ancestors eons ago, believe the evidence from the
T wo views of origins are summarized in table 2.1.

Although neither the naturalistic view nor the intelli-
gent design view can be proven scientifically in the ultimate
fossil record and anatomy favor a model of variation (one
with limited change or stasis) rather than macroevolution.
Yes, some species may have undergone speciation (within
sense, each theory has predictions that may be tested. This their kind), such as in bacteria, Drosophila (fruit flies) or
table compares each views predictions about the human Galapagos finches. The evidence for variation or
bodys origins, genetics, development, organs, and systems, microevolution (limited change within a kind) is com-
as well as form and function. patible with the creation view.
The term evolution here is used with cau-
tion, because it has a variety of meanings. It Intelligent Design
means different things to different people.
Evolution can mean 1) change within a kind
over time; 2) change from one kind to anoth-
er kind due to the Darwinian mechanism of
I n 1802, William Paley, in his book
Natural Theology, made the observation
that if you were walking through the woods
random variation and natural selection; and and you were to see two objects, a stone and
3) descent with modification (all life forms a pocket watch, lying on the ground and
being related). asked yourself about the origin of these
Proponents of both naturalistic descent objects, you would not hesitate to say that
and creation models believe in the first definition of evo- the watch was a product of a watchmaker and the stone was
lution, which is biological change within a kind likely a product of weathering, erosion, and fragmentation
(microevolution). Views two and three above involve of a larger rock. As you studied and looked at the watch
macroevolution, a process that has never been observed in gears, springs, and screws, you most likely would deduce the
nature. These views differ in the amount of evolution, or watch was produced by conscious design and was the hand-
biological change, that has taken place in microorganisms, iwork of a watchmaker. You would not deduce this about
plants, animals, and people over time. Table 2.2 summa- the stone, because its surface and features are much more
rizes the difference between micro- and macroevolution. random. The inference is inevitable that the watch must
Creationists can agree with most interpretations of have had a maker. Paley argued that like the watchs arrange-
microevolution, or variation within kinds (see Disease ment, the anatomy of the human eye or the hand with its
Focus 2.1). opposable thumb logically demand a divine artificer
Proponents of naturalistic descent see man as related (craftsman) because of their complexity. The mechanisms
not only to other primates but also to bacteria, proto- proposed in macroevolution are insufficient to explain the
zoans, fungi, plants, and invertebrates. In the naturalistic seemingly perfect design in the human body.
view, the mechanisms of natural selection, mutations, Paley provided the first substantial, logical argument for
immense periods of time, and chance physiochemical laws creation or design theory. This is the concept that sees liv-
are assumed to be sufficient to explain the vertical, devel- ing organisms as the product of careful and conscious
opmental macro-evolution of all life forms. design and creative acts. A close examination of life forms
Body By Design 19

There seems to be strong evidence that one or two species
Figure 2.1 of Galapagos finches change into clusters of species. We
observe bacteria evolving from the antibiotic-sensitive con-
dition into new strains that are resistant to antibiotics.
Rhinoviruses, those that cause the common cold, may owe
their diversity to mutation, selection, and diverse immune
systems of the human body. Bacteria and viruses do change
over time within their kind, but never become new types of
microbes causing new diseases.
Dawkins proposal, however, in The Blind Watchmaker and
Mt. Rushmore Climbing Mount Improbable, insists that entire new organs,
organ systems, and species have come about by means of
reveals the details of structure and function so perfectly numerous mutations acted upon by natural selection over
formed that they cannot be explained by chance physio- long periods of time. This is like an argument that someone
chemical laws alone. The watch shows clear evidence of jumped to the top of Mount Rushmore. Dawkins argument
organization because of the way the components are put for evolving major human body organs and complex systems
together to achieve a purpose. is like your neighbor who claimed to have climbed Mount
Rushmore with scaffolding that no longer exists.
How
How High High
Can You Can
Jump? You Jump?
SUMMARY
S uppose your neighbor came to you saying that he had
been exercising and wanted to impress you with his ath-
letic ability. Today, I cleared four feet in the high jump. I n summary, the Darwinian macroevolution view and
Paleys intelligent design theory provide two very different
You would have no reason to doubt him. If on successive perspectives on the development of the human body. Table
days, he came to you bragging of his new athletic prowess 2.1 summarizes these two views of origins. You will want to
being a foot higher each time, then you would probably compare the predictions of these two views and evaluate the
start wondering about the truth after he claimed he cleared data that support each one. According to Darwin, nature tin-
more than six feet. If he were one of the best athletes in the kered for a long time and human body parts were the result.
world (like Olympian Carl Lewis), then a seven-foot leap For Paley, a divine artificer (craftsman) was responsible for the
would be as far as you could possibly trust him. If he qual- design seen in human anatomy. Which one is true? You are
ified himself and said he used a pole vault to complete the challenged to make a choice:
jump then you might believe him up to a point, perhaps as
high as 20 feet. Choose you this day whom ye will serve; whether the
If your neighbor kept coming to you to brag about his gods which your fathers served that were on the
jumping to a mountaintop, such as jumping to the top of other side of the flood, or the gods of the Amorites ...
Mount Rushmore (figure 2.1) and standing on top of the but as for me and my house, we will serve
carved president heads, you would not just harbor doubt the Lord (Josh. 24: 15).
but figure him to be a liar or lunatic. If he wanted to con-
vince you that he was not telling a fairy tale, he might then Todays choice can be compared to a decision the ancient
qualify himself and tell you that he used scaffolding in sev- Israelites had to make between Jehovah and the Amorite gods.
eral leaps. Then you would want to know where his scaf- Today a worker in science must choose between the Creator
folding had gone after the jumps. Perhaps he would say, and the blind forces of macroevolution. I believe that after all
Oh it disappeared! If you pressed him further to provide the evidence is examined, you will find new confidence in the
evidence of this scaffolding, he tells you that he took it apart biblical summary of creation:
and used it to make his sons treehouse. His story is very
convenient. Because it is difficult to prove him a liar, you For by him were all things created, that are in heav-
change the topic of conversation to an NBA game or some en, and that are in earth, visible and invisible,
other topic. whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principal-
This allegory of high jumping can be applied to evolu- ities, or powers: all things were created by him, and
tion. Microevolution refers to changes that can be made in for him: And he is before all things, and by him all
one or a few simple jumps, whereas macroevolution refers things consist (Col. 1:1617).
to changes that appear to require large jumps. Darwins pro-
posal that relatively tiny changes can occur in nature was an Before one can have faith, one must understand Jesus as the
important conceptual advance. master Craftsman. Creation came after God (Jesus) acted.
This is the foundation.
20 Body by Design

Two Views of Origins
1. How has evolution (molecules-to-man) affected thinking
in the 20th century? How do you think it will affect
people in the new millennium?
2. Compare and contrast the definition of evolution by

creationists and evolution.
3. Explain the difference between micro- and

macroevolution.
4. How is variation in humans (and other creatures) a

lot like the concept of microevolution?
5. Explain two views on the presence of tonsils and

wisdom teeth in your body.
6. Why do you suppose Charles Darwin rejected the

earlier view of intelligent design proposed by
William Paley?
7. How does ones world view of mans origin affect

his/her living?
Body By Design 21

Discovering
DNA, Cells, and Tissue
T
The secret of (human) he most basic unit of the body is the cell. In the
cell we find various parts, like the cytoplasm, ribo-
somes, endoplasmic reticulum, and the nucleus. It
membership lies locked is in the nucleus that we find one of the most fun-
damental molecules of life, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
away inside each cell DNA serves as a blueprint for life. Observations of living
cells confirm that most of the development in the human body
is both coded for and controlled by DNA.
nucleus, chemically coiled The nucleus releases another molecule, ribonucleic acid
(RNA), into the cytoplasm and eventually to the ribosome to
direct protein synthesis. DNA, along with RNA, eventually
in a strand of DNA.
directs the stages of development in the embryo. DNA consists
of a simple but elegant pattern. The DNA bases are the lan-
(Paul Brand, M.D. [1980, 45])
guage of biology. Like a blueprint for a building, these bases
determine the details of the body form and function.
Three themes that can be seen in development in human
cells, organs, and organ systems include 1) many living organ-
isms and their parts can best be described as mosaics, thus, com-
parable to artwork; 2) each body cell clearly illustrates a coordi-
nated complexity; and 3) each body part is fully functional.
DNA and Design Theory
D eoxyribonucleic acid, otherwise known as DNA (figure

3.1), is the blueprint of every human body and controls
all the heredity of it. In 1953, the American biochemist James
Watson and the British biochemist Frances Crick discovered
that DNA was made of bases linked together in a double helix,
looking like a long, twisted ladder. Each side of the ladder
has alternating molecules made of deoxyribose sugar with an
attached nitrogen base and phosphate. The four possible nitro-
gen bases are called adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G),
and thymine (T) (exclusive to DNA), or uracil (U) (exclusive
22

to RNA). These bases are connected to each other by weak occurs at the rate of about 3,000 nucleotides per minute,
hydrogen bonds. Adenine (A) always pairs up with thymine which in itself is evidence enough to disprove chance occur-
(T), and cytosine (C) always pairs up with guanine (G). The rence. Clearly, the cellular machinery involved in DNA repli-
joined base pairs form the rungs of the ladder. Each unit of cation must work with great precision and fidelity. Simple
DNA contains a sugar molecule, a phosphate molecule, and a flaws in replication can lead to severe phenotypical disorders
nitrogenous base. This unit is called a nucleotide, and looks such as sickle cell anemia. DNA replication involves an intri-
like the rung and the short section of ladder attached to it. cate system of checks and balances. The main proofreading
Each DNA strand has millions of atoms all fibrously connect- unit of this system is the DNA polymerase. This polymerase
ed into this long, twisted ladder in an extremely orderly fashion, is so accurate that it averages a mere one error per billion base-
giving the exact blueprint for the entire body. The ladder of pair duplications. This keeps the mutation load to a tolerable
DNA is so long that every human cell has about three feet of level in large genomes such as those in humans that contain 3
DNA in it, all coiled up into a tremendously compact coil. More billion nucleotide pairs. The whole mechanism of DNA repli-
amazing, however, than this interwoven system is the Creator who cation would fail if every integral part were not present; so, the
made it all. Nothing can compare to Him who not only made the idea of descent with modification is invalid in that all parts
huge stars in heaven, but also made the most compact coded had to be present or no function would exist.
information known to man, called DNA. It is worth noting that There are many solid evidences that descent with modifi-
we are now finally able to map out the coded DNA on many large cation is not likely to happen. For instance, by studying
computers in the Human Genome Project; yet the architect cytochrome C gene comparisons, every plant and animal is
made the intertwined, coded, string of life inside the tiny cell long approximately the same molecular distance from any bacte-
before computers were invented. rial species. No molecular evidence exists that
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the most per- points to any intermediates that might fill or have
ceptible example of interwoven design in the human filled the space between bacteria and higher organ-
body. Its abstruse structure and irreducible complex- isms. The sequence divergence of cytochrome C
ity are also evidence of a supernatural contrivance. from bacteria to humans is 6466%. This evidence
Everything from phenotypic qualities of a human to is very important because natural selection is sup-
the helicases and topoisomerases that comprise the posed to be a selective force that preserves any slight
DNA replication apparatus are so complex, charac- positive variation. Due to the fact that no interme-
teristically delineated, and interwoven, that special cre- diates (or evidence of past intermediates) exist, the
ation is evident and evolutionary theories are nothing whole idea of macroevolution and descent with
short of speculation. modification is logically impossible. There are
In humans, the synthesis of a new strand of DNA many other mechanisms involved in DNA
Figure 3.1 Chromosomes are coiled

and condensed DNA.
DNA wound on histones

to make nucleosomes
Condensed
into chromatin
DNA looped to shorten

the strand.
DNA, The Universal
Blueprint of Life
Body By Design 23

Design Focus 3.1
Identical Twins Are Unique
P eople often explain the nearly identical phenotypes of
monozygotic (identical) twins by saying they contain the
same genes. This is not precise. A gene can only exist in one
have identical replicas of these genes in all 65 trillion cells?
If this is so, the process by which the genes are duplicated
must be extremely accurate. Moreover, the cells of the body
place at any given time. The statement should be that identi- are not static. In some tissues, new cells are continuously
cal twins contain progeny replicas of the same parental genes. replacing old or dead cells. A good example of this would
This simple idiomatic expression suggests that most people do be in bone marrow of a healthy person. The bone marrow
believe that the progeny replicas of a gene actually are identi- cells produce approximately 2 million red blood cells per
cal. If the human genome contains 50,000 to 100,000 genes, minute. The process by which these are duplicated is very
could one deduce that all of these genes are exactly alike in accurate, but not all of the progeny replicas of genes in the
identical twins? body are identical. The human haploid genome contains
A human life emerges from a single fertilized egg cell, some 3 x 109 nucleotide pairs of DNA that must all be
which is a tiny sphere about 0.1 mm in diameter. That cell duplicated with every cell division. Therefore, the idea that
gives rise to literally hundreds of billions of cells during identical twins are in fact identical is limited to their geno-
fetal development alone. The average adult human body type at conception. Over time, identical twins look and
contains around 65 trillion (6.5 x 1013) 13 cells. With little behave differently. Identical twins often have different des-
exception, each of these cells contains a progeny replica of tinies as adults. God designed every human specifically and
each of the 50,000 to 100,000 genes. Do identical twins individually with its own identity and purpose in life.
replication that point to special creation and show an inter- does not demonstrate this, nothing else does. It is amazing
woven, complex design as Dr. Michael Behe points out in the that the more man learns about himself, the more he sees
book Mere Creation. the Creators interwoven craftsmanship in the human
DNA primarily determines the phenotype (outward body.
appearance) of a human. DNA is supercoiled and forms
chromatin. DNA is woven together with protein in a unit DNA: Key to
called a histone (figure 3.1). Chromatin is further coiled Understanding Design
to form a chromatid. Two chromatids combine to form a
chromosome. Chromosomes group together
in the nucleolus of the cell. The cells group
together to form tissues. Tissues group togeth-
T he word, fabrica (or fabricae) is Latin for
craft, trade, industry, workmanship, and
process of building, construction, and production.
er to make organs. Organs group together to A related word, fabre, is an adverb that means skill-
make organ systems, and organ systems group fully. Fabric is frequently used as an adjective to
together to form an organism. Figure 3.1 illus- describe a tapestry, interwoven quilts, mosaics, and
trates the supercoiled design from the molecu- cross-stitching.
lar to the organism level. Throughout the We see parallels in Scripture and body design.
whole scheme, DNA determines and directs Henry Morris says in the annotations of The
cellular processes that control everything from the blood Defenders Study Bible reading for Psalm 139:15: curiously
type to facial features and hair color in humans. DNA, in a wrought means embroidered, a striking description of the
word, is the blueprint of life patterned and carefully assem- double-helical DNA molecule program which organizes part by
bled by the Creator. part the beautiful structure of the whole infant. In Psalm
DNA is such an efficacious proof of intelligent design 139:16, his annotation on fashioned, reads: The embryo is
and example of interwoven complexity that words fall short being fashioned in a way analogous to the way in which God
of adequate expression. It is interesting to note that by formed (same word) the body of Adam from the dust of the
Charles Darwins own test, evolution fails. He said in his earth (Gen. 2:7). In another highly respected study Bible,
book The Origin of Species: If it could be demonstrated Charles Ryrie states that in Psalm 139:13, Didst form means
that any complex organ existed which could not possibly to acquire by creation, implying weave me in my mothers
have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifi- womb. Ryrie also concurs with Morris that weave is a good
cations, my theory would absolutely break down. If DNA paraphrase of this passage. Like the helical symmetry of DNA
24 Body by Design

woven in the DNA embedded in the
blueprint of life; fluid matrix of the
Gods will for our Figure 3.2 lipid bilayer. The
life is a woven tapes- lipid bilayer is the
try. main fabric of the
cell membrane, but
Fluid Mosaic the protein composi-
Model of the tion (within the
Cell bilayer) determines
the specific functions
M any living
organisms
and their parts can Fluid Mosaic Model of and on this bilayer
of most cell mem-
branes. Proteins in
best be visualized as the Cell Membrane have been described

mosaic patterns. by some as sailboats
Mosaics in nature on a lake. The cell
mirror artwork. The tapestry of an Amish quilt represents a membrane and other intracellular membranes have their
mosaic, blending home economics principles with an artistic unique sets of proteins.
vision. Both have patterns and designs in which contrasts exist For example, more than 50 protein kinds have been found
between colors, pigments, and structures. in the plasma membrane of red blood cells. In fact, biologists
Biological mosaic patterns are most readily seen in cell struc- refer to the best model of the cell membrane as a fluid
ture. The cell membrane is a collage of many different proteins mosaic model. This model (figure 3.2) describes the cellular
Disease Focus 3.1

Discovery of Sickle Cell Anemia
tests showed that he was anemic. His hemoglobin level was
J ames Herrick, a Chicago physician, and Ernest Irons,
a medical intern, examined the blood cells in one of
their patients in 1904. They noticed that the red blood
half as much as it should have been. Hemoglobin is a com-
plex protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen
cells of the young man were thin and elongated. Their from the lungs to the tissues. Herrick and Irons were puz-
shape was remarkably different from the donut-shaped zled by their observations. Herrick kept an in-depth
red blood cells of other patients. Herrick and Irons had account of the patients symptoms for six years before pub-
examined numerous blood samples but had lishing his finding in a paper. The patient died
never come across this. They repeated sam- in 1916 at age 32, from severe damage to the
pling blood from the man with the same kidney caused by the anemia.
result. The red blood cells of the patient James Herrick was the first to publish a study
were shaped like the sickle that farmers used on sickle cell anemia the first inherited dis-
to harvest grain at that time. ease to be fully understood at the molecular
The patient was a young college student level. It was not until 1949 that Linus Pauling
and had been experiencing periods of weak- documented the difference between the hemo-
ness and dizziness. On the outside, the globin of a normal red blood cell and those with
patient seemed like a normal, healthy 20- sickle cell anemia. Later, in 1957, Vernon
year-old. He complained that his major prob- Ingram found that the sixth amino acid of the
lem was fatigue. An extensive physical exam b-chain of sickle cell hemoglobin was glutamic
found curious enlargements of the heart and acid. In normal healthy hemoglobin, the amino
lymph nodes. The patient had mentioned acid is valine. Other than this single DNA
that his heart always seemed to be pounding mutation with an amino acid change, sickle cell
fast even while he was resting. Further blood and normal hemoglobin are identical.
Body By Design 25

proteins embedded in mosaic patterns within a lipid bilayer. opens the gate and allows the protein to pass through. If one
This newer model reflects a change when proteins are embed- with the wrong tag comes near, the gate stays shut.
ded into the original lipid layer. All this intricacy fits with the Note that all three components the gate, the sensor, and
creation concept that the cell is the result of a divine crafts- the tag must be in place for transport to occur. Most bio-
man who has skillfully planned this beautiful cell membrane. chemical systems in the cell are much more complex than this.
These mosaic patterns in membranes facilitate transport The total cooperation of many organelles produces an effect
between cells and screen toxins, as well as pathogens, across greater than the sum of the individual organelles. Biologists
this important boundary. refer to this cooperative effect as an emergent property of the
cell. Do you think this cooperation happened by chance?
Irreducible Complexity of the Cell
Marks of Design
E ach human body cell clearly illustrates a coordinated
complexity. Prominent scientist Dr. Michael Behe has
compiled this evidence. Biochemist Behe, author of Darwins M ichael Denton, a molecular biologist, wrote a contro-
versial book in the 1980s called Evolution: A Theory in
Black Box, points out that the simplest self-replicating cell has Crisis. He says that the puzzle of perfection in living things
the capacity to produce thousands of different proteins and critically challenges any theory of evolution that is based on
other molecules, at different times and under variable condi- chance mutations. New discoveries in biology are opening up
tions. Synthesis, repair, and communication are functions new levels of detail in the workings of the human body and
that take place in virtually every cell. According to Behe, are revealing ever more precise functioning.
many processes in the cell exhibit irreducible complexity. Every cell type and organ in the body is necessary and use-
An irreducibly complex system is one that requires sever- ful, and within each organ there is an incredible inner preci-
al interacting parts to be present and func- sion. The liver, the bodys largest internal organ,
tioning at the same time. The removal of one is a multifaceted, vital organ one without
(or more) of the parts causes the whole sys- which people cannot live long. Indeed it is
tem to malfunction. Destroy one part and only one of many organs which, when work-
the whole falls apart losing any beneficial ing properly, illustrate great efficiency and
adaptation or selective advantage. The pur- order in complexity.
ported mechanism of evolution, on the other Cells in the immune system illustrate the
hand, is that a new trait will confer a survival emergent property concept. This cell-team
advantage, and thus enable its possessors to action produces a result that is greater than the
compete better than organisms without the individual parts. This is one of the puzzles of
trait. In macroevolution, any new trait would have to be perfection that Dr. Denton describes in his book. The effec-
completely developed; no halfway measures would do. tive body defense of the immune system comes from the coop-
Given this requirement, new features are so complex that eration of many cells including monocytes, lymphocytes, and
neo-Darwinian gradualism is very improbable because an macrophages (big eaters of harmful chemicals and
incompletely developed trait would confer no selective pathogens). The ability of macrophages to recognize, appre-
advantage. hend, and destroy bacteria depends on the coordinated activ-
Many cellular processes will not work unless every part is ity of many cells. The cytoskeleton, lysozyme, and the plasma
present and functioning. One such process is the transport membranes function in phagocytosis. Like many other bodily
of proteins across the cell membrane. Proteins do not just functions, the immune system depends on the contribution of
float around freely inside of cells. To paraphrase Michael each and every cell type.
Behe, eukaryotic cells have a number of different compart- Every organ in the body is fully functional and useful, and
ments, like rooms in a house. When a protein is made it has within each organ there is an incredible inner order that pro-
to get from the compartment where its made to the com- vides precise, coordinated functioning. Todays scientific tools
partment where its supposed to be. of investigation are much more powerful than any during
Consider what is involved in simply moving a protein Darwins day. Scientists can now explore most of the complex,
through a compartment wall. Cells have two fundamentally interlocking biochemical systems.
different ways of doing this gated transport and vesicu- As cell biologists discover numerous biochemical cascades,
lar transport. In gated transport, the compartment wall is they have learned that these reactions act in perfect harmony.
equipped with a gate and a chemical sensor. If a protein The human body is able to facilitate these activities when they
bearing the right identification tag approaches, the sensor are needed and it can inhibit them when they are not needed.
26 Body by Design

The sequence of commands is programmed in the DNA code Can you identify the major types?
that directs almost all cellular processes. Such microscopic pre- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (I) has cells (like
cision is dazzling! bricks on end) with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes. It is
It is a mathematical absurdity to suggest that billions of com- often located where secretion or active absorption of sub-
plex cells could all coordinate their precise molecular activities stances are important functions, like those found in the tra-
by blind chance and natural selection. The inadequacy of the chea. Dust or foreign particles are escalated out of the body by
theory on body organs arising by chance is well illustrated in the means of cilia and mucous.
human kidney. There is an elegance of design manifest in the Simple cuboidal epithelium (II) is specialized for secre-
kidney. It combines many wondrous and clever adaptations to tion and makes up the epithelia of the thyroid gland shown.
control water and electrolyte homeostasis, as well as blood pres- These cells (like sugar cubes) secrete hormones into the blood-
sure. At this same time, the kidney concentrates and eliminates stream. In contrast, simple squamous epithelium (III) is rel-
wastes from the body in urine. atively leaky tissue. These cells (like floor tiles) are specialized
In chapters 4 to 16 there are dozens of examples of intri- for exchange of materials by diffusion. These epithelia are
cate design, including the structure of the hand, the extraor- found in such places as the linings of blood vessels and air sacs
dinary excretory system, the dynamic digestive system, the (alveoli) of the lungs.
blood-clotting mechanism, the impressive immune system, A simple columnar epithelium (IV) has cells with rela-
and the biology of vision. Neo-Darwinism falls short, lacking tively large cytoplasmic volumes, and is often located where
a scheme of explanation for these intricate systems. Because secretion or active absorption of substances are important
there is no simpler level to which they can appeal, macroevo- functions. The stomach and intestines are lined by a columnar
lutionists cant explain how these systems arose. There are no epithelium that secretes digestive juices and absorbs nutrients.
detailed mechanisms for the origin of liv-
ing cells.
Some professional creationists carry
this criticism of macroevolutionism over Figure 3.3
to the study of biological code chemicals.
Unlike the complexity of a snowflake that
derives its structure from the nature of the
materials it is made from, the complexity
of genetic information is independent of
the nature of nucleic acids that record it.
The nucleic acids are merely the vehicle by
which this marvelous biological informa-
tion is carried. Intelligent causation once
again is strongly suggested.
The Remarkable Fit of Body

Tissues
T he principle that structure is the basis

of function applies to the cells and
tissues as well. Histology is the study of
tissues that are defined as a group of simi-
lar cells forming a definite and continuous
fabric, usually having a comparable func-
tion. The function of tissues is limited by
its structure, as illustrated by epithelium. It
can do only as much as its structure will Types of
allow. The structure of each type of epithelial tissue:
epithelium fits its function. Some of the
pseudostratified columnar epithelium(I) ; simple cuboidal epithelium (II);
major tissue types from four regions of
the body are depicted in figure 3.3. u m (III); and simple columnar epithelium (IV)
simple squamous epitheliu
Body By Design 27

what it does and how it works. Conversely, knowing the func-
Structure and Function: tion of a structure provides insight about its construction.
A Planned Relationship Structure/function relationships may be seen at every level of
the body, as well as the interwoven design pattern. Figure 3.4
G iven a choice of dissection tools, you would not make an

incision in a preserved specimen with a blunt probe, nor
would you use scissors to separate delicate blood vessels that
illustrates this. Interacting atoms form interwoven molecules,
such as DNA. Biologically important molecular units (like his-
tones) form organelles that combine to form cells, such as heart
are attached. Ideally, you would use a sharp scalpel to make an muscle cells. Groups of cells combine to form tissues with spe-
incision and a blunt probe to separate the blood vessels in your cific function, such as cardiac muscle. Two or more tissues com-
dissection. The structure of an instrument determines its bine to form an organ, such as the heart. The heart is one com-
function. In other words, a device fits its structure and form ponent of the circulatory system that includes blood and blood
fits function. vessels. All the organ systems combine to create a complete
In like manner, structure and function are correlated at all human being, Homo sapiens.
levels of biological organization. This theme is a guide to anato- The Creator, in His wisdom, makes use of a well-organized
my at its many structural levels, from molecules to organisms and orderly plan to make a whole person. No detail is forgotten
(figure 3.4). Analyzing a biological structure gives us clues about and no provision is lacking for a purposeful life. How amazing!
Figure 3.4
11 Human Body Systems
Endocrine Lymphatic
Nervous Respiratory
Muscular Cardiovascular D igestive
Skeletal Excretory
Integumentary Reproductive
Heart
Muscle tissue
Muscle cells
Nucleus Levels of
DNA
Organization
28 Body by Design

DNA and Development
1. How is the concept of a mosaic an evidence for
intelligent design?
2. Describe the fluid mosaic membrane of the cell.
3. Explain the principle of uniform experience and how

it relates to the intelligent design inference.
4. Illustrate how you might recognize design in

DNA in living systems.
5. What are the four types of tissues found in the body?

Describe how structure is related to the function
for each tissue type.
6. Define the different levels of complexity in the

human body, starting with DNA and ending with
one of the systems in the body.
Body By Design 29

Exploring Development:
Fearfully and
Wonderfully Made
4
I
Thine hands have made n the last chapter we explored the biblical and the biologi-
cal basis for the helical, interwoven design. David recog-
me and fashioned me
nized that he was fearfully and wonderfully made. Then,
together round about; yet 3,000 years later, the spiral blueprint for all life, DNA, was
thou dost destroy me. elucidated. In this chapter we explore human body development
and see further the wisdom behind the Scriptures implying a
Remember, I beseech thee, curiously wrought pattern. Like David, Job not only recognized
that thou hast made me his Creator but also realized that God had fashioned him with
as the clay; and wilt thou skill and purpose. The intelligent Designer had made Job as a del-
icate, intricate vessel for His use. In the midst of suffering, Job
bring me into dust wondered why God would create something expensive, beautiful,
again? Hast thou not and finely stitched (like designer clothing) and then, for no rea-
poured me out as milk, son, discard what He had taken so much time to make. After all,
God made his skin, digestive tract, and blood vessels with many
and curdled me like layers (tunics) and fashioned his body framework with the
cheese? Thou hast clothed strength of bones, tendons, and muscles. All these body parts
were sewn, stitched, and woven together with such wondrous
me with skin and flesh,
care. God had granted him life and favor for so long, yet in this
and hast fenced me with moment of anguish God seemed to be disposing of this fine craft!
bones and sinews. Thou Eventually, we see that all that happened to Job was no acci-
dent. In fact, his life pattern and body structures were not ran-
hast granted me life and
dom. Perhaps Job could only see the black and gray threads
favour, and thy visitation strung below the tapestry, but God was cross-knitting a tapestry
hath preserved my spirit above that the angels could see. The angels saw the beautiful pic-
ture interlaced with gold and silver, along with the black threads
(Job 10:812).
a masterpiece for all eternity to see. Not only was Jobs body
intertwined with color, but so was his life testimony.
Reproductive System
T he reproductive system is the only body system that is not

necessary for the survival of an individual, but is necessary
for the survival of mankind. In man, the act of marriage
30

derm layer, and the lower endoderm layer. An amniotic cavity
Figure 4.1 and yolk sac soon appear in the blastocyst. The amnion lines
the chorion, the outermost envelope that furnishes a protective
and nutritive covering for the zygote, as the fertilized egg is now
called. The embryonic disk, a flat area in the ovum in which the
first traces of the embryo are seen, is suspended from the chori-
on and is composed of three germ layers, the ectoderm, meso-
derm, and endoderm. All organs of the embryo are developed
from these three germ layers.
From the ectoderm, the nervous system, sense organs, the
epidermis, and others are developed. The circulatory, excretory,
skeletal, muscular, and reproductive systems are developed from
the mesoderm. The endoderm produces the respiratory and
digestive systems, along with their linings.
Pregnancy lasts for about nine months and can be divided
Human Embryo into approximately three equal parts called trimesters. The first
Development trimester is the period in which all the various different parts of
The interwoven design can be seen best in the the baby are formed. During the second and third trimesters the
umbili (of the umbilical cord) that consists of umb
bilical
vein, arteries, mucous connective tissue, and amnion.
organs needed for the baby to survive in the outside world
develop and mature, and the fetus continues to grow in size and
functions in physical intimacy, as well as in reproduction. This is weight.
the system that serves mankind to fulfill the biblical mandate to The first sign of pregnancy is usually when the menstrual
be fruitful and multiply. cycle is interrupted by the fertilization and implantation of the
Because the reproductive organs are located in the same area embryo cell in the uterus. Other signs of early pregnancy are
of the body, and share some functions, they often are treated nausea, more frequent urination, and a sense of fullness or ten-
together with the excretory system. You might say that men and derness in the breasts. Nausea usually occurs early in the day and
women have different types of plumbing, and consequently then subsides, hence the phrase morning sickness, but some
are treated by physicians differently by design. The systems of women can suffer from actual vomiting. Nausea and vomiting
the male and female are each geared toward fulfilling specific normally cease after the first three months of pregnancy.
roles. The males reproductive system is designed to generate A doctor will probably want to give women a physical
sperm cells containing half of the genetic material necessary for examination, in addition to performing lab tests, to confirm
the development of a baby and deliver that material to the pregnancy. There are various signs a doctor looks for in the
females reproductive system. The females reproductive system examination: changes in a womans breasts and changes in the
is designed to generate an ovum, or egg, that carries the other shape and size of the uterus, vaginal lining, and cervix. In a
half of the genetic material, to be fertilized by the sperm cells pregnant woman the lining of the birth canal becomes blue as
from the male. The females reproductive tract is also made to a result of the increase in blood flowing to it. The cervix soft-
support the gestating embryo and later the fetus (figure 4.1), ens so that it is possible to feel the rest of the uterus clearly
until the baby is born, about nine months after fertilization. through it. The uterus softens as well and becomes larger and
Pregnancy occurs as a result of the fertilization of an ovum rounder than usual. From the doctors internal examination it
by sperm. With fertilization, cell division (mitosis) begins, and is possible to estimate how many weeks pregnant a woman is.
the fertilized egg develops into a mass of cells called the moru- During the first trimester the growth of the uterus is rapid,
la that move through the uterine tube (also fallopian tube or and feeling the uterus at this stage is done more accurately
oviduct) into the uterus. The morula continues to divide until than later in pregnancy.
it becomes a hollow clump of about a hundred cells called the
blastocyst. About seven or eight days after fertilization, the blas- Embryo at Six Weeks
tocyst settles on the wall of the uterus. Some of the cells cover-
ing the blastocyst, known as the trophoblast, begin to invade
the endometrium and grow into cords that anchor the blasto- F rom a single cell, the embryo (which is one of the largest
cells in the human body but still far too small to be seen
with the naked eye), grows in length during the first six weeks
cyst to the wall of the uterus. The trophoblast eventually devel-
ops into the placenta. of intrauterine life to about 5 mm (0.2 inch). During the
The blastocyst is composed of two layers the upper ecto- embryonic period the main parts of the neck and face develop,
Body By Design 31

as do the bones, nerves, muscles, genitals, and some sense Every Part Essential
organs. The spinal cord, brain, ears, and eyes have started their
development. The tissue from which the lungs form appears as
well as the earliest parts of the stomach, liver, pancreas, intes- T here are certain areas of human genetics and embryology
in which researchers expect to expand their current
tines, and kidneys. There are two pairs of limb buds, from which knowledge. Two of these are the regulation of gene expression
the arms and legs will take shape. The simple heart has started and the mapping of the entire human genome. The role of the
to beat. vast majority of DNA that has not yet been assigned a func-
By the time a child has been developing for only nine tion has been inappropriately named junk DNA. Research
weeks in the mothers womb, all the organs are published in early 1992 demonstrated
formed and the external features are estab- that an intron, which is thought to be a
lished. At this point in time, the child is non-coding region of DNA, plays a role
classified as a fetus. By the end of 12 in the function of transfer RNA,
weeks, when the child is three inches long, which is critical to protein synthesis.
every detail of basic structure is developed. Additional research has revealed other
The fetal period, which begins at week 9 functions of this so-called junk
and culminates at birth, is characterized DNA. Indeed, each genetic compo-
by tremendous growth and the specializa- nent seems to be essential for body
tion of body structures. function. Even the so-called vestiges
The structures in an embryo that
By 16 weeks of intrauterine life, the evolutionists call gill slits actually are fully functional organs. In human
have an important developmen n tal development, there are few (if any)
fetus is about six inches long and weighs function.
about six ounces. The blood vessels show wasted parts in the fetus and embryo.
through the delicate, semi-transparent The concept of there being useless or
skin, and the body is bright pink. Downy, fine hair is starting vestigial body parts is an outdated idea that has largely
to grow over the whole surface of the skin, and the eyebrows been disproved.
and eyelashes are beginning to emerge. The joints of all the
limbs are moving, the fingers and toes have separated and are Recapitulation Revisited
fully formed, and the toenails and fingernails are grown in.
The sex of the fetus can clearly be determined as the external
genital organs are developed. Although the lungs are very E rnst Haeckel, a German anatomist, first proposed the
recapitulation idea that ontogeny recapitulates phy-
poorly developed, the chest of the fetus moves from time to logeny (development replays macroevolution) over 100 years
time as if it were breathing. The fetus is now moving a lot but ago. Better known as the biogenetic law, it claims that in its
it is still too early for the mother to feel. development each embryo passes through abbreviated evolu-
A pregnancy lasts for approximately 267 days (nine tionary phases that resemble the developmental stages of its
months). As the date of conception is not always known, it is ancestors. Evolutionary theory states that man evolved from
usual to calculate the date of delivery from the start of the last fish and amphibians, which have gills, and then point to the
menstrual period. When a mother fails to note the date of her gill slits which human embryos are said to have in one stage
last period or had previously been on contraceptives, a doctor of their development. Evolutionists base the recapitulation
may want an ultrasound examination which gives remarkably idea on the faulty assumption that any body part superficial-
accurate information on the age of the fetus. Even if the exact ly resembling another in animals must have a common ori-
date of conception is known, a doctor will frequently give a gin.
range of dates covering a 23 week period for the estimated This idea was dismissed for a number of years by profes-
date of birth. sional biologists but it keeps cropping up. Anti-creationist Dr.
Ken Miller, for example, has recently tried to give credibility
Fabrica Design: The Umbilical Cord to this 19th century thinking in a recent Life magazine arti-
cle. This article, in a speculative essay format, contains beau-
T he umbilical cord is the communicating channel tiful photographs of vertebrate embryos, intended to con-
between the placenta and the fetus. It sends waste prod- vince readers of its scientific merit.
ucts from the fetus to the placenta and returns the blood from Does ontogeny repeat phylogeny? No, not at all, says Dr.
the placenta to the fetus. At birth the arteries in the umbilical Jonathan Wells, a noted Ph.D. embryologist. Wells says
cord constrict and close, stopping the blood flow to the pla-
Millers evidence for the recapitulation idea is the Piltdown
centa. Soon after the birth the umbilical cord is cut short and
securely clamped. The fabrica or interwoven design may be hoax of 1990s embryology. The following evidence stands
seen in the umbilical cord and its associated connecting parts against Haeckels discredited biogenetic law:
between mother and child. The associated parts include the 1. The so-called yolk sac is really a blood sac. Blood cells
embryos chorion and the mothers endometrium (figure 4.1). originate from blood islands in the structure. Later, bone
32 Body by Design

Disease Focus 4.1
Sexually Transmitted Diseases and the Fear Factor
Be not wise in thine own eyes: fear the Lord, and depart from evil. It
shall be health to thy navel, and marrow to thy bones (Prov. 3: 78).
S exually transmitted diseases (STDs) is a general term that

refers to as many as 20 different illnesses. These are transmit-
ted by sex, usually through the exchange of body fluids such as
cases of gonorrhea each year. And syphilis, once thought to be on
the decline, has made a comeback in the last few years.
Sexually transmitted diseases merit special attention in a biology
semen, vaginal fluid, and blood. STDs such as herpes can be course because of the enormous number of infected individuals in
acquired by kissing or close contact with infected areas not our society. Some estimates suggest that an astronomical 25 million
just intercourse. If left untreated, STDs can cause permanent people may have some form of sexually transmitted disease.
damage that may leave you blind, brain-damaged, or sterile. HIV Syphilis, the ancient scourge, continues to be a significant problem
(human immunodeficiency virus) disease often leads to AIDS in modern society; gonorrhea accounts for a million recorded cases
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), which can cause death. annually; and several new STDs are among the most common
The most common STDs are chlamydia, herpes, gonorrhea, gen- of all diseases in Americans, including chlamydia and
ital warts, syphilis, hepatitis B, crabs, and trichomoniasis. ureaplasmal urethritis.
Who gets STDs? They infect men, women, and children. STDs can be prevented and most can be cured. Yet, there are
Mothers can also give STDs to their babies. Anyone at any age two reasons for alarm. STDs are increasing among young people
can be a victim. It is not true that having had a STD once and ages 1421, and medical doctors are seeing more patients that have
having been cured prevents one from getting it again. Anyone resistant bacteria to antibiotic treatment. Many feel invincible, yet
who has sex can get a sexually transmitted disease, and millions few realize the long-term consequences of illegitimate sex. Unless
do. More than 4 million people get chlamydia each year. Genital people begin to obey Gods laws and obey Gods commandments
herpes affects an estimated 30 million Americans, with as many (the fear factor), STDs will likely follow the trend of increasing
as 500,000 new cases reported each year. There are over 1 million worldwide. We reap the consequences of what we sow.
marrow develops from this tissue in the human fetus. coccyx only looks like a tail. There are a number of embry-
2. The so-called gill slits are really wrinkles in the onic structures that superficially look like something else.
throat region. This body tissue becomes the palatine ton- Evolutionists use these developing structures to make their
sils, middle ear canal, parathyroid gland, and thymus. case for macroevolution. However, science has shown each
3. The so-called tail is in reality four fused bones called structure is fully functional for development, such as what
the coccyx that serves as attachment for vitally important we have seen with the coccyx. Still, the gill slit myth is
muscles (used in defecation, for example). The coccyx is perpetuated in many college biology textbooks as evi-
also necessary for good posture and support. dence for macroevolution. The fictitious gill slits of
In fact, neither gills nor their slits are found at any stage human embryos discussed by Haeckel, for example, are
in the embryological development of any mammal, includ- supposed to represent the fish or amphibian stage of
ing man. These folds in the neck region of the mammalian mans evolutionary ancestors. Most professional embry-
embryo are not gills in any sense of the word and never ologists no longer believe this gill slits myth of the bio-
have anything to do with breathing. They are merely genetic law. Even evolutionist Dr. P. Ehrlich said:
inward folds, or wrinkles, in the neck region resulting from
the sharply down-turned head and protruding heart of the This interpretation of embryological sequences
developing embryo. None of the reputable medical embry- will not stand under close examination. Its short-
ology texts that we checked claimed that there are gill slits comings have been almost universally pointed out
in mammal development. by modern authors, but the idea still has a promi-
To say that people have a tail bone is to assume nent place in biological mythology.
human evolution from a tailed, vertebrate ancestor.
Anatomically speaking, this bone is the coccyx. It has noth- Embryologist Dr. E. Blechschmidt reveals some of his
ing to do with the tail that we usually associate with mon- frustration with the persistence of this myth: The so-
keys or dogs. In the developing human embryo, before it is called basic law of biogenetics is wrong. No buts or ifs can
covered with important muscles of the lower intestine, the mitigate this fact. It is not even slightly correct or correct in
Body By Design 33

a different form. It is totally wrong. Yet, in many intro- million tonsillectomies done in the United States, there are
ductory biology textbooks, embryological recapitulation is 999,000 that dont need doing. For decades, millions of
offered as evidence for evolution. Ever since Darwin, the children were victims of evolutionary medical malpractice.
argument from similarity comprises much of the case for
the general theory of evolution. It is assumed that similari- Drawing Conclusions
ty provides evidence for an evolutionary relationship and
the degree of similarity predicts its proximity in time.
Neither of these propositions is supported by scientific data. N otice how flawed thinking yields false conclusions. We
wonder how many malpractice suits might have been
filed because of the error of removing fully functional
Vestigial Organs Are Fully Functional organs. There is danger when scientists make errors in their
conclusions. Many lives could have been spared. The num-
O ne topic of interest to anatomists over the years has

been rudimentary or vestigial organs. A vestigial
structure is a body part that apparently has no function, and
ber of severe colds and prolonged throat infections could
have been reduced if physicians had not removed so many
tonsils. In most cases, children would not have been
is presumed to have been useful in ancestral species. Like exposed to the danger of this needless surgery. In addition,
the anatomical anomaly story discussed in the previous sec- they would have had the benefit of a fully developed
tion, alternative research techniques and new ways of study- immune system to help fight respiratory diseases. In con-
ing old topics have shed fresh insight on the study of ves- clusion, the health of many individuals could have been
tigial organs. improved if physicians had realized that tonsils and ade-
Medical research now confirms that over one hundred noids are fully functional.
body parts once considered vestigial do have functions. Until very recently, vestigial organs were interpreted as
Some examples of previously imagined vestigial organs strong evidence favoring macroevolution. For well over a
include the adenoids, appendix, thymus, tonsils, and century, the vestigial organ argument was considered one of
lymph nodes. Extensive research studies have now shown the strongest supporting data of evolution and some writers
that each of the above organs and tissue is a part of our still consider it to be a strong support for evolution. But of
impressive immune system. the approximately 180 vestigial organs compiled by
researchers around the year 1900, it is now agreed that most
Tonsils Are Needed in Fighting of these have at least one function in the body. After exam-
Respiratory Infections ining the few organs that are still generally believed to be
vestigial by evolutionists, it is now thought that each of
M any of the organs once classified as vestigial were

found to be composed of lymphatic tissue, and hence,
have an immune function. Two medically important organs
these has at least one function.
In addition to the previously named organs of the
immune system, the coccyx, plica semilunaris, and pineal
routinely removed in former days were the tonsils (palatine gland were once considered examples of useless vestigial
tonsils) and the adenoids. The long-held assumption was that organs. Researchers have found that most of these so-called
tonsils were useless or vestigial, and hence tonsillectomies vestigial organs also play several roles. Some are back-up
were frequent. Tonsillitis was over-diagnosed (swollen ton- organs, operative in unusual situations or during only cer-
sils during a cold), and the routine removal of tonsils by sur- tain stages of the organisms life. Such information has been
gery was all too common. Most physicians thought it best to very slow to find its way into the textbooks of biology and
remove these useless (vestigial) organs when the tonsils were origins. For example, several major functions of the so-
irritated for more than a few days. called nictitating membrane in the human eye were delin-
Tonsils were first suspected as a cause of health problems eated in the 1920s, yet some science text writers still label
because of a connection between tonsil size and severity of them vestigial. Finally, I echo the conclusions of Bergman
respiratory infection. When children have the greatest and Howe:
severity of colds, tonsils swell. In the 1930s, over half of the
children had their tonsils and adenoids removed. Then Since virtually all of the so-called vestigial organs are
medical scientists learned that tonsils are important to shown to have functions, macroevolutionists can no longer
young people in helping to establish the bodys defense credibly claim that evolution is the only origins model that
capabilities by producing antibodies. Once these defense will accommodate these scientific data. Individuals who
mechanisms develop, the tonsils shrink to a smaller size in are not fully indoctrinated with evolutionary philosophy
adults. Tonsils are important in the growth of the immuno- will be able to see that all body organs function harmo-
logical system. niously. Dispelling the concept of vestigial organs allows the
Tonsils are the first line of defense against respiratory Creators work in biology to be viewed scientifically as nei-
viruses and bacteria. After learning these facts in 1971, a ther evolutionary, defective, nor capricious, but as evidence
medical doctor is reported as saying that If there are one for His handiwork and design.
34 Body by Design

Reproductive System and
Development
1. List at least three organs of the reproductive system.
2. What is the overall function of the reproductive system?
3. Describe an interwoven part of the reproductive system.
4. Describe how the layers around the growing fetus develop

and function to protect the growing embryo. How is this
evidence for an intelligent designer?
5. What is the term for infectious diseases that are

transmitted through intimate contact of the
reproductive organs?
6. Explain recapitulation theory. Name the person who

conceived this idea and name its modern-day proponent.
Body By Design 35

Exploring the
Skeletal System
in the
Multifaceted Body Framework
Bone is power. It is the Bones: A Study in Design Engineering
O
ne of the more familiar types of connective tissue
bone to which the soft to the anatomist and layperson alike is bone tissue.
Perhaps the simplest anatomy to understand is the
parts cling, from which skeleton, and the easiest place to observe the rela-
tionship of form to function are its individual bones. Anatomy
and physiology students are impressed with the robust, intricate,
they are, helpless, strung sculpted design of bone. Why is this? Perhaps it is due to the
function and structure of bone, and the interaction and fit of
various bones, much like mechanical objects. Fossilized bones,
and held aloft to the sun, too, have an ancient mystery surrounding them; their very exis-
tence is explained by ones world view. Convinced that form fol-
lows function, we will first consider the functional importance
lest man be but another of bones with regards to our physical make-up and survival.
Bones will be examined not only for their mechanical func-
slithering earthnoser. tion but also for the role that the largest and smallest bones have
in our anatomy and physiology. Since human skulls (mostly
shattered and incomplete) and teeth are some of the most impor-
Richard Selzer (Brand and Yancey) tant fossil specimens used to speculate about the strange fiction
of human evolution, we will look at these, too. Special atten-
tion will be given to the dynamic nature of bone as a living,
growing tissue. We will see how our endoskeleton grows in
response to the physical demands an individual places upon it.
An ultrastructural study of bone will show special cells that
break down, maintain, or add bone deposits in a very detailed
and orchestrated fashion according to daily physical demands.
These cells must work together in a precisely coordinated fash-
ion. An imbalance of the activity of these cell types will result in
serious conditions like osteoporosis.
Skeletal System
T he skeleton is the framework of the human anatomy, support-

ing the body and protecting its internal organs (figure 5.1a).
36

Design Focus 5.1
How Do You Identify a Real Skeleton
From a Plastic One?
A uthentic skeletons usually have an off-white appear-
ance, fake ones have a bright white appearance. Real
skeletons are quite porous and have ridges where healing
bumps and bruises. The skeleton records lifes knocks,
breaks, cuts, and even marks of healing. This is why
ancient bones, skulls, and skeletons tell us much about our
took place on breaks and bone fractures. Artificial ones historic past. You can tell an authentic skeleton from a
have smooth surfaces; everything is symmetrical and per- replica, cast, or fake skeleton by its composition and
fect. Authentic skeletons have imperfections. In fact, when marks. You will be less likely to be fooled by a forgery if
I studied anatomy at Baylor College of Medicine, I never you are aware of these identifying features. They are also
saw a perfect skeleton. Every authentic skeleton in the valuable for revealing to medical doctors and dentists a
cadaver room has either nicks, extra bumps, or fractures persons medical history for planning diagnosis and treat-
on bone surfaces. In general, every skeleton has minor ment in the present. Physicians and dentists learn a lot
deformities at birth and sustains evidence of trauma from authentic skeletons, skulls, bones, and teeth so they
through adulthood. Life is traumatic and brings various can help you understand your body and its health.
Figure 5.1
A Sacrum Sacroiliac
joint
B
Skull
Scapula Clavicle Pelvic

inlet
Sternum
Humerus
Ribs
Coccyx Acetabulum
Vertebral
Ulna column Male
Radius Coxal
bone
a ls
Carpa Sacrum Sacroiliac
joint
Metacarpals
Ilium
Femur
Patella Coccyx
Tibia Fibula Pelvic

i nlet
Acetabulum
Female
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Major Bones of the Skeleton in Anterior View and

A Comparison between male and Female Pelvices
Body By Design 37

Two hundred and six bones compose the adult skeleton, over the bone weight, most of which is the protein, collagen) and
half of which are in the hands and feet. Most of the bones are inorganic minerals (calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium pre-
connected to other bones at flexible joints, which lend the frame- dominate, though iron, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and fluo-
work a high degree of flexibility. An old spiritual sings that the rine are also present in small amounts). Most bones (except the
footbone is connected to the legbone and the legbone is con- cranium) are initially pre-formed in cartilage and are then ossi-
nected to the thighbone. In truth, every bone is connected to fied as the newborn develops (figure 5.2).
another, with one exception. Only the hyoid bone is not direct-
ly connected to another bone in this articulation. It anchors the Bones and the Skeleton
tongue and is attached to the styloid processes of the skull by lig-
ament. The skeletons of male and female bodies are essentially
the same, with the noteworthy exceptions being that female
bones are usually lighter and thinner than male bones, and the
T wo basic classification methods exist to categorize the
bones of the body. These two classification systems are
based upon anatomical location (axial or appendicular), and
female pelvis is shallower and wider than the males (figure 5.1b). shape (long, short, flat, and irregular). Axial bones are the 80
This latter difference makes childbirth easier. bones which lie along the central, vertical axis of the body and
Bones (or osseous material) serve a number of diverse pur- support and protect the head and torso. They include the skull
poses in the human anatomy. In addition to providing structure, and the spinal (vertebral) column. Appendicular bones
protection, and support for the organs of the body, bones also include the 126 bones that comprise the appendages, includ-
house marrow, which produces blood cells. The bones also store ing the shoulders and hips, arms and legs, hands and feet, and
the calcium deposits which the body may access, via resorption, fingers and toes. The shape classifications include long bones
when needed. Additionally, bones detoxify the system by remov- (such as the radius, humerus, and femur), the short bones
ing heavy metals, such as lead and arsenic, as well as other tox- (such as the carpals, tarsals, and manual and pedal phalanges),
ins, from the bloodstream. Osseous tissue itself is made of water flat bones (such as the sternum, skull bones, and scapulae),
(about 1/4 of the bone weight), organic material (about 1/3 of and irregular bones (such as the vertebrae).
Disease Focus 5.1

Arthritis, the Greatest Crippler
A rthritis, afflicting an estimated more-than-50-mil-
lion Americans, is the countrys chief cause of phys-
ical disability and is a combination of Greek words
rheumatoid arthritis appear in two finger joints; the dis-
ease-damaged tissue deteriorates so much that it is
immobilized in the knobby, misshapen deformity that is
meaning joint and bone. Arthritis causes the joint to characteristic of advanced cases of rheumatoid arthritis.
swell painfully, and eventually the joint becomes Sometimes, a normal finger joint induces certain
inflamed. This group of diseases appears in many cells to multiply unnaturally at the synovial
forms. One is old-fashioned gout; more prevalent membrane (it normally secretes fluid to
is osteoarthritis, which produces the aches and lubricate the joint). When the synovial
hobbled joints of old age; and the form most membrane swells, it will cause dis-
feared is rheumatoid arthritis, which often comfort in the joints. The second
attacks young adults and persists into joints are a favorite target of the dis-
advanced age. ease, but other finger joints and the
Arthritis strikes body joints or con- wrist, too, may be affected. As the syn-
nective tissues with painful and dis- ovial tissue grows and unhealthy body
abling effect. But why it attacks and how defenses eat cartilage-covering tissues
it can be prevented is unanswered. One away, the arthritis grows. Rheumatoid
theory surmises that the body literally arthritis creeps into the joint itself, centering
turns on itself, an autoimmune disease. on the ends of the bones and even erodes the
Doctors are still a long way from con- bone. Eventually, in late stages of the disease, the
trolling this great crippler. Typical results of bone is destroyed, rendering the joint useless.
38 Body by Design

Figure 5.2 II III
Cervical
vertebrae
I Foramen
magnum
Coronal
suture
Thoracic
Frontal Parietal vertebrae
bone bone
Sphenoid
bone
Nasal Occipital Lumbar
bone bone vertebrae
Zygomatic Occipital
bone Temporal bone sacrum
process
of Zygomatic coccyx
Maxilla
Mastoid
Mandible process
Pe The
Parts of
Zyy gomatic
process the axial Skeleton:
Lateral view of the skull (I) ; interior view of the skull (II);
and lateral view of the vertebral c olumn (III)
The skull is one of the principal groups of bones in the and maxillary bones. Within the nasal cavity, the vomer is
human anatomy. The skull consists of 26 bones: 8 bones form located in the low center and forms the thin flat bone of the
the cranium, which houses the brain and ear ossicles, plus 14 nasal septum, while two inferior urbinates form the lower
facial bones, which form the front of the face, jaw, nose, sides of the cavity and two palate bones form the floor of the
orbits, and the roof of the mouth. Three more bones make up nasal cavity as well as the roof of the mouth. The mandible is
the inner ear ossicles, and 1 more, the hyoid bone, is in the the only movable part of the skull, forming the lower jaw and
neck and is attached to the temporal bone by ligaments. The mounting the teeth.
bones of the skull include the frontal bone (which makes up The bones of the skull, with the exception of the mandible,
the forehead and roof of the orbits), the occipital bone (which are held together by very thin sutures, or seams, in which the
forms the back and base of the skull), two parietal bones periosteum of the individual bones interweave with each
(which form the roof and upper sides of the skull), and two other, and are cemented by a fibrous, connective tissue. In the
temporal bones (which form the lower sides of the skull and newborn, these sutures are not yet developed, with the bones
house the inner ear ossicles). The lower rearmost part of each being attached by cartilage that ossifies over time as the bones
temporal bone is called the mastoid process, but because it is of the skull fuse together. The most evident external sutures of
separated from the temporal bone proper by a suture, it is the cranium include the coronal suture, joining the frontal
often considered a separate bone. The sphenoid bone forms and parietal bones; the sagittal suture, joining the parietal
the central base of the skull and spans the skull from side to bones to each other; the lambdoid suture, joining the occip-
side, the greater wings forming side plates of the skull. ital and parietal bones; and the squamous suture, joining the
The sections of the ethmoid bone are positioned between temporal and sphenoid bones to the parietal bone on each side
the orbits, forming the walls and roof of the nasal cavity, while of the skull. The pterion is the short segment of the suture
the three middle ear ossicles (stapes, malleus, and incus) are joining the squamous and parietal bones.
located within the temporal bones on each side of the skull. The bones of the skull also feature a number of sinuses (cav-
The U-shaped hyoid bone is found in the neck, and is ities) and foramina (the plural of foramen, meaning hole or
attached by ligaments to the temporal bones. In the face, the opening). Four pairs of sinuses flank the nasal cavity (and are
two maxillary bones form much of the orbits, nose, upper therefore called paranasal sinuses). Two are found in the maxil-
jaw, and roof of the mouth, while the zygomatic (malar) lary bone, and are called maxillary sinuses. The sphenoid bone
bones form the cheeks. The lachrymal bones are located on forms two paranasal sinuses called the sphenoids and the eth-
the inner sides of the orbits and are attached to the ethmoid moid bone forms the two paranasal sinuses called ethmoids.
Body By Design 39

Figure 5.3
Baby (primary) teeth

Incisor (8 total)
Canine (4 total)
Molars Molar (8 total)
Total = 20 deciduous teeth
Canines
Incisors
Lateral View of
Baby Skull (left side)
The teeth are the perfect example of God's

marvelous works because they are fash-
ioned in particula a r shapes to accomplish
specific purposes of chewing food. These
Adult (secondary) teeth include incisors for cutting, cuspid d s for
Incisor (8 total) grasping, bicuspids for tearing, and
Canine (4 total) molars for grinding. The Creator provides
two sets of tee e th in a person's lifetime.
Bicuspid (8 total)
Early in life, 20 primary (or deciduous)
Molar (12 total) teeth erupt from the bony dentall alveolus
Totall = 32 permanent teeth and are with us until about fourteen years
of age. Permanent teeth start to absorb the
roo
o ts of primary teeth and will replace
Incisors Canines Bicuspids Molars them from around the age of six
and until the age of fourteen..
An adult has approximately 32

permanent teeth. Adults have
more molars than children do. The
lastt set of molars is called the
wisdom teeth. These erupt
between the ages of
17 and 25 years. In some e cases,
people do not have wisdom teeth
at all and for others they have to
be removed. These teeth a re not
vestigial organs, but are fully
Lateral View of functional grinders.
Adult Skull (left side)
Comparison of deciduous (primary) teeth in newborn

baby with Permanent teeth (secondary) in an adult
40 Body by Design

Additionally, the frontal sinuses are located in the frontal bone Bones are far from rigid, lifeless structures. Nerves etch
just behind the roof of each orbit. The foramen magnum is a their surfaces; blood vessels interweave them. Bones bus-
large, round opening in the base of the skull that admits the tle with metabolic activity. Break one and you will imme-
spinal cord, while at the base of each temporal bone is the exter- diately understand how sensitive they can be. By studying
nal auditory meatus, which serves as the auditory canal. Two a bone from someone who died centuries ago, a physical
more openings, one on each side of the skull, can be found in anthropologist can tell the sex, size, general health, diet,
the frontal processes of zygomatic bones, and are called, there- and age of the bearer.
fore, zygomatofacial foramina. On each side of the mandible, The body of an adult contains about 206 bones (figure
just below the lower canines, are the mental foramina. These 5.1a). The reason for the about is that bones fuse and/or
facial foramina serve to admit blood vessels and nerves separate over our lifetime. In a few rare instances, some peo-
through and into the bones. ple have an extra vertebrate or rib, most likely due to genetic
The teeth are mounted in the maxillary bone and the reasons. The reason for more bones in babies (higher than an
mandible and are brought together for chewing by the hinge- adult) is that some bones, particularly those of the pelvis and
like motion of the mandible (the lower jawbone). An adult will skull, converge and grow together as the child grows.
usually grow 32 teeth, but will most commonly only retain 28 Bones start forming in the first two months of fetal life
teeth due to the extraction of four wisdom teeth. The teeth are and continue to grow long after birth. Long bones, such as
evenly arrayed on the maxilla and mandible. The details of the leg and arm bones, grow mostly where plates of carti-
skull anatomy may seem trivial, but are quite important to your lage separate the bone shafts from their ends. These carti-
dentist. Actually, if your dentist neglects these details during lage cells grow, then die, leaving spaces for blood vessels
your next office visit, you may walk away in great pain and will and bone-forming cells called osteoblasts. As the
grow in appreciation for this anatomical trivia. osteoblasts multiply, they move outward, invading the car-
tilage and pushing the knobby ends of the bone farther
The Teeth away from each other. Cells left behind begin forming new
bone.
T he teeth are formally considered to be accessory digestive

organs, but as they are osseous tissue as well as integral to
the structure of the skull, they deserve to be treated with the
The process continues into young adulthood, when the
bones stop growing. You will see the significance of this
continued process of development as evidence for creation
skeletal system. The average adult human has 16 teeth, when you read the boxed section called Creation Focus
anchored in the maxilla and 16 in the mandible. 5.2: Buried Alive. All else being equal, the
Chewing is accomplished by moving the genetic code determines our assigned height.
mandible in proximity to the maxilla so that the The pituitary gland, working on instructions
teeth of the two bones are brought together, cut- from our genes, tells the bones to stop
ting, grinding, and tearing food. The teeth are growing. The ends of each bone solidify, and
paired, with two of each variety in the top row bone growth ceases. Thats a clue in deter-
and two of each in the bottom, with every tooth mining the age of skeletons, ancient or mod-
in the top row matching one in the bottom as ern, and thats why anthropologists inspect
well. In the adult, the 16 teeth in a row consist the condition of the bone ends. The end of
of 4 incisors (2 central, 2 lateral), 2 canines, 4 growth does not mean bones become inert.
premolars (also called bicuspids), and 6 molars (also called New bone is constantly forming, while other cartilage is
tricuspids). In the child, however, the 4 premolars and the being torn down and reabsorbed a form of renovation.
back 2 molars are missing in the deciduous (non-permanent) Bone that receives sustained stress is replaced more
teeth. Because it is usually between the age of 18 and 21 that quickly than bone that does not. Bones are far more com-
the last 2 molars grow in, these teeth are often called wisdom plicated than they look from the outside. A cavity that runs
teeth. along the center of bones holds yellow marrow, fat cells,
and blood vessels. The ends of these bones enclose red bone
Bone as Tissue marrow, which produces blood cells. The central cavity
connects to the rest of the bone through an intricate
labyrinth of small channels. These run through spongy
O ur skeletal frames are more than just scaffolding that holds
us erect; they serve as the structures upon which we hang all
that we are. Our bones are the anchors to which muscles attach,
material surrounding the cavity and out to a fibrous mem-
brane that covers the bone, called the periosteum. The
and they act as the levers and fulcrums for our daily activities. periosteum carries the blood supply and the nerves that
They are strong, sturdy, and cradle and protect our vital organs, make the bones sensitive to pain.
yet they are light in weight. They house the marrow that produces Bones come in various shapes and sizes, which reflect
our blood and act as storehouses for phosphorous and calcium. their varied functions. Long bones, such as the femur, act
Body By Design 41

Design Focus 5.2
Buried Alive
B
ones have generated an interest not just among the chin came forward; 5) the cheeks came forward and
health professionals, but archaeologists and flattened out; 6) the teeth came forward; 7) the back of
anthropologists also. This interest in bones, the head started to point out.
particularly skulls, is because they give clues to Some of the measurements show that the nose moved
mankinds past history and hints at our ori- 1.3 mm in 30 years while the brow ridge
gins. Fossilized bones, too, have an moved forward and upward by 1.5 mm,
ancient mystery surrounding them; their while the cheek bone moved 1.1 mm in the
very existence is explained by ones same 30-year period. Dr. Cuozzos associ-
world view. One of the promising ate (a Ph.D. biologist) then took the
lines of research on Neanderthal same data, plotted it, and extrapolat-
man is of cranium development. ed the growth out from 300 to 500
Baby
Think of a babys soft head. It is years. The 500-year age would be
fashioned with cartilage as well about the age of Noah and some
as bone. Our skull gradually of the other early people who
changes over time from fetus lived for a long time. At 300 years,
to infant to adolescent to he illustrates pictures that showed
adult. This has been known mans jaw was square at the gonial
for some time. But more angle, and the face was moving
recently Dr. Jack Cuozzo has forward and downward. At 500
Teenager
found that our skull continues years, there was no chin
to change in our old age, and point, a very long face, and
assuming man could live to 150, a huge brow. His conclusion
200, 300, or even 500 years of age, is that the large-browed
this pattern of change would pro- Neanderthal man was just an
duce an individual that looked old human and the features
remarkably like Neanderthal are a natural manifestation of
man. aging. Neanderthal man repre-
Dr. Jack Cuozzo, a research sents one of the people groups
orthodontist for over 30 years, that lived after the flood of Noah
in his book Buried Alive, and dispersed into Europe dur-
explains Neanderthal man Adult ing the Ice Ages. These conclu-
skeletons. His studies show sions are supported by over 30
that the human head does not years of fossil study. The idea
stop growing as we age. that Neanderthals are an
Contrasting the measurements intermediate between an
of peoples heads when they ape-like ancestor in man
were 19, in their late forties, (because of heavy brows, slop-
and some at age 80, he dis- ing foreheads, and a slouched-
covered that the head over, gorilla-like posture) is false.
changed in the following Old Person The truth is that man has always
manner: 1) the brow ridge been man (Homo sapiens) and he will
came forward; 2) the jaw came always be the only creature made in
forward; 3) the nose got bigger; 4) the image of God.
42 Body by Design

as levers; short bones, such as those of the wrists, are rather The transverse arch extends across the width of the foot
cube-shaped and provide support and flexibility; flat bones and is formed by the distal part of the calcaneus, navicular,
are protective shields. The femur is the bodys longest bone; and cuboid bones, as well as the proximal portions of the five
the ossicles of the middle ear that vibrate to sounds, are metatarsal bones. The weakening of the ligaments and ten-
among the smallest. dons of the foot decreases the height of longitudinal arch in
The skull, whose crucial function is to support and pro- a condition called the flat foot.
tect the brain, consists of no less than 26 bones, 8 of which The foot is the humblest member of mans anatomy. The
constitute the cranial vault, or cranium. The cranial bones human foot with its five toes is a miracle of construction. It
are connected at irregular seams, called sutures. consists of 26 separate bones of various sizes and shapes
bound together by a system of ligaments. It is supported by
The Human Foot: Marvel of Engineering a complex array of muscles and supplied with a network of
fibers and blood vessels. The different bones articulate in
gliding joints, giving the foot a degree of elasticity and a
T he human foot is a marvel of engineering. The foot is
highlighted by its specially
designed arches and series of bones
that allows one to either pound the Fig. 5.4
gridiron or balance tip-toed for hours Golden Gate
during a Swan Lake performance. You Bridge
will be amazed at the design features of Phalanges
this complex, highly integrated system
of dynamic tissue called bone.
Each pes (foot) is composed of an Metatarsals
ankle, instep, and five toes. The tarsus
(ankle) consists of seven tarsal bones
that form the heel and the posterior
portion of the instep. The instep is
Tarsals
composed of five elongated
metatarsals that form the ball of the Navicular
foot and articulate with the tarsus.
Ligaments connect the tarsals and Medial Talus
metatarsals to form the arches of the
Arches of a cuniform
foot. Human Foot
A longitudinal arch stretches from
the toe to the heel. The transverse arch Calcaneus
extends across the foot. The arches pro-
vide a stable, springy support for the
body. Design is seen even in the small details. Each toe has limited amount of motion. The arrangement of the bones is
three phalanges, corresponding to those phalanges of the fin- such that it forms several arches, the most important of these
gers, except for the big toe, which has only two phalanges being the long arch from the heel to the ball of the foot.
and provides precise movement and balance in the foot. These arches are held in place and supported by a com-
plex network of strong muscles to carry the weight of the
Arches of the Foot body, just as steel cables carry the load of a suspension
bridge. The construction also gives elasticity to the foot,
making walking, running, and other movements possible.
T he foot has two arches that support the weight of the
body and provide leverage when walking. The structure
and arrangement of the bones held in place by ligaments and
The ability to walk and to move from place to place and to
balance the tall upright body on a comparatively small
pedestal is itself a most remarkable feature of the human
tendons form these arches. The arches are not rigid; they yield
body. If the foot were flat and rigid, fixed at right angles to
when weight is placed on the foot and spring back as the
the bone of the leg, walking would be difficult or impossible.
weight is lifted. The longitudinal arch is divided into medial
The elastic arches also serve as shock absorbers to soften the
and lateral parts. It is supported by the calcaneus proximally
jar resulting from walking on a hard surface.
and by the heads of the first three metatarsal bones distally.
The human foot is a miniature suspension bridge which
The wedge, or keystone, of this part of the longitudinal arch
is much more complicated than an ordinary bridge. Would
is the talus. The shallower lateral part consists of the calca-
anyone say that the Golden Gate suspension bridge just
neus, cuboid, and the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones.
Body By Design 43

happened? Of course not, if he were truthful! But why do branching into a web of arterioles within the bone, feeds
people assume that the even more intricate mechanism of them, though the femur has two such nutrient blood vessels.
the human foot could have just happened without intelligent The bone has one foramen for the entrance of each nutrient
cause or the workmanship of a master Engineer? vessel and foramina at the extremities for the produced blood
To add to the wonders of the human foot, we must also to exit the bone.
remember that it has been reproduced billions and billions The Perforating Canal is located within the Haversian
of times in every human birth with exactly the same shape canals in the Haversian lamellae. These vessels carry the nutri-
and form and with the same number of bones and tendons ents that nourish the bone tissue and carry newly generated
and nerves. It has both strength and agility, just like the blood cells and lymphocytes from the marrow to the blood-
famous Golden Gate Bridge, to handle varying weather con- stream. The marrow (also called medullary) cavity is the
ditions. And so we see that even the humble foot of man is region within the bone that houses the marrow, responsible
one of the wonders of his body that glorifies the Creators for generation of blood cells. Yellow marrow is found in the
engineering genius. upper ends of the humerus and femur and in many of the flat
bones of the skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, and hip. The red
Interwoven Parts marrow, also known as myeloid tissue, produces all types of
blood cells except for lymphocytes and monocytes (that are
formed primarily in the lymph nodes and the spleen). The
T he compact bone layer features a number of foramina
(openings) that allow the nutrient vessel(s) to tunnel
through to reach the marrow cavity and spongy bone tissue
osteocytes are bone cells responsible for producing and main-
taining the dynamic nature of bone that has both a soft, liv-
within. Most bones have one main nutrient vessel that, by ing inner component and a hard outer shell.
Osteon
Figure 5.5
Osteonicc
canal
Compact
bone
Endosteum Perosteum
Spongy
bone
Nerve
Blood
vessels Nerve
Osteonic
canal
Compact
bone Blood
vessel
The Haversian System is Perforating

canal
the interwoven component
of compact bone. It looks
like tree rings, consistin
ng Nerve
of calcified layers formed
during the bone develop- Canaliculus
ment. In the center,
Haversian canals house
the blood vessels, Osteocyte
lymph vessels,
nerves, and bone Lacuna
marrow. Each central (space)
canal, with its sur-
rounding lamellae,
lacunae, osteocytes,
and canaliculi forms
an osteon. Haversian System
44 Body by Design

Skeletal System
1. What are three of the main components or organs of
the skeletal system?
2. What are the overall functions of the skeletal system?
3. Name and describe an interwoven part of the skeletal

system applying the fabrica idea.
4. Discuss the differences between male and female pelvic

girdles. How are these differences evidence for an
intelligent designer?
5. What is a common degenerative condition of joints?

Include symptoms.
6. Isaac Newton said, In the absence of any other

proof, the thumb alone would convince me of Gods
existence. Discuss the anatomical and
physiological basis for such a confident assertion.
(Include diagrams as needed.)
7. The foot has similar design features to a suspension

bridge. Explain this analogy and include
diagrams as needed.
Body By Design 45

EXPLORING
INTERWOVEN DESIGNS
OF THE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
6
A
In the absence of any lthough bones and joints form the framework of
the body, they cannot move the body by them-
selves. Motion results from the contraction and
other proof, the thumb relaxation of muscles. Muscle tissue constitutes
about 40 to 50 percent of the total body weight and is com-
posed of highly specialized cells.
alone would convince me
Design of Muscles
of Gods existence.
(Isaac Newton)
D esign is inferred with the fabric of muscle construction.
Fabrica, or fabricae in Latin, translates to craft, trade,
industry, workmanship, or a process of building, construction,
and production. Fabre (a related word) is an adverb that means
skillfully. A study of the art of Vesalius and da Vinci similar
styles. Vesalius and da Vinci lived in the same time period, where
their diagrams gave man a heavenly glory. Each sketch was a
masterpiece. Many of their illustrations portrayed the interwov-
en fabric of the human body. Some of the patterns displayed
contrasting threads, dark and light, as well as gold, silver, black,
and white.
Muscular System Overview
T he human body contains nearly 700 individual muscles

anchored to the skeleton, which provide pulling power to
allow mobility. These muscles constitute about 40 percent of
your total body weight. The muscles points of attachment to
bones or other muscles are designated as origin or insertion. The
point of origin is the point of attachment to the bone to which
the muscle is anchored. The point of insertion is the point of
attachment to the bone the muscle moves. Generally, the mus-
cles are attached by tough fibrous structures called
tendons. These attachments bridge one or more joints and the
46

results of muscle contraction are movement of these joints. The those nonsegmented around the appendicular skeleton (arms
body is moved primarily by muscle groups, not by individual and legs), and those associated with the visceral skeleton (bra-
muscles. These groups of muscles power all actions ranging from chiometric muscles). All muscles have basically the same struc-
the threading of a needle to the lifting of heavy weights. ture. Each muscle has an attachment at both ends, called the
The overall function of muscle is motion. This includes origin and insertion, and a fleshy contractile part, called the
movement such as walking and running, as well as movement of muscle belly. These muscles are attached either directly or
substances within the body. All three types of indirectly (via tendons) to the bones, and
muscle tissue help move substances such as work in opposing pairs (one muscle in the
blood, food, sperm, and urine. Muscle helps to pair contracts, while the other relaxes) to pro-
stabilize body positions and regulate organ vol- duce body movements. The muscles work
ume. Skeletal muscle contractions maintain sta- together to produce movement of a joint, to
ble body positions and sustain posture. steady a joint, and to prevent movement in
Contractions of smooth muscles block the exit of the direction opposite to those intended. As a
food from the stomach and urine from the uri- rule, only the insertion bone moves. The
nary bladder for temporary storage. A byproduct shortening of the muscle as it contracts pulls
of muscle contraction is the production of heat. the insertion bone toward the origin bone.
Skeletal muscle contractions may generate 85 per- The origin bone stays put, holding firm while
cent of all body heat to help maintain normal body temperature. the insertion bone moves toward it. These muscles always tire
with continued use and require rest.
Because of their cross-striped appearance under a microscope,
Muscle Types these muscles are called striated. There are two types of striated
muscle: dark fibers and light fibers. The dark fibers are a deep
Skeletal Muscle red color and predominantly produce slow, tonic movement.
The skeletal muscle cells that comprise about 40 percent of The light fibers are lighter in color and predominantly produce
the body weight are voluntary. They are mostly attached to the quick and contracted motions. Each muscle fiber is encased in a
bones to move the skeleton and are fast-acting and powerful. thin, transparent membrane called the sarcolemma. The fibers
The voluntary muscles are of three series: those that are more or are subdivided longitudinally into minute myofibrils and
less arranged around the axial skeleton (head, neck, and trunk), myofilament encased in a fluid called sarcoplasm. The
Design Focus 6.1

An Anatomical Anomaly
S cientists must be cautious not to get too set in their ways.
Good scientists are open to alternative explanations, as
new data become available. This is true even in the old disci-
Hack still needs evidence to show that this new struc-
ture is indeed a separate muscle. In order for it to be con-
sidered a separate muscle, the sphenomandibularis must
pline of gross anatomy. Grays Anatomy is the bible of have its own nerve and blood supply, connect at both
human musculature, but even this bible may be incomplete. ends of the skeletal structure, and have a distinct func-
In 1996, Dr. Gary Hack, a research dentist, announced that tion. But no matter what future findings may be, it is sig-
he and his co-workers had found a new muscle in the face. nificant that no description of this structure is discussed
Hack stumbled onto the structure while working on a cadav- in Grays Anatomy or any other of the 15 standard
er so altered by previous dissections that he was forced to cut anatomy textbooks.
into the face from the front instead of the usual side approach. Hacks research has now caused the classic reference,
Hack found this new muscle, the sphenomandibularis, by Grays Anatomy to be revised. The moral of this story is that
cutting from an unconventional angle and exposing an unfa- a study of an old subject with alternative methods and an
miliar muscle connecting the mandible (lower jawbone) to the open mind may reveal new information and insight into
sphenoid bone behind the base of the eye socket. He suspect- how the body works. His work illustrates not only the
ed that it stabilizes the jaw during chewing rather than actual- expanding knowledge of human anatomy, but also that
ly moving the jaw. You might say that this finding has given scientists need to keep an open mind for new data that
researchers something to chew on. may contradict established preconceived ideas.
Body By Design 47

Figure 6.1
Frontalis
Trapezius
Sternonucleiodomastoid
Deltoid
Pectoralis
major
Externall Biceps brachii

oblique
Serratus
anterior
Rectus
abdominis
Brachioradialis
Gracilis
Sartorius
Gastrocnemius
Extensor digitorum
longus
Soleus
Principal Superficial Skeletal Muscles

in Anterior View
48 Body by Design

Figure 6.2
Occipitalis
Sternonucleidomastoid
Trapezius
Deltoid
Latissimus
dorsi
Triceps brachii
External
oblique
Gluteus
medius
Gluteus
maximus
HAMSTRINGS:
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Gastrocnemius
Calcaneal Soleus
tendon
Principal Superficial Skeletal Muscles

in Posterior View
Body By Design 49

muscle cells are elongated tubular structures with as many as sev-
eral hundred nuclei and are actually a fusion of cells (syncytia). Intertwining Neuromuscular Junctions
The muscle fibers are bound together in bundles of white fibrous
connective tissue called perimysia. Striated muscles that are not
directly under voluntary control include vocal cord muscles and
the diaphragm.
T he nerve-muscle junction features a connection, or
synapse, between an axon terminal and a group of
muscle fibers. A space between the neural and muscular tis-
sue is called the synaptic space. When a nerve impulse is
Cardiac Muscle transmitted to the axon terminal, it causes a neurotrans-
Cardiac muscle is red-colored involuntary muscle that con- mitter (chemical) to be released from small sacs, called
tracts automatically and rhythmically, like a smooth muscle, but synaptic vesicles, within the terminal, or knob. The neu-
is striated, like skeletal muscle. The muscle is fast-acting and rotransmitter causes sodium ions to be transferred to the
powerful. It is under the control of the autonomic nervous sys- muscle fibers which, in turn, contract. The neurons are
tem and continuously contracts and relaxes throughout life. covered by an insulating, lipid-based coating, called the
myelin sheath, which prevents stray neural signals from
Smooth Muscle
passing to other neurons or to other tissues.
Smooth-muscle cells are not attached to the skeleton, but are Muscles work by contracting and relaxing. During contrac-
found in the walls of the blood vessels, the digestive tract, and tion they shorten their length to bring the bone closer to their
in the dermal layer of the skin. They react slowly to stimuli from points of attachment on two different bones. Every muscle
the autonomic nervous system and perform actions such as forc- movement, therefore, is a pull. The fibers and fibrils of the
ing food through the intestines, transporting urine to the kid- muscle accomplish this pulling action. All skeletal muscles are
neys, and pumping blood through blood vessels. The muscle is made up of small fibers. The fibers are cylindrical in shape and
nonstriated and consists of spindle-shaped, uninuclear cells that are several centimeters long, with regular bands (striations)
are not bound together, as in skeletal muscle. Like skeletal mus- dividing them into sections. The fibers are made up of many
cle, smooth muscle has fibrillae but without cross-striations. cylindrical subunits called fibrils. These are the structures that
The muscles are involuntary, and are slow-acting, untiring, and actually contract. Muscular fibers are able to shorten 30 to 40
weak in action.
Disease Focus 6.1

Fibromyalgia
Fibromyalgia is more than less of a syndrome. We name
F ibromyalgia is a disorder characterized by muscle
pain, stiffness, and easy fatigability. The cause is
unknown and an estimated 3 million are affected in the
syndromes in medicine to associate more than one problem
to a specific diagnosis. Fibromyalgia is a diagnosis. Although
USA. Fibromyalgia is a complex problem. It is a not only much maligned and criticized, the official definition estab-
a multiple sclerosis-type problem but a problem of central lished fibromyalgia as a disease entity. Fibromyalgia is pri-
activation, too. The symptoms of muscle pain, depres- marily pain, but as anybody that suffers from this disease
sion, impairment and interruption of daily activities, and knows, there is so much more, such as fatigue, poor restora-
sleep pattern malfunction characterize fibromyalgia and its tive sleep, headaches, irritable bowel, frequent pelvic and
sister myofascial pain syndrome, multiple sclerosis. bladder pain, and migraine headaches.
In many cases, fibromyalgia emerges into muscle The American College of Rheumatology (ACR) in 1990
pain that is unrelenting and a devastating life experi- explained it as the presence of unexplained widespread
ence. The existence of fibromyalgia (and probably pain or aching, persistent fatigue, generalized morning
myofascial pain syndrome) has been debated for many stiffness, poor restorative sleep, and tender points. The
years, but its existence cannot be denied. The ACR defined 11 tender points that had a consistent statis-
fibromyalgia sufferer has several challenges: to improve tical relationship to patients present with this syndrome in
their quality of life, to better understand why they hurt, the rheumatology clinic. We now believe that abnormal
and to help loved ones (and, yes, even their physicians) pain processing mechanisms are at the root of fibromyalgia.
understand their symptoms and suffering. Fibromyalgia Fibromyalgia sufferers have a low pain threshold and a high
often overlaps other diseases. discrimination of pain.
50 Body by Design

percent in length during muscle contraction. work together to control the up and down movement of the
Myofilaments are made of two types of protein: actin forearm.
and myosin. These proteins are in the form of long fila- Triceps Brachii
ments. The filaments made of myosin are thicker than the The triceps brachii (three-headed muscle) lies at the upper
filaments made of actin. These filaments interlock and are portion of the inside of the arm. It is the main extensor of the
able to slide over each other, shortening the length of the arm and is made up of three teardrop-shaped heads: the long
muscle. When the muscle is stretched, the filaments tend to head, the lateral head, and the medial head. When working
be pulled apart. During shortening (contraction), they with other nearby muscles it can also move the shoulder, since
shorten by sliding past one another. It appears that during its upper ends are attached to the scapula. The long head, the
contraction several cross-links are made between the actin largest of the three heads, is attached to the scapula (shoulder
and myosin filaments. By the process of making and break- blade) just below the rounded socket of the shoulder joint and
ing these cross-links, the two filaments move toward one extends almost three-fourths of the way toward the front of
another and the whole muscle shortens. This process is the arm. The lateral head lies on the back and side of the upper
very rapid. arm. The medial head curves around the back of the humerus
Cardiac muscle has a similar appearance to skeletal mus- (upper arm bone) and is mostly covered by the long head. The
cle. It has striations and is thought to contract in the same lower end is attached to the flattened end of the ulna. The tri-
manner as the skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle has no stri- ceps brachii extends the forearm at the elbow joint. It works
ations and is composed of spindle-shaped with the biceps brachii to control the up and
cells totally lacking in myofibrils. Researchers down movement of the forearm.
still do not fully understand the smooth-
muscle contraction mechanism. Form and Function in
Skeletal Muscles
The Arm: Example of
a Fabrica Design
A nother example of this structure and func-
tion theme is the biceps brachii muscle of
T he arm has a wide range of movements. It

swing backward and forward in walking and
running, and can be folded across the chest or
the upper arm and its control by neurons.
Long extensions of the neurons transmit elec-
trochemical impulses, making these cells espe-
raised above the head. The shoulder forms a base for the arm cially well structured for communication. The movement of
with most of the upper arm muscles originating from this area. our body depends on the structure of muscles and movements
In the upper arm, the biceps and triceps are arranged to give the of bones. The movement produced by a contracting muscle
forearm power to thrust and bend. The two muscles join at the depends on how it is attached to the bones and how the bones
elbow and allow you to bend and straighten your arm and also articulate with each other. In such a familiar example, the rela-
rotate your wrist and hand. The forearm muscles transmit power tion between structure and function is obvious.
to the wrist, hands, and fingers. A group of flexors and exten- The dependence of activity on structure becomes more
sors controls the movements of the wrist, acting in conjunction subtle, but no less real, as we direct our attention to the lower
with other muscles of the fingers, thumb, radius, and ulna. These levels of organization, such as tissues, cells, and organelles.
sets of muscles allow the arm and wrist to bend (flexion) and Our understanding of how a muscle contracts rests on the
straighten (extension) as well as move outward away from the ultrastructure of the contractile machinery as well as on its
body (abduction) and inward toward the body (adduction). chemical properties.
Some of these muscles participate in more than one type of As an example of functional anatomy at the subcellular
movement. level, consider the organelles called mitochondria.
Mitochondria are quite numerous in skeletal muscles. They
Biceps Brachii are the sites of oxidative metabolism, which powers the cell by
The biceps brachii (two-headed arm muscle) consists of the a process using oxygen and tapping the energy stored in glu-
long head and the short head. It extends from the shoulder to the cose and triglycerides. An outer membrane surrounds a mito-
elbow and is the main flexor of the elbow joint. When working chondrion, but it also has an inner membrane with many
with other nearby muscles, it can also move the shoulder, since infoldings. Molecules embedded in the folds of the inner
its upper ends are attached to the scapula (shoulder blade). In membrane carry out many of the steps in oxidative metabo-
addition, it can twist the lower arm so that the palm faces out- lism. The infoldings pack a large amount of membrane into a
ward, a movement called supination. At the lower end, the minute space. In exploring life on its different structural lev-
biceps tapers into a flat, strong tendon that is firmly fixed to a els, we discover operational beauty at every turn.
bulge on the upper end of the radius. The biceps and the triceps
Body By Design 51

All-or-None Principle in Muscles
T he way these systems operate remind us of the well-accepted

all-or-none principle in muscle and nerve physiology. In
skeletal muscles, individual fibers contract to their fullest extent
threading a needle to holding a jackhammer. This amazing diver-
sity of functions is accomplished with the help of muscles in the
forearm and wrist. The fingers have no muscles in themselves; the
or not at all. A minimal threshold must be made in order for any tendons transfer force from muscles in the forearm and palm.
action to take place. It either contracts, or not at all. In neurons, The forearm muscles (figure 6.3) promote most hand move-
if a stimulus is strong enough to initiate an action potential, a ments. These movements are assisted and made more precise by a
nerve impulse is propagated along the entire neuron at a con- number of small intrinsic muscles in the hand. These hand mus-
stant strength. cles include the four lumbrical muscles that lie between the
metacarpals (visible on the palm surface), and the seven
The Hands and Their Movement interosseous muscles that lie deep beneath the skin and inferior
to the lumbricals. Together, the lumbricals and interossei flex the
knuckles. They also extend, adduct, and abduct the fingers. There
T he movement of the hand and fingers of a concert pianist is
an awesome sight. The necessity of coordination, timing, and
order to play Beethovens Fifth Symphony or Bachs Jesu Joy
are four thenar muscles that act exclusively to circumduct and
oppose the thumb.
of Mans Desire is a feat that is not accomplished by chance. There Orthopedic surgeons could write many manuals suggesting
is marvelous skill not only in playing the music, but also in the 70 various ways to repair hands that have been injured. Yet, there has
(35 in each hand) separate muscles contributing to the hand move- never been a surgical technique that succeeded in improving the
ments on the keyboard. The hand has been described as the most movement in a normal healthy hand. It frequently takes over a
sophisticated tool in the body. It looks like it was crafted for max- dozen muscles and tendons working together with the opposable
imum dexterity and strength in movement. The hand is capable of thumb to accomplish one movement. No wonder Sir Isaac
58 distinct movements. These movements allow for dexterity and Newton was convinced of intelligent action in creation from his
power for a diversity of actions ranging from piano playing and study of the thumb alone!
The Hand,
Figure 6.3 Its Muscles, and Tendons
Flexor digitorum Tendons that flex

superfacialis
Posterior surface of the hand. Anterior surface of the hand.

Abductor muscles of the hand Interosseous and thenar muscles
show. move the fingers and thumb.
52 Body by Design

Muscular System
1. What are the main components of the muscular system?
2. What is the overall function of the muscular system?
3. Name and describe an interwoven aspect of the

skeletal system.
4. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle and tell how

its design is an evidence for creation.
Body By Design 53

A Voyage into the
Multifaceted
Digestive System
7
A
To be a member is to human being is more than the sum of its parts
is the major theme of a Life magazine article by
Alex Tsiaras. In the beautifully illustrated photo
have neither life, being, essay A Fantastic Voyage through the Human
Body, the dynamic nature and unique properties of the 11
nor movement, except organ body systems are discussed and pictured. Each multi-
faceted system illustrates the elaborate design and the inter-
dependence of parts in the human body. Any absent part in
through the spirit of the one of the bodys many adaptation packages could lead to
dysfunction of that system and, sometimes, could even lead
to death.
body, and for the body.
In this chapter we have selected several familiar examples
from the human body to illustrate the design argument of
Blaise Pascal irreducible intricacy. Many molecular and cell teams are
present in the body to illustrate this feature. A question to
ponder as you study these particular examples is this: Are the
mechanisms proposed in The Blind Watchmaker by Dr.
Dawkins a sufficient argument to explain this remarkable
order and complexity in human anatomy and physiology?
Will time and chance produce such wondrous and complex
systems by evolution?
The Dynamic Digestive System
T he human digestive system (figure 7.1) is a long tube

with an opening at each end and many specialized
organs in between. If the tube of an adult were fully
stretched, it would extend 21 to 30 feet. From beginning to
end, a mucous-coated epithelium lines all the surfaces facing
the lumen (space in a tube). The thick, moist mucous pro-
tects the wall of the tube and enhances the diffusion across
its inner lining. Substances advance in one direction from
the oral cavity (mouth) through the pharynx (throat),
54

Table 7.1 Fu n c t i o n s o f t h e L i ve r
1) It detoxifies otherwise poisonous substances, such as alcohol and harmful drugs. (A body whose liver lacks
this function will often develop cirrhosis of the liver.)
2) It produces bile, as well as enzymes in metabolism.
3) It removes glucose from the blood under the influence of insulin and stores it as glycogen. When the glucose
level falls, the hormone glucagon causes the liver to break down glycogen-releasing glucose into the blood.
4) Liver cells make many complex blood proteins.
5) Liver cells convert nitrogenous wastes into urea that can be excreted by the kidneys.
6) The liver, along with the kidneys, helps to regulate the contents of the blood.
esophagus, and gastrointestinal tract (gut). The gut starts at anal canal and the anus. Along the way through the diges-
the stomach and extends through the small intestine, large tive tract, the pancreas, spleen, liver, and gall bladder secrete
intestine (colon), and rectum, ending at the anus. enzymes that aid in the digestive process.
Accessory organs, such as the salivary glands, gall bladder,
liver, and pancreas, secrete chemicals into various digestive Villi: An Interwoven Fabric in the Gut
tract regions. Specifically, they secrete digestive enzymes,
buffers, and mucus, which help in metabolism, moisturiz-
ing, and lubricating the food as it passes through the gut. T he small intestine is responsible for completing diges-
tion and for absorbing the usable food products into
the lymphatic system and bloodstream. The small intestine
Function of the Digestive System itself consists of a coiled, narrow tube (12 inches in diame-
ter), between 19 and 22 feet (about 67 meters) long, in the
T he digestive system is responsible for

processing food, breaking it down into
usable proteins, carbohydrates, minerals,
lower abdomen, below the stomach. The
small intestine extends from the duodenum,
where it accepts the chyme (predigested
fats, and other substances and introducing food), to the iliocecal orifice, where it passes
these into the bloodstream so that the body semifluid food byproducts to the large intes-
can use them. The digestive, or alimentary, tine. The food is passed through the intestin-
tract begins at the mouth, where the teeth al tract in wave-like contractions, called peri-
and tongue begin the breakdown of food, staltic waves, in the intestinal wall. The food
aided by saliva secreted by the salivary is further digested by bile and other digestive
glands. The chewed food, combined with juices deposited into the duodenum from the
saliva, is swallowed, carrying it in peristaltic gall bladder, pancreas, and liver.
(contractile) waves down the esophagus to the stomach. In The digesting food passes by the millions of villi (projec-
the stomach, the food combines with hydrochloric acid that tions) on the inside wall of the intestines that absorb pro-
further assists in breaking it down. When the food is thor- teins and carbohydrates into their capillaries, and lymphatic
oughly digested, the fluid remaining, called chyme, is nodules, which absorb fats. The villi pass the proteins and
passed through the pyloric sphincter to the small and large carbohydrates to the liver for metabolic processing, and the
intestines. Within the long, convoluted intestinal canals, lymphatic nodules pass the fats through the lymphatic sys-
the nutrients are absorbed from the chyme into the blood- tem into the bloodstream. The small intestine is anchored to
stream, leaving the unusable residue. This residue passes the spinal column by a vascular membrane, the mesentery.
through the colon (where most of the water is absorbed into These processes can be clearly observed in the largest
the bloodstream) and into the rectum where it is stored internal organ of the body, the liver. One of the main func-
prior to excretion. This solid waste, called feces, is com- tions of the liver is to control the level of vital nutrients in
pacted together and, upon excretion, passes through the the blood, such as carbohydrates and proteins (table 7.1).
Body by Design 55

Inferior Vena cava
Figure 7.1 Caudate lobe
Left lobe
Right lobe
Blood cells
Epithelium
Cystic duct
Lacteal Common
Muscle fibre Gall bladder
bile duct
Large intestine
Oral cavity
Superior mesenteric Abdominal aorta

Esophagus artery
Inferior mesenteric
artery
Liver Stomach Small intestine
Large Small
intestine intestine
Rectum
Rectum
The majority of digestion occurs in the organs of the abdominal cavity. The largest of these is the liver. The liver supplies the
gastrointestinal tract with powerful enzymes, such as bile, to break down food. The liver also destroys red blood cells, forms
urea for the excretion of nitrogenous wastes, forms fibrinogen, used in blood coagulation, stores glycogen, helps in the
metabolism and storage of vitamins, and produces protective and antitoxin substances, among its many functions.
The small intestine is responsible for completing digestion and for absorbing the usable food products into the lymphatic sys-
tem and bloodstream. It extends from the duodenum, where it accepts the chyme (predigested food), to the iliocecal orifice,
where it passes semifluid food byproducts to the large intestine. The large intestine is a broad, corrugated tube which
accepts the byproducts of digestion from the small intestine and passes them along to be excreted, continuing to process
the material on the way. Any unabsorbed food materials
are stored in the large intestine until the body can partial-
ly reabsorb water from them, then passing the remains Overview of the Digestive
are passed along to the anus for elimination. System and its Design
56 Body By Design

The importance of the liver should not be underestimat-
Figure 7.2
ed in the body. Liver transplant patients know their lives
hang in the balance until a fully functioning liver replaces a
degenerate one. Liver cells provide an example of vesicular Cystic duct Esophagus
transport of proteins and carbohydrates in an organelle, the Gall
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER). On their ribosomes, bladder Hepatic ducts
liver cells make many blood proteins that are transported in
vesicles through the ER before release into the bloodstream.
In addition, liver cells store and transport carbohydrates
in the form of glycogen. The hydrolysis (splitting) of glyco-
gen leads to the transport and release of glucose subunits
from the liver cells, a process that is important in the regula-
tion of blood glucose levels. Movement of glucose within
and between cells is facilitated by vesicular transport. In
addition, enzymes of the smooth ER of liver cells help detox-
ify drugs and poisons. Detoxification usually involves
Common Stomach
adding hydroxyl (OH) groups to drugs, increasing their bile duct
solubility, and making it easier to flush the compounds from Main pancreatic
Duodenum
the body. The removal of alcohol, barbiturates, and haz- duct
ardous drugs in this manner by smooth ER liver cells is also
accomplished through vesicular transport.
Overview of the Digestive
An Unexpected Design System and its Design
The news media publishes many articles about microbes that to make nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
cause disease, but only a few articles report about microbes that which is necessary for energy conversion in the cells mito-
are useful. In fact, microbe phobia permeates much of our chondria. Bacteria in significant amounts in the colon form
society today. Actually, only about five percent of all bacteria are vitamin K, niacin, NAD, and B-complex vitamins.
pathogenic. Many bacteria are beneficial and some are even The B vitamins, including niacin, cobalamin (B12)
essential for human life. For example, bacteria are needed to biotin, thiamine, and riboflavin, are necessary for normal
make yogurt from milk. Yogurt helps your body synthesize vita- energy levels, freedom from fatigue, and proper function-
mins more efficiently. Bacteria in yogurt also help us by tem- ing of nerves. A prolonged deficiency in any one of these
porarily occupying an empty niche during antibiotic treatment vitamins may lead to chronic fatigue and inability to lead a
and preventing germs from growing . This relationship between normal life. As for the benefit to E. coli (and other enteric
microbe and man could be called an adaptation package. bacteria), mans colon provides them a stable nutritional
An adaptation package is a biological relationship in home. In short, both parties benefit from this mutualistic
which the whole is functionally more than the sum of its relationship.
individual components. Escherichia coli (figure 7.3) are the The mutualistic relationship between our digestive cells
predominant bacteria in the lower intestine, and they con- and these helpful microbes shows amazing cooperation and
stitute about 75 percent of all the living bacteria in feces. is another example of emergent properties in living things.
Biologists refer to this cooperation between E. coli and the The large intestine contains the highest numbers of resi-
colon as mutualism, a relationship where both species ben- dent flora because of the available moisture and nutrients
efit from living together. More simply stated, E. coli pro- in the colon. If you take away E. coli and other bacteria, the
vides us with vitamins as its rent money. Humans, in function of the digestive system is severely impaired. This
return, provide a home for these beneficial bacteria. cooperation among cells is similar to the interdependent
The majority of microorganisms in the intestines under parts of a mousetrap and summarized in table 7.2.
normal conditions do no harm. Indeed, the intestinal bac- Mutualism is, therefore, evidence for creation. In mutu-
teria contribute to the general well-being of both microbes alism there is a marvelous fit between two radically differ-
and people by synthesizing a number of the vitamins essen- ent organisms. Mutualism poses a problem for macroevo-
tial for good nutrition and breaking down various lution because it requires that the complementary traits in
macronutrients. The human body cannot synthesize niacin two different organisms evolved at the same time.
Body by Design 57

Simultaneous mutations must have occurred during nat- were a part of the original blueprint for the human body.
ural selection in two very different organisms, although we Since the fall of man, however, there are a number of
have already pointed out the difficulty of just one successful pathogens that invade these same niches normally occupied
trait evolving from random mutations. Another problem is by harmless bacteria. Invading pathogens cause havoc in our
the tendency for mutualism to degenerate into parasitism body and may cause death.
by a mutation. Microbial diseases of the digestive system are second only
We must, therefore, ask if there is any evidence for to respiratory diseases as causes of illness in the United States.
mutualism having arisen by evolution. There appears to be Most likely, infectious diseases of the digestive tract rank first
no record of new mutualism emerging in the last century. in the entire world, but accurate statistics are not available.
It is clear that mutualism could not have simply evolved by Most such diseases result from the ingestion of water or food
chance alone because of the incredibly low probability that contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, or their tox-
both traits would have arisen simultaneously. We must con- ins. These pathogens usually enter the food or water supply
clude that the most plausible explanation is that human after being shed in the feces of people or animals infected with
intestinal cells and these bacteria were created to function them. Therefore, microbial diseases of the digestive system are
together. typically transmitted by a fecal-oral cycle. This cycle is inter-
In conclusion, the relationship between intestinal bacte- rupted by effective, responsible sanitation practices in food
ria and humans is optimal for survival because of the abili- handling, by modern methods of sewage treatment, and dis-
ty for cooperation within this entire package of parts. In infection of drinking water. Moreover, as more of our food,
this case, it is a mutualistic, coordinated system of microbes especially fruits and vegetables, are grown in countries with
working together with mans gastrointestinal tract. It is poor sanitation, outbreaks of food-borne disease from import-
adaptive in that it increases the survival of both human and ed pathogens will increase. Several examples of diseases trans-
microbe. In fact, this remarkable unity between these mag- ferred in this way are given in table 7.4.
nificent microbes and our intestines can be logically derived
as having its origin in an intelligent designer. This remark- Be Ye Clean: Principle for Cleanliness
able cooperation is strong evidence for creation because it
defies the laws of probability that two very different organ- Although man is faced with many diseases of the diges-
isms can live together in such remarkable harmony. tive tract, the Creator was not unaware. Ever since ancient
This dynamic digestive system with its interwoven parts, times God has provided a solution to the spread of infec-
the villi and its mutualistic bacteria, are part of the Creators tious disease. This solution included the use of disinfection
wise design for the human body. Without these friendly and antiseptic practices. Recall that Moses and his fellow
bacteria in the digestive system, many vitamins and other Israelites had over 40 years of camping experience when he
health benefits would be missed. The majority of microor- wrote this law. The Israelites learned to be careful about
ganisms are there for our benefit. No doubt these organisms what they ate and drank during their time in the wilderness.
Figure 7.3 In the Abdominopelvic Cavity,

most of our food digestion
and absorption takes place. In
the top framme, the liver releas-
es bile that aids in the diges-
tion of fats. The intestines are
the major site e s of nutrient
absorption, vitamin produc-
tion, and water absorbtion. In
the villus (lower frame), t he
great majority of nutrients are
absorbed. Notice the villis
interwoven design.
Escherichia Coli Living

in Harmony with the
Intestinal Tract
58 Body By Design

Table 7.2 A n Ad a p t a t i o n Pa c k a g e
Escherichia coli living within the digestive system
Vitamins and Enzymes Metabolic Role Disease if Deficient

1. Vitamin K Needed in blood clotting Hemorrhage in newborns who lack gut bacteria
2. Vitamin B12 Coenzyme needed Pernicious anemia; lack of energy
in protein formation
3. Niacin Part of coenzymes in Pellagra; lack of energy; fatigue
(Vitamin B3) energy metabolism
4. Vitamin B-Complex Carbohydrate metabolism Beriberi, loss of appetite,
(thiamine, biotin, Coenzymes in fatigue, inflammation
and riboflavin) cell respiration and breakdown of skin
5. Lactase Breaks down lactose (milk sugar) Lactose intolerance (cannot digest dairy products)
The principles laid down in the Levitical laws were given to only clean foods. Moses instructions to the Israelites
the Jews, in part to make them a distinct people obedient were among the first to stipulate the isolation of people
unto God. However, the laws were given to the Israelites for with infectious diseases, stressing that precautions to con-
their own good and protection against disease, as well. God tain people with disease be taken. Gods chosen ones were
was (and still is) interested in His peoples health. Although the first people to implement the principle of quarantine.
Moses may have not understood the germ theory of dis- The result was an effective containment of microbial dis-
ease, he did desire to please God and protect his people. eases. In addition, the Israelites were required to keep
Consequently, Moses wrote down Gods detailed laws for sewage out of the camp (Lev. 13), and this practice
cleansing food, water, and utensils, thereby establishing would have greatly reduced water-borne and enteric dis-
the principles for modern sanitation. eases caused by Escherichia coli and other intestinal para-
The Egyptians had many treatments that were very sites. Even before Semmelweis, Pasteur, Tyndall, and
ineffective in treating common infectious diseases, from Lister, God gave Israel medical success with a prescription
historical records. In contrast, the Jewish people had many for protection against infectious disease!
effective sanitation and eating practices, such as eating
Table 7.3 Di s e a s e s o f t h e Di g e s t i v e Sy s t e m a n d t h e
B e Ye C l e a n Pr i n c i p l e
Bible Passage Disease Principle Microbiological Comments

Exod. 15:26 Obedience leads to Promise given that people who follow the Creators
fewer diseases prevention principles will live healthier lives.
Lev. 13:46 Quarantine Isolation of individuals with infectious disease from general
population will reduce and contain diseases.
Lev 13 Cleanliness Some food and water contain microscopic viruses,
(Clean vs. Unclean) bacteria, protozoans, and multicellular parasites.
Lev. 13:52 Sterilization The process by which all living organisms in an Tyndallization
object/utensil is killed or removed by heat.
Lev. 14:6 Use of hyssop soap This soap had antiseptic properties (having substances used for
killing or limiting the growth of microorganisms and parasites).
Num. 19:7, 8, 19 Handwashing Reduces the number of microbes and parasites so
(w/running water) as to prevent likelihood of diseases.
Deut. 23:10-14 Sanitation Keeping waste out of the camp reduces the chance of having
contaminated food and water microbes and parasites. Removal
of waste keeps enteric viruses, bacteria, protozoans, tape
worms, and other helminth worms down in number.
Body by Design 59

Table 7.4 Di s e a s e a n d Di s o rd e r s o f t h e Di g e s t i v e Sy s t e m
Organ Disease Pathogen (Germ Type)

1. Mouth Dental caries Streptococcus mutans
2. Stomach Ulcers Helicobacter pylori (bacterium)
3. Small intestine Helminth infestation Tapeworms
4. Small intestine Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum (protozoan)
5. Large intestine Giardiasis Giardia (protozoan)
6. Intestines Gastroenteritis E. coli 0157H7
7. Liver Hepatitis Hepatitis B virus
Disease Focus 7.1 Dental Caries

The Teeth
also provided by crevicular fluid, a tissue exudate
A tooth consists of an exposed crown supported
by a neck anchored firmly to the jaw by one or
more roots. The roots of teeth fit into sockets. Each
that flows into the gingival crevice and is closer
in composition to serum than saliva. It protects
socket is lined with a connective tissue periosteum, teeth by virtue of both its flushing action and its
called the periodontal membrane. The root of a phagocytic cells and immunoglobulin. Localized
tooth is covered with a bone-like material called the acid production within deposits of dental plaque
cementum. Fibers in the periodontal membrane results in a gradual softening of the external
insert into the cementum and fasten the tooth in enamel. Enamel low in fluoride is more sus-
its socket. The gingiva, or gum, is the mucous ceptible to the effects of acid.
membrane surrounding the alveolar processes in The dominant microorganisms present are
the oral cavity. The bulk of a tooth consists of Gram-positive rods and filamentous bacteria.
dentin that is a substance similar to bone, but hard- Streptococcus mutans is present in small numbers
er. Covering the dentin on the outside and forming only. S. mutans grows well in glucose broth and
the crown is a tough durable layer of enamel. grows prolifically when sucrose is high in the diet.
Enamel is composed primarily of calcium phos- S. mutans is the prime cause of dental caries and
phate and is the hardest substance in the body. The broken barriers as they grow in numbers in
central region of the tooth contains the pulp cavity. plaque. Although once considered the cause of
The pulp is composed of connective tissue with dental caries, Lactobacillus organisms actually play
blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves. A root canal no role in initiating the process. These very prolif-
is continuous with the pulp cavity and opens into the con- ic lactic acid producers, however, are important in
nective tissue surrounding the root through an apical foramen advancing the front of decay once it is established. A tooth
at the root tip. with plaque accumulation is difficult to clean. Decay begins
as acids formed by bacteria attack enamel. Decay advances
Broken Boundaries and Tooth Decays through the enamel and then the dentin. Decay enters the
Although enamel is the hardest substance in the body, it can pulp and may form abscesses in the tissues surrounding
be weakened by acidic conditions produced by bacterial activi- the root.
ty, resulting in dental caries. These caries must be artificially There is historical evidence that dental caries were not as
filled because new enamel is not produced after a tooth erupts. common in people of previous generations as they are today.
The rate of tooth decay decreases after age 35, but then peri- Most likely this is due to a change in dietary habits of man,
odontal diseases may develop. Periodontal diseases result from such as eating foods rich in sugar. Before processed sugar
plaque or tartar buildup at the gum line. This buildup wedges become common in foods, teeth lasted longer. Although teeth
the gum away from the teeth, allowing bacterial infections to from fossil men do show some cavities, early men seemed to
develop. have kept their teeth fully intact until old age. This is one more
Saliva contains antimicrobial substances, such as lysozymes, evidence demonstrating that man may have once lived to great
that help protect exposed tooth surfaces. Some protection is ages with good health.
60 Body by Design

Digestive System
1. List at least three of the organs of the digestive system.
2. What is the overall function of the digestive system?
3. Give examples of and describe the intertwining parts of

the digestive system.
4. Discuss how the villi are an interwoven component in

the digestive system. Why could it not have evolved as
evolutionists say? Make a diagram illustrating the
interwoven villi.
5. Explain why some bacteria are not classified as germs

and are considered beneficial for living. Why are some
bacteria even considered essential for healthy living?
6. What causes dental caries?
Body By Design 61

Inferring Designs
in the
Excretory System
8
The kidneys show clear Extraordinary Excretory System
A
evidence of being divinely ll organisms produce waste. These waste materi-
als must be removed so that the organism is not
poisoned by its own metabolic byproducts. In
designed filters.
humans, the removal of these wastes is handled
by the lymphatic system, the circulatory system, and the
(Frank Sherwin) excretory system. Many body parts and systems indeed
work together to accomplish the work of body janitoring.
The excretory system has extraordinary capabilities to
remove nitrogenous wastes from the body through the
processes of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion of urine.
Removing liquid waste is the task of the urinary tract,
which regulates the content of our bodys fluids. The key
organs of the excretory system are the kidneys, the ureters,
the urinary bladder, and the urethra. The kidneys are two
reddish-brown, bean-shaped organs that sit in the back of
the abdominal cavity. They are the bodys sanitary engi-
neers. The kidneys essentially filter and condition the
blood, eliminating waste materials, balancing the salts and
liquidity of bodily fluids, and keeping the acid-base level
just right.
Fortunately, we have two kidneys. If you lose one, life
still goes on. Its mate enlarges to assume the function of
both organs. Lose function in both kidneys, and you need a
dialysis machine or a transplant to survive. Dialysis
machines filter the blood through a membrane that takes
out larger molecules, such as proteins.
Urine is the fluid produced by the kidneys as they remove
waste chemicals from the blood. Urine is made up primarily
of water together with some electrolytes and organic materi-
als dissolved in it. The concentration of each of these sub-
stances varies with a persons health, diet, and degree of activ-
ity. By testing the chemical composition of urine, doctors can
learn much about the general health of an individual.
62

Urinary tract infections, kidney malfunction, diabetes, and than in men because the female urethra is about 1.5 inches,
liver disease are just a few of the medical problems that can compared to about 8 inches in the male, and is adjacent to the
be diagnosed through urinalysis. genital and intestinal tracts. Groups of muscles near the urethra
keep the system shut most of the time and help prevent infec-
Boundaries to Pathogens tion. The outward and downward flow of urine also helps clean
the system by flushing out microorganisms before they have a
T he human body is constructed to prevent microbial inva-

sion, a fact particularly evident in studying the anatomy of
the genitourinary tract. Under certain circumstances, however,
chance to multiply and cause infection.
The urinary tract has built-in barriers to minimize an
infection through a number of ways besides its anatomy.
the genitourinary tract can be invaded by a variety of oppor- Normal urine contains antimicrobial substances such as
tunistic pathogens from the normal flora as well as by other organic acids and small quantities of antibodies. During uri-
species. The urinary tract consists of the kidneys (in the upper nary tract infections, larger quantities of specific antibodies
urinary tract), the bladder (in the lower urinary tract), and can be found in the urine. There is also evidence that lym-
accessory structures. The kidneys act as a specialized janitory phoid cells infiltrate the infected kidneys and form protective
(filter) system to clean the blood of many waste materials, and antibodies locally at the site where they are needed. Also, dur-
selectively reabsorbing substances that can be reused. Materials ing an infection, an inflammatory response occurs in which
are excreted in the urine, which is usually about pH 6 because phagocytes are very important in engulfing and destroying the
of excess hydrogen ions from foods and metabolism. The nor- invading microorganisms.
mal pH can range from about 4.4 to 7.5, but consistently alka- Urinary tract infections are possible (Disease Focus
line urine suggests bacteria that converts the hydrogen in urine 8.1), however, in spite of the many protective mechanisms.
to ammonia. A tube called the ureter connects each kidney to Many kidney and urinary tract infections are difficult to
the urinary bladder where it drains. The bladder acts as a hold- eradicate, are often chronic, and can destroy the normal
ing tank, which, when filled, empties through the urethra. kidney. Failure of both kidneys results in death unless the
The urinary tract is generally well protected from infection. person is fortunate enough to be able to use a dialysis
Infections of the urinary tract occur far more often in women machine or to receive a kidney transplant.
Figure 8.1 Glomerlular capsule
Renal pyramid
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Renal capsule
Renal column
Ureter Collecting duct
Renal cortex
The Kidney and

Nephron
Body By Design 63

Disease Focus 8.1
Urinary Tract Infections

Under normal conditions, the urinary tract is pro-
T he anatomical structure of the human excretory
system is such that the external genitalia and the
lower aspects of the urethra are normally contaminat-
tected from infection by a number of molecular mech-
anisms along with its anatomy. Normal urine contains
ed with diverse microbes. The tissues and organs that antimicrobial substances such as organic acids and
compose the remainder of the urinary system, the blad- small quantities of antibodies. During urinary tract
der, ureters, and kidneys, are sterile, and therefore infections, larger quantities of specific antibodies can
urine that passes through these structures is also sterile. be in the urine. There is also evidence that lymphoid
When pathogens gain cells infiltrate the
access to this system, infected kidneys and
they can establish infec- form protective anti-
tion. Some pathogens of bodies locally at the site
urinary tract diseases as they are needed. In
include: viruses (e.g., addition, during infec-
Herpes hominus), Gram- tion an inflammatory
positive and Gram-negative response occurs in
bacteria, fungi, helminth which phagocytes are of
worms, and protozoans. importance in engulfing
Urinary tract infec- and destroying invading
tions may be limited to a microorganisms.
single tissue or organ, or Kidneys However, in spite of
they may spread upward many protective mecha-
and involve the entire Ureters nisms, urinary tract
system. Infections such infections are possible.
as cystitis involve the When they occur you
bladder and may spread should seek the advice
through the ureters to and treatment of a
the kidneys. physician. Most infec-
Glomerulonephritis is an inflammation that results tions will clear in a couple of weeks under their care.
in the destruction of renal corpuscles. Organisms other Sometimes people allow urinary tract infections to
than bacteria may also act as etiological agents of uro- develop into kidney infections. These are difficult to
genital infections. Trichomonas vaginalis, a pathogenic eradicate, often chronic, and can destroy the normal
flagellated protozoan, is commonly found in the vagi- kidney. Failure of both kidneys results in death unless
na, and under appropriate conditions it is responsible one is fortunate enough to receive a kidney trans-
for severe inflammatory infections. Candida albicans, a plant. Fortunately, the wise Creator gave us two
pathogenic yeast, is normally found in low numbers in kidneys and generally this is sufficient to last us a
the intestines, but may cause problems in the urinary lifetime.
tract when their numbers grow exponentially.
64 Body by Design

urine. The urine is removed by way of the ureters, the urinary
The Nephron, an Intertwining Unit bladder, and the urethra. After the urinary bladder is partially
filled and pressure is exerted, the urine finally exits the body
T he nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, respon-
sible for the actual purification and filtration of the blood
(figure 8.1). About one million nephrons are in the cortex of
through the urethra channel.
each kidney, and each one consists of a renal corpuscle and a What Makes it Extraordinary?
renal tubule, which carry out the functions of the nephron.
The renal tubule consists of the convoluted tubule and the
loop of Henle.
The Bowmans capsule contains the primary filtering
E ssentially, three characteristics make the excretory (uri-
nary) system amazing. First, its basic unit, the nephron,
is a multifaceted system in itself in that it performs the
device of the nephron, the glomerulus. Blood is transported functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion simul-
into the Bowmans capsule from the afferent arteriole taneously. In addition, the total volume that our kidneys fil-
(branching off of the interlobular artery). Within the cap- ter in a lifetime, usually without failure, is staggering.
sule, the blood is filtered through the glomerulus and then Finally, its structure and function precludes its emerging by
passes out via the efferent arteriole. Meanwhile, the filtered chance.
water and aqueous wastes are passed out of the Bowmans cap- All body cells are metabolic furnaces, burning glucose and
sule into the proximal convoluted tubule. producing waste. Throughout the daily routines, as cells
The glomerulus is the main filter of the metabolize sugars, they produce waste and
nephron and is located within the Bowmans release it into the blood. Five to six liters of
capsule. The glomerulus resembles a twisted blood pass through the nephrons at a rate of
mass of tiny tubes through which the blood 1,200 ml/min. This translates into all the
passes. The glomerulus is semipermeable, blood filtering through the kidneys about 20
allowing water and soluble wastes to pass times every hour. Our blood passes through
through and be excreted out of the Bowmans 60,000 miles of vessels and picks up waste
capsule as urine. The filtered blood passes out from the hardworking cells. Then the kidneys
of the glomerulus into the efferent arteriole to use water to remove the toxins that would oth-
be returned through the medullary plexus to erwise poison the blood. In a normal adult, the
the intralobular vein. excreted rate is about 125 ml/min., or about
Once the waste liquid passes through the opening in the 180 liters (48 gallons)/day. This amounts to
Bowmans capsule, it goes into the convoluted tubule, where it about 17,520 gallons/year or 1,401,600 gallons in an 80-year
is passed through the loop of Henle and into the distal con- lifetime. This is an extraordinary amount for a machine to fil-
voluted tubule. From there the urine passes to the calyces and ter. The role of the kidneys in your body is to filter and chem-
into the renal pelvis. The loop of Henle is a U-turn in the ically balance the blood. The kidneys excrete waste products,
tubule responsible for carrying urine out of the nephron and but also recycle useful elements for body tissues through the
into the calyces. It is bordered by the proximal and distal parts circulatory system.
of the convoluted tubule and features the ascending and If the kidneys fail, dialysis machines can take over the job.
descending limb flanking the U-turn. Dialysis refers to the process of separating molecules of differ-
The functional unit in the kidney that produces urine is ent sizes using a semipermeable membrane. Dialyzers permit
called a nephron. Urine formation results from glomerular fil- patients to get their dialysis treatment three times a week.
tration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Filtration From a vein in the arm, blood flows into the unit where it
takes place in the glomerulus where water and solutes, small- passes by a semipermeable membrane that allows wastes but
er than proteins, pass through the glomerular capsule from the not blood cells to pass through it. A second filter removes
blood. Red blood cells are screened and do not enter the air bubbles before the machine pumps the cleansed blood
nephron in a healthy kidney, but remain in the bloodstream back into the body.
or capillary. Tubular reabsorption takes place in the proximal The dialysis machine can temporarily help people over-
renal tubule, where water, glucose, amino acids, and needed come their kidney deficiency. The dialysis machine made by
ions are transported out of the filtrate through cells. They bioengineers can substitute for our kidneys for several months.
return to the bloodstream in the peritubular capillaries from However, newer dialysis machines may help some patients
the nephron. with minimal kidney function for periods up to four years.
Tubular secretion is the process in which protons (H+), Eventually, however, the patient will want to obtain a kidney
ammonia (NH4+), potassium (K+) certain drugs, and creatine transplant. Few people would want to be on dialysis for a life-
are removed from the peritubular capillaries and secreted by time. Yet, everyone would agree that dialysis machines are
renal tubule cells into the filtrate. Eventually some water, urea, engineered with preplanned design. How, then, could anyone
and uric acid accumulate in the collecting ducts to form the say the kidney happened by accident?
Body By Design 65

Excretory System
1. List at least three organs or components of the
excretory system.
2. What is the overall function of the excretory system?
3. Describe and make an illustration of an intertwining

part of the excretory system.
4. Discuss how a kidney is irreducibly complex.
5. What causes a urinary tract infection?
66 Body by Design

Critical Thinking Questions (6-10):
A Case Study
A lab technician forgets to label three patients recent

urine samples and a distilled water sample. She per-
forms various tests on these samples to try to determine
a high-salt diet; one was on a high-protein diet; one was
diagnosed as hypoglycemic; and one had uncontrolled dia-
betes mellitus. The test results for the three urine and the
which urine belongs to which patient. One patient was on distilled water samples are given below.
Chemical Test Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Glucose in Urine trace abundant none none

Blood Glucose 90 mg/dL 250 mg/dL 50 mg/dL 90 mg/dL
Urine Odor aromatic sweet aromatic none
pH of Urine 6.3 5.2 4.0 7.0
Specify Gravity* 1.030 1.029 1.010 1.000
Volume of Urine 140 mL 170 mL 87 mL 100 mL
*Specific Gravity is a density measure used to describe the weight of urine to

the weight of distilled water (D =1.000).
6. The urine sample from the diabetic (high blood sugar) patient is in which test tube?
A) Tube A B) Tube C C) Answer cannot be determined D) Tube B E) Tube D
7. The urine sample from the hypoglycemic (low blood sugar) patient is in which test tube?
A) Tube A B) Tube C C) Answer cannot be determined D) Tube B E) Tube D
8. Tube D must contain the distilled water because:

A) by definition, the specific gravity of distilled water = 1.000.
B) by definition, the pH of distilled water is 7;
C) process of elimination leaves only Tube D for water;
D) specific gravity is the water volume weight divided by the substance volume weight.
E) there is no glucose in it.
9. The effect of a diuretic drug would most directly affect which variable?
A) specific gravity B) pH C) volume D) glucose E) odor
10. The tube with the highest concentration of hydrogen ions is

A) Tube A B) Tube C C) Tube D D) Tube B E) Cannot be determined
Body By Design 67

A Journey Into the
Heart and
Bloodstream
9
I
Thus, by ocular observa- n order for the body to stay alive, each of its cells must
receive a continuous supply of nutrients and oxygen. At
the same time, carbon dioxide and other byproducts of
tions and dissections, by
cellular metabolism must be collected for removal from
the body. This process is continually maintained by the bodys
experiments and measure- 60,000-mile network of vessels collectively known as the cir-
culatory system. The primary circulatory system consists of
ments, and by calculations the heart and blood vessels. Together, they maintain a con-
tinuous flow of blood through the body, delivering oxygen
and inductive reasoning, it and nutrients to and removing carbon dioxide and waste
products from peripheral tissues. The heart, a marvel of design
and precision engineering, is the main component of the cir-
is absolutely necessary to culatory system. At the rate of about 70 beats per minute, the
heart pumps oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to all parts of
conclude that the blood is the body through a network of blood vessels that consists of
major types. Throughout the entire scheme, intelligent design
propelled by the heart in a and irreducible complexity are not only observable but are the
only solutions for the circulatory systems very existence.
circle and this is the only Two organs that man depends upon most for daily living
are the heart and the lung. Both of these vital organs clearly
show evidence of a planned relationship between their struc-
end of the heart. ture and function. In the early days of science, perception of
how these organs functioned was inadequate in terms of the
(William Harvey, 1628) knowledge we have today. Before the days of William Harvey
and other Renaissance scientists, the form and function of
these vital organs was merely hypothesized. Experimentation
later corrected early misconceptions.
Harvey and the Heart

The heart of creatures is the foundation of life, the Prince of
all, the Sun of their microcosm, on which all vegetation does
depend, from whence all vigor and strength flow.
(William Harvey, M.D., 1628,
letter to Charles I of England)
68

idea had been, by far, the most widely accepted of several com-
A ccording to Galen (A.D. 131-210), the blood was
formed in the intestines, and then in the liver was
charged with natural spirits, and finally carried to the right
peting theories of blood flow, but De Motu Cordis (as it is usu-
ally called) would in time bring the death blow for all of them.
side of the heart by the veins. Contractions of the right atrium Harvey used a combination of quantitative and qualitative
and ventricle were thought to cause the blood with natural methods to make a series of easily conformable observations
spirits to ebb and flow throughout the veins to all parts of the and measurements that led him to his conclusion. Like the
body. Some of the blood was supposed to ooze by invisible neo-Darwinism of today, many people in Harveys day refused
pores into the septum of the heart and into the left ventricle to accept his explanation, especially those who favored the
where it mixed with a certain quantity of air. Last, the blood established ideas of Galen. Marcello Malpighi later demon-
was thought to be drawn from the lungs though the pul- strated capillaries by means of a light microscope in 1632 and
monary veins and stuffed with vital spirits. (Galen thought this vindicated Harvey. Harveys list of credits and accom-
that all living things were controlled by a mystical influence plishments include being the personal physician to King
that he called vital force.) Pulsations of the left ventricle then Charles I. The work of Harvey revolutionized the field of
were thought to move the vital spirits back and forth in the physiology and laid the foundation for a new way of scien-
arteries to the heart, and quicken and restore all body tissues tific approach, which we now call the scientific method.
(figures 9.2). In contrast to Galen, William Harveys view of
the heart and circulation rested neither on books nor opinions The Heart: A General Anatomy
of his predecessors, but on direct ocular observations, dissec-
tions, and experimentation. Note that Harvey summarized
that the reason for the hearts design was to accomplish a pur-
poseful function. With this, he no doubt meant to lay to rest
T he heart is located in the chest or thorax region just
behind the sternum (breastbone), and it is nestled in a
small cavity between the lungs. The average human heart is
the misguided confidence of his readers in those mystical approximately the size of the individuals fist. A tough sac
attributes of the heart so dearly cherished by church people, called the pericardium sheaths the heart. Membranes within
kings, and commoners alike. Harvey said: the pericardium secrete a lubricating fluid that permits the
pericardium to slide smoothly against the heart surface as the
The blood is propelled by a muscular pump, the heart. Blood
cardiac muscles contract. Several large, tube-like blood vessels
flows into a chamber of the heart. Then, the entrance is closed by a
valve and the chamber is contracted, forcing the blood into a sec-
branch off of the top of the heart, which bring blood to and
ond chamber and then into an artery. from the heart. The heart itself has a network of blood vessels
called the coronary of the heart that supplies oxygen and
In 1628 Harvey published a small book written in Latin nutrients to the hard-working cardiac muscles.
called Exercito Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Within the heart, there are four main sections or chambers.
Animalibus, which is translated as An Anatomical Dissertation The chambers are divided into two kinds: the thin-walled
on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals. Harveys upper chambers called the atria and thick-walled lower cham-
bers called the ventricles. The ventricles
and atria are divided into left and right by
Figure 9.1 a thick wall called the septum. It is
through the rhythmic action of the mus-
cles in the walls of these chambers that
blood is pushed throughout the entire cir-
culatory system. The atria serve as the
blood-receiving chambers of the heart,
and the ventricles serve as the blood-
pumping chambers that force blood
through the blood vessels.
Overlooked Anatomy
I t is not unusual for diagrams in begin-

ning anatomy and physiology texts to
overlook some not-so-glamorous struc-
tures in the body. This is often the case
King Charles I and His because artists tend to copy diagrams
Physician, William Harvey from other books that are copies them-
selves. Instead of making figures from
Body By Design 69

Aorta
Figure 9.2
Superior vena cava
Right atrium
Pulmonary artery
Coronary artery
Coronary artery
Inferior vena cava
Right ventricle
Major Vessels and

CHAMBERS of the Heart
cadavers, they copy or modify accepted figures of anatomy. cords called chordae tendinae, which are held to the ventricle
Frequently, one error reproduces itself for many generations of walls by cone-shaped papillary muscles. These keep the cuspid
diagrams. Historically, this was the case for over a thousand valves from everting, like an umbrella in a strong gust of wind,
years. Things did not change until Vesalius and Harvey relied when the ventricles contract. The pulmonary semilunar
upon observation alone. Today, the same types of errors take valve allows blood to exit the right ventricle and enter the pul-
place. Therefore, it is always important to remember that noth- monary arteries that carry the blood to the lungs to become
ing takes the place of firsthand observation and thinking. Dont oxygenated. The aortic semilunar valve allows blood to exit
merely believe it because the text says so. For example, few text- the left ventricle and enter the aorta. The aorta is the largest
books depict the right auricle sometimes affectionately referred blood vessel in the body and is the main artery that brings blood
to as the ear of the heart by medical students. The right auri- to all body tissues (figure 9.2).
cle protects the aorta and the right coronary cuspid arteries. The
appendix aurculae is so-named due to its fancied resemblance
to a dogs ear. It is a small conical, muscular pouch, the margins
Interwoven Designs in the Heart
of which present a dentate edge. It projects from the sinus for-
ward and to the left side, overlapping with the aorta.
To prevent back-flow of blood in the heart, the Creator inte-
grated a series of valves into the heart that work flawlessly
W hen one looks at the heart, it is easy to see an inter-
woven or interconnecting design. Anyone can see
that the intricate networks of blood vessels that enter and
together to keep blood moving in the right direction. The two exit the heart are of intelligent contrivance. There are two
main valves within the heart are the bicuspid valve (or mitral interwoven properties of the heart, however, that often go
valve) and the tricuspid valve. These valves, known collective- unnoticed to the untrained eye. These properties are the
ly as the A-V valves (atrioventricular valves), separate the atria autonomic control of the rhythmic pulsation of the heart as
and the ventricles. The tricuspid valve connects the right atrium it pumps and the centrifugal flow of blood through the
and right ventricle, and the bicuspid valve (mitral valve) con- heart and blood vessels.
nects the left atrium and the left ventricle. The aortic and pul- The heart pumps approximately 2,000 gallons of blood
monary semilunar valves are the two valves that allow blood to each day for a total of about 680,000 gallons each year. To
flow to the body from the ventricles. Each cusp of the bicuspid accomplish this unending, seemingly impossible task, the
and tricuspid valves is held in position by strong tendinous atria and ventricles must contract and relax on a highly
70 Body by Design

coordinated series of actions which is known gener-
ally as the cardiac cycle. Nerves stemming from the
medulla oblongata autonomically control the car- Figure 9.3
diac cycle. The stage of this cycle when the heart
relaxes and fills with blood is the phase known as
diastole, while the pumping and contracting stage
is known as systole. Each cardiac cycle is perceived
as a heartbeat. The heartbeat is an important diag-
nostic tool for physicians. A difference in pitch or
quality of the heartbeat can be interpreted as a
number of heart defects and dysfunctions. Often an
abnormal sound in a heartbeat, a heart murmur, is
caused by a damaged valve. Valve problems may
arise from a bacterial disease of the heart called
rheumatic fever, from inherited genetic defects, or
from anomalies of fetal development.
The heart is regulated by autonomic or involun-
tary control. The blood requirements of the body
tissues and organs are not constant. They depend on
present activity level, overall health, stress level, and
state of consciousness (awake or sleeping). The
brain increases the heart rate by means of the bodys
autonomic nervous system. Accelerator nerves link
the heart to the central nervous system. These
nerves transmit signals to the hearts pacemaker, or
the sinoatrial (S-A) node, thereby, increasing the
heart rate.
Signals that are refractory and opposite of those
of the accelerator nerves are the signals from the Major Blood Vessels
vagus nerves. Both the accelerator and vagus of the Human Body
nerves are part of the autonomic nervous system,
but the accelerator nerves belong to the sympathet-
ic division, and the vagus nerves belong to the parasympa- a slight twist, the time it would take for the vessels to become
thetic division. These two nerve types accurately and effi- clogged again would increase.
ciently control the heart rate from the 120170 beats per This effect of swirling has been proven to significantly
minute during a strenuous workout, to the 5060 beats per reduce friction between blood and the blood vessels. Any
minute during sleep. The whole system is very interdepend- mechanic will tell you that less friction in a machine is always
ent and precisely tuned. If it fails in one part, the whole sys- better. Our bodies are the most perfect machines ever built.
tem falters. Another important, often ignored, example of God designed and thought through every minute aspect of
intelligent engineering in the body is the centrifugal flow of structure and function of the human body, so that everything
blood within the blood vessels. As the blood flows through would work perfectly and flawlessly together. Could these
properties of blood flow and heart regulation have evolved over
the heart, the arteries, the capillaries, and back to the heart
millions of years by numerous, random, and slight mutations
through the veins, a potential for friction to build up is evi-
and natural selection? This is a logical impossibility. Our
dent. The Creator, in His divine wisdom, took care of this
Creators attention to detail in the design of every body part is
situation.
A scientist at Imperial College, London, discovered that the extraordinary. Man is Gods masterpiece the crown of creation.
blood vessels pathways were helical and that they were
designed with a spiraling effect built in. The gentle spiraling
makes the blood flow more evenly compared to straight vessels. The Blood Vessels
Also, it was found that damage from turbulent flow was much
less likely with helical vessels, especially at T-junctions. This
effect could be important in heart bypass surgery where veins B lood vessels are multi-layered, muscular tubes that
carry blood to and from all parts of the body. The
in the leg are used to replace the sections of clogged cardiac human circulatory system is made up of three main types
arteries around the heart. If the replacement vessels were given of blood vessels.
Body By Design 71

Arteries are thick-walled, muscular blood vessels that carry wastes leave the cells and enter the blood. Capillaries converge
blood away from the heart to the organs and tissues of the to form venules and then further converge to form veins.
body. These vessels must be very durable because of the high Veins are vessels that carry blood from the capillaries of the
pressure that the pumping action of the heart places on them. organs and tissues toward the heart. They have small valves
The walls of arteries consist of three layers. The outer layer is that open to let blood through and close to prevent it from
very fibrous and tough, giving elasticity and shape. The mid- flowing backwards. These valves are designed to allow the
dle layer, the thickest layer, is made up of circular layers of skeletal muscles to abet the return of blood to the heart.
smooth muscle. The brain makes adjustments in blood pres- During movement or exercise, muscular contractions squeeze
sure by changing the diameter of arteries using this middle the veins, forcing blood through them the valves control
layer of muscle. The inner layer is merely a sheet of cells the blood, only allowing it to flow toward the heart. The
smooth enough to let blood flow. Arterioles are small branch- structure of veins is similar to that of arteries, but their walls
es of the artery that are about 0.2 mm in diameter. The arte- are not as thick nor as elastic as arteries because less force is
rioles branch into metarterioles that further branch into capillaries. exerted on their walls from blood.
Capillaries, the smallest of the three blood vessel types, are Blood Circulation
microscopic in size. They link the arterioles and venules and
are the functional units of the circulatory system. Some ten
billion capillaries lace all body tissues, bringing blood within B lood follows two major and two minor pathways or cir-
cuits throughout the body. The two major pathways are
known as the systemic and pulmonary circuits, and the two
reach of every cell. They are the smallest blood vessels and
contain less than 5 percent of the total circulating blood vol- minor pathways are known as the portal and renal circuits.
ume at any one time. Capillaries branch off from the Within these circuits, there are characteristic blood vessels
metarterioles that connect arterioles with venules. The capil- and organs that give them their name and separate them
laries have thin walls, a mere one cell thick, across which gas from the others (table 9.1).
and wastes are exchanged. As blood flows through the capil- Systemic circulation is the movement of the blood
laries in the lungs, it changes from venous blood to arterial through all parts of the body except the lungs. The aorta, the
blood by diffusing carbon dioxide out and oxygen in. The main blood vessel of the systemic circuit, leaves the left ven-
color of blood changes in the process from a deep crimson to tricle of the heart and branches out and enters every organ in
a bright scarlet. As blood flows through tissue capillaries, it the body. As the aorta leaves the heart, it forms an arch as it
changes back from arterial blood to venous blood. The oxygen turns toward the lower body. This arch is known as the aortic
leaves the blood to enter cells, and carbon dioxide and other arch. From the top of the aortic arch, two arteries, called the
DESIGN FOCUS 9.1

Layers of the Blood Vessels
T unic is a Latin word that means covering or coat.
Tunic was originally used to describe ornamental coats
in Roman soldiers. In anatomy, the word tunica* is used to
woven, like tapestries, where one cannot see the stitching.
This is still another piece of evidence for intelligent design
of the body. If tunics evolved by some random, physio-
describe layers, or coats, in the walls of the circulatory chemical force, then one should observe stitches in these
blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. These layers layers. We do not, however, observe any intermediate form
wrapping blood vessels reminds us of sleeves, coats, and in blood vessels. Each layer in a blood vessel is fully formed
layers of clothing. Just like the ornamental coats of the and complete. The easiest example of tunics to observe in
Roman soldiers were not there by chance, neither are the the body are those lining the arteries and veins. You may
tunics inside the body. Good tunics are seamlessly inter- observe the following in a cross section:
1. Tunica externa, the outermost layer, composed of connective tissue.
2. Tunica media, the middle layer, composed of smooth muscle.
The tunica media of arteries has variable amounts of elastic fibers.
3. Tunica interna, the innermost layer, composed of simple squamous
epithelium and fibers composed of elastic.
(*This term is also used to describe the walls of the gastrointestinal tract, the lining of genital organs, and
the linings of organs where smooth muscles occur.)
72 Body by Design

carotid arteries, carry blood to the brain and head. Also, two blood. Certain substances, such as lipoprotein and urea that
more arteries, the subclavian arteries, branch off of the aorta are produced in the liver, enter the blood and are brought to
and supply blood to the arms. As the aorta continues down it other parts of the body. The liver is supplied with blood by the
is known as the descending aorta. The descending aorta feeds hepatic portal vein and is drained by the hepatic vein into
the organs within the abdominal cavity and continues toward the inferior vena cava.
the legs. As it approaches the legs, it separates into two com- Renal circulation, also a subsystem of systemic circu-
mon iliac arteries. The common iliac arteries become the lation, is the movement of blood from the body organs
femoral arteries as they enter the leg. The blood flows through through the kidneys. The kidneys are supplied with blood
the tissue capillaries where cells are rejuvenated. The capillar- through a branch of the aorta called the renal artery. The
ies converge to form veins. There are several major veins that blood is then filtered through a very intricate and multi-
drain large sections of the body into the superior and inferior step process as discussed in chapter 8. The newly filtered
vena cava. The jugular veins drain the head and brain, the blood then exits the kidneys through the renal veins and
subclavian veins drain the arms, and the femoral veins drain heads back to the heart through the inferior vena cava.
the legs. The superior and inferior vena cava converge at the
right atrium where blood undergoes pulmonary circulation. Exploring the Bloodstream
Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood
between the heart and the lungs. Pulmonary circulation When Charles Darwin was climbing the rocks of the
begins as the blood passes through the pulmonary semilunar Galapagos Island, he must have cut his finger occasionally
valve and enters the pulmonary artery. (Note: the pulmonary or scraped his knee. Young adventurer that he was, he
artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood and probably paid no attention to the blood trickling out.
the pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated
blood.) The blood travels to the lungs where carbon dioxide is
released and oxygen is picked up. The blood then returns to
the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
I f Charles Darwin had paid attention to his cuts and
bruises and had known the biochemistry of blood the
way Michael Behe or Dean Kenyon does today, he might
Portal circulation, a subsystem of systemic circulation, have reached a different conclusion about body systems in
is the movement of blood from the digestive organs to the his Origin of Species. Like the multifaceted systems discussed
liver. Digested nutrients are picked up in the digestive organs in chapters 7 and 8, the biochemical components involved
by the blood. A substantial amount of the carbohydrates in in blood clotting and wound restoration will function only
the blood are deposited in the liver and stored in the form of as an entire unit or not at all.
glycogen. The liver also recycles old red blood cells and Clotting involves various chemicals known as coagulation
removes toxins and other unwanted substances from the factors. Clotting is a complex process in which coagulation
Table 9.1 Ma j o r Bl o o d Ve s s e l s i n t h e Hu m a n B o d y
DESIGNED STRUCTURE PURPOSEFUL FUNCTION

Jugular veins Receive blood from brain and tissues of head
Superior vena cava Receives blood from veins of upper body
Pulmonary veins Deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Hepatic portal vein Delivers nutrient-rich blood from small intestine to liver for processing
Renal vein Carries processed blood away from kidneys
Inferior vena cava Receives blood from all veins below diaphragm
Iliac veins Carry blood away from the pelvic organs and lower abdominal wall
Femoral vein Carries blood away from the thigh and inner knee
Carotid arteries Deliver blood to neck, head, brain
Ascending aorta Carries oxygenated blood away from heart; the largest artery
Pulmonary arteries Deliver oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs
Coronary arteries Service the incessantly active cardiac muscle cells of the heart
Brachial artery Delivers blood to upper extremities; blood pressure measured here
Renal artery Delivers blood to kidneys, where its volume, composition are adjusted
Abdominal aorta Delivers blood to arteries leading to the digestive tract, kidneys, pelvic organs,
and lower extremities
Iliac arteries Deliver blood to pelvic organs and lower abdominal wall
Femoral artery Delivers blood to the thigh and inner knee
Body By Design 73

Disease Focus 9.2
The One-Way Circulation Of Blood
T
hese experiments demonstrate the existence of one-way valves in the
arms. In a paraphrase (translated from Latin) of Harveys
words:With the arm bound as before and the veins swollen, if you
will press on the vein a little below a swelling or valve and then
squeeze blood upward beyond the valve with another finder, you will see that
this part of the vein stays empty and that no back flow can occur through the
valve. But as soon as the finger is removed, the vein is filled from below (blood
comes from the lower arm and hand toward the upper arm).
In the figure, the experimenter has pressed on a vein at a point to block the
flow from the wrist toward the elbow. With another finger, he has milked the
blood out of it unto a point, the first valve proximal to it when he tries to force
blood onward, it stops at valve. It can go no farther, and it causes the vein to
swell at that point. Blood can flow from right to left through that valve but not
from left to right. You can easily demonstrate the action of these valves in your
own hand. Hold your hand still, below waist level until veins stand up on the
back of it. Do not use a turniquet! Press on a vein close to your knuckles, and
while holding it down, use another finger to milk that vein toward the wrist. It
collapses as you force the blood out of it, and if you move the second finger, it
will not refill. The valves prevent blood from flowing back into it from above.
When you remove the first finger (on your left), however, the vein fills from the
lower arm toward the elbow. In summary, Harvey deduced the design on the
one-way valves in veins throughout the body. His conclusion, Blood circulates
in a one-way direction.
factors activate each other. That is, the first coagulation protein is now called fibrin. It has sticky patches exposed on
factor activates the second, the second activates the third, its surface that have been covered by the pieces that were cut
and so on. There are about a dozen off. The sticky patches are precisely
factors involved in the 30-plus complementary to portions of other
reactions that involve clotting and Figure 9.4 fibrin molecules. Long threads form,
wound restoration. This is why the cross over each other, and (much as a
blood clotting system is called a fishermans net traps fish) make an
cascade, a system where one com- intricate protein meshwork that
ponent activates another compo- entraps blood cells. This is the initial
nent. In this chapter, you will clot (figure 9.4).
explore the complex mechanism One way of understanding blood
behind blood clotting. clotting is by comparing it with a car
About two to three percent of the engine. Most biochemical systems
protein in blood plasma consists of a are composed of interrelated parts
protein complex called fibrinogen, a and components that must act
protein waiting to react. Normal fib- simultaneously for the necessary
rinogen is dissolved in plasma, like functions in the system to work.
salt is dissolved in the Gulf of These complex physiological systems
Mexico. Another protein called
Scanning Electron in our body operate much like a car
thrombin slices several small pieces
Micrograph (SEM) engine in which the spark plugs, pis-
from two of the three pairs of protein
chains in fibrinogen. The trimmed
of a Blood Clot tons, radiator, fan belt, and other
parts must operate simultaneously.
74 Body by Design

The formation, limitation, strengthening, and removal of duced by intelligent cause. These finely tuned and interde-
the blood clot is an integrated biological mechanism. pendent biochemical interactions are examples of what bio-
Problems with any single component can cause the entire chemist Behe calls irreducible complexity. Most creation
mechanism to fail. This is analogous to the car engine, scientists would go a step further and say this is clear, phys-
which fails to operate if the fan belt is missing, the distrib- ical evidence of fingerprints from the Masters hand.
utor cap is cracked, or the spark plugs are clogged. The lack
of certain blood clotting factors, or the production of defec- Uniform Experience
tive factors, often results in serious health problems or
death. The most common form of hemophilia occurs
because one of these blood factors is missing. How could
the blood clotting mechanism in humans evolve step by step
D r. Charles Thaxton argues for the principle of uni-
form experience to support the idea that there is an
intelligent cause for life. (This principle was previously dis-
over millions of years under the action of nothing more cussed in the Mount Rushmore rock formation of chapter
than random physiochemical forces? 2.) Even though we do not see the construction process, we
Another way to understand the irreducible complexity of logically conclude from our experience that workmen fol-
biochemical systems is to consider the interlocking compo- lowing a blueprint when they carved these stones. This plan
nents of a mousetrap. The mechanism of blood clotting is
was devised in the mind of an architect ahead of its actual
much like a mousetrap that has five parts: a catch, a plat-
construction.
form, a holding bar, a hammer, and a spring. When assem-
The idea starts on the table of an architect. From there a
bled there is no gradual improvement of function. It does
blueprint is taken to the field to see if the plan is practical.
not work until every part is in place. The same thing is true
Once adjustments are made, construction begins on the
inside a living cell and in each organ of the human body.
monument (figure 9.6). We recognize intelligence at Mount
Many body systems just will not work unless every part is
Rushmore, because of the symmetry in the stones as we see
present at the same time.
the heads of U.S. presidents, the overall interdependence of
Furthermore, the success of blood clotting depends criti-
cally on the rate at which the different reactions occur. An the forms that compose the entire surface, and the obvious
organism would not long survive if the protein activated by purpose revealed by the sculpture. We reject the notion that
thrombin formed at a significantly faster rate than proac- the shapes of these rocks are the products of wind and water
celerin. Blood clotting depends not only upon the occur- erosion. It is the action of human hands. Likewise, accord-
rence of these reactions, but also on the correct timing and ing to our experience, we can logically conclude that liv-
rates of their actions. If these interrelated mechanisms ing systems with order, organization, complexity, symmetry,
began to originate in a slow, creeping fashion by microevo- interdependence, and purpose are also products of intelli-
lutionary changes, the result would be disastrous. Any gent design. From this principle of common or uniform
member missing in the molecular team would have pre- experience, we may deduce that human DNA, like the Mt.
vented the final mechanisms from working and most likely Rushmore blueprint, is a predestined plan conceived by an
would have proved lethal before the end result was achieved architect before its construction (figure 9.6). As we consid-
by natural selection. It is more logical to believe that this er the common experience of blood drawn from our body,
irreducibly complex set of biochemical reactions was put we may also deduce that DNA provided genetic instructions
there by the actions of the Master Planner. for the manufacture of red blood cells. Each of these was
Remember, the Creator formulated not only the plan for devised by an intelligent cause.
the blood cascade but also produced the first working Our best judgment tells us that information, a code, or a
organisms. He is not only the chief architect of the blood message takes an intelligent agent to generate it. We never
cells, proteins, and platelets, but also the manufacturer of see functional complexity derived from disorder, by chance,
the components. He keeps everything going because He is or by chaos. We must logically conclude that patterns
the maintainer. The predictable order of the coagulation observed in the components of blood are by the action of
cascade exists because the order of a precise plan was pro- Gods unseen hand!
Figure 9.5
An erythrocyte
An Erythrocyte,
Cutaway of the
biconcave blood cell. A Red Blood Cell
Body By Design 75

Figure 9.6
1 2 3 4
The Principle of Uniform Experience

1. Conception of a Plan 2. Blueprint of a Plan
3. Production of a Plan 4. Product of a Plan
Design Focus 9.3

The Importance of the Biconcavity
of Red Blood Cells
N ormal erythrocytes are nearly uniform in size, with

diameters of 7.27.9 m (m, microns, or 10-6 m).
The average red blood cell is about 2 m thick at its
narrow blood capillaries. The smooth, round edges
reduce the amount of friction the cell may encounter in
microcirculation.
thickest part. However, erythrocytes with much larger Oxygen molecules attach to hemoglobin molecules
and much smaller sizes may be found in certain disease within erythrocytes to give blood its red color. A hemo-
states. The shape of the normal erythrocyte is a bicon- globin molecule consists of four protein chains called glo-
cave disc (figure 9.5). This configuration allows for max- bins, each of which is bound to one heme, a red-pigmented
imum surface contact of hemoglobin with the cell, thus molecule. Each heme contains an atom of iron that can
greatly facilitating the exchange of blood gases. In fact, combine with one molecule of oxygen. Thus, the hemo-
IBM did a study on the ideal shape of a solid object (3- globin can transport up to four molecules of oxygen.
D) that would maximize oxygen diffusion. After run- Considering that each erythrocyte contains about 280
ning numerous simulations on an IBM mainframe com- million hemoglobin molecules, a single erythrocyte can
puter, the biconcave disc or lifesaver shape was deter- transport over a billion molecules of oxygen. It is within
mined optimal. Furthermore, this shape gives the red the lungs that oxygen molecules contained in inhaled air
blood cell great flexibility and elasticity. This shape also attach to the hemoglobin molecules and are transported
allows it to be folded when it has to move through very via erythrocytes to trillions of body cells.
76 Body by Design

Circulatory System
1. List at least three organs (components) of the
circulatory system.
2. What is sickle cell anemia? How do you identify sickle

cell anemia in the lab?
3. Describe the job and makeup of the blood.
4. Discuss how a vein is an interwoven component in

the circulatory system.
5. Is sickle cell anemia a beneficial trait? Explain why

or why not.
6. Explain how homeostasis (and feedback) relates to blood

clotting. Explain a positive feedback mechanism.
Body By Design 77

Investigating the
Respiratory System and
the Lungs
10
The nose acts as a condi- Oxygen Is Essential
O
xygen is essential without oxygen, under
tioner for the respiratory normal circumstances, we would have brain
damage in four minutes and within five to six
system. Every day, it treats minutes, we would die. Every cell in the body
needs oxygen to do its metabolic processes. The exchange
takes place in the lungs, and at top performance an athlete
approximately 50 cubic may process over 300 liters of air each minute, whereas a
couch potato will use only 8 liters in order to extract pre-
cious oxygen.
feet of air, the amount
Respiratory System Overview
enclosed in a small room.
(Jackson, 1993, p. 65)

T he respiratory system (the lungs and connecting tubes)
brings oxygen into the body. Our lungs alternately
inflate and deflate, usually between 12 and 20 times a minute.
When we exercise, we breathe more rapidly because our mus-
cles are using more oxygen that must be replaced. The respi-
ratory system starts processing air as soon as we inhale it. The
nasal passages immediately filter, warm, and humidify it. The
entire nasal cavity is lined with mucous membranes full of
blood vessels; heat from the blood acts as a humidifier, mois-
tening the air. The surface layers of the mucous membranes
contain cilia, tiny hair-like structures that literally wave in the
wind, creating a flow of mucus down the throat, or pharynx.
Small particles such as bacteria and dust become trapped in
the sticky mucus and can then be swallowed.
The respiratory system is responsible for supplying oxygen
to the blood and expelling waste gases, of which carbon diox-
ide is the primary constituent, from the body. The upper
structures of the respiratory system are combined with the
sensory organs of smell and taste (in the nasal cavity and the
78

mouth) and the digestive system (from the oral organs so that they are not chafed during res-
cavity to the pharynx). At the pharynx, the piration.
specialized respiratory organs diverge into the After air passes through the trachea, it is
airway. The larynx, or voice box, is located at passed through the bronchial tree network,
the head of the trachea, or windpipe. The tra- first to the primary bronchi, then to the sec-
chea extends down to the bronchi that branch ondary bronchi, to the tertiary bronchi, then
off at the tracheal bifurcation to enter the hilus to the bronchioles, and finally the terminal
of the left or right lung (figure 10.1). bronchioles which pass the air into the alve-
The lungs contain the narrower passage- olus of the lung. In the alveolus we find the
ways, or bronchioles, which carry air to the interwoven part.
functional unit of the lungs, the alveoli. There, in the thou-
sands of tiny alveolar chambers, oxygen is transferred Interwoven Parts of the Lung
through the membrane of the alveolar walls to the blood
cells in the capillaries within. Likewise, waste gases diffuse
out of the blood cells into the air in the alveoli, to be
expelled upon exhalation. The diaphragm, a large, thin
T he alveoli are the tiny sacs at the ends (or leaves) of the
bronchial tree. Each small bronchiole divides into half a
dozen or so alveolar ducts, which are the narrow inlets into
muscle below the lungs, and the intercostal and abdominal alveolar sacs. Each alveolar duct subdivides, leading to the
muscles are responsible for contracting and expanding the three or more alveolar sacs. Each large alveolar sac is like a
thoracic cavity to effect respiration. The ribs serve as a struc- grape cluster that contains ten or more alveoli. Because the
tural support for the whole thoracic arrangement, and pleu- membrane separating the alveolus and the capillary network
ral membranes help provide lubrication for the respiratory that carries blood over them is very thin and semipermeable,
Figure 10.1
Lung
Alveoli
(air sacs)
Bronchioles
Alveolus
Respiratory System Organization and the interwoven

structures of a lung lobule. Alveoli are the
critical structures for gas exchange.
Body By Design 79

oxygen can transfer from the air into the blood cells within the 3) a one-cell-thick basement membrane for easy
capillaries. Likewise, carbon dioxide and other waste gases can gas exchange.
transfer out of the blood and into the air to be exhaled from 4) a site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, and
the lungs. The alveoli are particularly susceptible to infection, 5) close proximity of the capillary to air surface,
as they provide bacteria and viruses a perfect place to grow. promoting absorption of gases.
This accounts for the tendency for a chest cold or other lung In addition to structural adaptation of the alveolus in
problem to advance into pneumonia, a potentially dangerous the lung, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles (below
condition in which the innermost parts of the lungs become the ribs) rhythmically contract to promote bulk inflow and
infected and inflamed, diminishing airflow and oxygen trans- outflow of air. Hair-like organelles called cilia in the respi-
port due to the dangerous accumulation of fluid. ratory tract remove mucous and harmful residues from the
system. Once again, structure and function are highly cor-
The Lung related, demonstrating the optimal body plan for survival
and adaptation in a changing world.
T he other vital organ that we depend upon each moment

of life is the lung. People can hold their breath for a
maximum of five or six minutes, denying the body gas
Tongue of the Lung
exchange from the lung. If it were not for an automatic feed-

back mechanism in which the body starts breathing again
during our unconscious state, the action of holding ones
L ike the ear of the heart, another overlooked anatom-
ical structure is the anteroinferior part of the superior lobe
breath would ultimately lead to death. The basic unit of the in the left lung. It forms a small tongue-like projection
human lung is the alveolus, which is a cluster of lung cells. called the lingula (Latin for tongue). This structure,
The functional significance of the alveolus provides: during cadaver dissections by medical students, is fre-
1) increased surface area for gas contact, quently referred to as the tongue of the lung (figure
2) moisture that aids in exchange and transport 10.2). As a project, you might search for photographs of
of oxygen, actual human lungs and see if you can find its tongue. It
is best seen in transverse (coronal) sections.
Thyroid cartilage
Figure 10.2
Trachea
Cricoid cartilage
Lingula
Alveoli
Lingula- Tongue of the Lung

Viewed from the Front
80 Body by Design

ity, cost effectiveness, safety, and personal preferences into
SUMMARY
consideration. If you ever study the features of cars like
Cadillac, Lincoln, Mercedes Benz, Volvo, or BMW, you
The lingula appears to shield the vital organs from trau- will see similar trademark signs. Each company has its own
ma. The lingula protects lung tissue below and also covers impressive logo or a quality landmark.
part of the heart and blood vessels, including the pul- Although cars keep improving each year by running faster,
monary artery anterior cuspid, and left coronary cuspid. becoming more energy efficient, looking sportier, containing
There are dozens of examples that demonstrate the rela- more electronic gadgets, and in general, getting better, they
tionship of human structure to function. We have consid- will never approach what is really the ultimate machine. It
ered only a few of them. Table 10.1 functions with such precision that human physiologists will
portrays three basic designed struc- never fully understand its superlative
tures from the respiratory system. qualities. Each year, it seems,
Hundreds of other examples of anatomists, physiologists, and bio-
formfitting functions in the human chemists discover new mechanisms
body could be given. Various that more fully explain its construc-
designs of structures in the skeletal, tion.
skin, respiratory, circulatory, One highly praised anatomy and
immune, and digestive systems physiology textbook states:
attest to their remarkable, purpose- Anatomical structures seem
ful functioning. Could any of these designed to perform specific func-
precise interrelationships have orig- tions. Each body structure has a par-
inated by non-directed, physio- ticular size, shape, form, or position
chemical forces? Would chemical in the body related directly to its abil-
molecules fall together by chance to ity to perform a unique and special-
produce such intricate systems? To ized activity. The most logical expla-
reproduce order out of disorder, code from non-code, and nation for such a high correlation between structure and func-
program from non-program, life forms need energy that is tion is a planned origin. In the same way a specific key fits into
precisely directed. Only when energy is directed and trans- a lock to unlock a door, many body parts are fitted to perform
formed can chaos of chemicals produce order. Codes and a specific function. In table 10.1, I present two planned
designs with precise functioning presuppose an intelligent forms with their purposeful functions.
cause behind them. The wonderful patterns, adaptations, In the same way that an architect plans a house, the master
and precise functions of the human body parts are clear bioengineer produced precisely functioning body parts. Lets
indications of an Intelligent Designer, a Maker behind it. visualize a skilled cabinetmaker selecting tools from a box to
Automotive engineers try each year to improve new build a fine cabinet. The worker uses a pencil to draw a
automobiles. The engineers blueprints take sport, durabil- blueprint, a ruler to measure the length of a door, a hammer
to pound a nail, a screwdriver to remove a screw, a saw to cut
Table 10.1 R e l a t i o n s h i p o f D e s i g n e d St r u c t u re t o
Pu r p o s e f u l Fu n c t i o n i n t h e R e s p i r a t o r y S y s t e m
SYSTEM DESIGNED STRUCTURES PURPOSEFUL FUNCTION
Respiratory Lungs are made of connective tissues and Allows for the expansion and
elastic fibers; interwoven alveoli inside contraction of the lungs and this
provides a greater exchange of gases
with the blood.
Respiratory Right bronchus is wider and shorter than The right lung is larger than the left,
the left bronchus therefore it needs more inflow and
outflow of air for systemic circulation.
Respiratory Lingula of left lung Protects lung tissue below and covers
part of the heart and blood vessels,
including the pulmonary artery anterior
cuspid, and left coronary cuspid.
Body By Design 81

the lumber, and hinges to attach the door to the cabinet. In a conclusion for a system composed of a number of artificial
all, the carpenter may use a dozen distinctly different tools, objects, there must be an identifiable function of the system.
each with its own role to play. In order to use these tools effec-
tively to build a cabinet there must be a plan before its
construction.
According to Behe, In order to reach a conclusion of
design for something that is not an artificial object, or to reach
Disease Focus 10.1
The Common Cold

themselves to the nasal epithelial cells of the throat before
W hy should you study the common cold and viruses?
Nine out of ten Americans catch the common cold
each year. Many of those suffering from colds are teenagers,
infection and multiplication. These throat cells are called
ciliated (haired) pseudostratified epithelial cells. Some
who catch up to six colds per year. According to recent sta- common cold treatments are designed to prevent the cold
tistics, this translates into about 26 million school virus from attaching to these cells.
days missed by students each year. The study The common cold is generally caused by rhi-
of rhinoviruses is relevant to high school noviruses during the fall and winter.
students because they catch between two Rhinoviruses disturb the upper respirato-
and three colds per school year on the ry system and grow in the nose, where
average. the temperature is a few degrees cool-
Students are especially suscepti- er than the rest of the body. Hence,
ble to catching colds when they are we use the Greek term rhinos,
around others who are coughing meaning nose, to describe these
and sneezing. Symptoms of the viruses. We keep catching the
common cold include sneezing, common cold because there are
coughing, nasal congestion, so many different rhinoviruses. It
and/or the sniffles. Viruses cause is postulated that there are so
most colds; however, bacteria many cold viruses because these
such as Haemophilus influenzae simple life forms (RNA virus) are
cause some. Rhinoviruses, coron- subject to mutation and their
aviruses, Coxsackie viruses, respira- outer proteins change. This diversi-
tory syncytial viruses, adenoviruses, ty of cold viruses is known as anti-
reoviruses, echoviruses, and influenza genic variation. Our body can build
viruses have all been linked with the immunity against one virus at a time;
common cold. Younger students are espe- unfortunately, there may be another hun-
cially susceptible to colds because they fre- dred that it will eventually have to defend
quently congregate together and touch each against. Senior adults eventually develop anti-
others hands. bodies to about 55 percent of rhinovirus serotypes. It
In order for a common cold virus (rhinovirus) to infect takes a lifetime to build immunity to the majority of cold
our body, it must pass beyond the nasal passages and reach viruses in ones environment. Just think of it old age
the nasopharnyx or beyond. Rhinoviruses must attach does bring some benefits: great wisdom, and very few colds!
82 Body by Design

Design Focus 10.2
Cilia, Molecular Machines
in the Respiratory System
C
ilia and flagella are molecular machines in years. The discovery of the intricate, interlacing details
the respiratory system. Bacteria and Euglena of cilia, however, was not noticed until the advent of the
are single-celled creatures that move about scanning electron microscopes. Micrographs revealed
by means of flagella, whereas Paramecium that the cilium is a complex structure of motor proteins
moves by means of cilia. Cilia are tiny hairlike projec- and microtubules. Microtubules lie stiff and motionless
tions that extend from the cell membrane and are also without motor proteins, such as nexin and dynein.
found in human cells that line the respiratory passage- Furthermore, it requires linkers to tug on neighboring
ways. These ciliated cells strands, converting the slid-
secrete mucus that traps ing motion into a bending
Cells
heavy particles and motion, and preventing the
microbes. The cilia of structure from falling apart.
mucus membrane cells is All of these parts are
referred to as the mucocil- required to perform one
iary escalator. function: ciliary motion.
In humans, cilia are also Just as a mousetrap does
found in stationary cells in not work unless all of its
the linings of our lungs and constituent parts are pres-
respiratory tract, where Mucus Cilia
ent, ciliary motion simply
their continual back-and- Secretory does not exist in the
(goblet cell)
forth motion sweeps foreign absence of microtubules,
particles out of the lungs connectors, and motors.
and up the windpipe to be either swallowed or expelled. Therefore, we can conclude that the highly interdepend-
A human cilium is a structure that looks like a hair and ent system makes it difficult for a gradual, Darwinian
moves like a whip. In contrast, the cilium in evolution to have taken place.
Paramecium moves the cell much as an oar moves a boat. The cilium molecular machine is a highly intricate
If the cell is stuck in the middle of a sheet of other cells, system that gives evidence of creation in its interwoven
the beating cilium moves liquid over the surface of the system of proteins. A swimming system requires a pad-
stationary cell. The Creator used cilia for both jobs. The dle to contact the water, a motor or source of energy,
stationary cells that line the respiratory tract each have and a connector to link the two. All systems that move
several hundred cilia. The large number of cilia beat in by paddling, from protozoans to propellers in ships,
symphony, much like the oars handled by slaves on a will not work if any one of the interdependent parts is
Roman galley ship, to push mucus up to the throat for missing. The cilium is a member of this class of swim-
expulsion. The action removes air pollutants, cigarette ming systems. The microtubules are the paddles, whose
particles, and pathogenic bacteria that may be inhaled surface contacts the water and pushes against it. The
and stick in the mucus. protein arms are the motors, supplying the force to
Both cilia and flagella are complex molecular move the system. The protein arms are the interlacing
machines consisting of a bundle of several microtubules connectors, transmitting the force of the motor from
and motor proteins encased in a flexible membrane. The one microtubule to its neighbor. The complexity and
pull of the motor proteins slides the microtubules past apparent design of the cilium is inherent in the task
each other, causing the entire assembly to bend. They itself. It does not depend on how large or small the sys-
have both power strokes and recovery strokes that pro- tem is, whether it has to move a cell or move a ship: in
pel paramecium in the water. By beating rapidly back order to paddle it must have several common parts.
and forth like a fishs tail or a row of oars, a cell can swim Now that is strong evidence for intelligent design and
rapidly through the water. Light microscopes have an omniscient Creator as we examine the wisdom in the
revealed thin hairs on some cells for over two hundred inward parts of the cilium.
Body By Design 83

Respiratory System
respiratory system.
2. What is the overall function of the respiratory system?
3. Describe and make an illustration of an interwoven

aspect of the respiratory system.
4. Discuss how the alveoli are an interwoven component

in the respiratory system. Describe the interlacing
complexity of the alveoli.
5. Explain the Genesis 2:7 passage: And the Lord

God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed
into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a
living soul.
6. Why is it difficult to find a cure for the common cold?
84 Body by Design

Critical Thinking Questions (7-8):
Testing Critical Thinking Skills and

the Common Cold
During 1999, 21 percent of the patients in a large hospital acquired severe respiratory infections during their hospital
stay. The patients required longer hospital stays than uninfected patients. Medical technologists provided this data:
Rate of environmental isolation for adenovirus on:
Bedroll 10%
Coffee Cups 5%
Toilet/Commode 1%
Door Knobs 18%
Call Button 6%
Handkerchiefs/Hand towels 30%
7. What is the most likely mode of transmission of the adenovirus in hospitals?

a. The disease was caught each time patients left their beds.
b. Nurses and visitors brought in the disease.
c. Infected handkerchiefs and hand towels were stockpiled, then distributed to patients.
d. Patients were sneezing on each other.
Hospital personnel hands after patient contact that was positive for adenovirus
Used gloves 0%
Washed with non-disinfectant soap 40%
Did not use gloves 59%
Washed with disinfectant soap 3%
Had before patient contact 3%
Did not wash hands 20%
8. Given this data, how do you slow the spread of a disease?

a. Have all hospital personnel and patients take megadoses of vitamin C.
b. Quarantine all patients with respiratory disease in a separate wing of the hospital.
c. Have all hospital personnel be required to wear masks and sterile space-suits, like the video Outbreak.
d. Have all personnel be required to wash their hands with soap and change gloves after handling each patient.
Body By Design 85

Exploring the
Nervous System,
the Brain, and Pain
11
I
The brain is a swarm of n recent times children have been observed to learn
motor skills after brain operations that were not
thought possible. Due to various injuries, such as
cells in which everything automobile accidents, surgeries, and other head trau-
ma events, youngsters may have half of their brain removed.
is seemingly connected to For many years, it was thought that if the right side of the
brain were removed, the left side of the body would loose its
normal function; likewise, if the left brain were removed,
everything else. The con- this person would lose control over the right side of the
body. In adults, this loss of control is the norm. Yet, fre-
quently, full control over the body is restored commonly in
nections, though, follow a
children and adolescents, even when half of the brain is
removed. In these instances it appears that the brain does its
plan, an order, the large own rewiring. The right brain can take over the functions
of the left brain if necessary. This remarkable characteristic
of flexibility in nervous tissue is known as plasticity.
elements of which we are
Plasticity and Complexity
just beginning to see and
understand.
P lasticity refers to the ability to do long-term adjust-
ments or adaptive changes. New connections form and
outlive an event. Each and every neuron remembers an
event and can respond accordingly to the future. There is
(Mark Cosgrove, Ph.D.) learning, recovery of function from an injury, and memory
of past events (history). This rewiring in nerves is the
Creators provision for handling and adjusting to lifes trau-
ma.
Plasticity is one of two outstanding attributes of the
nervous system. The other trait of the nervous system, best
described with superlative terms, is its intertwined com-
plexity. There are about 10111012 neurons (nerve cells) and
10131015 glial cells (support cells) in the human body. Each
neuron has 104 connections, or synapses; this amounts to an
86

incredible 1016 connections in the human body. The nerv- ermost protective membrane, the dura mater, the brain
ous system has the highest number of connections and weighs an average of three pounds (1.4 kg), comprising
degree of order, organization, and integration in the body. about 97 percent of the entire central nervous system. The
Only the number and organization of stars in the universe brain is connected to the upper end of the spinal cord
rival the complexity found in the nervous system. The (which connects through the foramen magnum of the
colossal complexity found in the circuitry of our brains skull) and is responsible for issuing nerve impulses, pro-
must be the fingerprint of an omniscient Creator! cessing nerve impulse data, and engaging in the higher
order thought processes. The brain is the human bodys
The Nervous System Overview control center (figure 11.1). In a sense, the brain is the
head or chief executive officer (CEO) of the body.
T he nervous system is responsible for sending, receiving,

and processing nerve impulses. All of the bodys mus-
The brain is divided into three parts: the large cere-
brum, the smaller cerebellum, and the brainstem leading
cles and organs rely upon these nerve impulses to function to the spinal cord. The brainstem is also descriptively
for monitoring the environment. This system is responsible divided into the medulla oblongata, the midbrain, and
for creating and maintaining communication in a cen- the pons. Other parts include the corpus callosum, hip-
tral excitatory state, keeping the body ready to respond to any pocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and pons. In
emergency. The nerv- a typical adult, the
ous system is also brain weighs only
responsible for inte- a little more than
grating and summing Figure 11.1 three pounds, yet it
signals and correlating consumes about one-
past and present expe- Frontal lobe fourth of the bodys
Occipital lobe
riences. Finally, it is total oxygen. Its large
responsible for out- demand for oxygen,
put, like a new action, glucose, water, elec-
thought, or memory. trolytes, and protein
The three systems makes it extremely
that work together to important in terms of
carry out the mission bioenergetics.
Pituitary gland
of the nervous system Cerebellum
The human brain is
are as follows: the cen- a mysterious loom,
Brainstem
tral, the peripheral, weaving strands of 10
and the autonomic billion neurons into
nervous systems. The the fabric of thought.
central nervous sys- Saggital View of the Brain Perhaps this orderly
tem is responsible for loom of cellular
issuing nerve impuls- threads blends with
es and analyzing sen- invisible threads of the
sory data. It includes the brain and spinal cord. The periph- spirit to form the essence of our personality. There is proba-
eral nervous system is responsible for carrying nerve bly nothing else in the physical universe that is more com-
impulses to and from the bodys many structures, and plex than the human brain. The web of neurons defies
includes the many craniospinal nerves that branch off of the description. The whole mental process consists of neurons
brain and spinal cord. The autonomic nervous system is transmitting specific chemicals between each other across
composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic sys- synapses or gaps. As a result, each cell can communicate
tems and is responsible for regulating and coordinating the with every other cell at lightning speed. In one cubic mil-
functions of vital structures in the body. limeter (mm3) of the brain, there are one billion connec-
tions among cells. This amounts to about 400 billion synap-
The Brain tic junctions in a gram of brain tissue. The brains total
number of connections rivals the stars of the universe in
T he brain is the primary component of the nervous number, yet the connections follow an orderly plan.
system, occupying the cranial cavity. Without its out- Neurologists describe physiological interactions in much
Body By Design 87

[B]
Figure 11.2
From a dorsal view, the four

plexuses, neurons, and various
neuroglia are illustrated.
[A] Oligode
endrocytes wrap thin exten-
[A] [C]
sions of myelin around axons to increase
on.
the speed of neuron communicatio
[B] Microglia are phagocytic cells that

protect the central nervous
system tissue.
[C] Astrocytess are part of the

blood-brain barrier and wrap
around the capillaries.
[D]
[D] Area above cauda equina,
lumbar nerves, L2 and L3 depicts inter-
lacing nature of nervous system.
Interwoven Components of the
Nervous System
detail but there are still many unknowns about the brain. In fibers that extend all the way down the body, innervating
one sense, a whole person lies locked inside the cranium, pro- even the skin in the tips of the toes.
tected, sealed away for managing the duties of the other The spinal cord features both efferent and afferent nerve
70100 trillion cells in the body. The brain is the seat of mys- pathways, so that nerves may be transmitted to the bodys
tery, wisdom, and unity, and it is the source of order for the structures as well as received from them. Paired sets of nerves
rest of the body. All the bodys cells ultimately report to the branch out from the spinal cord along the vertebral column,
brain. In one sense, other body cells are defined by their loy- with the lowest of these forming the sacral plexus of nerves.
alty to the brain. They either obey the brains signals and The sympathetic nerves travel alongside the spinal cord in the
thereby bring health to the body, or disobey and ultimately sympathetic nerve trunk, which features periodic clusters of
bring ruin to the rest of the body. nerves, called ganglia. The spinal cord floats in a spinal fluid
that protects and nourishes it and, as with the brain, is covered
The Spinal Cord by a meningeal membrane composed of three layers: the pia
mater, the arachnoid, and the dura mater. Damage to the
T he spinal cord is one of the primary portions of the

central nervous system, serving as a telegraph cable
which allows signals to be sent from the brain to the struc-
spinal cord results in inability to transmit and receive nerve
impulses to and from the specific area supplied by the dam-
aged section of the spinal cord, and all sections below it,
tures of the body and received from them in return. resulting in paralysis and numbness.
Extending from the medulla oblongata, through the fora- The term plexus refers to a network of nerves or blood
men magnum in the base of the skull, to the base of the vessels. The nervous system features a number of these net-
vertebral column, the spinal cord is about a 1/4 inch (0.5 works, where autonomic and voluntary nerve fibers join
cm) in diameter, and is slightly flattened. The spinal cord together. These networks include the brachial plexus
itself passes through the vertebral canal created by the ver- (shoulder), the cervical plexus (neck), the coccygeal
tebral arches, and sends out roots and branches much as plexus (coccyx), and sacral or lumbosacral plexus (lower
does a tree. These structures contain bundles of nerve back) (see figure 11.3).
88 Body by Design

Neurons and Communication Neuron Order and Organization
N erves have been discovered to communicate, or talk

with one another. This occurs through electrical
and chemical signals. Electrical signals are transmitted fast
N erves are an intricate array of brain neurons and their
associated brain cells (e.g., astrocyte cells). They
transmit signals electrically or chemically to other neurons.
and fleeting, whereas chemical signals go in and out slow- Neuron communication is both orderly and organized,
ly. The latter transfers information that is deliberate and however, there is tremendous variation in how it is done.
with sustained action. They all have the same basic structure consisting of a cell
body and two different kinds of extensions. The first
Interwoven Parts of the Nervous System extension is the dendrite. It receives stimuli from its
immediate surroundings, from other neurons, or from
T he interwoven components of the nervous system

include the cells of the blood-brain barrier, the plexus-
es, and the cauda equina. Some of these structures are fea-
sensory structures in the skin, muscle, or internal organs.
Each cell has many dendrites and each dendrite has many
branches (figure 11.4). This explains the origin of the
tured in Vesalius Fabrica. Some cells interlaced with each word from the Greek dendron, meaning a tree. Because
other throughout the body include neurons with their glial these trees have such a large number of receiving branch-
cells. This is most notable in the blood-brain barrier where es, the body of any one neuron is connected to many
astrocytes are tightly bound to the neurons, just as the white stimuli sources. A single long extension called the axon
and gray matter which are seamlessly interwoven (figure 11.2). (Greek for axle) carries the impulse away from the cell
The cauda equina are nerve roots on the posterior end of the body and toward other neurons and their dendrites, or
spinal cord. They radiate from the spinal cord and connect to directly to muscle and gland cells. Because the axon is
nerves in the hips and legs, and are collectively referred to as a multibranched, it, too, connects with a number of receiv-
cauda equina because they resemble a horses tail. The nerves ing structures. All of this diverse branching serves to
occur between lumbar two and three spinal nerves and are enhance integration of the nervous system. A nerve cell
highly convoluted. may have hundreds of dendrites, but it can have only one
Figure 11.3
Lumbar
plexus
Sacral
Os coxa plexus
Femoral
nerve
Coccyx
Femur
Anterior View of
Sciatic
Lumbosacral Plexus
nerve
Body By Design 89

Figure 11.4
Nucleus
Cell body
Axon hillcock:
site of integration
Axon
Schwann cell
Postsynaptic knob: (myelin sheath)
site of synapsis
& communication
Neuron with a Close-

up of a Synapse
axon. The junction where the impulse is transmitted transmission of nerve impulses through the synapse. But
from one nerve cell to another is called the synapse, as logical as it seemed, this hypothesis was not supported
from the Greek synapto; I join together. It is here that by later study.
the message passes from one of the branches of an axon When the impulse reaches the tiny intervening space,
to one of the branches of a dendrite, or directly to the a neurotransmitter (a chemical substance) is released
cell body. from the axon into the junction. In addition to acetyl-
The relationship is reminiscent of Michelangelos mag- choline, there are about 50 other messengers. The mole-
nificent The Creation of Adam on the ceiling of the cules of a neurotransmitter bind to receptor molecules on
Vaticans Sistine Chapel. In this painting, the extended the dendrite or cell membrane. The binding changes the
right hand of God is reaching toward the outstretched shape of the receptor; this, in turn, opens up pathways in
left hand of Adam, but their adjacent fingers are not the membrane that envelops the receiving cell. The signal
quite touching. There remains the smallest of spaces stops once the neurotransmitter is used up.
between them, across which an impulse must be trans- Other signs of organization seen in the nervous system
mitted. are the supporting cells for the neurons. These include
Michelangelo must have believed that some divine myelinated glial cells (or neuroglia), Schwann cells,
spark of energy leaped across the gap between God and and astrocytes. Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths
man, and much the same was at first thought about the that cover, protect, and insulate the axon of the neuron.
90 Body by Design

The myelin sheath also cific needs. The body
speeds up the transmis- Figure 11.5 does not seem to have
sion of ions by allowing any special cells dedicat-
signals to leap from At the dentist, novocaine is injected into one or more of the ed to the sensation of
node to node (nodes of trigeminal nerve divisions to numb the teeth and the asso- pain because pain is tied
ciated gums so that you do not feel pain.
Ranvier). This is known to an elaborate network of
as saltatory jumping. sensors that report degrees
Another supporting of pressure, touch, heat,
cell designed to regulate Trigeminal nerve and cold.
tight control over what Opthalmalic Paul Brand and others
enters the brain is the division have tried to copy this
astrocyte. These highly mechanism when building
integrated cells con- an artificial pain system.
tribute to the blood- They achieved some suc-
brain barrier and ensure cess with their master engi-
that the brain will not be neers, electricians, and
Maxillary
subjected to chemical division nerve physiologists in pro-
fluctuations in the blood. Mandibular ducing temporary pain
division
Thus, they provide pro- receptors and signals. Let
tection against dangerous us examine a few of their
chemicals and pathogens. studies.
These scientists blind-
Integration at folded their research sub-
Different Levels jects and measured their
skin sensitivity. They
Trigeminal Nerve (In Black)
A single neuron may
receive information
from numerous neighbor-
and its three divisions:
Opthalmalic , Maxillary
studied how much pres-
sure must be applied
before a blindfolded per-
and Mandibular
ing neurons via thousands son senses an object
of synapses, some of them touching his skin.
excitatory and some of Although the skin is a
them inhibitory. Excitatory synapses have opposite effects on the single organ, it displays a wide range of sensitivity to pres-
membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell. At an excitatory sure. The skin must be able to sense pressure in such
synapse, neurotransmitter receptors control a type of gated diverse tasks as picking food particles from our teeth,
channel that allows sodium to enter the cell and potassi- using fingers to play the guitar, or writing with a felt tip
um to leave the cell. There is a depolarization in the cell. pen. The areas of skin around the fingers require a high
Therefore, the binding of the neurotransmitter to the degree of sensitivity.
receptor causes the electric change. This pattern was dis- Less critical areas hardly need such sensitivity. Indeed,
cussed previously as the all-or-none principle. we would tire very quickly indeed if our brains had to lis-
At an inhibitory synapse, the binding of neurotrans- ten to such dainty pressure reports from the foot, which
mitter molecules to the postsynaptic membrane hyperpolar- faces a daily rigor of stomping, squeezing, and supporting
izes the membrane by opening ion channels that make the weight. Thus, while fingers and the tongue can detect a
membrane more permeable to potassium or to chloride, feather touch, other parts of the body must experience
which rush out of the cell. This complex integration works something extraordinary before they report unusual activ-
much like the computer chips in your personal computer. ity to the brain.
The measurements of touch threshold barely scratch the
Pain Network as an Integrative System surface of the marvels of the pain network. For example,
ntegration can be noted at the neuron level. The sen- sensitivity to pressure varies depending on context.
I sation of touch and pain is a good example of integra- Humans can distinguish a letter that weighs 1/4 ounce
tion. Millions of touch sensors over the surface of the from one that weighs 1/2 ounce just by holding it in their
skin are scattered in precise accord with the bodys spe- hand. But if they try to distinguish a 10-pound package
Body By Design 91

from a 10.3-pound one, they cannot discern the differ- a complete copy of this detailed integration of the nervous
ence. Our sensitivity to pressure is amazing, yet it does system. Their conclusion was that this integration of sen-
have limits. sory receptors for pain could be viewed only as the finger-
The fingertips must be incredibly sensitive to the slight- print of a wise, master electrical engineer. Indeed, there is
est differences in touch. But sensitivity to touch is not a bioengineer behind the intricate integration of the nerv-
enough. The fingertips must also be able to withstand rig- ous system.
orous activity. Next time you meet a carpenter or an expe- Design is observed in the senses of touch and pain.
rienced tennis player, feel their callused hand. Life would Touch distribution was not handed down in a random
be miserable indeed if the fingertip fired a message of pain way. No accident of evolution could have produced such a
marvelous matrix of touch and pain sensors found in the
skin. Einstein said, God does not play at dice. He is a
wise God providing us with sensitivity in areas that could
Figure 11.6 easily be damaged by high pressure. Pain is an interpreta-
tion by the brain of signals from multiple touch sensors
that have been highly stimulated. The main difference
400
Absolute Threshold of Pain (g/mm2)
between pain and touch is the number and intensity of

0 sensors summoned. Pain is usually not thought of as a gift,
300 30
but people with Hansens disease would tell you that it is
a present thoughtfully provided by a omniscient Creator
0
200 20 (see Disease Focus 11. 1). Without physical pain, the body
lacks protection against harmful agents.
0 The intelligent designer has also provided us with cal-
100 10
luses to protect areas that are constantly abraded and
20 touched (such as palms of hands, etc.) There are fewer
0
0.
2 touch and pain receptors on our back. The sensitivity of
Cornea Forearm Back of Sole of Fingertip
Hand Foot
each square millimeter is programmed to the function of
that body part. Our fingertips, tongues, and lips are the
Pressure needed portions of the body used in activities that need the most
to produce pain sensitivity.
Intelligence
to the brain each time a person gripped a tennis racket or
pounded a hammer. So the design of the body includes
fingers that are sensitive to pressure, but relatively insensi-
tive to pricks. Hands and fingertips serve us well, as do the
T he biological basis for intelligence in man or animals
is both controversial and uncertain in the world of
secular science. Yet, the complex integration of informa-
other parts of our body. All of these require sophisticated tion through various neurons in the cerebellum is most
integration of the pressure network. likely the biological basis for intelligence. Although a pre-
Another test assesses the absolute threshold of pain. In cise integration circuit is probably not known, one can
this test, the scientist measures how much pressure must confidently infer that intelligence itself is an outcome of
be applied to a very sharp needle before the subject begins integration. The nervous network, intelligence, and behav-
to experience pain (figure 11.6). The fingertip, for exam- ior are still poorly understood.
ple, shows an astounding difference; it can detect a mere Intelligence is probably a coordinated effort by the
3-grams/ millimeter2 (g/mm2) of pressure, but pain will nervous network to integrate and process signals appropri-
not be felt until that pressure exceeds 300 g/mm2. Why? ate for the particular circumstance. The completion of an
The concert violinist must sense an amazing range of pres- intelligent activity by man may stem from a rigidly pat-
sures to produce perfect sound and volume. A skilled pizza terned neural network. The network must gather and
maker, swishing his hands through batches of dough, can process data from key neurons in the cerebrum. Then it
notice as little as a 2-percent variance in its stickiness must order particular sequences elsewhere in the body
consistency. while blocking signals that might inhibit an effective
After spending over a million dollars of grant money, behavior. A comparison among neurons, neural networks,
however, Brand and his colleagues basically failed to make and the brain indicates the parallel plans of integration. It
92 Body by Design

causes us to think that there is a higher intelligence behind the comparison between organelles and organs is not exact,
the design of this intricate nerve integration. Can one the similar functions performed by each corroborate the
explain design, integration, and intelligence without a principle that an intelligent designer has made both. By
master mind? this, we conclude that mankind has been fashioned by a
Recall that the theory of macroevolution predicts ran- wise Creator.
domness, blind chance, imperfection, expansion of the Parallel plans can be observed at different levels of organ-
gene pool, and tinkering with nature. In contrast, a cre- ization. This continuity is most notable in a comparison
ation model predicts order, organization, boundaries to between an organelle and an organ. The concept implied is
the gene pool, and integration. The nervous system has one that suggests that a master bioengineer used a similar
truly amazing properties. Do the properties of order, scheme. Engineers use the same general mechanical princi-
organization, and integration found in the nervous system ples in the manufacturing of gears. This is true regardless of
correlate better with the characteristics of macroevolution whether the gears are for an automobile or a watch.
or intelligent design? There are many examples of this. The cell membrane can
Order and organization are two principles that are con- be compared to the human bodys skin. One is the outer cov-
sistent with a Creator. Webster defines order as a condition ering that holds the body together and the other holds the cell
in which everything is in its right place and functions prop- together. Another parallel plan can be observed between the
erly. In addition, order implies there is a fixed or definite cell nucleus and the axon hillock with the brain and the body.
plan and system. Webster defines organization as a unified, Each structure is involved in integrating complex signals and
coherent group or systemized whole. A divine craftsman decision-making for the body surrounding it.
would put things into order from the beginning, as a mas- Although certain things are not identical in structure, they
ter carpenter would have his blueprint and materials ready have similar functions. For example, the logic used in design-
for construction ahead of time. Based upon the complexity ing a computer motherboard in a computer is parallel to a
of this integration, it seems that only the greatest mind in neuron circuitry (figure 11.7), although their circuitry is not
the universe could have accomplished this. directly interchangeable with other systems. It took order,
organization, and intelligence to make both. The evidence for
Parallel Plans design is solid and highly probable from any viewpoint. How
could so many coincidences exist among living things? Was it
I n the human body, we see order and levels of organiza-

tion. In fact, we can see parallel or congruent patterns
between cellular organelles and the body organs. Although
merely a coincidence that this world was planned and thought
about before time began? An all-wise inventor made the per-
fectly modeled parallel plans.
Figure 11.7
Computer motherboard Neuron circuitry
Comparison of computer
with nervous system
Body By Design 93

Disease Focus 11.1
Leprosy and Pain Our Protector
F or many centuries, leprosy was considered a curse of

God, often associated with sin. It did not kill, but
neither did it seem to end. Instead, it lingered for years,
leprosy patients are given two antibiotics, rifampin and
clofaziminem, along with dapsone, due to increasing
numbers of drug-resistant bacteria. Today, there is a great
causing the tissues to degenerate and deforming the deal of hope for people with early diagnosis triple
body. In biblical times, victims were required to call out drug therapy and they are cured for a lifetime. Even those
Unclean! Unclean! and they were usually ostracized who have had minor damage to limbs can obtain restora-
from the community. Many have thought this to be a tion therapy from Christian missions, like those Dr. Paul
disease of the skin. It is better classified, however, as a Brand started.
disease of the nervous system because the leprosy bac- It was Dr. Brands work with leprosy patients that
terium attacks nerves. illustrated, in part, why God permitted there to be pain
The agent of leprosy is Mycobacterium leprae, an acid- in this world. There is a total loss of physical pain in
fast rod related to the tuberculosis bacterium. This advanced leprosy patients. When these people cant feel
organism, first observed in 1874 by the Norwegian touch or pain, they tend to injure themselves. Tumor-
physician Dr. Hansen, is referred to as Hansens bacillus. like growths called lepromas may form on the skin and
Hence, leprosy is commonly called Hansens disease. in the respiratory tract, and the optic nerve may deteri-
This bacterium grows in only a few places: the footpads orate. The largest number of deformities develop from
of mice, selective tissues in armadillos, and a few other loss of pain sensation due to extensive nerve damage,
animals. Leprosy is spread by multiple skin contacts, as and inattentive patients can pick up a cup of boiling
well as by droplets from the upper respiratory tracts. water without flinching. Many accidentally let hot
The disease has an unusually long incubation period objects burn their fingers. In fact, some leprosy patients
of three to six years, a factor that makes identification have had their fingers eaten by rats in their sleep and
very difficult. Because the bacteria are heat sensitive, the did not know it. The lack of pain receptors cannot warn
bacillus lives in the cooler regions of the body. Its symp- them of danger.
toms start in the skin and peripheral nervous system, In summary, the leprosy bacillus destroys nerve end-
then spread to various cooler parts like the hands, feet, ings that carry pain signals. People who do not feel
face, and earlobes. Severe cases intense pressure almost inevitably damage themselves.
also involve the eyes and the res- Usually an infection sets in areas where no pain signals
piratory tract. Patients with lep- have alerted them to tend to the wounded area. Thank
rosy experience disfigurement God for pain! says Brand. Leprosy destroys nerve end-
of the skin and bones, twist- ings that carry pain signals. Brand and colleagues tried
ing of the limbs, and curl- to give them a substitute for pain through an artificial
ing of the fingers to form transducer system. However, it usually did not last for
the characteristic claw long in most patients.
hand. Facial features He used artificial signals like warning auditory beeps
accompany thick- to communicate pain to those who had lost their sense
ening of the outer of touch. For a while (a few days) it worked because it
ear and collapse was a novelty. It did not work, however, when real work
of the nose. was demanded, or when sports became competitive.
The princi- The leprosy patients simply turned off the warning
pal drug for device and hurt themselves. Eventually, patients
the treatment ignored all but physical pain. Brand concluded that it
of leprosy is has to hurt to work. This is why Brand declares with the
dapsone. utmost sincerity, I cannot think of a greater gift that I
Most often, could give my leprosy patients than pain.
94 Body by Design

Nervous System
1. What are three organs of the nervous system?
2. What is the overall function of the nervous system?
3. Describe an interwoven part of the nervous system.

Discuss the intricate nature for this part and how
chance physiochemical processes cannot (alone)
account for the level of complexity observed in the
nervous system.
4. Make an illustration and discuss how a neuron illustrated

the idea of irreducible complexity.
5. Describe the flexibility and plasticity of the nerves.
6. Explain one reason why pain can be thought of as

a good thing.
7. Explain the concept of integration in the nervous system,

both at the cellular and organ level. Give examples of
each and provide sketches to illustrate your point.
Critical Thinking
Questions (8-11):
Going Further with Leprosy
8. Leprosy (technically called Hansens disease) is primarily a disease of the
A) Muscular B) Nervous C) Skin D) Skeletal System.
9. Hansens disease is caused by

A) a virus B) a spherical shaped bacterium
C) being around others with leprosy D) Mycobacterium leprae.
10. A good Bible reference for what is now recognized as leprosy by medical experts is:
A) Lev. 13 B) Mark 2 C) Mark 3 D) John 3:16 E) Luke 17.
11. A good Bible reference for preventing skin diseases and leprosy by medical experts is:
A) Leviticus 13 B) Mark 2 C) Mark 3 D) John 3:16 E) Luke 17.
Body By Design 95

All-or-None
Sensory Systems:
The Eye and the Ear
12
The hearing ear and the Special Senses
A
ll the senses work in basically the same way.
seeing eye, the Lord hath Special sensory receptors collect information
from the local environment and stimulate
made them both. neurons to send a message to the brain. There
the cerebral cortex forms a perception, a persons partic-
ular view of the stimulus. Along the way, energy is
(Prov. 20:12) changed from one type to another through a transducer.
All senses utilize transducers, but each sense has its own
distinctive way in which it transforms energy. For exam-
ple, each type of receptor is particularly sensitive to a dis-
tinct kind of environmental change and is less sensitive to
other forms of stimulation. The special senses detect
stimuli like light (sight), sound (hearing), odor (smell),
flavor (taste), and other signals. We will concentrate on
vision and hearing.
Like the multifaceted systems discussed in earlier
chapters, the parts of the eye and the ear will function
only as an entire unit or not at all. These interrelated
parts might be called all-or-none systems in terms of
survival. The multiple parts of the eye and the ear must
work fully in place and together in precision, or the func-
tion is impaired. In order for the eye or ear to perform
optimally, coordination of all the parts is required.
The way these systems operate remind us of the same
principle in muscle and nerve physiology. In skeletal
muscles, individual fibers contract to their fullest extent
or not at all. A minimal threshold must be made in order
for any action to take place. In neurons, if a stimulus is
strong enough to initiate an action potential, a nerve
impulse is propagated along the entire neuron at a con-
stant strength.
96

Uvula
Figure 12.1 Pharynx
Tonsil
Nasal bone
Epiglottis
[A]
Cartilage of septum
[B]
Lo
o wer lateral Circumvallate
cartilage papillae
Nasal process [C]
of maxillary bone
Different
Taste Areas:
[D] [A] Bitter
[B] Sour
Cell tissue [C] Salty
[D] Sweet
The chemical senses:

Olfaction and Gustation (Taste)
In the superior (or upper) surfaces of the tongue,sensory buds provide us with information about tas s te. Underneath the carti-
lage of the nose (lateral, or side view), our olfactory receptors provide us with information about smell.
Anatomy of the Eye Physiology of the Eye
T he eyeball lies nestled in fat within the orbital cavities

(two bony sockets) of the skull, where it is situated above
and lateral to the center. Of all the senses, eyesight is often
T he eyes anatomy and optics operate like a camera, and
the eyes nervous system is comparable to a supercom-
puter. Yet, neither of these analogies is sufficient to fully
considered most important. According to one estimate, four- describe the wonder of the human eyes structure and func-
fifths of everything we know reaches the brain through our tion. The eye is more than any sum of machines that humans
eyes. The eyes transmit constant streams of images to the brain can construct; it is a carefully crafted camera!
by electrical signals. The eyes receive information from light The eye is built like the camera except that it is infinitely
rays. The light rays are either absorbed or reflected. Objects more sophisticated. Some modern cameras have auto focus
that absorb all of the light rays appear black, whereas those and automatic adjustment of the iris diaphragm. The eye has
that reflect all the light rays appear white. Colored objects a circular iris muscle that controls the opening called the
absorb certain parts of the light spectrum and reflect others. pupil. In the eye, the lens can also change its shape to focus
When you look at something, the light rays reflected from the the light rays on the retina that is comparable to the film of
object enter the eye. The light is refracted by the cornea and the camera. The lens is made of living cells that are transpar-
passes through the watery aqueous humor and pupil to the ent. The cornea, the window-like membrane that covers the
lens. The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye. eye, is also transparent.
Then the lens focuses the light through the vitreous humor The most amazing component of the camera eye is its
onto the retina, forming an image in reverse and upside- film, which is the retina. This light-sensitive layer at the
down. Light-sensitive cells in the retina transmit the image back of the eyeball is thinner than a sheet of plastic wrap and
to the brain by electrical signals. The brain sees the image is more sensitive to light than any man-made film. The best
right side up. camera film can handle a ratio of 1000-to-1 photons in terms
Body By Design 97

of light intensity. By comparison, human retinal cells can han- of the eye gave him the chills. Attempts to explain the evolu-
dle a ratio of 10 billion-to-1 photons over a dynamic range of tion of the eye, like most other evolutionary explanations,
light wavelengths of 380 to 750 nanometers. The human eye are scientifically untestable. One must account not only for
can sense as little as a single photon of light in the dark! In the eye, but also for an optically transparent membrane called
bright daylight, the retina can bleach out, turning its volume the cornea, which bends the light rays before they enter the
control way down so as not to overload. The light-sensitive eye. Together with the eye, the visual cortex of the brain,
cells of the retina are like an extremely complex high-gain which is connected to the cerebrum, it must translate optical
amplifier that is able to magnify sounds more than one mil- information. The information begins as nothing more than
lion times. differences in the amplitude and length of light rays and is
There are over 10 million rods and cones in the retina and then converted into what is perceived as three-dimensional
they are packed together with a density of 200,000 per square color vision in real time. There is undoubtedly a scientific
millimeter in the highly sensitive central fovea. This is the area mechanism for this entire signal processing, and we now know
of highest concentration of cone cells. These photoreceptor much about it but we are no closer to a scientific explana-
cells have a very high rate of metabolism and must complete- tion of how eyes evolved in the first place than we were 150
ly replace themselves about every seven days! years ago.
If you look at a very bright light such as the The human eye is an example of com-
sun, they immediately burn out, but are rap- pound traits, having parts that are inter-
idly replaced in most cases. Because the retina dependent upon each other and that do
is thinner than the wavelength of visible light, not function effectively apart from the
it is totally transparent. Each of its minute other trait. It takes many muscles with the
photoreceptor cells is vastly more complex several eye parts (such as the cornea, the
than the most sophisticated man-made computer. pupil, the lens, and the retina) working
It has been estimated that 10 billion calcu- together, to get clear vision.
lations occur every second in the retina before
the image even gets to the brain! It is sobering To suppose that the eye, (with so many
to compare this performance with the best output of the most parts all working together) . . . could have been formed by
powerful man-made computer. Stevens reported, To simulate natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest
10 milliseconds of the complete processing of even a single nerve degree.
cell from the retina would require the solution of about 500
simultaneous non-linear differential equations one hundred times Darwin wrote this just before he proceeded to express a
and would take at least several minutes of processing time on a Cray rationale for how a small change may have occurred. But
super-computer. Darwins argument was no explanation at all.
Because there are about 10 million such cells interacting The human eye is among the most complex and sophisti-
with each other in many complex ways, it would take some- cated systems in the universe. Yet, in a critique of creation
thing like one hundred years of computer time to simulate views called Lifes Grand Design, Ken Miller describes the
what takes place in the eye many times each second! human eye as a flawed design compared to the cephalopod
What makes this comparison even more striking is that eye. As radically different as invertebrates are from vertebrates
nerve cells in the retina (rods, cones, bipolar neurons, and in their other organs, the cephalopod octopus has an eye strik-
ganglion neurons) conduct their electrical signals approxi- ingly similar to that of man.
mately one million times slower than the conduction in circuit Several evolutionary biologists claim that the vertebrate
traces of wires in a man-made super-computer. If it were eye is functionally suboptimal, because its photoreceptors in
possible to build a single silicon chip that could simulate the the retina are oriented away from incoming. They make
retina using currently available technology, it would have to these claims because the optic wiring and support vessels of
weigh about 100 pounds while the retina weighs less than one the human eye are located in front of the photoreceptor
gram. The super chip would occupy 10,000 cubic inches of cells in the retina. These biologists claim this arrangement
space, whereas the retina occupies 0.0003 cubic inches. The degrades visual quality by scattering incoming light and cre-
power consumption of the man-made super chip would be ating a blind spot where the wiring must poke through the
about 300 watts, whereas the retina consumes only 0.0001 retina to reach the brain. The cephalopod eye has its retina
watts. It is amazing how the efficiency of the retina far exceeds in front of the wiring.
the best computer chip that man can produce! The critics believe that evolutionary processes produced
Darwin once said that the very thought of the complexity a superior eye plan in the octopus and squid. They reason
98 Body by Design

that evolutionary tinkering through natural selection must cells (figure 12.2), so the human eye is not flawed as Miller
have produced both the cephalopod and human eye; eyes contends. Rather, the conclusions of evolutionary biolo-
that are optimal and suboptimal, respectively. gists have demonstrated flawed thinking not a flawed
On the surface, their argument seems logical. Yet the design! In summary, the RPE must be located outside the
human eye is much more sophisticated than any cephalo- retina to minimize blood clotting and to supply the needs
pod eye. It is both more complex and color sensitive. No for the photoreceptors. If our eye, like the cephalopod eye,
human camera, artificial device, nor computer-enhanced had no RPE, then our vision would be greatly reduced.
light-sensitive device can match the contrivance of the Would you want to trade your eyes for those of a squid
human eye. Only a master engineer with superior intelli- or an octopus? Cephalopod eyes are extremely nearsighted,
gence could manufacture a series of interdependent light- somewhat colorblind, and unlikely to form sharp images
sensitive parts and reactions. as our eyes can. The cephalopod has eyes designed for life
The physiology of human vision reveals great wisdom in in the deep oceans. The human eye, like the eyes of other
this unexpected design it provides for seeing objects in vertebrates, has vision that is superior to cephalopods (fig-
stereoscopic color. There are excellent functional reasons for ure 12.3). Evolutionists have ignored these finer details of
human photoreceptors to be oriented in front. A critical tis- the structure and function in the human eye when they say
sue, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) that is located the human eye is suboptimal to the eye of a cephalopod.
beneath the retina, maintains photoreceptor structure and The original design of the human eye is optimal. Its
function. The RPE recycles photopigments, removes spent coordinated details make its structure more advanced than
outer segments of the photoreceptors, provides an opaque the cephalopod eye, giving humans greater precision and
layer to absorb excess light, and performs additional functions. visual acuity. The imperfections, or eye impairments
The RPE is a fully functional tissue for the eye and must that some experience in vision (nearsightedness, farsight-
be located in back of the retinas photoreceptor cells in order edness, and astigmatism) are the result of the degeneration
to obtain optimal vision. If all the wiring and support ves- (fallen nature of man) and are not part of the original
sels were behind the retina, this would leave no room for the plan. Upon closer inspection of the reversed wiring
RPE. An optimal design is one that minimizes cost and parts, we find there is wisdom in such a scheme.
maximizes benefit. Although there is some extra energy cost The compound traits of the human eye make a fasci-
to the wiring of the nerves in front of the retina, the ben- nating system that requires that all its parts function
efit of the RPE next to and behind the retina provides for together. This is another example of Paleys argument: just
maximum protection of the RPE. In addition, it provides as a watch must have had a watchmaker, there must have
superior photoreceptor functioning and proves to be the existed at some time and at some place a divine artificer of
best overall retina design for an eye. the human body.
The RPE must lie between the choroid and the bipolar The Hearing Ear
Figure 12.2
Retina close-up
RPE
Eye Longitudinal Section and Retinal

Pigmented Epithelium Closeup
Body By Design 99

The Hearing Ear tympanic membrane and the vibrations are transmitted from
it via the malleus and incus to the stapes. The stapes, in turn,
Ear Anatomy is attached to the membrane in the cochlea that is called the
The ear is divided into three parts: the outer ear, the mid- oval window and it moves in response to vibrations of the
dle ear, and the inner ear. Each section performs its own sep- tympanic membrane. When the stapes presses the oval win-
arate function in a process that converts sound waves into dow into the cochlea, another flexible membrane in the
nerve impulses, which are then transmitted to the brain. The cochlea window bulges outward to relieve the pressure.
outer ear has two parts: the pinna and the external auditory The fact that vibrations of the tympanic membrane are
canal. The outer ear collects and channels sound. The middle transferred through three bones instead of merely one bone
ear, or tympanic cavity, is a tiny cavity hollowed out of the affords protection. If a sound were too intense, the auditory
temporal bone. It is an intermediary in the processing of ossicles might buckle. This protection is enhanced by the
sound energy. It is responsible for increasing the intensity of action of the stapedius muscle that attaches to the neck of the
incoming sound waves and transforming them into mechani- stapes. When the sound becomes too loud, the stapedius
cal vibrations that can easily travel through the inner ear. The muscle dampens the movement of the stapes against the oval
inner ear has two parts. One is made of bone, the other of a window. This action helps to prevent nerve damage within the
membrane that lies inside the bone. Both have complicated cochlea when sounds repeatedly reach high amplitudes. In the
shapes, and for this reason they are called labyrinths. Each case of a gunshot, however, the stapedius muscle may not
labyrinth has three parts: vestibule, semicircular canals, and respond quickly enough to prevent nerve damage.
cochlea. The inner ear contains the receptor The inner ear contains the most critical
cells, which receive the mechanical vibrations part of the hearing mechanism, the organ of
and transmit them to the brain. Corti. It is situated in the snail-shaped
The human ear can detect sound frequen- cochlea that is filled with perilymph. The
cies of 20 to 20,000 vibrations per second. cochlea has a twisting interior that is studded
The ear also qualifies as an all-or-none sys- with thousands of hairlike nerve cells, each
tem because it has many interdependent one of which is tuned to a particular vibra-
parts. Like vision, hearing takes place only tion. When the stapes of the middle ear
after a cascade of mechanical, electrical, and receives signals from the eardrum, such as a
biochemical events have occurred. There are trumpet sound, the perilymph fluid inside
numerous canals, fluids, and bones in the ear the cochlea is set vibrating as a tidal current
that transfer mechanical waves and convert them to meaning- goes though it and transmits the signal to the auditory nerve
ful sounds. One of the characteristics that humans share with and the brain.
other mammals is the presence of three small auditory ossicles Above the cochlea are three minute, fluid-filled semicircu-
(ear bones) and an outer, fleshy auricle. lar canals. The endolymph in the semicircular canals pro-
The outer ear is made to receive audible signals and to vides us with balance but the canals do not play a role in hear-
transfer these vibrations to the eardrum and to the middle ear ing. If we start to fall, the fluid in one of the canals is dis-
(see ear diagram, Disease Focus 12.1). The three little bones placed. Hair cells there detect a change and signal the brain
are the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stir- that we are off-balance.
rup). They are the smallest bones in the human body. They How does the complex ear anatomy correlate its functions
were named for their resemblance to tools used in the 19th of receiving, transferring, transmitting, and integrating
century in the western United States. They transfer and ampli- mechanical waves into nerve impulses that the brain per-
fy sound impulses through the middle ear. These ossicles are ceives as sound ? Vibrating objects, such as the vocal cords of
located within the cavities of the middle ear that is within the a person speaking, create percussion waves in the surround-
temporal bone cavity. The three bones are attached to the wall ing air. The waves from the air strike the tympanic mem-
of the tympanic cavity by tiny ligaments and are covered by brane and are transferred to the middle ear through the
mucous membrane. These bones bridge the eardrum with the mechanical vibrations of the eardrum. The three bones of
inner ear, transmitting vibrations between these parts. the middle ear then amplify and transmit these movements
Although some people think of the outer ear (auricle, to the inner ear. The inner ear converts the energy of pres-
external auditory canal, pinna, etc.) as the site of hearing, it sure into more waves and these waves are sent to the oval
is the middle and inner ears that actually do the work. The window. Vibrations of the oval window produce pressure
middle ear has the tympanic membrane on its outer side and waves in the fluid within the cochlea and, in turn, the audi-
the cochlea on its inner side. The malleus is attached to the tory nerve is stimulated.
100 Body by Design

Movement of the perilymph within the organ of Corti mechanical hairs, and hearing is impaired or deafness may
rotates the hairs to be displaced, thus stimulating nerve result. Could such complexity arise by chance mutations
cells. These vibrations of the fluid over the hair cells are and natural selection? The ear, along with the eye, carries
similar to the action of skilled fingers plucking the strings the signature of an intelligent Designer.
of a harp. The vibrations of the hair cells produce electri- In the 19th century, the famous comparative anatomist,
cal signals that go to the auditory nerve. Within the organ George Cuvier, spoke of interrelated systems like these as hav-
of Corti, sensitive hair cells detect minute pressure waves ing a correlation of parts. Like Paley, he saw obvious signs of
and convert them to electrical signals, and this change Gods handiwork in the ear and in the human eye. Cuvier was
from pressure to electrical waves is called transduction. In a firm creationist and he advanced these arguments against
humans, each pitch of sound produces a maximum vibra- those who believed in evolutionism. In the 20th century,
tion in hair cells located at one point along the cochlea. many creationists have argued for design in light of the inter-
It is the brain that makes the interpretation and sense dependence of body structures. According to Behe, as the
of the signal. The brain knows the pitch of the sound number and quality of the related components in a system
because it knows the location of the sensory neurons that increases, we can be more and more confident that the systems
are firing in response to signals from hair cells. The arose by design. Our conviction grows that Solomon was cor-
cochlea feeds thousands of these electrical messages from rect in his writing (long before Paley, Cuvier, or Behe) that the
the ear to the brain, which then unscrambles the meaning eye and the ear testify to Gods craftsmanship:
of the sounds. This coordinated sequence of events is quite
amazing. The hearing ear and the seeing eye, the
The fact that all parts of the ear are necessary to produce Lord hath made them both
hearing should be obvious when one considers the complex
chain of mechanical and electrochemical processes involv- (Prov. 20:12).
ing the outer ear, the middle ear, the inner ear, the auditory
nerve, and the brain. Take away any of the bones, fluids, or
Iris
Figure 12.3 Ciliary
muscle
Iris
Optic
nerve
Sclera
Vitreous
humor
Ciliary
nerve
Lens
Cornea
Optic Aqueous
Disk humor
Iris
Retina Capillaryy
network
The Superior Design of the Eye
Body By Design 101

Disease Focus 12.1
Otitis Media and Middle Ear Infections
S igns of an ear infection in an infant or toddler are

hard to miss: irritability and screaming incessantly,
for no apparent reason other than a fever, or tugging
tube. This particular route to infection is greater among
young children because their auditory tubes are shorter
than they are in adults. Half of all children in the
on the affected ear. A doctor viewing the painful ear United States have an ear infection by the first birthday,
with an instrument called an otoscope sees a red and and 90 percent have one by age six.
bulging eardrum. The diagnosis is otitis media, or a Physicians treat acute middle ear infections with
middle ear infection. antibiotics. Other times children have their ears lanced
Ear infections occur because the mucous membranes with a needle in a procedure known as myringotomy.
that line the auditory tubes are continuous with the lin- Because recurrent infections may cause hearing loss and
ings of the middle ears, creating a conduit for bacteria interfere with learning, children with recurrent ear
infecting the throat or nasal passages to travel to the ear. infections are often fitted with tympanostomy tubes,
Germs of this disease usually enter through the audito- which are inserted into affected ears during a brief sur-
ry tube, most often following a cold or tonsillitis, or gical procedure. The tubes form a small tunnel through
after swimming in a contaminated pool. Often the the tympanic membrane so the ears can drain. By the
pathogen has migrated from the throat (a dirty place in time the tubes fall out, the child has usually outgrown
terms of bacteria and viruses) through the eustachian the susceptibility to ear infections.
Operation on the ear drum
Auricle
Incus
Malleus Semicurcular
canals
Cochlea
External
auditory
meatus
Tympanic Vestibulocochlear
membrane nerve
A uditory
tube
102 Body by Design

The Senses
1. Describe the basic structures and functions of the eye.
2. Describe the basic structures and functions of the ear.
3. List evidences for design of the human eye.
4. Explain the concept of transduction in relationship

to the ear.
5. Why is nearsightedness and farsightedness not a flaw in

the design of the eye?
6. What is otitis media? Why are young children susceptible

to middle ear infections in the summertime?
Critical Thinking
Questions (7-8):
Going Further with the Senses
7. Many anatomy and physiology texts identify about two dozen parts
that make up the composition of the eye. Describe the eye with one of the
anatomy and physiology themes such as irreducible complexity, structure and
function, and/or interdependence of anatomical parts. Then give evidence for
intelligent design seen in the eye. Also, using physics and/or physiology texts,
explain the transduction of light energy into electrical energy in the eye as relat-
ed to the physiology of vision. In addition, give Dr. Paul Brands explanation of
design in the eye.
8. In many texts, about two dozen parts are identified that make up the compo-
sition of the ear. Using the idea of interdependent parts, give evidence for intel-
ligent design seen in the ear. Also, explain how many of its parts have designed
structures for the purpose of transduction of energy related to the purposeful
function of hearing. In your explanation, give an explanation as to how the
transduction concept is used as the basis for many artificially designed systems,
such as street lights over major streets and highways.
Body By Design 103

Investigating the Body
in Balance:
The Endocrine System
13
T
It is the body that is the he nervous system alone does not suffice for all
the fine-tuning of our bodys messages. Many of
the chemical controls that keep us healthy and
hero, not science, not fit are instigated by extraordinarily powerful
chemical messengers called hormones, which enter the
antibiotics, not machines bloodstream and exert general control over many vital bod-
ily activities. Their mere presence in the fluids bathing cer-
tain organs can trigger remarkable action. Other glands,
or new devices. The task called exocrine or ducted glands, are not members of the
broadly based endocrine system. Rather, they work locally,
secreting substances into their cell-lined ducts, which empty
of the physician today is
either into spaces between organs or directly onto organ sur-
faces. Examples of exocrine glands include the sweat glands,
what it has always been, saliva glands, mucous glands, oil glands, and mammary
glands.
to help the body do what Endocrine System Overview
it has learned so well to
E ndocrine glands are ductless: they simply release their
products, which are eventually swept up by the blood-
stream and taken to where their message is read. Examples
do on its own during its of endocrine glands include the pituitary, adrenal, thy-
roid, parathyroid, pineal, thymus, pancreas, testes, and
unending struggle for sur- ovaries. Although this duct message system is much slower
than the nervous system, it is very accurate and lasts much
longer. Its effect lasts from minutes to months, not mil-
vival to heal itself. liseconds. Hormones may affect many organs, not just one
as do nerves, and the endocrine system frequently regulates
the body differently in adults than children. Nerves tend to
(Ronald. J. Glasser, M.D.)
work the same throughout our lifetime.
When compared to neurotransmitters, hormones allow
regulation of continuing processes in our bodies and con-
certed influence over large areas (table 13.1). Hormones
104

circulate through the body in the blood- homeostasis in his book The Wisdom of the
stream until they find the organs they are to Body, and built upon Starlings theory. In turn,
influence. As a result, the glands that secrete Starling further advanced the theory of home-
hormones do not have to be near the organs ostasis when he described this as a condition of
they control. Overall, hormones affect the uniformity that results from the adjustment of
metabolism of target organs and help to reg- living things to changes in their environment.
ulate total body metabolism, growth, and He described detailed physiological mecha-
reproduction. nisms for this coordinated regulatory balance.
The endocrine system thus consists of All the mechanisms of life, no matter how var-
glands tucked into various nooks about the ied they are, have only one object to keep
body. Some are close to their spheres of influence, others far the conditions of life constant in the internal environment.
away. One of the most crucial glands of the system, the
pituitary, is the size of a pea; it protrudes from a tiny stalk Endocrine System: Chemical
at the base of the brain. The efficiency of the system almost Communication
defies belief. In 1902 the British physiologist Ernest Starling
discovered hormones. Historically (1923), he was also the Physicians have long recognized that the body must be in
first scientist to use the metaphor of wisdom in the inward chemical balance to stay healthy. If one chemical variable in
parts to characterize the body in balance. These ideas the human body gets out of balance, then disorder, disease,
stemmed from his observation that the body seemed to have and even death may result. Even during ancient Roman times,
an intuitive integration of its diverse faculties. In his deliv- physicians tried to assist the self-corrective nature of the
ery of the prestigious Harveian (after W. Harvey) Oration of human body in overcoming disorder. Vis medicatrix naturae is
the Royal College of Physicians in Great Britain, he spoke the Latin phrase for the recuperative or self-corrective nature
about the regulation of body processes, their adaptability, of the human body. Dr. Ronald Glasser emphatically says, The
and the contribution of hormones that integrated signals body is the hero!
and provided balance through feedback. For his epigraph, Although ancient philosophers had some idea of the bal-
Starling chose a verse from the Book of Job: anced condition in the body, it was Claude Bernard, a French
physiologist of the 19th century, who developed a clear idea of
chemical balance. Bernard referred to this body balance as the
Who hath put wisdom in the constant internal milieu. He recognized the power of
inward parts? (Job 38:36;KJV). many animals to maintain a relatively constant condition in
their internal chemical environment, even when the external
Starling associated the body in balance with the wisdom chemical surroundings change. A pond-dwelling Hydra (a
found in the inward parts designed by the Creator. He spoke tiny, simply organized animal) is powerless to affect the tem-
about this coordinated communication among cells like the perature of the fluid that soaks its cells. Yet, the body can
lung and kidney, and developed mechanisms describing regu- maintain its internal pond temperature at 37C, according
latory processes, like the acid-base balance. Nine years after to Bernard. His initial ideas laid the groundwork for the con-
hearing this famous oration, Walter Cannon coined the term cept that today is called homeostasis.
Table 13.1 In t e r n a l c o n t r o l a n d re g u l a t i o n i n t h e h u m a n b o d y
(A comparison of endocrine & nervous systems)
INDICATOR NERVOUS ENDOCRINE

Target Muscle cells (& other neurons) Glands (select organs)
Speed Fast Slow
Response duration Short-term Long-term
Mechanism Electrochemical Chemical
Neuron changes state (Two types: steroid & protein)
Transmission Nerves Blood
Body By Design 105

Design Focus 13.1
C ODE B LUE AND E MERGENCY H ORMONES
I n a hospital, Code Blue has special meaning.

This code is given when a patient stops breathing
or their heart stops. There are only 4.5 minutes, on
gland will constrict. All these actions take place in the
body through the same hormone.
Note also that not every cell along the pathway of
the average, to act upon this emergency, or the the circulatory system is affected. Only those cells
patient will die if there is no intervention. The loud- with the specific protein receptor (cells with an
speaker across the hospital says Code Blue in Ward emergency action plan) are affected. Like the hospi-
25. Everyone responds differently. The physicians tal emergency crew, only those cells with critical tasks
and nurses assigned to the code team bring the respond to the emergency. There must be some pre-
crash cart that contains the medications and equip- paredness by the body and design in the body in order
ment required in caring for the patient. The resident for this action team of muscles and glands to work on
physician and an emergency specialist physician the emergency. In summary, during an emergency,
come, ready with their equipment and in their scrubs. there must be preparedness, a plan, a purpose, a
Nursing assistants and orderlies respond to help per- design, and forethought (intelligence) in order to save
form CPR. The supply department brings a cylinder a persons life. This creation principle is true for the
of oxygen and other attachments. Any visitors, custo- human body, even as it is for the hospital.
dians, and office personnel must get out of the way.
Only those with critical tasks respond to the emer-
gency. Others ignore the blue code announcement or
emergency signal. Many diverse workers must act for
success in an emergency. In summary, during an
emergency, there must be preparedness, a plan, a
purpose, a design, and forethought (intelligence) in
order to save a persons life.
Specific hormones are necessary for our body to
respond to emergencies. For hormones from the
endocrine system, there is not a dedicated route to
the site where the hormone will have its effect. The
body does produce hormones with a specific objective
in mind. Hormones are released into the circulatory
system and reach every cell in the body. However,
they only act upon specific cells. Hormones will only
attach to specific proteins that are designed to
respond and prepared to fit into the receptors on spe-
cific cells.
When adrenaline (also called epinephrine) is
released into the bloodstream, it affects the cells of
each gland in a different way. The entire hormone has
its origin in the adrenal gland. All of the cells affect-
ed by adrenaline must have the same specific recep-
tors. However, in some organs the target muscle or
gland will dilate, and in others the target muscles or
106 Body by Design

H ypothalamus
Figure 13.1
Pituitary
gland Parathyroid
gland
Adrenal
Thyroid gland
gland
Ovary
(in female)
Kidney
Pancreas
Testes
(in male)
Major Organs of the

Endocrine System
The HPA Axis adrenal cortex is a true endocrine gland activated by

adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) sent out from
The hypothalamus-pituitary gland-adrenal glands the pituitary gland. The adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline
(HPA Axis) are an interwoven system of glands that control (epinephrine) and norepinephrine (see Design Focus 13.1)
many functions in the body. The hypothalamus consists of These hormones help the body reduce stress. When the
a tiny cluster of nerve cells located at the center of the base sympathetic nervous system reacts to intense emotions,
of the brain. This structure serves as a link between the such as fright or anger, large amounts of the hormone are
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. The released. This may cause a fight or flight reaction, in
hypothalamus is responsible for many body functions. Its which blood pressure rises, the pupils widen, and blood is
function is to integrate and ensure appropriate response to shunted to the most vital organs and to the skeletal muscles.
stimuli. It regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, and wakefulness. It The heart is also stimulated.
plays an important role in the regulation of most of the The adrenal cortex secretes two hormones: cortisol and
involuntary body mechanisms, including body temperature, aldosterone. They help the body reduce stress and are
sexual drive, and the female menstrual cycle. The hypothal- essential for life (see Design Focus 13.2 and 13.3). Cortisol
amus also regulates the work of the pituitary gland. is an energy generator. It regulates conversion of carbohy-
The pituitary (or hypophysis) is a small gland, no larger drates into glucose and directs reserves to the liver. It also
than a pea, located at the base of the brain in a small depres- suppresses inflammation. Aldosterone regulates the mineral
sion. It is controlled by the hypothalamus to which it is and water balance of the body. It prevents excessive loss of
attached and is sometimes referred to as the master gland. water through the kidneys and maintains the balance
The function of the pituitary gland is to coordinate the between sodium and potassium in the blood stream. This
nervous and the endocrine system. Some of its hormones balance is important to the contractility of muscles.
stimulate other glands to produce their own hormones.
This small gland is actually two glands: the anterior pitu- The Pancreas and Diabetes
itary lobe (or adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary
lobe (or neurohypophysis). This gland produces nine The pancreas lies just behind the lower part of the stom-
major hormones. The anterior pituitary produces seven and ach. It is the second largest gland in the body and is both an
the posterior pituitary releases two hormones. endocrine and an exocrine gland. Its exocrine function is to
The adrenal glands curve over the top of each kidney in produce digestive juices (pancreatic juices) and release them
the abdomen. Although it appears to be one organ, it is through a tube, the pancreatic duct, to the intestine. The
actually two small glands, each weighing about 1/4 ounce (7 endocrine function of the pancreas is controlling the
grams). The adrenal medulla is an agent of the sympathet- amount of sugar in the blood. The cells that control blood
ic nervous system and is activated by nerve impulses. The sugar levels are called islets of Langerhans. These islands
Body By Design 107

are microscopic clumps of cells scattered throughout the body cells and increases their ability to transport glucose
pancreatic tissue among the other pancreatic cells but are across their plasma membranes. Once inside the cells, glu-
concentrated somewhat in the tail of the pancreas. cose is oxidized for energy or converted to glycogen or fat
There are two kinds of cells in the islands: alpha and for storage. These activities are also speeded up by insulin.
beta. The alpha cells secrete a hormone called glucagon Since insulin sweeps the glucose out of the blood, its effect
and the beta cells secrete insulin. Insulin and glucagon is said to be hypoglycemic. As blood glucose levels fall, the
work as a check and balance system regulating the bodys stimulus for insulin release ends another classic case of
negative feedback control. Many hormones
have hyperglycemic effects (glucagon, glu-
Figure 13.2 Common bile cocorticoids, and epinephrine, to name a
duct
Pancreatic few), but insulin is the only hormone that
duct decreases blood glucose levels. Insulin is
absolutely necessary for the use of glucose by
Small
the body cells; without it, essentially no glu-
intestine cose can get into the cells to be used.
Pancreas
Without insulin, blood levels of glucose
increase to dramatically high levels (for
example, 600 mg/100 mL of blood). In such
instances, glucose begins to spill into the
Hepatopancreatic
sphincter The Pancreas urine because the kidney tubule cells cannot
reabsorb it fast enough. As glucose flushes
from the body, water follows, leading to
dehydration. The clinical name for this con-
blood sugar level. Glucagon accelerates the process of liver dition is diabetes mellitus, which literally means that
glycogenesis (a chemical process by which the glucose stored something sweet is passing through or siphoning (diabetes =
in the liver cells in the form of glycogen is converted to glu- Greek siphon) from the body. Since cells cannot use glu-
cose). This process tends to increase the concentration of cose, fats and even proteins are broken down and used to
glucose in the blood. Insulin is an antigen to glucagon. As meet the energy requirements of the body. As a result,
explained in chapter 1, it decreases the amount of blood weight loss occurs. Loss of body proteins leads to a
glucose concentration. decreased ability to fight infections, so diabetics must be
Insulin decreases blood glucose by accelerating its move- careful with their hygiene and in caring for even small cuts
ment out of the blood, through cell membranes, and into and bruises.
cells. As glucose enters the cells at a faster rate, the cells When large amounts of fats (instead of sugars) are used
increase their metabolism of glucose. All sugary and starchy for energy, the blood becomes very acidic as ketones (inter-
foods, such as bread, potatoes, and cakes, are broken down mediate products of fat breakdown) appear in the urine.
into glucose. In this form they can be absorbed by every cell Unless corrected, coma and death result. The three cardinal
in the body, including the cells in the liver, one of whose signs of diabetes mellitus are: (1) excessive urination to flush
major roles is to store sugar. Cells absorb glucose and burn out the glucose and ketones; (2) excessive thirst resulting
it in structures called mitochondria, using the energy it con- from water loss; and (3) hunger due to inability to use sug-
tains and producing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. ars and the loss of fat and proteins from the body. Mild
This burning-up process is the bodys principal source of cases of diabetes mellitus (most cases of Type II or adult-
energy. It cannot take place without insulin. onset diabetes) are treated with special diets or oral med-
Diabetes occurs when the pancreas fails to secrete enough ications that prod the sluggish islets into action. For the
insulin and so fails to regulate the glucose concentration in more severe Type I (or juvenile) diabetes, injections of
the blood. The normal glucose level for an average adult is insulin must be given periodically through the day to regu-
about 80 to 120 mg glucose/100 mL of blood. If the islets late blood glucose levels.
of Langerhans secrete too little insulin an excess of glucose Glucagon acts as an antagonist of insulin. Low blood lev-
develops, a characteristic of diabetes mellitus, the most els of glucose stimulate its release by the alpha cells of the
common disorder of the endocrine system. islets. Its action is basically hyperglycemic. Its primary tar-
High blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin get organ is the liver, which it stimulates to break down
from the beta cells of the islets. Insulin acts on just about all stored glycogen to glucose and to release the glucose into
108 Body by Design

Design Focus 13.2
CORTISOL AND STRESS:
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK FROM THE ADRENAL CORTEX
Cease from anger, and forsake wrath:
fret not thyself in any wise to do evil (Ps. 37:8).
IT ONLY CAUSES HARM TO THE BODY.
ACTH stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex to secrete cor-

H umans have a pair of adrenal glands, one above each
kidney. Some cells of the adrenal cortex, the outer
portion of an adrenal gland, secrete hormones such as glu-
tisol, which helps regulate the glucose level in blood.
How? Cortisol stops muscle cells from taking up glucose
cocorticoids. Glucocorticoids help maintain the concen- that blood is delivering through the body. These cells are
tration of glucose in blood and help suppress inflammato- major glucose users.
ry responses. Cortisol, for instance, blocks the uptake and Emotions like anger, worry, and fret have been shown to
use of glucose by muscle cells. It also stimulates liver cells harm our body due to high levels of cortisol released during
to form glucose from amino acids. these times of negative thinking. During severe stress,
A negative feedback mechanism operates when the painful injury, or prolonged illness, the nervous system over-
glucose level in blood declines below a set point. This rides feedback control of cortisol secretion. It initiates a
chemical condition is known as hypoglycemia. When the stress response in which cortisol helps to suppress inflam-
hypothalamus detects the decrease, it secretes CRH in mation. If unchecked, prolonged inflammation damages tis-
response. This releasing hormone stimulates the anterior sues. That is why doctors often prescribe cortisol-like drugs
pituitary to secrete corticotropin (ACTH). In turn, for asthma and other chronic inflammatory disorders.
the blood. No important disorders resulting from hypo- or The wisdom of the body points to a wise Creator who
hypersecretion of glucagon are known. Glucose levels are lovingly provides and sustains life through these essential
very important in homeostatic control. For example, the homeostatic mechanisms. Cannon viewed the body as a
adrenal glands and the alpha and beta cells in the pancreas community that consciously seeks out the most favorable
control the amount of glucose in the blood, which in turn conditions for itself. It corrects imbalances in fluids and
affects the balance between hunger and satiety. There are salts, mobilizes to heal itself, and deploys resources on
many other complex relationships between glands and body demand. Homeostasis includes not only the constancy of
regulation. chemical conditions inside an organism, but also the feed-
back mechanisms that maintain that constancy.
Homeostasis: Interdependent Processes Homeostasis applies to all organisms, but this discussion
That Regulate the Body will be limited to some phases of homeostasis in the human
body. The mechanism of homeostasis can be observed in
most of the 11 body systems. The movement of a pendulum
T he word homeostasis comes from two Greek terms,
homeo (alike or the same) and stasis (standing or
remaining). Thus, the word means remaining the same. It is
is an analogy for homeostasis. The moving pendulum rep-
resents the fluctuation of a physiological variable, such as
applied to the internal chemical conditions of living things. body temperature or blood pressure, around an ideal value.
An American physiologist, Walter B. Cannon (18711945), Disturbance in either direction could move the variable
coined the term homeostasis to describe Bernards original into the abnormal range, or into a harmful state. If the dis-
idea of balance and constancy of chemical conditions in liv- turbance is so extreme that it goes off the scale or outside
ing organisms. Cannons idea was first published in a book, the range of what is tolerable, disease and consequently death
The Wisdom of the Body, in 1932. can result. Body regulation of these systems is controlled by
Body By Design 109

the nervous and endocrine systems. The divine Designer flow near the surface of the skin. The heat in the blood
has obviously set limits or boundaries on changes in the warms the skin and this heat is transferred from the skin
human body. into the air. When you are cold, your skin turns pale
because the blood vessels contract, keeping the blood deep-
Thermostat Wars and Control of Body er in the body so that less heat is lost to the air. If there is
Temperature much pigment in the skin, the red color or the paleness will
not be as evident as it will be in lightly pigmented people.
D id you ever wonder why your body temperature The second way body temperature is regulated is by con-
remains about 98.6F whether you are exposed to trolling the amount of heat produced. When muscles con-
freezing temperatures in the winter or to temperatures tract because of chilling, this causes shivering and chatter-
above 100F in the summer? Man is said to be homeother- ing of the teeth. You might walk about and rub your hands
in order to generate heat.
These processes generate heat.
Figure 13.3 When the air is warm, as on a
summer day, your muscles
relax so that less heat is gener-
ated. This is one reason you
may sometimes feel physically
lazy during hot weather.
The heat-regulating center
in the brain is in the dien-
Hypothalamus cephalon. Nerve endings in
the skin are sensitive to tem-
perature changes. When stim-
ulated, these nerve endings
Pituitary send messages to the heat cen-
stalk ter. Neural messages are also
sent to the sweat glands, blood
Optic chaisma vessels, and muscles, directing
Posterior them as necessary to keep the
Anterior lobe
lobe temperature of the body con-
stant. In summary, these are
The Pituitary Gland balanced interactions neces-
sary to maintain homeostasis
in the body. These interde-
mic which means that he maintains a constant temperature pendent biochemical connections are additional examples
regardless of the temperature of his environment. In of what Behe calls irreducibly complex systems in the body.
homeothermy, the hypothalamus is responsible for our fair- If you take away any one of these vital internal control
ly stable temperature. mechanisms, the body will be unable to maintain or regu-
There are two main ways mans body temperature is reg- late its steady state. These evidences support the belief that
ulated to remain constant. First, the amount of heat lost or an all-wise Creator produced the body fully formed.
removed from the body is controlled. More heat is produced
by metabolism than is needed (unless the environment is Balance in the Bodys Urinary System
quite cold), so excess heat must be removed. Sweating is one
method of removing the heat. When you exercise vigorous-
ly or the air around you is warm, sweating increases. When F urther evidence of design comes from one of the most
unlikely systems the urinary system. The kidneys
you are still or the surrounding air is cool, sweating decreas- appear to have the kind of organization that resulted from a
es. Evaporation of sweat removes excess heat. divine Planner. I am convinced that the kidney is one of the
The body also removes excess heat from the blood in the unsung heroes of the body. These bean-shaped structures
skin. When you get hot, your skin gets red. This is because function primarily to regulate the bodys extracellular fluid.
blood vessels in the skin enlarge, permitting more blood to This function is accomplished through the formation of urine.
110 Body by Design

Urine is plasma that has been filtered and modified. In reabsorbed in these segments and, thus, to be conserved. In
the process of urine formation, the kidneys regulate (1) the absence of ADH, less water is reabsorbed and the urine
the blood plasma volume and, in turn, blood pressure; (2) volume increases.
the concentration of waste products in the blood; (3) the
concentration of electrolytes in the plasma; and (4) the Electrolyte Balance
plasma pH. Because the design inference is most evident
in complex and interdependent feedback systems, we will
focus on the last two functions of the kidney. Most people
think of the kidney as a janitoring system; however, the
A n electrolyte balance exists when the quantities of the
various electrolytes gained by the body are equal to
those lost. The electrolytes (substances that release ions in
kidney (along with the lung) is responsible for keeping the water) of greatest importance to cellular functions are those
body in balance. In this next section, this homeostatic role that release the ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magne-
of the kidney is emphasized. sium, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate. These
substances are obtained primarily from foods, but they may
Water Balance also occur in drinking water and other beverages. In addi-
tion, some electrolytes occur as byproducts of various meta-
T he term balance suggests a state of equilibrium, and

in the case of water and electrolytes it means that the
quantities entering the body are equal to the quantities leav-
bolic reactions.
Ordinarily, a person obtains sufficient electrolytes by
responding to hunger and thirst. When there is a severe
ing it. Maintaining such a balance requires mechanisms to electrolyte deficiency, however, a person may experience a
ensure that lost water and electrolytes will be replaced and strong desire to eat salty foods. The concentrations of posi-
that any excesses will be expelled. In fact, an in-depth study tively charged ions, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),
would show it is an optimal balance, one that minimizes calcium (Ca +2), and hydrogen (H+), are particularly
metabolic cost to the organ and system, and at the same time important. Certain concentrations of these ions, for exam-
maximizes benefit (fluids, electrolytes, and energy) to the ple, are necessary for the conduction of nerve impulses,
entire body. This optimal balance is a result of nearly per- contraction of muscle fibers, and maintenance of cell mem-
fect efficiency of the body systems. As a result, the quantities brane permeability. Sodium ions account for nearly 90 per-
of water, electrolytes, and hydrogen ions within the body are cent of the positively charged ions in extracellular fluids.
relatively stable at all times. The primary mechanism regulating these ions involves the
It is important to remember that water balance and elec- kidneys and the hormone aldosterone. This hormone is
trolyte balance is interdependent, because the electrolytes are secreted by the adrenal cortex. Its presence causes an
dissolved in the water of the body fluids. Consequently, any- increase in sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted
thing that alters the concentrations of the electrolytes will tubules and the collecting ducts of the renal tubules. Thus,
necessarily alter the volume of the water by adding solutes to it is not surprising that conditions that alter sodium ion bal-
it or by removing solutes from it. Likewise, anything that ance also affect potassium ion balance. When God formed
changes the concentration of the water will change the con- man from the dust of the earth (Gen. 2:7), He did it with
centration of the electrolytes by making them either more great precision.
concentrated or more diluted. The sodium/potassium ion balance is regulated by aldos-
Water and electrolytes are not uniformly distributed terone from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone also functions
throughout the tissues. Instead, they occur in regions, or in regulating potassium. In fact, the most important stimu-
compartments, that contain fluids of varying compositions. lus for aldosterone secretion is a rising potassium ion con-
The movement of water and electrolytes between these com- centration, which seems to stimulate the cells of the adrenal
partments is regulated, so that their distribution remains sta- cortex directly. This hormone enhances the reabsorption of
ble. Water balance exists when the total intake of water is sodium ions and at the same time causes the secretion of
equal to the total loss of water. potassium ions into the renal filtrate.
The primary regulator of water output is urine produc- The concentration of calcium ions in extracellular fluids
tion. The volume of water excreted in the urine is regulated is regulated mainly by the parathyroid glands. Whenever
mainly by activity in the distal convoluted tubules and col- the calcium ion concentration drops below normal, these
lecting ducts of the nephron. The epithelial linings of these glands are stimulated directly, and they secrete parathyroid
segments of the renal tubule remain relatively impermeable hormone in response. Parathyroid hormone causes the con-
to water unless vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone centrations of calcium and phosphate ions in the extracellu-
(ADH), is present. The action of ADH causes water to be lar fluids to increase.
Body By Design 111

pH Balance weak acids or bases almost immediately. For this reason,
chemical buffer systems sometimes are called the bodys first
line of defense against shifts in the pH.
O ne of the most important functions of the kidneys is
to maintain the balance of the acids, bases, and salts
in the blood. Body fluids must remain at the optimal pH
Physiological buffer systems, such as the respiratory and
renal mechanisms, function more slowly, and constitute sec-
(relative measure of acidity or alkalinity in solution) level in ondary defenses. The respiratory mechanism may require
order to resist extreme acidosis or alkalosis. During exercise, several minutes to begin resisting a change in the pH, and
more acids are produced. There are two ways of correcting the renal mechanisms may require one to three days to reg-
the excess of acid or hydrogen ions. One is by buffers, which ulate a changing hydrogen ion concentration.
are chemicals that neutralize strong acids or strong bases in
the bloodstream. Acid-Base Imbalance
The second means of controlling acidity is the respirato-
ry system that helps maintain constant conditions in your
body. One of the byproducts of aerobic metabolism is car- O ne reason to believe the scientific support for the
design inference is that the delicate and complex bal-
ance would have had to have been planned from the begin-
bon dioxide. It forms carbonic acid in the blood that is bro-
ken down into bicarbonate that gives off CO2 to the ning, or nature has to overcome tremendous obstacles that
exposed air. The kidneys remove excess acids resulting from are nearly impossible, to evolve the level of complexity nec-
metabolism, chiefly lactic acid, a byproduct of anaerobic essary to achieve homeostasis through gradual physiochemi-
metabolism and the same acid that is found in sour milk. cal mechanisms (i.e., mutations and natural selection).
The liver has a wondrously intricate mechanism for chang- Creeping towards balance is highly improbable.
ing excess lactic acid back into glucose that can be used for The kidneys regulate acid-base balance by the secretion of
energy. H+ ions into the tubules and the reabsorption of bicarbon-
The respiratory center in the brain stem working with ate (HCO3-). The slightest imbalance of body fluids with H+
the endocrine system helps regulate hydrogen ion (H+) con- ions leads to acidosis. In acidosis, the ratio of CO2 to
centration in the body fluids. By controlling the rate and HCO3- increases in the extracellular fluid because of the
depth of breathing, a drop in the hydrogen ion concentra- production of CO2 or increased H+ formation from metabo-
tion in the body fluids accompanies this loss of carbon diox- lites. As you will soon see, the slightest imbalance may be
ide, because the released carbon dioxide comes from car- deleterious, if not disastrous, in consequences if imbalance
bonic acid. were sustained. On the other hand, the slightest imbalance
of body fluids with OH- ions leads to alkalosis. In alkalosis,
H2C03 -----> C02 + H20 the number of basic ions increases in the extracellular fluid,
thus elevating the pH. Some changes in body fluid pH cause
Conversely, if the body cells are less active, the concen- marked alterations in the rates of chemical reaction in cells
trations of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in the plasma and in overall body function. Acidosis may lead to death as
remain relatively low. As a consequence, the breathing rate a result of coma, and alkalosis may lead to death as a result
and depth are decreased. of tetany or convulsions.
Homeostatic examples illustrate the wisdom, skill, and
The Kidneys care of the Creator for the bodys chemical needs by provid-
ing such a precise balance in the dust of the earth (Gen.
2:7). Ordinarily, the body fluid hydrogen ion concentration
A nother means of controlling acid-base balance is the
removal of excess acids from the body. This removal
takes place in the nephron by the excretion of hydrogen ions
is maintained within a very narrow pH range by the actions
of chemical and physiological buffer systems. However, dis-
from the kidneys. These ions are secreted into the urine by ease conditions may disturb the normal acid-base balance
the epithelial cells that line certain segments of the renal and produce serious consequences. For example, the pH of
tubules. By controlling the amount of electrolytes, acids, arterial blood is normally about 7.4, and if this value drops
and water removed from the blood, the kidneys regulate the below 7.35, the person is said to have acidosis. If the pH
quantity and composition of the blood at an optimal func- rises above 7.45, the condition is called alkalosis. Such shifts
tional level. in the pH of body fluids may be life-threatening and, in fact,
The various regulators of hydrogen ion concentration a person usually does not survive if the pH drops to 6.8 (or
operate at different rates. Acid-base buffers, for example, rises to 8.0) for more than a few hours.
function rapidly and can convert strong acids or bases into Acidosis is caused by an accumulation of acid or a loss of
112 Body by Design

base, resulting in an increase of the hydrogen ion concen- control of the temperature of a house and temperature con-
tration of body fluids. Conversely, alkalosis is caused by a trol in homeothermal animals. In both cases there is a stim-
loss of acid or an accumulation of base, accompanied by a ulus, a receptor, a control center, and an effector. The recep-
decrease in hydrogen ion concentration. tor detects fluctuations in some variable of the animals
In summary, the consequences for our bodies when internal environment such as a change in temperature
water, electrolytes, and/or pH get out of balance are disease, (stimulus). The control center processes information it
permanent disorder, and sometimes even death. The conse- receives from the receptor and directs an appropriate
quences may be severe when the pendulum of balance is off response by the effector.
one way or the other. Natural selection, mutation, and When the temperature falls below a set point, the ther-
chance physiochemical processes hardly could explain the mostat switches on the heater (the effector). When the ther-
body in balance. mometer detects a temperature near the set point, the ther-
mostat switches off the heater. This type of control circuit is
Homeostasis in Household Appliances called a negative feedback system because a change in the
variable being monitored (heat) triggers a response that
C ybernetics is a term applied to the science of controls

in both living and non-living systems. Technically,
homeostasis applies to living systems only, but there are sys-
counteracts the excess of that same variable heat.
Negative feedback mechanisms prevent small changes from
becoming too large. Most homeostatic mechanisms involv-
tems like homeostasis designed by human engineers. The ing diverse body systems in humans operate on the princi-
cybernetics of non-living systems deal with feedback mech- ple of negative feedback.
anisms as in the case of home heating and cooling systems. This similarity may leave the impression that the systems
Examples of homeostatic-like controls in household appli- are alike and animals are entirely mechanistic. Closer inspec-
ances and temperature control systems include thermostats tion, however, reveals a vast difference, because homeostasis is
in refrigerators, air conditioners, and furnaces. Each of far more complex than temperature controls in household
these thermostats controls the temperature of an appliance appliances. The thermostat in the refrigerator or house is
or the entire home. When the temperature drops below the stimulated only by air temperature. In living systems, the
desired level, the thermostat turns the furnace or heating rate of metabolism, which is controlled by hormones,
element on. The fur-
nace is turned off
when the tempera-
ture rises above a cer- Figure 13.4
tain level. If the tem-
perature continues to
Plicae
rise, the air condi- circulares
tioner will be turned Villi
on. It is shut off
when the tempera-
ture drops to the
Longitudinal
level set on the ther- muscle
mostat. With these
systems, the temper-
ature of a house can
be kept within a nar- Muscular
layer
row optimal range
year around. Both Serosa
heat production and
Submucosa
its removal are regu- layer
lated by a kind of
electromechanical
homeostasis. Anatomy where first
Parallels can be hormone was discovered
drawn between the
Body By Design 113

affects temperature independently of the environment. tors that governed normal growth, development, and well-
Also, fever results when the temperature setting is raised as ness. Starling saw a correlation between the Bible verse and
a result of infection of pathogens (germs). biology in Job 38:36;KJV:
Homeostasis is a phenomenon in living systems and is
vastly more involved than control systems in appliances Who hath put wisdom in the
invented by man. The complex system of checks and bal-
ances has been invented by a superior cause, the Creator.
inward parts or who hath given
The inventor is superior to the invented. The advanced understanding to the heart?
thinking that went into His systems far exceeds anything
man has been able to develop. How marvelous and wise is In the Hebrew original, sechvi is the word translated
the Bioengineer of the human body! heart, a term so distinctive that this is the only place in the
Bible where it occurs. Starling saw the mind and heart as
Wisdom in the Inward Parts equivalent. Therefore, the wonder of the human body is not
only in the wisdom of its endocrine physiology but also in the
breadth of its mind or intelligence. Starling associated the
H omeostasis is the Creators common blueprint for con-
stancy in the human body. We have explored how
design principles operate in the excretory system and how
body in balance and mans intelligence with the wisdom
found in the inward parts designed by the Creator.
homeostasis, order, and the boundaries of the urinary system Nine years after hearing this famous oration, Walter
serve to protect the human body. Homeostasis is an organized Cannon coined the term homeostasis in his book The Wisdom
and irreducible property of order that maintains the bodys of the Body, and built upon Starlings theory. In turn, Starling
delicate balance through feedback (usually negative). This further advanced the theory of homeostasis when he described
delicate balance is the mark of a creative genius an intelli- this as a condition of uniformity that results from the adjust-
gent designer if you will. ment of living things to changes in their envi-
It is the constancy of homeostasis that is the ronment. He described detailed physiological
condition of free and independent life. All the mechanisms for this coordinated regulatory
mechanisms of life, no matter how varied, balance. All the mechanisms of life, no matter
have the purpose to keep the conditions of life how varied they are, have only one object to
constant in the internal environment (para- keep the conditions of life constant in the
phrasing Bernard). God, who is discerned in internal environment.
nature, must be doing much of His work in Indeed, the Creator put wisdom in the
the milieu interieur. It is homeostasis, the inward parts (Job 38:36). This wisdom is evi-
dependability and steadiness of the internal dent in the process of homeostasis: balance,
environment, that keeps us alive. The structure of the kidneys order, regulation, and chemical feedback. It is the Creator who
is based on their critical role in maintaining homeostasis. has given understanding to the mind of man as he has discov-
It was a Bible-believing physiologist, Ernest Starling, who ered the laws that the Creator set in motion in the human
discovered hormones. In 1902 two British physiologists, body. In the endocrine system, its glands and hormones, we
Starling and Sir William Bayliss, discovered secretin, a hor- find a plan, purpose, and design to maintain our health and
mone enhancing digestion of foods in the duodenum (small wellness.
intestine). These men were the first scientists to use the term Homeostasis is a universal characteristic of all living things.
hormone for chemical messengers that regulated body reac- We have studied homeostatic control in humans, but these
tions. They named it for the Greek word, opaw; I excite. systems are also found throughout the animal kingdom. There
It was discovered from the early days of research that hor- are many variations in the way this is done, but the basic prin-
mones were very specific in their target. Starling was also the ciple is the same. Most human homeostatic control systems
first scientist to use the metaphor of wisdom in the inward involve three or more components: the endocrine, nervous,
parts to characterize homeostasis. His ideas stemmed from and one other system, coupled with many biochemical reac-
his observation that the body seemed to have an intuitive tions. Homeostatic controls are irreducibly complex in nature.
integration of its diverse faculties. In his delivery of that This irreducible complexity in humans involves the intricate
prestigious lecture to physicians in Great Britain, he living controls, whereas non-living control mechanisms are
expanded on the concept of hormones as chemical messen- quite simplistic by comparison. It is most unlikely that such an
gers and regulators to chemicals that maintained precise intricate and delicate balance would have developed by chance
balance through highly specific instructions to cell recep- from genetic mutations that are largely nuetral or harmful!
114 Body by Design

Design Focus 13.3
A MERRY HEART DOETH GOOD LIKE A MEDICINE

A merry heart doeth good like a medicine:
but a broken spirit drieth the bones
(Prov. 17:22).
experienced during the past year. The study was the first
M odern medical science now confirms what ancient
Greek physicians and biblical writers both believed.
In experiments with laboratory animals, injury to certain
well-controlled demonstration that stresses can increase the
risk of infection.
areas of the brain can lead to immune system changes. The physiological discoveries, along with several clinical
These changes affect specific resistance to disease, which studies of illness ranging from the common cold to AIDS,
refers to the immune systems ability to recognize, attack, have given rise to the rapidly growing field of psy-
and remember particular foreign molecules, such as viruses choneurimmunology (PNI). PNI is an outgrowth of more
and bacteria. Specific resistance to disease is carried out by than half a century of research on the physiology of stress.
lymphocytes, called B-cells and T-cells. Later, medical scientists at Ohio State University identified
The thinking on good things phenomenon has been physiological mechanisms responsible for these findings.
known for years positive attitude can assist the immune Providing proof of this phenomenon has been difficult, but
systems activities while stress can place a burden on the sys- the Glassers are among those determined to show that a
tem. In 1991, The New England Journal of Medicine pub- correlation exists between stress and reduced immune
lished a watershed report showing a direct link between activities. Already, they have demonstrated reduced activity
mental state and disease. That study demonstrated a corre- in natural killer cells in blood taken from students during
lation between level of psychological stress and susceptibil- exam week. Also, they have shown that in herpes-infected
ity to infection by a common cold virus. Due to the students, the virus is more active when exams are occurring
appearance of this article in a prestigious journal, this pub- (a reflection of reduced body defense).
lication marked a turning point in medical acceptance of The Glassers gave Ohio State students hepatitis B vacci-
the mind/body connection in particular, of the notion nations and then tested for antibody response. Not surpris-
that stress and psychological factors could affect the func- ingly, the more stressed-out and anxious students were, the
tion of the immune system. more they consistently
In this study, Sheldon Cohen responded with lower
at Carnegie Mellon Good Thoughts antibody levels. Lower
University inoculated volun- antibody levels lower the
teers with measured doses of
a cold virus five different
+ specific defenses against
hepatitis and would leave
viruses were tested or a them prone to infection.
placebo, a non-infectious Less Stress Perhaps, these students
dummy shot. As expected, might have contracted
some of the volunteers came
down with colds and some
+ hepatitis B more readily if
the virus were present. In
did not. But among the vol- summary, this line of
Positive Attitude medical research has
unteers injected with any of
the five different respiratory demonstrated that both
viruses, the chance of getting
a cold (or respiratory infec-
= general and specific
defenses against disease
tion) was directly proportion- are lowered when we
A Healthier Immune System
al to the amount of stress the allow stressful situations
volunteers said they had to get the best of us.
The Mind-Body Connection
Body By Design 115

Disease Focus 13.4
Diabetes and Disability
ketoacidosis that lowers the blood pH and this may result

D iabetes is growing in the United States in tidal wave
proportions. There are nearly 16 million people in the
USA (5.9% of the U.S. population) with diabetes, and in
in death. The burning of stored triglycerides and proteins
also cause weight loss. As the lipids are transported by the
some groups of Native Americans as many as 50% of all blood from storage depots to cells, lipid particles are
adults are at risk for diabetes. It is the sixth leading cause of deposited in the blood vessel walls. This deposition leads to
death by disease. There is a growing medical concern in west- antherosclerosis and causes a multitude of cardiovascular
ern nations due to changes in lifestyle. As Americans become problems, including heart disease, peripheral vascular dis-
more couch-potato-like they increase the likelihood of ease, and gangrene. A major complication of diabetes is the
becoming diabetic. Many people are diabetic and do not loss of vision due to cataracts. Excessive glucose attaches to
know it. The risk is high that over time, circulation in their the lens proteins, causing cloudiness or damage to blood
limbs will decrease and permanent damage will occur in their vessels to the retina. Several kidney problems also may
appendages, particularly their lower legs and feet. They risk result from damage to renal blood vessels. The major cause
amputation unless restorative work is intervened by a podia- of disability among patients with insensitivity, is that of
trist or physical therapist. plantar ulcerations of the feet. Plantar (foot) ulcerations
Like those suffering from Hansens disease (leprosy), dia- will persist or reoccur to gradually destroy the foot without
betics may lose their sense of pain in their extremities. intervention. If a diabetic develops grossly deformed feet, it
Diabetes is unlike leprosy in that bacteria do not cause it, but is recommended that they have surgical correction for their
rather it is the unwanted lipids (fats) and high glucose that feet and wear protective footwear until healing takes place.
cause the damage. Often, diabetics have painful, tingling sen- Seldom are foot ulcers seen in the presence of an intact
sations in their upper legs, but lose some sensation in their nervous system. It is generally felt that there are three caus-
feet. If they lose a sense of pain and touch in their feet, they es for tissue damage and ulceration: 1. poor blood circula-
may damage their toes, heel, and arches. The sense of touch tion, 2. high pressure on the sole (e.g. results from a blow,
and pain are critical in maintaining healthy feet. wound, or accident), and 3. repetitive stress in specific areas
of the feet. Any of these may lead to severe injury that will
How Diabetes Cripples require restorative surgery and orthopedic shoes. Patients
must be trained to not apply too much pressure to their
When sugar levels remain elevated in the bloodstream, feet, or they may lose their feet.
lipids accumulate in the limb blood vessels and restrict cir- Once again we see how Paul Brands research on our
culation in places like the feet. The low oxygen in their feet created pain network protects us from destroying our-
lead to low sensation and pain in the limbs and conse- selves. Yet, chronic pain itself can destroy, as a visit to a
quently patients injure themselves. Diabetics with restrict- pain center will illustrate. Unchecked pain saps physical
ed blood flow in their hands and feet frequently lose fingers strength and mental energy and can come to dominate a
and feet. Amputation occurs more often in feet because persons entire life. Somewhere between the two
their feet are more likely to develop ulcers, sores, and tin- extremes, painlessness and incessant chronic pain, most
gling sensations. of us live our days. There is a tremendous danger to those
The cellular metabolism of an untreated type I diabetic who lose the sense of pain. For without pain telling us
is similar to that of a starving person. Since insulin is not that something is wrong, we go on to injure ourselves
present to aid the entry of glucose into body cells, most further. So the pain network is something we can thank
cells use fatty acids to produce ATP. Organic acids called God for. It is our protector and is another evidence of
ketones (ketone bodies are products of fatty acid metabo- design in our awesome anatomy. This is an unexpected
lism) accumulate. They cause a form of acidosis called wisdom in the inward parts.
116 Body by Design

Endocrine System
1. What are three organs or components of the endocrine system?
2. What is the overall function of the endocrine system?
3. Describe an interwoven part or nature of the endocrine system.
Relate this to Starlings idea of wisdom in the inward parts.
4. Describe and illustrate the interwoven components and
structure of the pituitary gland.
5. What is one of the hormones produced by the adrenal gland?
What is the function of that hormone?
6. What gland controls temperature regulation? And what
can result if it malfunctions?
7. Define homeostasis as it relates to the endocrine system.
8. Homeostasis is a physiological term that was coined by the American
physiologist Walter Cannon in 1932. It refers to the ability of an
organism to maintain the stability of its internal environment by
adjusting physiological processes. Discuss the similarities of the
humoral theory of body organization in the interior millieu in an
attempt to explain homeostasis. Explain the role of antagonistic
negative feedback process in the maintenance of homeostasis.
9. Who discovered hormones? List and define different
classes of hormones.
10. Name two other contributors to the theory of homeostasis
and give the contribution for each.
11. How is a merry heart like a medicine? Explain how
laughing can help relieve stress and thus reduce disease.
12. Use creation theory to explain one homeostatic mechanism
in the endocrine system.
Body By Design 117

Detecting Diseases:
The Human Body
Defense systems
14
W
e find in the Bible that the Creator has
Thou hast set a bound placed boundaries in creation and in the
human body (Job 38:1011; Jer. 5:22).
He has placed genetic limits on variation
(boundary) that they may within the various kinds of organisms (Gen. 1) and has also
placed protective barriers surrounding cells, tissues, and
not pass over organs in the human body. The boundary concept may be
seen in limiting the entry and exit of chemicals and
pathogens. Every organism must be able to maintain its
(David, Ps. 104:9). boundaries so that its insides remain distinct from every-
thing outside. In this chapter, the patterns involved in
maintaining boundaries will be illustrated with examples
from the human body. First, we explore the broader con-
cept of boundaries and then we describe specific bound-
aries that serve to keep pathogens out of the body.
An external living membrane that encloses its contents,
selectively allowing helpful inflow and preventing harmful
flow of chemicals, surrounds every human body cell.
Boundaries protect the bodys insides from outside
pathogens. Each cell has a protective covering, a membrane
that limits it. Of the 75 trillion body cells, most are sur-
rounded by friendly human cells that share the same adap-
tive functions and live in harmony. All cells have these liv-
ing barriers provided by the Creator to control what goes
in and what comes out.
Our Body Defense Systems
I n this chapter, we examine three body systems that form

boundaries protecting our body from invading
pathogens and harmful chemicals. These three systems
include the lymphatic, immune, and integumentary sys-
tems. These systems overlap in both their structure and
function.
118

Figure 14.1
Hair
Thymus
Lymph
{
Epidermis
vessels
dermis
Fat
cells
Spleen
Sweat
gland
Fibrous
tissue
Lymph
nodes
Hair
folicle
B
Overview of Body Defenses:

Basic anatomy of Lymphatic system (A), and the Integumenatary/Skin System (B)
Biologists generally refer to the system of anatomical The lymphatic system consists of both the lymph vessels
parts, organs, and physical structures that assist in our and the lymphatic organs. The lymphatic vascular system
bodys defense system against pathogens and toxins as consists of many tubes that collect water and solutes from
the lymphatic system. On the other hand, the func- interstitial fluid and transport them to the circulatory sys-
tional system of body defenses is generally referred to as tem ducts. Its main components are lymph capillaries and
the immune system. This generally refers to specific lymph vessels. The lymphoid organs include the lymph
cells, antibodies, and other proteins that provide us nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, the thymus, tonsils, small
with defense against disease. The lymphatic and patches in the small intestine (Peyers patch), and the
immune systems are just flip sides of the same coin. appendix. The lymph nodes are strategically located by
Generally, microbiologists and physiologists will refer design at intervals along lymph vessels. Before entering the
to the body defenses as the immune system, whereas, blood, lymph is filtered as it trickles through at least one
anatomists and developmental biologists will refer to node. A mass of lymphocytes takes up residence in the
the lymphatic system. nodes after forming in the bone marrow.
Body By Design 119

The Lymphatics: Awesome, nodes are located in or near the armpit to limit the spread of
cancerous cells in the chest. If cancer forms in the breast area
Distinct, and Interwoven
it often spreads to the nodes because the lymph can carry can-
cerous cells. The lymphatics of the leg are divided into two sets,
T
he lymphatic organs are awesome in structure superficial and deep. The superficial are called the inguinal
and distinct in function. The anatomy of the lymphatic glands, illustrated in Figure 14.1. These nodes vary
diverse lymph nodes are marvelously interwoven from eight to ten in number and surround the large Great
and provide further evidence of intelligent design by the Saphenous Vein. These glands frequently become enlarged
Skilled Craftsman. Each lymph node contains leukocytes during disease. Infectious diseases of the upper leg and groin
that win victories over highly specific pathogens and tox- area will usually cause these glands to become inflamed. The
ins. The lymphatic system and the cardiovascular system swollen glands are signs that the body is launching a "war"
share closely intertwined structures that are joined by cap- against the germs that have invaded. In addition to containing
illaries. The lymphatic system was once thought to be part lymphocytes, the lymphatic system also produces other white
of the circulatory system since it consists of lymph, a blood cells and generates antibodies. The body is able to elimi-
moving fluid that comes from the blood and returns to nate the products of cellular breakdown and bacterial invasion
the blood by way of the vessels. Lymph nodes with their through the flow of blood and lymph through the lymph nodes.
capillaries are the most obvious interlacing fabric in the Two very large areas are of significance in this system. They
bodys primary defense base. The nodes are small oval are the right lymphatic duct that drains lymph fluid from the
structures that interweave with lymph capillaries, blood upper right body quarter above the diaphragm and down the
capillaries, and reticular connective fibers and tissues. A midline, and the thoracic duct structure roughly 16 inches
capsule of dense connective tissue that extends strands long located in the mediastinum of the pleural cavity which
and covers each lymph node is called a trabercula. These drains the rest of the body. It is through the actions of this sys-
extensions divide the node into compartments, provide tem including the spleen, the thymus, lymph nodes, and lymph
support, and interlace with blood vessels into the node ducts that our body is able to fight infection and to ward off
interior. The superficial region of a lymph node, the cor- invasion from foreign invaders. Lymph plays an important role
tex, contains many follicles. The deeper region of a lymph in the immune system and in absorbing fats from the intestines.
node is the medulla. Lymph nodes are a military base The lymphatic vessels are present wherever there are blood ves-
that deploy soldier cells, B- and T-lymphocytes, to a loca- sels and transport excess fluid to the end vessels without the
tion where cell wars occur. Once a bacterium, virus, or assistance of any pumping action.
toxin invades the body, T-cells and B-cells quickly go into In addition to the functions of defense, the lymphatic sys-
battle from the interwoven, reticular fibers and travel tem serves to provide fluid in homeostatic balance and fat
with the flow of lymph to the war zone. Other leuko- absorption. Lymph helps with the distribution of fluids and
cytes warn the body of danger and assist in filtering and nutrients in the body, because it drains excess fluids and protein
cleansing the lymph to keep it pure. so that tissues do not swell up. Lympha (lymph) means clear
There are more than 100 tiny lymph nodes. These are spring water, in Latin. Therefore the lymph keeps other body
mainly in the neck, groin, and armpits, but are scattered fluids pure and in balance with the rest of our body cells. The
all along the lymph vessels. The most clinically important lymphatic system absorbs fats from the digestive tract from the
nodes are illustrated in Figure 14.1. They act as barriers to lacteals of the small intestine. These fats have entered the
infection by filtering out and destroying toxins and lacteals from the intestinal villi. This lymph transports the fatty
germs. The largest lymph gland in the human body is the content, called chyle, to the venous circulation and eventually
spleen. The cervical lymph nodes are located in the is distributed or metabolized elsewhere in the body. Attached to
neck. They are divided into two sets: superficial and deep. parts of the villi, we observe another provision by the Creator
The deep cervical glands are large glands that are situat- to defend the body against minor poison, toxins, and germs.
ed near the pharynx, esophagus, and trachea. When you Whenever we eat food that might be poisoned, the gastroin-
have a sore throat, white blood cells mass together in these testinal tract has some protection. Located within the walls of
nodes to fight the infection, which is why your throat will the small intestines is a cluster of small nodes referred to as
often feel swollen and tender. Peyers patches. They are specialized aggregates of lymphatic
The axillary lymph glands are located in the arm, in follicles to combat minor food poisoning. Once again we
the armpit, and near the elbow (Figure 14.1). They are observe the protective care of the Creator of the human diges-
divided into two sets: superficial and deep. These lymph tive tract.
nodes receive lymph from the vessels of the arm and the The thoracic duct is the channel for the collection of lymph
upper nodes receive lymph from vessels in the upper chest from the portion of the body below the diaphragm and from
area near the breast and the mammary glands. There are the left side of the body above the diaphragm. It is a long duct,
about 35 lymph nodes in this area. Most of the lymph approximately 16 inches in the average adult. It extends from
120 Body by Design

the lower spine to the left subclavian vein where it drains. wall of the nasal pharynx. An individual fold of such
The lymphatic duct is much shorter than the thoracic duct, nasopharyngeal lymphatic tissue is called an adenoid.
only about 1/2 of an inch long. It receives lymph from the The surface layer of the adenoids consists of ciliated
right side of body above the liver and empties into the right epithelial cells covered by a thin film of mucus. The cilia,
subclavian vein and internal jugular vein. Together with which are microscopic hair-like projections from the surface
the thoracic, these ducts empty between 4 and 10 mL of cells, move constantly in a wavelike manner and propel the
lymph into the blood every minute. The subclavian vein is a blanket of mucus down to the pharynx proper. From that
point the mucus is caught by the swallowing action of the
continuation of the axillary vein (armpit vein) from the
throat and is sent down to the stomach. The adenoids also
upper arm. contain glands that secrete mucus to replenish the surface
film. The function of the adenoids is protective. The moving
Tonsils by Design Defend the Body film of mucus tends to carry infectious agents and dust par-
ticles inhaled through the nose down to the pharynx, where
the epithelium is more resistant. Immune substances, or anti-
T onsils have long been overlooked as an important body
defense. If you view the tonsils through a creation lens,
you will quickly see that the tonsils are not a useless organ
bodies, are thought to be formed within the lymphatic tissue,
which, combined with phagocytic action, tends to arrest and
absorb infectious agents.
as some have claimed, but have been made with the function The lingual tonsils are a pair of oval-shaped organs locat-
and purpose of defending the mouth and throat against ed at the back of the tongue behind the taste buds in the
infectious disease. mucous membrane cover-
Anatomists recognize ing the tongue. They
three types of tonsils: The dotted white ring defines enlarge gradually from
palatine, lingual, and
Figure 14.2 the protective boundary for birth to seven years of age
pharyngeal (ade- restraining and localizing a and then shrink. Each
respiratory i nfection. oval tonsil consists of a
noids). There is a pair
large number of lym-
of palatine and lingual phoid follicles. The lin-
tonsils, as well as a clus- gual tonsils are part of the
ter of adenoids (mak- Pharyngeal Tonsils
lymphatic system and are
(Adenoids)
ing up one pharyngeal important to the body's
tonsil). For hundreds defense against dangerous
of years, the five tonsils Palatine Tonsils bacteria.
were thought be vestig- The circle of tonsils
Lingual Tonsils corral germs and limit
ial organs (optional
organs to be disposed). the number of bacteria
Tonsils are unusually entering bloodstream.
The tonsils appear to
large groups of lymph
restrain the spread of
nodules and diffuse
bacteria and viruses
lymphatic tissue locat- thereby limiting the
ed deep within the oral number of systemic
cavity and the Protective Ring of the Tonsils infections. Occasionally,
nasopharnyx. They tonsils enlarge with an
form a protective ring associated respiratory
of lymphatic tissue infection. This is because
around the openings between the nasal and oral cavities and their location in the mouth and throat is near several respi-
the pharnyx. This ringed boundary helps to provide a pro- ratory organs. In rare instances, there may be repeated
tection against bacteria, viruses, and other potential infections by respiratory pathogens that cause strep throat
pathogens in the nose and mouth (Figure 14.3). (Streptococcus pyogenes) and colds (adenoviruses). These
The palatine tonsils were once thought to be organs that germs may cause swelling and inflammation of the ade-
gave more trouble than service to the body. Today, creation noids and may permanently enlarge them. This may be
dangerous because large adenoids obstruct breathing
scientists believe they help to contain respiratory infections
through the nose and interfere with sinus drainage. Today,
by maintaining boundaries. Tonsils keep an infection local surgical removal of the tonsils (tonsillectomy) is occasional-
and limit the possibility of it becoming systemic. They con- ly recommended for children with permanently enlarged
tain germ-killing cells that help protect against upper respi- adenoids. In most cases, however, tonsils provide protection
ratory tract infections, such as strep throat. Adenoids (also against respiratory infections spreading and are another
called pharyngeal tonsils) are a mass of lymphatic tissue, example of intelligent design. The once classified vestigial
similar to the (palatine) tonsils, that is attached to the back organs are now considered fully functional!
Body By Design 121

A branch of biology called immunology involves the study The process continues with macrophages which are large
of how the body protects itself from agents of disease called monocytes that are able to eat pathogens and also con-
pathogens, or germs. The word immune comes from a Latin sume other members of the immune system that have been
root word that means freedom or protection from taxes or overcome in the struggle. Macrophages clean up the debris
burdens. Taken together, the immune system usually protects after helper-T, killer-T, and B-lymphocyte cells have
us from getting sick and enables us to battle infectious disease stopped the invaders. Phagocytosis, or cell eating occurs
successfully. The primary role of the immune system is to rec- when the pseudopods of a macrophage engulf harmful par-
ognize pathogens and destroy them. In addition, the immune asites or microorganisms. This is one way that blood serves
system prevents the proliferation of mutant cells, such as can- to cleanse the body of waste and foreign material.
cer cells. When the immune system is working properly, it A third type of T-cell, the suppressor T-lymphocyte (also
protects the human body from infection. When it is not work- called CD8 cell), is able to slow down or stop the activities
ing or when a boundary is breached, the failure of the immune of B-cells and other T-cells. Suppressor T-cells play a major
system can result in localized or systemic infections. role in calling off the attack after an infection has been con-
Our immune system acts against specif-
ic foreign chemicals and particles based
upon prior memory. These foreign parti-
cles are called antigens. Antigens include
Figure 14.4
protein-polysaccharide complexes that are
part of bacteria, viruses, and protozoans. Each person is protected by specific and nonspecific immune cells.
Threats to wellness include vario o us pathogens (bacteria & viruses),
Once an antigen enters our body, the
toxins, allergens, and parasites.
defense system starts to protect us through
Pa
an immune response. First, the body must ras
ites s ria
i r use B a cte
recognize the antigen as a harmful invader V
and then it must neutralize or destroy it.
Both of these steps involve certain types of
white blood cells called lymphocytes and
SPECIFIC NONSPECIFIC
neutrophils. Lymphocytes are produced by
bone marrow, the red tissue in the hollow
part of bones.
Lymphocytes enter the blood and
All
lymph vessels. Cells that mature in the thy- i n s erg
ens
mus gland are called T-lymphocytes. To x
Others are called B-lymphocytes because
they are processed and mature in the bone
Bubble Illustration of Immunity
marrow, or liver. T-lymphocytes are further
subclassified into helper T-lymphocytes
and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes.
Helper T-cells (also called CD4 cells) act as the directors quered. This is a simplified version of how our body
of the immune system. They identify the enemy and rush to defenses work at the cellular level. In short, this cell team,
the spleen and lymph nodes, where they stimulate the pro- working in conjunction with natural defense chemicals like
duction of other cells and activate important cells such as interferons, keeps our bodies protected against those out-
cytotoxic T-cells. Once recruited and activated by helper T- side harmful invaders.
cells, cytotoxic T-lymphocytes specialize in destroying cells The immune system is somewhat like a protective bub-
of the body that have been invaded by foreign organisms. ble around the human body, shielding us against pathogens
They also destroy cells that have turned cancerous. and forming an invisible boundary (figure 14.3). These
B-lymphocytes act as the biologic arms factory because vital functions are best illustrated through the case study of
they produce millions of potent chemical weapons called anti- a young man who lacked an immune system from birth.
bodies. They reside in the spleen or lymph nodes, where the David Vetter was the first long-term survivor of severe
helper T-cells induce them to replicate. B-lymphocytes pro- combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and became known
duce specific antibodies in response to particular pathological as the boy in the bubble or the bubble boy through the
agents. popular press and television.
122 Body by Design

four months after the transplant. What killed him was not
David the Bubble Boy the immediate failure of the transplant but cancer. Davids
B-cells became disrupted because of the proliferation of the
I n 1971, David Vetter was born without a functioning

immune system. Faced with what was, back then, a fatal
situation, doctors placed the boy in a completely sterile
Epstein-Barr virus that caused a rare form of cancer.
The autopsy revealed small, whitish-pink cancer nodules
throughout his body, and closer study showed that these cells
environment. First, David was placed in a small bubble all contained Epstein-Barr virus a pathogen that he could
crib. They were buying time until they could figure out have gotten only through his sisters bone marrow. The can-
what to do. cer came from the transplant itself, according to William T.
After receiving generous donations, they built him a one- Shearer who was the lead physician on Davids case. David
room bubble, and after 12 years David had a two-room bub- had a B-cell cancer of a type similar to Burkitts lymphoma,
ble and a space suit to walk in. The experiment ended in and while Shearer cannot say with certainty, the two types of
February 1984, when David the bubble boy died. His cancer kicked off in the same way.
death provided a clear link between the Epstein-Barr virus David is the most famous case of SCID, the gene for
and cancer. With no compatible relatives to provide him which is carried on the X-chromosome. His life was most
with immune cell-producing bone marrow, David had to significant because he was the first long-term survivor, and
wait for the technology to rid donated marrow of the cells in his death a great deal was learned about the immune sys-
that would attack his own. After David spent 12 years in the tem. Ten years after his death the gene causing SCID was
bubble, doctors hoped the technology was ready, and the boy isolated from a cell line that originated with David. SCID
received treated bone marrow from his sister. Eighty days usually involves a deficiency of the enzyme adenosine deam-
after the transplant and still in a germ-free environment, inase (ADA). This genetic deficiency leads to a failure of the
David developed some of the clinical signs of mononucleo- lymphocytes to develop properly, which in turn causes the
sis, a condition caused by the Epstein-Barr virus. Doctors failure of the immune system to function (similar to AIDS).
brought him out of isolation for easier treatment, hoping his A conclusion that we can draw from Davids life is that
sisters marrow cells had taken hold and would protect him the immune system acts like a protective bubble around the
from the microbes the rest of us encounter every day. Her human body, protecting against pathogens. It provides an
cells had not established themselves, and David died about invisible barrier to localized and systemic infections.
Figure 14.4
This diagram shows a progressive

break in the basement membrane of
epithelial tissue due to bacteria a , like
Salmonella, that contain powerful
endotoxins. In step A, Salmonella
attaches to the cell. In step B, the cell
is induced to rearrange actin fibers
and ingest pathogen by endocytosis.
In step C,, the pathogen leaves the cell
by exocytosis. In step D, the bacterium
multiplies. In step E, Salmone e lla
invades surrounding tissue by destroy-
ing epithelium. This toxin may disrupt
Peyers patch (lymm phatic tissue in the
GI tract) and the intestinal wall barrier.
The disruption makes room for more
bacteria to colonize the tissue.
Dysentery, fever, and bloody diarrhea
are possible symptoms from bactt erial PROGRESSION OF a BACTERIAL
food poisoning. INFECTION IN THE GI TRACT
Body By Design 123

Disease Focus 14.1 Broken Boundaries
M ost of the time, enteric bacteria inhabit the gas-
trointestinal (GI) tract (A) mutualistically. They
are most abundant in the colon (B), but are also found in
is a progressive break in the basement membrane of
epithelial tissue because of pathogenic bacteria strains
that release enterotoxins. This poison may disrupt Peyers
the small intestine. As long as boundaries are maintained patch and/or the intestinal wall barrier. This disruption
in the intestines, the body remains healthy. In fact, most makes room for more bacteria to colonize the tissue.
bacteria in the GI tract are beneficial, providing useful Dysentery, typhoid fever, and bloody diarrhea are possi-
vitamins and inhibiting the growth of pathogens. ble. In addition, fatal diseases like hemolytic uremic syn-
However, when boundaries are broken, bacteria invade drome are possible if toxins from E. coli 0157:H7 spread
(figure 14.4). The establishment of infection frequently in the bloodstream from the GI tract to the kidney.
involves an invasion of host tissues when the boundaries Injury, disease, and death are possible when boundaries
are broken. In the lettered sequence, A through E, there like these are broken.
Another way of visualizing the immune system is an umbrel- along the lining of the respiratory passageways secrete
la protecting our body from the raindrops falling from the mucus that traps heavy particles and microbes. The cilia of
sky. When the umbrella is intact, we stay dry; when it breaks, mucous membrane cells move particles along the mem-
we get wet. In the case study of David, his umbrella was branes and up the throat, where they are swallowed. This
the bubble and it protected him from the rain of viruses, mechanism is referred to as the mucociliary escalator.
bacteria, parasites, allergens, and toxins (see figure 14.3). Stomach acid then destroys any swallowed microorganisms.
The immune system is both impressive and invisible. A natural protection to the gastrointestinal tract is provided
The invisible boundary that protects us against pathogens by stomach acid, which has a pH of approximately 2.0.
is made up of numerous and diverse interdependent cell Most organisms are destroyed in this environment. Notable
types, such as macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, exceptions include typhoid and tubercle bacilli, Helicobacter
T-lymphocytes, and B-lymphocytes, that are interdependent pylori (the ulcer bacterium), protozoan cysts, immature
upon each other. Once again, we observe that many diverse helminth stages, polio, and hepatitis A viruses. Bile from
parts in the immune system must all be present for an effec- the gall bladder enters the system at the duodenum and
tive body defense. It is difficult to conceive how a gradual, serves as a chemical barrier. Duodenal enzymes digest pro-
Darwinian mechanism of mutation and natural selection teins, carbohydrates, fats, and other molecules in microbes.
over billions of years could produce the awesome interaction All parts of the body surface exposed to the outside world are
between the parts of the immune cell team. covered with epithelial cells. These cells are packed tightly
together and rest on a thin layer of noncellular material, the
Anatomical Boundaries in the Body basement membrane. The parts of the body that are exposed to
the outside world include the skin and mucous membranes of
T he intact skin and the mucous membranes that extend

into the body cavities are among the most important
resistant factors. Unless penetration of these barriers occurs,
the genitourinary tract, the respiratory tract, and the alimenta-
ry tract. Although they are inside the body, they are nevertheless
exposed to the external environment through the intake of food
disease is rare. Penetration of the skin is a fact of everyday and air.
life. For example, a cut or abrasion allows staphylococci to Each region of the body has, in addition to the tight pack-
enter the blood, and a mosquito bite acts as a hypodermic ing of the epithelial cells (with tight junctions), other mech-
needle permitting various pathogens to enter the inner anisms to keep microbes from gaining entry and colonizing.
body. Yellow fever viruses, malaria parasites (Plasmodium Skin cells are shed regularly. Ciliated cells of the respiratory
sp.), certain rickettsiae, and plague bacilli are but a few tract transfer mucus-entrapped microbes out of the lungs
examples. Other means of penetrating the skin include and into the throat where they are first swallowed and then
splinters, tooth extractions, burns, shaving nicks, and injec- destroyed by stomach acid. The peristaltic movement in the
tions. intestine moves potential pathogens out of the body, and
Certain features of the mucous membranes provide the flushing actions of the urinary tract are its main defense
resistance to parasites. Cells of the mucous membranes against potential pathogens.
124 Body by Design

Figure 14.6
This illustration shows
the interwoven complexity
of the spleen. The spleen
Splenica resembles a large lymph
artery n ode. It consists of arter-
ies, veins, white pulp, red
pulp, veinus sinuses, con-
nected tissues, an n d cap-
Splenica sules. The spleen serves
vein as a blood reservoir.
Phagocytes filter foreign
particles, cellular debris
and warn erythrocytes
(blood cells) from the
blood. It houses lympho-
cytes. The spleen is lo o cat-
A display of the tributaries of ed in the upper left por-
the splenic venous system tion of the abdominal cav-
ity inferior to the
Red diaphragm, posterior a nd
pulp lateral to the stomach.
Red
(Up close)
pulp
Connective
tissue
White Overview of
pulp
the Spleen
White
pulp
(Up close) Close-up display of
white and red pulp.
Capsule
Because these mechanisms are very effective in removing vides protection. Structurally, the skin consists of two
organisms, a germ must adhere to or attach to host cells as a principal parts. The outer, thinner portion, which is composed
necessary first step in the establishment of infection. As a gen- of epithelium is called the epidermis. The inner, thicker, con-
eral rule, both germs and host cells are negatively charged and nective tissue part is called the dermis.
therefore tend to repel each other. For attachment to occur,
the repulsive force must be overcome. The skin has at least six functions:
Some pathogens, such as streptococci that are responsible 1. Regulation of body temperature. In response to high envi-
for tooth decay, possess polysaccharides that form a sticky ronmental temperature or strenuous exercise, the evapora-
network of fibrils (called the glycocalyx) that allows bacteria tion of sweat from the skin surface helps lower an elevated
to attach to surfaces nonspecifically. Other bacteria use pili, body temperature to normal. Changes in blood flow in the
hair-like structures (resembling cilia) found on their surface, skin also help regulate body temperature.
that allow them to adhere to the urinary tract. The numer- 2. Protection. The skin covers the body and provides a physi-
cal barrier that protects underlying tissues from physical
ous pili help them to anchor to surfaces while they exploit
abrasion, bacterial invasion, dehydration, and ultraviolet
their environment.
radiation. Hair and nails also have protective functions, as
described shortly.
The Skin and Integumentary System 3. Sensation. The skin contains abundant nerve endings and
receptors that detect stimuli related to temperature, touch,
T he skin is an organ because it consists of different tissues
that are joined to perform specific activities. It is the
largest organ in surface area and weight. In adults, the skin
pressure, and pain.
4. Excretion. Small amounts of water, salts, and several organ-
ic compounds (components of perspiration) are excreted by
covers an area of about 22-feet2 (2 m2). The skin is not just a sweat glands.
simple, thin covering that keeps the body together and pro-
Body By Design 125

5. Immunity. Certain cells of the epidermis (Langerhans cells) Mucous Membranes
are important components of the immune system that pro-
tects against pathogens.
6. Synthesis of Vitamin D. Exposure of the skin to ultraviolet
radiation helps with the production of vitamin D, a sub-
T he nose and mouth have a sticky coating of mucus
that is secreted from the mucous membranes. These
mucous membranes consist of an epithelial layer and
stance that aids in the absorption of calcium and phospho-
underlying connective tissue layer. Mucous membranes
rus from the digestive system into the blood.
line the entire gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, and
The skins various nerves, glands and structures intertwine
to produce the integumentary network; below the outer epi- reproductive tracts. They form a common internal bound-
dermis. Apocrine and eccrine glands secrete the waste prod- ary within the body. Mucus prevents the tracts from drying
ucts from the body. Sebaceous glands secrete the oil needed in out. Some pathogens that can survive on the moist secre-
lubricating and waterproofing the skin. In both the epidermis tions of the mucous membrane are able to penetrate the
and dermis, special sensory structures like the Mesiners cor- membrane if they are present in sufficient numbers.
puscles allow for the feeling of pressure and pain. However, Although mucous membranes do inhibit entrance by bac-
even beyond all of these intricate structures, the individual teria, they offer less protection than skin and nails.
skin cells also demonstrate the fabric-like design. Within each Streptococcus pneumonia, a normal resident of the nose
cell there are complex stitchings which bind together the indi- and throat, is frequently an opportunist. When its num-
vidual cells. These tiny fibers in the cell membranes are called bers are low, it does not cause infection. During times of
desomones. These intricately woven fibers help stitch the stress, however, the immune systems defenses are lowered.
skin together. Desmosomes are also called anchoring junc- As these bacteria grow in numbers, an infection can result.
tions. These junctions function like rivets, fastening cells When defense barriers are broken, a case of pneumonia
together into strong epithelial sheets. Intermediate filaments
may result.
made of keratin reinforce desmosomes.
The first sign of disease is an inflammation of the pul-
If we view the skin through a creation lens, we see a beau-
monary tracts. The bacteria may be identified by their cell
tiful fabric or tapestry. In contrast, evolutionists view the skin
as a random, haphazard histology in its origin. The evidence, formation in pairs. Advanced symptoms include fever, dif-
however, reveals that the skins mechanism for repair is intri- ficult breathing, and chest pain. The lungs have a reddish
cate, a histology that favors wound healing. Our skin is mere- appearance because blood vessels are dilated. Bacteria can
ly a small segment of the woven masterpiece from the skilled invade the blood stream and the pleural cavity around the
Craftsman. Since God is the Creator of the integumentary sys- lung, and occasionally inflammation, fever, and tonsillitis
tem, He can restore those incisions that the skin experiences. characterize strep throat where lymph nodes in the neck
He knows just what to include in the restoration of body become enlarged.
parts; after all, He is the original fabric designer! He has mas- In summary, there are boundaries inside our bodies at
terfully designed and set in place the necessary components of the cellular and tissue level. They provide protection
the skin, so that the body lacks nothing. against dangerous pathogens and chemicals that might
The skin has the largest surface area of any organ in the harm us upon entry. We can be good stewards of our bod-
body and is the heaviest. On the surface are the sensitive ies by keeping our skin clean and being careful not to
papillae, and within are certain organs with special func- touch our nose and mouth with our fingers that may have
tions, such as the sweat glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous been contaminated by pathogens. Fortunately, if bound-
glands. The skin protects the internal organs of the body aries of the human body are broken, the Creator has made
against infection, injury, and harmful sun rays. It also plays provision for defenses against infectious disease. These
an important role in the regulation of body temperature. functional body defenses are collectively placed in the
The skin consists of three layers: the epidermis, the dermis, immune system.
and the hypodermis. Recall, enteric microbes like E. coli make up the normal
Bacteria and viruses cannot penetrate the tightly knot- flora in the intestines. These symbiotic bacteria are usually
ted cells of the skin. As long as the skin is unbroken, it is friendly, but should not be considered altogether harmless.
one of our most effective defenses. Normal flora, harmless Even placid bacteria cannot and must not get inside the
bacteria that live on the skin, protect the body by attack- body or they may become pathogens. Infection from
ing harmful bacteria that try to take up residence. The microbes, if left unchecked, can lead to disease and even-
acidity of the skin also helps to ward off harmful bacteria. tually death. Our defensive cells recognize them as foreign
When bacteria break down the oil on the skin, more acid and proceed to attack and destroy them. Fortunately, there
is produced and the bacteria are prevented from reproduc- are epithelial membranes lining the entire gastrointestinal
ing by their own waste products. tract and other inside organs that maintain the bodys
126 Body by Design

Design Focus 14.1 Skin, Our Clothing
Outer Layers for Protection and skill to heal any illness because He is our Maker and is
In the Hebrew mind, fine clothing was something highly well acquainted with our blueprint.
regarded. Job describes his skin and flesh with the word
lbesh*. The KJV translators used the word clothed in Job In conclusion, clothing and various types of cloth seem to
10:11 to describe the skin and outer flesh. These are probe Gods word picture to help us better understand His
tective layers or boundaries for the rest of the body. This design of the human body. In addition, we see the care He
word is similar to the Greek and Latin word tunica (literal- has taken to provide both outer protective barriers, as well
ly, wrap around), or tunics. Anatomists use this word to as our intricate and highly developed inward parts that
describe the various layers of skin, other epithelial tissues in have cross-stitching in them. No wonder Job said there is
the body, blood vessels, and epithelial tissues throughout wisdom in the inward parts, and David said he was fearful-
the body. ly and wonderfully made!
*Hebrew phonetic spelling of words.
Inward Parts for Intricate Function
Four Stages of Healing Observed in the Skin
The Bible also describes other body parts in Gods creation.
These include the words rgam (translated curiously
wrought, embroidered, variegated, or interwoven), and
swk (translated fenced, knit, shut in, or entwined). 1 2
These words have been used to describe the human
embryo, fetus, the bones, tendons, muscles, kidneys, heart,
lungs, and ureter throughout the Bible. Note also its con-
nection of rgam to rphah; these come from a similar root
word in Hebrew. Rgam is used to describe the cross-
stitched, or interwoven, design in the body and rphah is 3 4
used in the context of healing, where the great physician
stitches together our broken and wounded body (see
Design Focus 14.2). Both words come from a similar root.
The healing method used by Jesus to heal the blind man is 1. Normal skin (an interwoven fabric)
similar to the procedure used by the intelligent designer to 2. Inflamed skin (the fabric torn)
3. Phagocytosis of dead neu u rotrophils
make the human eye. After all, Jesus is both the Great (fabric cleaner)
Physician and the Creator (Col. 1:16). Jesus has the power 4. Fibrosis (mending the stitches)
boundaries. These boundaries can also be seen as a mar- Interwoven Designs

velous and adaptive mechanism that makes the human
body unique. These membranes allow needed substances to Dermis of the Skin
enter while they exclude potentially damaging chemicals Most of the skin, nails, and hair are made up of tight-
and pathogens. Hence, boundaries are needed for our ly knit cells and cell products. The interwoven design is
health and well being. These facts fit quite well with the easily seen in the skins dermis. The dermis is the thick,
idea that an all-wise Creator prepared these various barriers relatively soft middle tissue of the skin. It shields and
to protect the body from harm. repairs injured tissues and is about four times thicker
Inside the cranium, there is a distinct membrane, the than the epidermis (outer layer of the skin). The dermis
blood-brain barrier, that limits the entry and outflow of consists mainly of protein collagen, which builds scar tis-
chemicals, such as around the brain. Cells surrounding the sue to mend cuts and abrasions. Hair roots, muscles,
brain are designed to regulate tight control over what nerve endings, sensory receptors, sweat glands, blood and
enters the brain. The astrocyte cells primarily regulate sub- lymph vessels all form the interlacing tapestry. The der-
stances that pass in or out of the brain (see figure 11.2 ). mis nourishes the epidermis and is the most intricate
Astrocytes and other neuroglial cells ensure that the brain layer, or tunic, of the integumentary skin. Underneath
will not be subject to chemical fluctuations in the blood. the dermis is the hypodermis, which is a fatty subcuta-
Thus, they provide protection against dangerous chemi- neous layer.
cals. They work like a sieve, screening larger molecules
from smaller ones at the brains edge.
Body By Design 127

The Spleen and Reticular Fibers five percent proteins, one percent salts, and extractives.
The spleen is closely associated with the circulatory It is formed from bits of blood and other body liquids,
and the lymphatic systems. It is an abdominal organ that called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid, that collect in
lies between the bottom of the stomach and the the spaces between cells. Some of the interstitial fluid
diaphragm. It plays a role in the maintenance of blood goes back into the body through the capillary mem-
volume, production of some types of blood cells, and brane, but most enters the lymphatic capillaries to
recovery of material from worn out red blood cells. It is become lymph. Along with this interstitial fluid, the
involved in the removal of blood cells and bacteria from lymph also picks up any particles that are too big to be
the blood. absorbed through the capillary membrane. These
In the cross-section of the spleen may be seen the var- include cell debris, fat globules, and tiny protein parti-
ious coats and layers of splenetic tissue. The spleen is cles. The lymph then moves into the larger lymphatic
covered by an external, serous coat that lubricates the vessels and through the lymph nodes, and eventually
outside of the spleen with serous fluid to protect it enters the blood through the veins in the neck region.
against friction against the other viscera. Immediately Lymph has no pump of its own. Its flow depends upon
within the serous coat is the internal, fibrous coat of the blood pressure and the massaging effect of the muscles.
spleen. It forms the framework of the organ and follows Lymph nodes, the most obvious interwoven fabric in
the vessels within the spleen, forming sheaths around the defense system, are small oval structures. Lymph
them. From these sheaths extend the fibrous bands that nodes are the size of kidney beans and generally are
bind the sections of the spleen together, much as the located in clusters near veins at strategic points along
fibers of a sponge. The sacs enclosed are called areolae, medium-sized lymph vessels at the knee, elbow, armpit,
and within the areolae is the pulpy tissue of the spleen. groin, neck, abdomen and chest. Blood is cleaned and
This pulpy tissue is a reddish-brown, and is where the filtered in the lymph nodes, and germ-fighting cells
blood is filtered to remove bad cells, convert their hemo- gather there during illness. This filtration process pre-
globin to bilirubin, and return the iron from the vents bacteria, cancer cells, and other infectious agents
destroyed cells back to the blood. from entering the blood and circulating through the
system. The lymph nodes are the centers for produc-
Lymphatic Nodes tion and storage of some of the white blood cells,
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, a moving namely the lymphocytes and monocytes, which are
fluid that comes from the blood and returns to the important elements of the bodys immune mechanism.
blood by way of the lymphatic vessels. Lymph carries During any kind of infection, the nodes enlarge in
some nutrients around the body, especially fat. It also their area of drainage due to the multiplication of lym-
distributes germ-fighting white cells. Lymph resembles phocytes in the node.
plasma, but is more diluted and contains only about
Design Focus 14.2 Jehovah Rapha and Listening

to the Great Physician
G od revealed himself as Jehovah Rapha in the context

of great sickness occurring around His people. Rapha
means to cure, to repair, to heal, to mend back together,
He is the Creator who has woven life together from the
beginning. This is the nature of Jehovah Rapha. While
many Egyptians were suffering from plagues, God protect-
or restore one to health or usefulness. Usually the word ed His people when they obeyed Him. I think the Israelites
heal, or healing, is used in conjunction with Jehovah were receptive to Gods voice and His instruction of health
Rapha. In addition, healing implies sewn together, principles in the Levitical law. Most likely, Gods people lis-
mending, stitching up, binds to, or adheres on. God is tened due to the dramatic contrast of Egyptians experienc-
involved in the restoration of lives by pulling things ing plague and sickness, while they experienced good
together that are out of joint. He stitches our life into a health and blessing. God often gets our attention during
beautiful tapestry, including dark threads (black and gray) times when we and/or our neighbors are sick. It appears
mixed with silver and gold threads on the underside and a that we are more ready to hear Gods prescriptions for life,
beautiful cloth picture on the top side. He is the Master death, health, and sickness when He has our attention. Let
Surgeon in our life. He can mend broken strands because us all listen to the Great Physician.
128 Body by Design

Immune and Lymphatic Systems
1. List at least three organs of the immune system.
2. What is the overall function of this system?
3. Distinguish between the immune system and the lymphatic
system. Why are body defenses so critical to living a long life?
4. Describe and give an example of an interwoven part of
the immune and lymphatic system.
5. Draw a picture of and discuss how a lymph node illustrates
irreducible complexity or is evidence for an intelligent designer.
6. What are the affects of an immunodeficiency (e.g., SCID or
AIDS) in the body? What boundaries are broken in the body?
Integumentary System
integumentary system.
2. What is the overall function of the integumentary system?
3. Describe an interwoven part of the integumentary system.
4. Discuss how the skin is an interwoven element that illustrates
irreducible complexity and include a drawing.
5. What causes acne?
6. Describe one infectious disease that affects the digestive system.
Explain its cause and how it occurs in figure 14.3. Illustrate
(with a diagram) this disease and its infection of body structures.
7. BONUS: In past years, the news media have shared

dozens of stories of how E. coli 0157H7 in tainted hamburger meat
and apple juice has led to the death of numerous young children.
Explain how the bacterium E. coli (normally harmless in the intes-
tine) breaks one of the bodys natural boundaries in the excretory
system and causes health care professionals to apply kidney dialysis
in order to save the childs life. Explain how IV fluids are pumped
into the body to maintain homeostasis.
Body By Design 129

CLASSIC AND CONTEMPORARY
EXPLORATIONS IN THE
HUMAN BODY
15
T
The history of anatomy he origin of the patterns observable in creation
is a topic that has fascinated biologists since the
time of the ancient Greeks. It was not until the
has an interesting paral- time of William Harvey, however, that mans
physiological and anatomical exploratory endeavors utilized
lel with the history of the the scientific method and demanded proofs from repeatable
experiments. Beginning with the time period of Vesalius
and Harvey, man began to really understand the wisdom of
dissection of human the inward parts and sought to understand the products of
the Creators design and His plan for the human body. In
those days, many explorers of the human body began
cadavers.
thinking Gods thoughts after Him. In this chapter, we pres-
ent an expos of classic and contemporary explorers of the
Kent Van De Graaff, 1998 human body which includes pioneering creation scientists,
proponents of design, and current investigators whose
beliefs are unknown.
The Reformation Era
T he Reformation era was one in which man returned to

the Scriptures. The Reformation in Europe loosed the
grip of superstition and allowed a renewal of the study of
nature and the use of exact descriptions for living and pre-
served things. This was especially helpful in the advance-
ment of knowledge of human anatomy and physiology as
biologists began to experiment with living animals and
observe human cadavers. The return to the authority of the
Scriptures, the hallmark of the Protestant movement, made
people very interested in the natural world which the God
of Genesis had made. These scientists wanted to discover
the secrets that God concealed in nature (Prov. 25:2) and,
wherever possible, to use their discoveries for the benefit of
others. As science turned to biblical principles, a great new
130

era began, the era of modern science. This is particularly of proper burial, served as the models. At times, graves were
true in human anatomy and physiology. A few hundred robbed to provide the bodies needed for dissection and
years later, Pasteur and Lister built upon similar princi- illustration. Leonardo da Vinci also recorded dissections of
ples in microbiology, just as George Cuvier did in pathol- the human body that are considered classic works of art and
ogy. As biology turned to biblical principles, science grew. are scientifically correct. Unfortunately, however, he never
Today, if man rejects this divine revelation and accepts published his drawings and they remained unknown for
Darwinism and evolutionism, science goes backward. many years.
Modern science does not conflict with biblical princi- For its time, this text (De Humani Corporis Fabrica) con-
ples. Only by holding to the truth of Scripture and a tained revelations on the makeup of the human body. Also,
biblical world view can man hope to learn more of it was noteworthy for its extensive series of illustrations cou-
Gods creation. pled with Vesalius' comprehensive text describing the
human anatomical structures exposed by his dissections.
Andreas Vesalius (151464) was a Belgian anatomist The visual representations were drawn and transferred to
and physician whose dissections of the human body and woodcuts by artists of the Titian school. Unfortunately,
descriptions of his findings helped to correct misconcep- Vesalius never credited the artists. Some names are offered
tions that had prevailed since ancient times. Vesalius was as possible candidates, and Titian himself is named in the
born in Brussels, Belgium. At Paris, he speculations. The series of engravings that
studied medicine and developed an interest illustrates these volumes are captivating, not
in anatomy. In 1537, Vesalius obtained his only for the studied detail they elaborate but
medical degree and a job as a lecturer on for the poses. The settings that frame these
surgery. During his research, Vesalius visions are mesmerizing, and some may be
showed that the anatomical teachings of regarded as enchanting and/or macabre. Its
Galen, revered as infallible standards in production led to Vesalius' recognition and
medical schools, were primarily based upon an appointment as physician to the imperial
the dissections of animals rather than court an honor analogous to the modern-
cadavers. Galens books were used as a day Nobel Prize.
guide to explaining the inward structures The volume is approximately 16 by 11
and functions of the human body, in spite of many errors. inches and consists of more than 700 pages divided into
Vesalius wrote the revolutionary text De Humani seven sections or books. The first book deals with the
Corporis Fabrica to counter Galens false teachings. The bones of the body, the second with muscles. Books three
volumes were completely illustrated with characteristical- and four describe the veins and arteries. Section five
ly delineated engravings based on his own drawings of delves into the abdominal organs, while book six explores
what he observed firsthand during his cadaver dissec- the thoracic contents. The crowning seventh section
tions. The theme of design, or divine craftsmanship, can details the contents of the head. The engravings are inte-
be seen throughout his drawings and may reflect his grated within the text, which are enriched with captions,
Roman Catholic beliefs in a Creator. These seven vol- cross references, and marginal annotations.
umes were the most accurate and comprehensive anatom-
ical texts to date and they led to his appointment as Leonardo Da Vinci
physician to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
Leonardo Da Vinci (14521519), the original Renaissance
Vesalius Classic Masterpiece man (one who displays talents in all fields), is generally recog-
nized as the famous painter whose portrait of an unknown
De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human woman, the Mona Lisa, is the greatest artistic work from the
Body), printed in Basel in 1543, endures as the Renaissance Renaissance era. He was, however, far more than that. He was
classic that describes the design of the human body while it also an architect, sculptor, musician, and engineer.
updated and amended the misconceptions in the publica- Evidence of Leonardo's interest in knowledge of techni-
tions of past scientific writings. Following the organization- cal matters is clearly recognized in the many drawings and
al style of Galen, considered the first anatomist, Vesalius sketches that he left behind. His famous drawing of the
was able to correct many of his predecessors errors by human figure in perfect proportion with the square and the
studying human cadavers instead of animal remains. circle shows the harmony between Renaissance artistry and
Condemned criminals, considered worthless and unworthy mathematics(15.2). The meticulous notes that accompanied
Body By Design 131

Disease Focus 15.1
Father of Modern Surgery
Rejects Darwinism
J oseph Lister (18271912) was acquainted with the
principle of maintaining boundaries better than any-
one alive in his generation. Lord Lister, a devout Quaker
thought of milk spoilage as a type of infectious disease.
Lister made the connection between how a specific bac-
terium causes lactic ferment in milk and how bacteria
physician, is best known for pioneering aseptic surgical in surgical wounds often causes gangrene and pyemia in
methods. Lister is also known as a co-founder of germ humans. Listers laboratory studies of milk diseases, in
theory, as the physician for Queen Victoria, for the first conjunction with Pasteur, led him to study surgical dis-
successful use of permanent artificial limbs, and for eases. Based on his observations of bacteria in air con-
working with wound infections. Lister identified himself taminating milk in flasks, Lister was able to apply the
on numerous occasions as a Bible-believing Christian germ theory during his operations. He was also the first
who believed in special creation and rejected Darwinism. to be successful with the implantation of artificial limbs
Lister was a British physician who revolutionized sur- because he was able to keep them germ-free.
gery by preventing infection in surgical wounds. Lister, Lister wondered if minute organisms might also be
impressed with Pasteurs work on fermentation, complet- responsible for the pus that forms in surgical wounds. He
ed his bacteriological studies. In particular, he investigat- then experimented with a phenolic compound (carbolic
ed lactic acid fermentation and milk spoilage. Lister acid), applying it at full strength to wounds by means of
Louis Pasteur and the Joseph Lister

Germ Theory of Disease The Father of Modern Surgery
132 Body by Design

Figure 15.1
Victory Over Infection. Lister and spray.

Listers discovery of antiseptics being used by these doctors who are performing an 1871 surgery in Edinburgh (Scotland).
A carbolic acid (phenol) aerosol is sprayed with this instrument. It showers an antiseptic mist over the patient to kill the
pathogens that cause infection providing a Victory Oveer Infection.
a saturated rag. Lister was particularly proud of the fact could magically appear from nowhere. Like Pasteur,
that after carbolic acid wound dressings became routine Lister dismissed this ancient, disproved idea. Lister had
for his patients, the patients no longer developed gan- to defend his idea of biogenesis, that any bacteria found
grene. Later, Lister improved his antiseptic surgery to in wounds were a result of contamination in the surgery
exclude bacteria from wounds by maintaining a clean room. His answer was asepsis, clean hands, and a clean
environment in the operating room and by sterilizing hospital. Perhaps he had read Bible passages like: This is
instruments (figure 15.1). These procedures were prefer- the lawmake a difference between the unclean and the
able to killing the bacteria after they entered wounds clean(Lev. 11:4647) and Depart ye, go ye out from
because they avoided the toxic effects of the disinfectant thence, touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the midst of
on the wound. His technique of asepsis, along with hand her; be ye clean, that bear the vessels (Isa. 52:11).
washing, meant that most patients no longer suffered In conclusion, Lister revolutionized medicine
from new germs introduced during surgery. The British because he practiced good science. This practice of
Medical Journal stated that he [Lister] had saved more good science was preceded by a Christian heritage and
lives by the introduction of this system than all the wars was grounded in the Bible. In the tradition of Louis
of the 19th century together had sacrificed (Nester et Pasteur and Robert Koch, Lister applied the germ theo-
al., 1998, p. 202). ry through his public promotion of cleanliness and san-
Early in his life, Lister suffered persecution because of itation to various governments and institutions all
his rejection of Darwinism. In one case, he may have around the world, encouraging them to reduce tubercu-
been discriminated against in a competitive medical losis and other major infections. The germ theory of
school exam because his ideas did not align with a med- disease is one of the most important concepts that
ical school examiner on Darwins views of comparative needs to be understood in the age of AIDS and other
anatomy. Later, he contended with Darwinists over abio- deadly infectious diseases. Remember these historical
genesis. Many Darwinists in the 1880s still believed in events the next time you are in surgery or use Listerine
spontaneous generation and felt that germs in wounds mouthwash or toothpaste (Listers namesake).
Body By Design 133

the sketches gave invaluable information that helped guide close of the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci made the
humanity to where it is today. most comprehensive study of the human body, yet he
As a young man, Leonardo regularly participated in saw neither superfluous nor defective structure in man.
cadaver dissections and intended to publish a textbook on In fact, he described the human anatomy as one of
anatomy with an anatomy professor. When Leonardo beauty and complexity. In addition, he made sketches
died, his notes and sketches were lost and not discovered of the body, in a study of proportions, and compared
for more than 200 years. Leonardos illustra- them with the most sophisticated
tions helped to create a new climate of visual machines in his time. Because the body
attentiveness to the structure of the human was so masterfully engineered like a
body. He was intent on accuracy and his machine, it has been the subject of
sketches are incredibly detailed. He experi- many artists work through the cen-
mentally determined the structure of complex turies.
body organs such as the brain. He made wax
casts of the brain to study its structure. He also Michelangelo
constructed models of the heart valves to Michelangel Buonarotti
demonstrate their action. Only a master could achieve the (14751564), perhaps the greatest artist of all time,
detail and accuracy of the sketches of Leonardo da Vinci. exerted an enormous influence in the fields of art
The painter who has acquired a knowledge of the nature and science. He, too, was universally acknowledged
of the sinews, muscles and tendon, Leonardo wrote, will as a supreme artist in his own lifetime because of
know exactly in the movement of any limb how many and the dramatic realism and sense of movement that
which of the sinews are the cause of it, and which muscle were characteristic of his work. Unfortunately, his
by its swelling is the cause of sinews contracting. followers all too often present us with only the mas-
A classic word picture that Leonardo used to describe ter's outward manner, like his muscularity and
the human body is one that envisions it as a machine. The gigantic grandeur, but they miss the inspiration.
body and a machine both perform work. Other There has never been a more literally awesome artist
Renaissance scholars also used this same analogy. At the than Michelangelo: awesome in the scope of his
Figure 15.2
Vitruvian, by Leonardo Da vinci, shows

the proportions of the human body.
134 Body by Design

imagination, awesome in his awareness of the sig- particle of matter with a force that is directly pro-
nificance the spiritual significance of beauty. portional to its quantity of matter, and this force
Beauty was to him divine. It was one of the ways decreases proportionally as the distance between par-
God communicated himself to humanity. ticles increases. Newton also explained the three laws
of motion. These laws dealt with the concepts of
Isaac Newton inertia, the relationship of acceleration to physical
Isaac Newton, the Father of Modern Science, force, and the action and reaction to force. He then
contributed more to the scientific progress of related the three laws into the concept of momentum
mankind than any other individual before or since. or the quantity of motion.
Building upon the foundations and groundwork set Newton, who spent much of his life studying the
by others, Newton strived with his brilliant mind to Bible, searched for truth about Gods creation and
understand Gods most basic laws of the physical came to realize that there are profound facts about
universe. Gods creation and governance of it that will forever
In 1687, Newton published his discovery of the elude the efforts of scientists that try to explain. He
universal law of gravitation. He called the work believed that studying creation would reveal the fin-
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, also gerprints of God. It has been said that Newtons
known as Principia. His universal law says that every works are the foundation stone of modern
particle of matter in the universe attracts every other thought. Along with many other famous scientists
Disease Focus 15.2

The Bible and the Germ Theory
S ince his fall, man has struggled to conquer disease, one
of the curses brought upon him by sin. Only in the past
two centuries, however, has man made great strides toward
their medical practice. Semmelweis washed his hands in
solutions of chlorinated lime (a strong disinfectant) prior to
delivering babies, and the dreaded puerperal fever declined.
curing and preventing disease. Knowledge of anatomy and Lister experimented with a carbolic acid (a phenol), intro-
physiology grew during the 17th century, but progress in ducing it into wounds during surgery by means of a satu-
microbiology did not grow very much until the 1850s. In rated rag. This technique, along with hand washing, meant
the 1870s, biologists began to link microorganisms with that most patients no longer suffered from gas gangrene,
the presence of disease. Pathogens include forms, such as poisoning of the blood, or amputation because of surgery.
viruses, bacteria, molds, protozoans, rickettsiae, and multi- By the end of the 19th century, patients were less likely to
cellular parasites. die in the operating room because of disinfected surgical
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were able to associate instruments and washing hands. Both Louis Pasteur and
specific bacteria with certain diseases. Pasteur first devel- Joseph Lister expressed faith in God, and were to some
oped his ideas of the germ theory from his work on fer- extent listening to the Creator to solve medical plagues of
mentation of milk, butter, beets, beer, and wine. Then, their day. The practices of cleansing ones hands, instru-
Pasteur solved anthrax and rabies disease plagues by treatments, and other objects date back to ancient Israel when
ing sheep and dogs using the germ theory concept. Pasteur Moses instructed the Israelites about purification. This was
applied his germ theory to vaccinating people against dead- not just spiritual cleansing; it also had a useful medical pur-
ly diseases. Prior to Pasteur, the connection between pose. Long before Semmelweis, Pasteur, Koch, and Lister,
microorganisms and disease was not apparent since many the Creator instructed His people in ancient times to dis-
microbes were known to be beneficial for humans and did tinguish between the unclean and the clean, the antiseptic
not cause disease. principle (Lev. 11: 47). In addition, He instructed man, in
During the 1800s, physicians such as Ignaz Semmelweis the Levitical law, about other disease principles such as
and Joseph Lister began to understand the role of microbes quarantine, sanitation of body wastes, and disinfection,
in causing disease and they applied aseptic principles in long before the Golden Age of Microbiology.
Body By Design 135

of his day, Newton believed in creation and sought Although the implications of Harvey's contribution
to understand the laws, set in motion by God, that were not at first universally appreciated, the publication of
govern it. Newton is frequently quoted, in regards to De Motu Cordis opened the way to a profusion of studies.
his study of science, as thinking Gods thoughts These studies were aimed at elucidating aspects of cardiac
after Him. His studies were an extension of His function and the details of the various functions of its ele-
faith in God. ments, such as blood pressure, the pulse, and the activity of
cardiac muscle. Finally, in the late 18th century, physicians
Harvey and the Heart began to use the fruits of findings based on Harvey's prin-
ciples to help them understand the diseased hearts of their
It was not until the early 1600s that William Harvey patients. By the first decade of the 19th century the tech-
gave the explanation of blood circulation that we recognize nique of percussion had been developed, by which it was
and know as fact today. Harvey, as mentioned in chapter 9, possible to estimate the size of the heart by tapping on the
laid to rest many misconceptions that Galen had brought chest. In 1817 the stethoscope was invented and cardiolo-
about through his work. In contrast to Galen, William gy advanced further.
Harveys view of the heart and circulation rested not on Harvey had built upon the anatomical approach of
books or on the opinions of his predecessors. They were Paracelsus (14901541). Paracelsus believed that if the
based on direct ocular observations, dissections, and exper- structure of the body was to be learned, direct observation
imentation. In 1628, Harvey published a small book writ- was essential rather than textbook anatomy. The combined
ten in Latin called Exercito Anatomica de Motu Cordis et work of these two men, Paracelsus and Vesalius, revolution-
Sanguninis in Animalibus, which is translated as An ized the study of anatomy and brought about advances in
Anatomical Dissertation on the Movement of the Heart and the way science and medicine were done.
Blood in Animals (Harvey, 1628 reprint). It was that book The importance of Paracelsus work was that it clearly
that led to the understanding of the cir- demonstrated that the flow of blood
culation of blood that we have today. through the body is really a circulatory
Harveys ideas had been by far the most movement. This movement flows one
widely accepted of several competing the- way through the arteries, capillaries, and
ories of blood flow, but De Motu Cordis veins, all forming conducting channels.
(as it is usually called) would, in time, Harvey referred to the intricate and
bring about the ultimate demise for them orderly circulatory patterns in the heart as
all. Harvey used a combination of quanti- the fabric of life.
tative and qualitative methods to make a During this time period, it is remark-
series of easily confirmable observations able that Harvey used the scientific
and measurements that led him to his method of exact experimentation and
conclusion. He proclaimed in one strik- mathematical calculation to support his
ing sentence the entire contents of chapter 14 in his mon- theory. He had no microscope capable of revealing the cap-
umental book: illaries, but he reasoned that there must be such a connec-
It must be of necessity concluded that the blood is driv- tion between arteries and veins. Like the Darwinists of
en in a round by circular motion in creatures and that is today, many people in Harveys day refused to accept his
moves perpetually; and hence does arise the action and explanation, especially those who favored the established
function of the heart, which by pulsation it performs; and ideas of Galen. Marcello Malpighi later demonstrated cap-
lastly that motion and pulsation of the heart is the only illaries by means of a light microscope, in 1632. This dis-
cause (Harvey, 1628, p. 91). covery once and for all vindicated Harvey.
With his work, Harvey no doubt meant to lay to rest the As Harvey discovered, the heart is actually two pumps,
misguided confidence of his readers in those mystical right and left, with a septum between the two sides so that
attributes of the heart so dearly cherished by church peo- the blood does not go from one side to the other. The left
ple, kings, and commoners alike. Perhaps his message was pump is somewhat larger and stronger than the right pump.
not lost on Charles, though the royal patient must have Its function is to receive blood from the lungs in its upper
taken consolation in knowing that his doctor believed so chamber, or atrium, and send it out all over the body from
strongly in cardiac supremacy that he compared the heart's its lower chamber, the ventricle. If you look at the heart of
indispensability to that of the king himself. a preserved specimen you will note that the atrium has very
136 Body by Design

thin walls. When it is contracted, it is very small. Notice the New Horizons
correlation of structure and function; the ventricles are
designed to pump blood over far distances to the lungs and Several new projects have recently developed to
entire body, as indicated by their more muscular chambers. advance the study of anatomy. These projects are being
Atria are designed for receiving venous blood and pumping used more in educational settings to provide a phenome-
it downward only a short distance, to the larger, stronger nal view of the human body, unavailable to previous gen-
ventricles. Hence, atria have thinner walls. erations of students. Two endeavors are the Human
Harvey found the vessels involved in blood circulation Visible Project and the Vesalius Project. Through these
also show a planned form-and-function relationship. When projects, scientists, once again, are beginning to rediscov-
examining a cross-section of a vein, capillary, and artery, er and explore the evidences of the fabrica design.
one can see a single layer of tissue called the endothelium.
In veins and arteries, a muscular layer and a protective layer Human Visible Project
of connective tissue surround the endothelium. The arteries
have a thick muscle layer to aid in pushing blood out to the Joseph Paul Jernigan spent much of his adult life
body tissues farthest from the heart. The layers of the veins involved in violent crimes. The convicted murderer was
are thinner and more flexible than those of similarly sized executed by the state of Texas in 1990. Since then, how-
arteries. This attribute fits their function of returning blood ever, Jernigan has become a model for many students
to the heart. Like Isaac Newton, Harvey believed the study across the country not a role model, but a scientific
of the human body would reveal the fingerprints of God. model. Jernigan's dead body was sliced, photographed,
Harveys belief in God as the wise creator of the universe and digitized 1,800 ways to become the world's first com-
was accepted and considered the standard. It was not until puterized human cadaver. Teachers, doctors, and scien-
the time of Darwin that the tide changed. tists now use Jernigan's virtual cadaver as a research and
educational tool(figure 15.2).
Figure 15.3
Superior view of a coronal section
Image generated from the human visible project.

This project will certainly reveal the awesome
anatomy of the human body for years to come.
Body By Design 137

Design Focus 15.1
The Human Genome Project

suffering. Dr. Collins feels that he is following the example of
T he Human Genome Project (HGP) is an interna-
tional research program designed to construct detailed
genetic and physical maps of the human genome, to deter-
the Great Physician, Jesus Christ, who healed hundreds of
people during His three-year ministry. Dr. Collins is a com-
mine the complete nucleotide sequence of human DNA mitted Christian who believes in an intelligent designer and
(over 3.5 billion base pairs), to localize the estimated believes in the sanctity of life.
100,000 genes within the human genome. The U.S. gov- When Dr. Collins was asked why he chose medical genet-
ernment has invested over $3 billion to elucidate the entire ics as a specialty, his answer was simple: The simplicity and
DNA sequence that makes us human. The scientific prod- elegance of the DNA molecule immediately appealed to me.
ucts of the HGP will comprise a resource of detailed infor- He also finds great joy in discovery and for him the journey
mation about the structure, organization, and function of into discovering the genes that cause disease has brought great
human DNA, information that constitutes the basic set of happiness because he knows that such knowledge may lead to
inherited instructions for the development and function- cures for specific genetic disorders. He is motivated by this
ing of a human being. Because of new sequencing tech- verse: And Jesus went about all the cities and villages, teaching
nologies, the project was bascially completed in the in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom,
Summer of 2000. Improved technology for biomedical and healing every sickness and every disease among the people
research will thus be another important product of the (Matt. 9: 35).
HGP. The acquisition and use of such genetic knowledge For Dr. Collins, genetics has been a natural extension
will have momentous implications for both individuals and of the medical research that he made for decades. Dr.
society. It will pose a number of policy choices for public Collins believes that locating specific genes for specific
and professional discussion. Analysis of the ethical, legal, genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, will lead the way
and social implications of genetic knowledge, and the for gene therapy and help those afflicted. Although such
development of policy options for public consideration are information can clearly lead to effective treatments,
therefore yet another major component of the human Collins is cautious and is aware that knowledge in the
genome research effort. wrong hands can also lead to destruction. Cautiously
optimistic, Collins believes sequencing the human
Joy in the Journey genome will help people better appreciate the Creators
design for life and ultimately help those who suffer from
Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D., is the director of the birth to have extended life with dignity. He would agree
Human Genome Project based at the National Institute of with Dr. Marshall W. Nirenberg (winner of the Nobel
Health in Bethesda, Maryland. Dr. Collins showed great pas- Prize in medicine, 1968):
sion for his project the mapping and sequencing of the When man becomes capable of instructing his own cells, he
human genome. As an enthusiastic Christian, Collins is con- must refrain from doing so until he has sufficient
cerned about how the public, especially physicians, view wisdom to use the knowledge for the benefit of mankind.
genetic research. He strongly believes that genetic research
can provide seeds of hope for healing and alleviating human
Human Genome Project. Karotype for each type of the 23 human chromosomes (haploid set of chromosomess shown in diagram).
138 Body by Design

Classic and Contemporary
Explorations in Human Biology
1. List three details about the contributions that Harvey
made in the study of circulation.
2. What qualities made Andreas Vesalius work, De Humani
Corporis, a masterpiece of human anatomical
studies and what made the text so revolutionary?
3. What misconceptions, stemming from Galens works,
pertained to blood and blood flow? Also, what permitted
the farcical philosophies of Galen to pervade science for
so long? What parallels exist between the philosophies of
Galen and modern evolutionary thinking?
4. List details on how the work of Joseph Lister (and others)
revolutionized surgery, and discuss how their work led to
the germ theory of infection.
5. Discuss the germ theory and its importance in the advancement
in the study of the causative agents of disease. Explain.
6. Essay: Discuss the role of cadaver dissection in the teaching of
gross anatomy. Also, give reasons why you think that the use of
cadavers may never completely come to an end.
7. Give reasons why the Vesalius Project and the Human Visible
Project are beneficial in the study of the gross anatomy of
the human body.
8. Consider the moral and ethical issues involved with the
use of cadavers. The Bible says that the body is the temple of the
Holy Ghost does this apply after death?
9. One of the most important contributions of William Harvey
was his research on the topic of:
a) circulation of blood. b) the microscopic structure of
spermatozoa. c) the detailed structure of the kidney.
d) striped appearance of skeletal muscle.
10. The anatomical masterpiece Fabrica was the work of:
a) da Vinci b) Harvey c) Vesalius d) Leeuwenhoek
11. You learned that Galen relied on dissections of animals
other than humans in an attempt to understand human
anatomy. Discuss the value and the limitations for
using real specimens in a human anatomy laboratory.
What advantages (and disadvantages) are gained by
studying human cadavers vs. dissecting virtual
images of human cadavers.
Body By Design 139

The Wisdom
of the
Body
16
S
The invisible hand that o far, designs in the human body have been examined
system by system, particularly in anatomy. These pat-
terns have been systematically shown to be logical and
governs the universe with at times wondrous. For the most part, a Creator of the
universe, of living organisms, and particularly of mankindhas
perfect intentionality been shown in this book. Although confidently asserted these as
truths, this is a minority opinion among professional biologists
today. Most professionals (earned doctorates) assume an evo-
has worked for the good lutionary origin of mankind has been shown. As we have
already examined, this idea clashes with the position taken by
the founders of many fields in biology, such as Vesalius, Harvey,
of those who love him.
Pasteur, Lister, Virchow, and Cuvier. In this chapter, we exam-
ine both the doctrine of evolutionary dogma and modern
R. C. Sproul (1996, cover jacket) movement to recognize creation and design.
Evolutionary Dogma:
Nothing in Biology Makes Sense
Except in the Light of Evolution
T his is the title, thesis, and brazen pronouncement of

the geneticist and committed evolutionist Theodosius
Dobzhansky. Almost 30 years later, Steven Jay Gould
(1999) maintains, Evolution is not a false peripheral sub-
ject but the central start and organizing principle of all
repeated biological science. It is Darwinian evolution, they
maintain, that is the glue that holds all areas of biology
together. This theme has become a watershed for the secu-
lar scientist. This idea has been cited hundreds of times in
magazines, journals, and conference presentations that
invoke evolution as fact. The article also proposes that evo-
lution be integrated with everything in biology.
Dobzhansky, Gould, Dawkins, and Huxley are the most
influential evolutionists of the 20th century. What would
140

cause these biologists to make such bold claims that noth- Many newspaper and popular accounts of evolution fre-
ing makes sense in science except in the light of evolution? quently cite the growing medical threat of multidrug
resistance in bacteria as proof for evolution.
Molecular Evidence Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are hardly evidence for
macroevolution. Although creation scientists acknowl-
I n his article, Dobzhansky cites unreliable evidence. The

same logic would be used for the famous molecule of
heredity, DNA. Does this mean that all these vastly differ-
edge changes of antibiotic sensitivity in bacteria where
genes are traded and transferred among them, these bac-
teria are still the same kind. Recently, an expedition to
ent organisms have genetic roots from one common ances- the Arctic uncovered the bodies of three men who per-
tor as Dobzhansky maintained? It is more logical to argue ished in an 1845 expedition. Samples of bacteria were
that these biomolecules owe their existence to a common taken from their intestines and it was found that some of
designer, not a common ancestor. Since all cells utilize the bacteria were indeed resistant to modern-day antibi-
DNA to reproduce, it is logical that the Creator would use otics. This is just as the creation scientist would predict.
the same molecule and efficient plan in creating cells. There have always been some populations of bacteria
Secular biologists think that the universality of this infor- that have had genes conferring a resistance to antibiotics.
mation sequence in nearly all cells is evidence for a common Plasmid transfer, conjugation, and transduction are
ancestor of all life. But it is just as logical to view the same most likely the mechanisms for changing antibiotic
plan being used to code proteins in all living organisms. resistance among bacteria. These mechanisms, however,
This is why the Mustang and Taurus have more in common allow for horizontal change, but not vertical evolution,
with each other than do Ford cars and sail- in bacteria that are necessary for macroevo-
boats. It is the creation according to a com- lution to take place. Medical microbiolo-
mon plan. Certainly as one looks at the code gists, physicians, and hospital technolo-
that is DNA, one would think of a code-giver. gists are all interested in tracking the pat-
terns of change in bacteria for practical
Microevolution in Fruit Flies reasons being able to provide an effec-
tive antibiotic that will eliminate disease.
D obzhansky also spoke of subtle changes

within varieties of fruit flies in Hawaii
as evidence of evolution occurring today.
Fortunately, they do not have to worry that
the bacteria will evolve into a fungus or
some other microbe. The bacteria are still
There is no question that throughout the years various bacteria and remain so. Therefore, the practitioner can
selective pressures have given advantage to some popula- resolve the resistance factor with new and better antibi-
tions of flies and not others. Creationists certainly would otics.
agree to these minor changes called microevolution and to We can say, therefore, that science done in the present
natural selection. Natural selection was even suggested 24 (empirical science) would not support an extrapolation
years before Darwin by a creation scientist named Edward from very minor changes to macroevolution. Put anoth-
Blyth. The question a student should ask is whether these er way, the only changes we see are horizontal (minor),
minor variations in fly types lead to big changes (mega- or certainly not large changes that would yield new kinds.
macroevolution). The answer may be given as a clear No, No macroevolution has occurred in the past, and none is
using a variety of science methods. There is neither clear occurring in the present. There's no reason to believe it
experimental evidence nor fossil from which one can extrap- except that the alternative is unthinkable to the secular
olate from micro to macroevolution. From beginning to mind. We would do well to investigate some of the
end, we start with and end up with fruit flies nothing alleged evolutionary evidences that biologists claim to
more, nothing less. Science relies upon observation skills, possess. Several of their evidences actually support the
and all that is observed are fruit flies. creation model.
Is Evolution a Fact? Human Evolution
M acroevolution is unfortunately taught as a scientif-

ic (empirical) fact. Nearly 30 years after
Dobzhanskys pronouncement, this argument continues
J ava Man, Peking Man, Piltdown Man, Nutcracker
Man, and Ramapithecus are all false starts on the trail
from ape-like creatures to man. Evolutionary thinking
with evidence of change in antibiotic-resistant bacteria. has caused people to spend millions of dollars and
Body By Design 141

thousands of man-hours looking in vain for links that will man's divine image as flawed, but not eliminated.
never be found. But the search continues for man's ances- Recall that Leonardo da Vinci saw man as the pinna-
tor, because many still believe that Nothing in biology cle of creation and a spectacular object of study in spite
makes sense except in light of evolution. of his fall. Da Vinci, during the Renaissance period,
made the most anatomically comprehensive study of the
Imperfections human body. Although he did not view man as perfect,
he saw humans as possessing the most wonderful and
R ichard Dawkins continues the theme of evolution

as a fact when he states, No serious biologist doubts
the fact that evolution has happened, nor that all living
magnificent design in nature. He saw neither superflu-
ous nor defective structures in man. Leonardo da Vinci
looked for ways to describe this masterpiece of engi-
creatures are cousins of one another (1996, p. 287). He neering, beauty, complexity, and symmetry. In his study
discusses the imperfections in nature, such as the aber- of body proportions, he frequently made the analogy
rations of eyesight in humans. He turns to Darwinian between man and machine.
evolution to explain the gradual tinkering of natural
selection and chance mutation and to explain the evolu- Dealing with Imperfections
tion of the eye. He discusses how a neutral evolutionary
force over time makes images to the eye sharper and
sharpest. He uses these examples of poor eyesight in
man as proof of natures tinkering with traits to produce
T he human body has been willed into existence by a
loving Creator and placed on a planet that, despite
all its pain and fear, contains much beauty and goodness.
superior eyesight. Yet there are no examples for this type We can still develop a consistent outlook of gratitude,
of evolution seen today, nor is there a history of eye undergirded by trust in the One who made us. Dr. Paul
transitions observed in the fossil record. Brand still concludes the human body and all nature has
been made wondrously even after searching many of the
Defects and Disease dark spots and blemishes on the world. How could a
truly good God allow such blemishes to exist? Dr. Brand
E ven though there is no fossil record to support things

like eye evolution, the question lingers, If your God
is so intelligent and loving, why are there so many defects
took them on one by one. Disease? Did you know that 90
to 95 percent of all bacteria do not cause disease? Rather,
many are healthful, not harmful. In fact, some are essen-
in the human body disease, and painful tial for our living as discussed in chapter 7.
things in this world. The answer in short Plants could not produce oxygen and ani-
is that we do not claim to have perfect mals could not digest food without the
design, but rather intelligent design due to assistance of bacteria. Most agents of dis-
the fallen condition of mankind. In this ease diverge from these necessary organ-
section we deal with consequences after isms as only slight mutations.
the Garden of Eden. What about birth defects? Although
Imperfections of the eye (nearsighted- there are environmental events that cause
ness, farsightedness, and astigmatism) are DNA to mutate and lead to imperfections
merely a consequence of the fall of man. In at birth, there are many complex details in
the biblical account of creation, man was biochemistry that are needed and must
not merely made a complex animal, but a creature made work right just to produce one healthy child. The great
in the image of God. Shortly after his creation, man wonder is not that birth defects exist but that millions
stained this image by disobedience to his Creator. Man's more do not occur. Could a mistake-proof world have
image became tarnished and any of his imperfections, been created so that DNA spirals would never err in
defects, and diseases are consequences of his fall from per- transmission? No scientist could envision such a system
fection. Yet, in spite of being marred by sin, we still without the possibility of error in our world of physical
observe many wonders in the human body. The intelli- laws.
gent design and many adaptations found in the human Even at its worst, our natural world shows evidence of
body are perfect testimonies to the Creators wisdom and careful design. Imagine a world without tornadoes or
greatness. Man continues to be sustained by the one in hurricanes calamities that carry the damaging label
whose hand is the soul of every living thing, and the acts of God. When hurricanes and monsoons do not
breath of all mankind (Job 12:10). We might summarize come, the delicate balance of weather conditions gets
142 Body by Design

upset, and killer droughts inevitably follow. How would with perplexing patterns in nature. Until Adam and Eve
you improve upon the world? sinned, human bodies were without flaw. After the fall of
Dr. Brand's professional life has centered on perhaps man, however, humans have been subject to disease, decay,
the most problematic aspect of creation the existence and death. God promises to give the Christian a new body
of pain. He emphatically insists on pain's great value, someday that will be free from death and the necessity of
holding up as proof the terrible results of leprosy dam- pain. Some questions may never be answered in this life-
aged faces, blindness, and loss of fingers, toes and limbs time. Ultimately, another world is coming where perfection
that nearly all occur as side-effects of painlessness. will be restored.
In this present world, we must understand that nerve
cells wear out and die, never to be replaced. Eventually eye-
sight, muscle coordination, and mental awareness will fail
Figure 16.1
us all. Because of an accumulation of years of deposits, the
Nerves carry the sense of touch and pain from blood vessels eventually narrow, diminishing the life-giving
sensors in the foot to the brain. Excessive flow of blood. Heart disease, heart attacks, and strokes lay
pressure a nd pain warns us of danger.
people in the grave on a daily basis. These are the resulting
symptoms of old age. Eventually this well-designed
machine, the human body, wears out. Three thousand
years ago, King Solomon described this inevitable plight in
Ecclesiastes 12: 1, 6, 7:
Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy
youth, while the evil days come not, nor the years
draw nigh, when the silver cord be loosed, or the
golden bowl be broken, or the pitcher be broken at
the fountain, or the wheel broken at the cistern.
Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was: and
the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.
Yet, in spite of aging, decay, and disease, the design
of the human body is still a marvel of engineering.
Man has yet to improve on a single design with an
artificial substitute.
More Living Designs
Warning Nerve T he greatest biochemical discovery of the 20th cen-

tury was the unraveling of the chemical structure
of chromosomes. Recall, the language of genetics is
founded in the pairs of nucleotide bases (A, T, C, G,
and U). The sequence of bases in DNA and RNA is
Leprosy destroys nerve endings that carry pain signals. actually a code for amino acids, the building blocks for
People who do not feel pain almost inevitably damage proteins, such as albumin, immunoglobulin, fibrinogen,
themselves; infection sets in, and no pain signals alert and other proteins found in blood.
them to tend to the wounded area. Even the best artifi- A remarkable analogy exists between human lan-
cial pain systems do not produce the sensation these guage and genetic language. By common agreement,
people need to have protection against injury. Thank numbers are the elements of computer language that
God for pain! and Pain is the gift nobody wants, are are used by intelligent humans to code for letters.
Brands conclusions after observing people who lack it. Similarly, the elements of the biochemical code (the
Like Dr. Brand, we can develop gratitude, trust, and four nucleotide bases) were organized by an intelligent
appreciation regarding those things that may contradict cause to code for amino acids. Ultimately, the letters
our intuition. Some designs at first glance seem flawed, but that humans use, as delineated by computer code, are
a deeper investigation reveals wisdom beyond mans imagi- assembled to form words for the purpose of communi-
nation. As thinking creation scientists, we may struggle cating concepts. In the same way, amino acids, as
Body By Design 143

delineated by the genetic code, are assembled to form components in man. Logic demands that the languages of life
proteins for the purpose of producing living components, (DNA, RNA, and amino acids) be interpreted as indicators of
like erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. The similari- Gods work.
ty between the two codes is great enough to support a
general conclusion by our principle of uniform experi- Explanatory Filter
ence. There must be an intelligent cause for both.
Intelligent humans devised the computer code in a fash-
ion similar to the way an intelligent cause devised the genet- F or many years, recognizing design has been informal
and intuitive. More recently several design proponents
ic code. We note that human intelligence is external to the have more formally taken steps to identify in nature what
computer code, and we stipulate that an intelligent cause is constitutes intelligent design. According to Behe (1996),
external to the genetic code. Thus, the intelligence is not the argument for design is when a number of separate,
latent within the genetic language itself, as the pantheist very unlikely events combine to produce something as
might assume. The similarity in the DNA code exists complex as life, we suspect that the conditions were inten-
because the Creator used a similar plan to fashion the diver- tionally arranged for the purpose.
sity of life on earth. Likewise, the numbers in the comput- Intelligent design makes our thinking more precise and
er code have no meaning, unless words
and language exist external to the order.
Similarly, the sequence of bases in DNA
has no meaning without the amino Figure 16.2
acids. The machinery external to the
code builds proteins in red blood cells.
Not only is the intelligence external to
the genetic code, but the intelligence
must have incredible sophistication. It
can be concluded that, because man is
just beginning to understand DNA
structure, the origin of life was caused by
a source with greater intelligence and
manipulative ability than man. Yet even
this is still an insufficient picture of the
structure of this cause. DNA is only a
small part of the simplest cells complex-
ity. Without the ability to reproduce
itself, the DNA would eventually suc-
cumb to destruction. The process of
replication, therefore, is essential to life.
Without transcription and translation of
DNA into cellular materials, the infor-
mation is useless.
Thus, transcription and translation The Deer Tick that carries the
are necessary for life, as well. Upon con- Lyme Disease Spirocheate Bacterium
sideration of these and the tremendous
complexities of even the simplest cell, it
becomes clear that the origin of the red
blood cell must be assigned to a cause with incredible intel- our logic more scientific. Most of us are engaged in a form
ligence and manipulative ability. of rational activity that, without being tendentious, can be
Compared to the functional complexity of cells like ery- described as inferring design. Inferring design is a perfect-
throcytes, leukocytes, and platelets, man's most noteworthy ly common and well-accepted human activity. People find
technological achievements seem primitive. The discovery of it important to identify events that are caused through the
the unique design and functional complexity of living organ- purposeful, premeditated action of an intelligent agent,
isms has caused many to doubt the naturalistic origin of life and to distinguish such events from events due to either
144 Body by Design

Disease Focus 16.1
Detective Work and
The Nature of Science
Detection of Design is Like began calling this affliction Lyme arthritis.
Detecting Disease
L et us focus on how the cause of Lyme disease was dis-
covered and how it compares to detecting created
T he clustering of cases was most reported in wooded
areas along lakes and streams. This suggested that
the disease was transmitted by an arthropod. As officials
design in living things. In both cases, scientists look for
investigated further, they found that people who had a
clues that might correlate a cause with an effect. An epi-
household pet were more likely to be affected than those
demiologist looks for a specific microbe with an infectious
who werent pet owners. The importance of this finding
disease, studies the pattern of disease distribution, and
was emphasized when most patients reported that their
applies statistics to find the probable cause of a given dis-
arthritic symptoms were preceded with an unusual bulls-
ease. Those looking for clues of design in living things must
eye skin rash that spread to a six-inch ring. The officials
find things that cannot be explained by chance physio-
began to suspect ticks as the carriers of the bacteria. Pet
chemical processes. Detectives need keen observation,
owners would be more likely to come into contact with
problem-solving ability, and critical thinking skills.
ticks that their dogs and cats had picked up in the woods.
Discovery of Lyme Diseases Cause
I n 1975, the Connecticut Health Department received
hundreds of calls about cases of what appeared to be
A s scientists outside of Connecticut studied the prob-
lem, they found spirochete bacteria in the guts of
many of the ticks. The spirochete was named Borrelia
arthritis in children in Lyme, Connecticut. Despite being burgdorferi. Later, it was determined that this microbe
assured by their physicians that arthritis was not infec- was the cause of Lyme disease. Thereafter, physicians
tious, the callers were not satisfied. A state epidemic began to treat Lyme disease effectively with antibiotics.
investigation was put into action. Public health officials Presently, scientists have recommended prevention tech-
began trying to locate all those who had a sudden onset niques like wearing protective clothing, tick repellents, and
of swelling and pain in the knee or other joints. This odd using a vaccine named Lymerix. In short, the detection of
disease seemed to occur from late spring throughout ticks has helped to alleviate suffering from Lyme disease. The
summer and lasted from a week to a few months. process of detecting causes of disease is often tedious and time
consuming, but the outcome of saving lives makes this effort
worthwhile. Likewise,
M ost patients had symptoms in three stages. The
first stage was characterized by a skin rash that
began as a red spot or bump and slowly enlarged.
learning to detect design
in nature and telling
others about their find-
Second-stage symptoms included influenza-like fatigue, ing may ultimately help
chills, fever, headache, stiff neck, and backache. In the people discover their
third stage, swelling and tenderness accompanied by pain Creator and in turn find
would afflict certain joints of the body. These symptoms life more abundantly.
developed in most untreated cases, beginning about six
months after the rash, and slowly disappearing over Lyme arthritis
years. It was later discovered that bacteria multiplying (right) as revealed by
and spreading across the skin disseminated into the body an x-ray of the right
tissues through the bloodstream. Immune reactions to hand. Notice the
this process produced tissue damage. Health officials swollen joints.
Body By Design 145

law or chance. Design theory unpacks the logic of this of the filter that determines whether the thing in ques-
everyday activity, and applies it to questions in science. tion might be reasonably expected to occur by chance.
There's no magic, no vitalism, and no appeal to the occult Clearly, if something can be explained by reference to
supernatural. Inferring design is rational, objective, and chance, it cannot be attributed to design. Things explain-
nearly universal. able by chance are therefore eliminated at the second
According to Dembski, the key step in formulating stage of the explanatory filter.
intelligent design as a scientific theory is to delineate a In terms of the interwoven pattern, there is no law that
method for detecting design. Such a method exists, and in is able to account for its occurrence, nor is there any
fact, we use it implicitly all the time. The method takes plausible probability that might account for its occurring
the form of a three-stage explanatory filter. Given some- by chance. In this case, we bypass the first two stages of
thing we think might be designed, we refer it to the filter. the explanatory filter and arrive at the third and final
If it successfully passes all three stages of the filter, then we stage. Vast improbability predicts design if we notice that
are warranted asserting it is designed. In general, the filter the interwoven pattern is specified.
asks three questions, and in the following order: (1) Does We find that the interwoven pattern of DNA is speci-
a law explain it? (2) Does chance explain it? (3) Does fied in its base pairing and that its message is ordered
design explain it? To see how the filter works in practice, beyond any random probability. Chance or law cannot
consider the case of the interwoven pattern. explain therefore, it must be designed. It is this catego-
ry of specified things and having a very low chance of
Is It Designed? random occurrence that tells us the pattern is not an acci-
dent. The third stage of the explanatory filter therefore
A ny scientific idea must go through a filter to deter-

mine its truthfulness or validity. In order to say
something is designed, from a scientists perspective, we
presents us with a choice. We must accept the logic of
common experience that tells us that human body parts
that have multiple, interdependent parts are designed
must first demonstrate that neither law nor chance can and, in turn, created by a Designer. If we reject this intu-
explain it alone. Lets examine the claim in this book that itive conclusion, we deny the truth. This has been the
human body parts that have an interwoven pattern (and habit of skeptics and atheists. They reject this marvelous
its synonyms) are a result of intelligent causation. At the interweaving and say that it is all a product of time and
first stage, the filter determines whether a law can chance.
explain the thing in question. Clearly, if a law can For some of them, they see this apparent design, not
explain something, it cannot be proven as designed. real design. In this next section, we will examine similar
Things explainable by a law are therefore eliminated at patterns in the human body that have made it through the
the first stage of the explanatory filter. filter.
Suppose, however, no law is able to explain the pattern

we think is designed. We then proceed to the second stage
Table 16.1 In t e rd e p e n d e n c e i n t h e Hu m a n B o d y
TERM EXAMPLE
Cell team B- and T-lymphocytes
of the immune system
Compound traits The eye and its external muscles
Interwoven molecules DNA with its coiled histones
(interlacing, intertwined)
Interdependent parts Nephron, capillaries, and renal tubules of the
excretory system
Irreducible complexity Blood clotting cascades
146 Body by Design

Design Focus 16.1
The Star-Spangled Banner and

the Second Law
Decay of the American Flag Over 200 Years
T he famed Star-Spangled Banner, the flag

that flew in 1814 during the War of 1812
in the United State represents a great historical
moment. Since its manufacture in 1812 it has
continued to decay. Tens of thousands of dollars
have gone into restoration of this great flag. So,
over time, fabric does not become more complex
and highly integrated, it deteriorates. The evolu-
tionist claims that if you have enough time,
then, the blind watchmaker working with muta-
tion, selection and the right environment will
produce complex tapestries.
Despite the evidence, the second law of ther-
modynamics (entropy) doesnt seem to apply to
living things according to the evolutionist.
Entropy is a fundamental law in nature that pre-
dicts that disorder will always increase in all
structured systems. They would rather imagine
that human evolution is an exception to the law
of decay. So which model evolution or creation
makes more sense and is consistent with
entropy? Things do not go uphill without ener-
gy, some directed force, and/or intelligence.
How then could random chance and natural
selection forces produce something as highly
integrated as a kidney nephron and a capillary
network in an intestinal villus? It is highly
improbable. A tornado going through a junk-
Creation Total Energy=Constant
yard is more likely to produce a 747 jet than for
(First Law)
the formation of even one interwoven body part
A v En
from macroevolution. Therefore, they must have Energy

ai er
bl
la
been fashioned by the Creator! e

g y (Se
co
nd
L aw
)
Time 1800s 1900s 2000s

Second Law of Thermodynamics
Body By Design 147

Epidemiologists, or medical detectives, discover an epi-
Interdependence demic in progress and define circumstances under
which a disease spreads. They look for clues that might
I n many respects, the theme of interdependence is the

strongest evidence for creation. The concept of inter-
dependence of body parts is one of the most recognizable
correlate a specific microbe with an infectious disease,
studying the pattern of disease distribution, and apply-
ing statistics to find the probable cause of a given dis-
themes in the disciplines of biochemistry, cell biology, ease (See Disease Focus 16.1). Sleuths need keen obser-
and human anatomy and physiology. It is repeated in vation, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills.
many diverse sets of cells, organs, and organ systems. The Sleuths possess traits like those of Sherlock Holmes:
famous comparative anatomist George Cuvier, in the 18th patience, persistence, discipline, and creativity. They
Century developed a similar notion of irreducible com- must be open to new methods while maintaining their
plexity, calling it the correlation of parts. Cuvier, a firm traditional traits of being a good bloodhound.
creationist, advanced this
argument in debates
against evolution. In Figure 16.3 Detecting Design
the 20th century, other
scientists, such as
Dean Kenyon, Michael
Denton, and Michael
Behe have also argued for
design in light of the
evidence of the interde-
pendence and complexity
of body structures.
Related terms used by
various authors to nothing in biology makes sense
describe this phenome- except in light of the evidence
non of interdependence
include adaptation pack-
age, cell team, compound As you examine new data in the organization of the
traits, emergent properties, irreducible complexity, molec- human body, we encourage you to think critically, like a
ular team, and synergism. This resulting condition of detective would. Be aware of the assumptions that go into
interdependent body parts working together is that the each way of thinking, from a design versus a blind watch-
sum of the actions is greater than the separate, individual maker (chance) perspective. You will want to utilize a vari-
actions. A summary of terms with examples is given in ety of methods and skills to understand the nature of
table 16.1. human body origins. Should the disciplines of human
Living cells, as well as specific organs in the human anatomy and physiology be explained by special creation
body, will not work unless every part is there at the same or by macroevolution? You must make an intelligent
time. There is a tremendous advantage to cooperation in choice.
the body at all levels from the molecular to the systematic
level. Conclusions
Detective Work
I n conclusion, intelligent design in the human body may
be observed in the purposeful arrangement of individ-
I n analyzing the human body systems and their ori-

gin, you need to become a sleuth. Sleuths are detec-
tives, trackers, or bloodhounds who search for a crim-
ual parts in the 11 body systems. The idea of design flows
naturally from the data and from arguments from the
Bible. The products of the human body appear not to be
inal, or an elusive clue. The way to check the plausi- by chance and necessity, but rather they appear to be
bility of an origin's model is to consider circumstantial planned. New data from medical research verifies the
evidence. In a murder case with no eyewitnesses, time-tested analogy that the human body and its functions
detectives must rely on the strength of such evidence. are like a finely tuned computer. The Creator knew what
148 Body by Design

completed and functional systems look like, then took with Newton. For over a century, very few scientists had a
steps to bring the systems into being. The human body, in satisfactory, scientific answer to Darwins theory, but an
its most critical components, appears to be the product of increasing number of professional biological scientists see
intelligent activity. intelligent design as a reasonable alternative to evolution.
Design is most evident when a number of separate, The wonder of the human body is not new. In fact
interacting components are ordered in such a way as to it was revered long ago. As we study the intricacies of the
accomplish a function beyond the individual components. human body, we must conclude that its design was not
In general, the greater the specificity of the required, inter- only intelligent, but was wonderful because it is a product
acting components to produce a specific function, the of a personal and skilled Creator. In fact, King David got
greater the probability and confidence that its origin was it right when he penned these words over 3,000 years ago:
by intelligent design. For Thou hast possessed my reins: Thou hast covered
As examined, the processes in the human body are very me in my mothers womb. I will praise thee, for I am
complex in the 11 body systems and are evidences that fearfully and wonderfully made: marvelous are thy
some designer is responsible for this marvelous body plan. works, and that my soul knoweth right well. My sub-
Isaac Newton said, In the absence of any other proof, the stance was not hidden from thee, when I was made in
thumb alone would convince me of Gods existence. secret, and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the
Today, more and more scientists are once again agreeing earth. Thine eyes saw my substance yet being unperfect.
Design Focus 16.2

The Human Body, Crown of Creation
D esign, purpose, and amazing patterns are revealed

in the human body as the handiwork of our won-
derful Lord. Each vertebrae of the body has an even
comparison between chance and Design: We may imag-
ine Chance and Design to be as it were, in competition
with each other, for the production of some sorts of
number of segments. Each hand has an even number of Events, and may calculate what Probability there is, that
muscles and tendons in its forearm. The Master those events should be rather owing to one than to the
Craftsman fashions a masterpiece that human hands have other (Dembski, 1998, p. v.).
never, and will never, be able to duplicate. He is a skilled
engineer, stringing a network of nerves a system of Who Is This Architect?
communication that makes the telephone systems in our
largest cities seem simple in comparison. He adds mus-
cles and ligaments, each in the exact size, not too long
nor too short, planned skillfully to suspend, support, and
Y ou may wonder who is this great Architect of the
human body. He made us, bought us, heals us, and
gives purpose to our lives. In Genesis, He is the one who
act as the guy wires of a suspension bridge. Then a frame- declared us to have been made very good. In Exodus, He
work, architecturally perfect, of lime and other minerals is Jehovah Rapha, the One who heals. In Job, He is the
for reinforcement, molding and shaping each bone for Intelligent Designer who fashioned our inward parts with
the stress and strain its location calls for without any pre- wisdom. In Psalms, the He is the Maker of Mankind that
cision instruments, without any trial fitting or experi- is fearfully and wonderfully made. In Isaiah, He is the
mental tests. He built each bone perfectly. All the won- Colossal Creator who cares for us. In Luke He is the Great
ders of construction and yet more! Is it by chance? Physician. In Colossians, He is Christ the Creator who
Meditate upon this saying of a famous mathematician of holds us together with invisible forces (molecular bonds,
the 18th century. Abram de Moivre, in 1718, said, The like DNA). In Ephesians, He is the Skilled Craftsman
same Arguments which explode the Notion of Luck, may, who compacted and knit us together. In John and
on the other side, be useful in some Cases to establish a due Revelation, He is none other than Jesus Christ!
Body By Design 149

And in thy book all my members were written, which in along. He is present in our world.
continuance were fashioned when as yet there was none The watchmaker is not blind as some contend, nor is
of them (Ps. 139: 13-16). evolution the glue that holds all biology together.
Contemporary interpretation of blood clotting mecha- But, rather, it is the hand of the Creator that holds all
nisms by scientists is analogous to the interpretation of things together by His power (Col. 1:1617).
historical events made by various wise men during the Therefore, the best scheme that links (or glues) all
day of Daniel and the reign of Belshazzar. The ancient biology together is intelligent design. Nothing makes
Babylonian prophet Daniel was a man who understood sense in biology, except in the light of evidence! There
science (Dan. 1:4), gifted by God to interpret difficult are dozens of examples of interwoven complexities, or
enigmas. At a critical point in history, the Creators hand fabric-like designs, in the body for the open-minded
became visible (Dan. 5) and wrote a message on the wall biologist. The invisible attributes observed in human
of Belshazzars palace for all to see. Although many of the anatomy challenge the Darwinian dogma for an evolu-
kings choice scholars read the inscription, only Daniel, a tionary origin of humans. The Psalmist said that he was
man who understood that God was omniscient (all know- fearfully and wonderfully made. A modern paraphrase
ing) could tell the meaning of the cryptic words. He was is that our body displays an awesome and distinctive
able to interpret the handwriting on the wall, (Dan. blueprint. If we were to explore further the histology of
5:5). Daniel understood this writing because he trusted wound healing, bone restoration, and tissue regenera-
God to reveal the solution to this unsolved mystery. tion, we would discover more fingerprints of the Great
Today the message is not one of written revelation, Physician. Jehovah Rapha has the power to heal the
but one that is more subtle: the revelation of Gods body because He is the One who made it. The same
glory in His handiwork (Ps. 19:1), the human body. cell-stitching that He designed in His original blue-
Sometimes molecular biologists encounter cryptic mes- print can be restored when the body is injured. He is
sages and unsolved mysteries in determining the mech- able to mend it back together because He is the Master
anisms behind physiological patterns and pathological Craftsman.
conditions. Sometimes dental researchers encounter Although God may be invisible to our physical eyes,
anatomical anomalies, like the facial, sphenomandibu- He provides us with sufficient light to see Him
laris muscle, and find its function puzzling. with spiritual eyes. The Bible is our divine revelation
Biochemists study biological messages in the language and the Fathers world is our natural revelation. Both
of life, DNA, and in the intricacies of blood clotting illumine our minds with evidence to understand the
and the immune response. In a sense, these microscop- patterns of the human body. The wisdom of God is
ic observations are modern examples of handwriting revealed in the living Word, Jesus Christ; in the written
on the wall. As creation scientists, we must follow Word, the Bible; and in nature. The natural finger-
Daniels example by asking God to illumine the myster- prints from His invisible hand are a testimony to the
ies, the themes, and the enigmas encountered in todays Creators glory and His care for all life (Ps. 8:4; 19:1).
biological world. It is the Creator who gives under- The fact that this Creator also gives us a plan and pur-
standing to these patterns. Although the secular scien- pose for life is our fortress, our shield, and our very
tist works by his own light and ignores God in this great reward. This book only scratches the surface of
thinking about the natural world, the creation scientist, human anatomy, but we have presented adequate evi-
in contrast, looks to the Creators Word to illumine his dence to testify that the human body themes are in fact
mind for understanding. It is there that he finds truth. fingerprints from His invisible hand. There is in fact,
In Daniels day, the message from the hand was one wisdom in the inward parts!
of impending judgment. Today, with an understanding
of Scripture and a prudent study of biological finger-
prints, one can see a message in the physiological pat-
terns. Today, the message is that the designs in the
human body were crafted by an all-wise Maker and He
cares for you, His creation. This same Creator is also
judge, and His word says that we will all be accountable
to Him someday (Rom. 1:29). One can still see clear
writing on the wall: that someday we will meet our
Maker who has been sending subtle messages to us all
150 Body by Design

Wisdom of the Body
1. Explain why intelligent design is the theme that links all
biology themes. Why is evolution (molecules to man) not
the glue that holds all biology together?
2. List several examples of microevolution.
3. Explain the principle of uniform experience and how it
relates to the intelligent design.
4. Illustrate how you might recognize design in DNA
(and other living systems).
5. Discuss how disease, decay, and death fit into a
creation model of life.
6. Illustrate how there is wisdom in the inward parts.
7. In your own words, summarize the steps involved with
the explanatory filter method of detecting design.
8. Consider the mousetrap illustration of interdependence.
Try to find 2 or 3 other objects or analogous structures in
the room that contain similar interdependence.
9. Name 3 or 4 additional interdependent structures in the
human body similar to those in table 16.1.
10. Finally, find a magazine article describing a recent
outbreak of an infectious disease. If they are mentioned,
analyze the methods used by the epidemiologists to find
and treat the causative agent of the disease. See if you can
find the sleuth work involved. Using these same methods
and skills, analyze a published article on human origins,
anatomy, or physiology. Do you arrive at the same
conclusions as the author? Why or why not?
Body By Design 151

References
Behe, M. J. 1996. Darwins Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. The Free Press. New York.
Bergman, Jerry, Ph.D. and Howe, G. 1990. Vestigial Organs Are Fully Functional. Creation Research Society Books. Kansas City, MO.
Brand, P. and Yancey, P. 1980. Fearfully and Wonderfully Made. Zondervan. Grand Rapids, MI.
Brand, P. 1991. You Are Wonderful; Part #4, Hormones Video. Norlynn A/V Services. N. Vancouver, B. C., Canada.
Cosgrove, M. 1987. The Amazing Body Human: Gods Design for Personhood. Baker Books. Grand Rapids, MI.
Cuozzo, J. 1998. Buried Alive. Master Books. Green Forest, Arkansas.
Darwin, C. 1859. The Origin of Species (Reprint of first edition). Avenue Books. New York.
Dawkins, R. 1996a. The Blind Watchmaker. W. W. Norton and Company. New York.
Dawkins, R. 1996b. Climbing Mount Improbable. W. W. Norton and Company. New York.
Dembski, W. 1998. The Design Inference. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, England.
Eidsmoe, J. 1987. Christianity and the Constitution. Baker Book House. Grand Rapids, MI.
Eakin, R. M. 1982. Great Scientists Speak Again. University of California Press. Berkeley, CA.
Glasser, R. J. 1976. The Body is the Hero. Random House. New York.
Gould, S. J. 1980. The Pandas Thumb. W. W. Norton and Company. New York.
Gould, S. J. 1999. Dorothy, Its Really Oz: A Pro-creationist Decision is More Than a Blow Against Darwin. Time Magazine, 154 (8): 1-2.
Gray, N. 1901. Grays Anatomy, fifteenth edition. (Editors T. P. Pick and R. Howden). Barnes and Noble, Inc. New York.
Guyton, A. C. 1991. Textbook of Medical Physiology, eighth edition. W. B. Saunders. Philadelphia, PA.
Harvey, W. 1995 (reprint of 1628 edition). De Motu Cordis: Anatomical Exercises Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Living
Creatures. Dover Books. Mineola, NY.
Jackson, W. 1993. The Human Body: Accident or Design? Courier Publications. Stockton, CA.
Katz, D. 1972. Tonsillectomy: Boom or Boondoggle? Detroit Free Press, April 13, p. 1-C.
Life Magazine Eds. 1997. A Fantastic Voyage Through the Human Body. New York. Life Magazine, 2: pp. 59-81.
Menton, D. 1991. Eye Analogy on Creation Science Home Page. Web Site Address. http://emporium.turnpike.net/C/cs/.
Morris, H. M. 1988. Men of Science, Men of God. Master Books, Inc. Green Forest, AR.
Morris, H. M. 1995. Defenders Study Bible, (KJV). Word Publishing. Grand Rapids, MI.
National Academy of Science Editors. 1998. Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science. National Academy Press.
Washington, DC.
Nester, E. N., Roberts, C. E., Pearsall, N. N., Anderson, D. G., Nester, M. T. 1998. Microbiology: A Human Perspective, second edition.
WCB McGraw-Hill. Boston, MA.
Nuland, S. B. 1997. The Wisdom of the Body. Alfred Knopf. New York.
Paley, W. 1802. Natural Theology. Lincoln-Rembrandt Publishers (Reprinted in 1997). Charlottesville, VA.
Parker, G. 1996. Creation: Facts of Life. Master Books. Green Forest, AR.
Ryrie, C. 1994. Ryrie Study Bible, Expanded ed., (KJV). Moody Press, Chicago, IL.
Shakespeare, W. 1992. Hamlet. Dover Thrift Edition. Dover Publishing. New York.
Sproul, R. C. 1996. The Invisible Hand. Word. Dallas, TX.
Stevens, J. 1985. Quoted by David Menton (1991). The Eye on Creation Science Home page. Technical and In depth Papers.
http://emporium.turnpike.net/C/cs/.
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Tortora, G. J. and Grabowski, S. R. 2000. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, ninth edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York.
Tortora, G., Funke, B. and Case, C. 2000. An Introduction to Microbiology, seventh edition. Addison-Wesley: San Francisco, CA.
Longman.
Van de Graff, K. M. 1998. Human Anatomy, fifth edition. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Dubque, IA.
Wells, J. 2000. Icons of Evolution: Science or Myth? Regnery Press, Washington, DC.
Yancey, P. 1990. Where Is God When It Hurts? Zondervan House. Grand Rapids, MI.
152 Body by Design

For Further Reading
1. Alcamo, I. E. 1996. DNA Technology: The Awesome Skill. WCB McGraw-Hill. Boston, MA.
2. Brand, P. and Yancey, P. 1993. Pain: The Gift Nobody Wants. Harper Collins. New York.
3. Brand, P. and Yancey, P. 1980. Fearfully and Wonderfully Made. Zondervan. Grand Rapids, MI.
4. Brand, P. and Yancey, P. 1984. In His Image. Zondervan. Grand Rapids, MI.
5. Behe, M. J. 1996. Darwins Black Box: The biochemical Challenge to Evolution. The Free Press. New York.
6. Cosgrove, M. 1987. The Amazing Body Human: Gods Design for Personhood. Baker Book House. Grand Rapids, MI.
7. Cuozzo, J. 1998. Buried Alive. Master Books. Green Forest, Arkansas.
8. Darwin, C. 1979. The Origin of Species (Reprint of first edition). Avenue Books. New York.
9. Davis, P. and Kenyon, D. 1993. Of Pandas and People: The Central Question in Biological Origins. Haughton. Dallas, TX.
10. Gillen, A. L, Sherwin, F., and Knowles, A. 1999. The Human Body: An Intelligent Design. Creation Research Society. Hull, GA.
11. Gray, N. 1995. Grays Anatomy, fifteen edition. (Editors T. P. Pick and R. Howden). Barnes and Noble, Inc. (Original Edition,
1901). New York.
12. Guyton, A. C. 1991. Textbook of Medical Physiology, eighth edition. W. B. Saunders Philadelphia, PA.
13. Harvey, W. 1995 (reprint of 1628 edition). De Motu Cordis: Anatomical Exercises Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood in
Living Creatures. Dover Books. Mineola, NY.
14. Hole, J. , Shier, D., Butler, J. and R. Lewis 1996. Holes Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7th ed. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Dubque, IA.
15. Lubenow, M. L. 1997. Bones of Contention. Baker Book House. Grand Rapids, MI.
16. McMillen, S. I. 1963. None of These Diseases, 1st ed. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company.
17. Morris, H. M. 1995. The Defenders Study Bible. World. Grand Rapids, Michigan.
18. Nester, E. N., Roberts, C. E., Pearsall, N. N., Anderson, D. G., Nester, M. T. 1998. Microbiology: A Human Perspective, second
edition. WCB McGraw-Hill. Boston, MA.
19. Nilsson, L. 1985. The Body Victorious. Delacorte Press. New York.
20. Nuland, S. B. (editor) 1998. Exploring the Human Body: Incredible Voyage. National Geographic Society. Washington, D.C.
21. Nuland, S. B. 1997. The Wisdom of the Body. Alfred Knopf. New York.
22. Parker, G., Graham, K., Shimmin, D., and Thompson, G. 1997. Gods Living Creation. A Beka Books. Pensacola, FL.
23. Paley, W. 1802. Natural Theology. Lincoln-Rembrandt Publishers (Reprinted in 1997). Charlottesville, VA.
(Also available as Paleys Watchmaker edited by Bill Cooper (1997). New Wine Press. West Susex, England. )
24. Parker, G. 1996. Creation: The Facts of Life. Master Books. Green Forest, Arkansas.
25. Tiner, John H. 1999. The History of Medicine. Master Books. Green Forest, Arkansas.
26. Saunders, J. B. and OMalley C. 1950. The Illustrations From the Works of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels. Dover Books. Mineola, NY.
27. Silvius, J. E. 1997. Biology: Principles and Perspectives. Kendall Hunt. Dubque, IA.
28. Thomas, L. 1986. In Pode, R. M. (Editor), The Incredible Machine (pp. 6-8). National Geographic Society. Washington, D.C.
29. Tortora, G. J. 1994. Introduction to the Human Body: The Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, third edition. Harper Collins College
Publishers. New York.
30. Tortora, G. J. and Grabowski, S. R. 2000 Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 8th ed. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
31. Tortora, G. J. , Funke, B. and Case, C. 2001. An Introduction to Microbiology, 7th ed. Redwood City, CA.:
The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing.
32. Van de Graff, K. M. and Fox, S. I. 1998. Concepts of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 5th ed. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Dubque, IA.
33. Van de Graff, K. M. 1998. Human Anatomy, fifth edition. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Dubque, IA.
34. Watson, J. 1968. The Double Helix. Atheneum Publishers. New York.
Body By Design 153

Glossary Used in Body by Design
acidosis A serious physiological condition in which hydrogen ions overwhelm the buffers of the blood,
resulting in a life-threatening low pH.
adaptation Creationists use this term to refer to a short-term change in the response of a body system as a
consequence of repeated or protracted stimulation; whereas, evolutionists use this term to mean adjustment
to environmental demand through the long-term process of natural selection acting on the genotype.
adaptation package Biological organisms are more than the sum of individual structures; their ability to
function successfully is due to an entire package of parts.
alkalosis A condition in which there is an increase in alkaline substances in the blood, especially sodium bicarbonate.
all-or-none principle In skeletal muscles, individual fibers contract to their fullest extent or not at all. In
neurons, if a stimulus is strong enough to initiate an action potential, a nerve impulse is propagated along
the entire neuron at a constant strength.
alveolus An individual air capsule within the lung; the basic functional unit of respiration. Alveolus may also
refer to the socket that secures a tooth.
analogy (analogous structure) A body part similar in function to that of another organism, but only
superficially similar in structure, at most. Such similarities are regarded not as evidence of inheritance from
a common ancestor, as in homology, but as evidence only of similar function.
anatomy The branch of science concerned with the structure of living organisms and the relationship of their organs.
articulation The junction of two or more bones. It can also mean fit together.
asepsis Freedom from infection; condition in the body that is free of pathogens, as in wounds or surgical
incisions that are free from pathogenic bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans, and parasites.
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) The universal energy-carrying molecule manufactured in all living cells as a
means of capturing and storing energy. It consists of adenine with a sugar, ribose, to which are added, in
linear array, three phosphate molecules.
autonomic nervous system The branch of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that has control over the inter-
nal organs. It is divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.
axon The process of a nerve cell that transmits impulses away from the cell body of a neuron.
biochemistry The scientific discipline concerned with the study of chemical reactions that occur in organisms
(they explain the metabolic processes of life in the language of chemistry).
B-lymphocyte Specialized leukocytes processed in the bone marrow (or bursa equivalent); these cells give rise to
plasma cells that produce antibodies.
bone marrow The soft sponge-like material in the cavities of bones. Its principle function is to manufacture
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets (formed elements of blood).
blind watchmaker Richard Dawkins' metaphor for non-intelligent, purposeless, natural selection;
expressing the idea that design characteristics seen in living things are not like the intelligent purpose
and craftsmanship associated with watch-making.
blood A modified connective tissue consisting of formed elements that are suspended and carried in
plasma (a straw-colored liquid consisting of water and dissolved solutes). These formed elements and
their major functions include erythrocytes (oxygen transport), leukocytes (immune defense), and platelets
(blood clotting).
capillary A microscopic blood vessel that connects an arteriole and a venule; the basic unit of the circulatory system.
cascade A series of chemical reactions, or events, that involve interdependent reactions.
cell The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
chorion The extraembryonic membrane to which the placenta attaches.
chromatin The extended form of chromosomes during interphase. They are threadlike structures in the cell
nucleus consisting primarily of protein and DNA.
chyme The mass of partially digested food that passes through the pyloric sphincter in the stomach, into the
duodenum of the small intestine.
coagulation Refers to blood clotting. The process by which platelets and soluble plasma proteins interact
in a series of complex enzymatic reactions to finally convert fibrinogen into fibrin. It works on a positive
feedback cycle.
commissures Bridges of neurons that connect the brain hemispheres.
compound traits Interdependent parts working together in an organ or system.
correlation (complementarity) of structure and function The close relationship that exists between a
structure and its function. Structure determines function.
convergent evolution Evolution of similar appearances in unrelated species.
corpus callosum The most massive of the brain commissures and typically the only one severed during
surgery for epilepsy.
Darwinism The theory that all living things descended from an original common ancestor through natural
selection and random variation, without the aid of intelligence or nonmaterial forces.
dendrite Nerve cell process that conducts impulses toward the neuron cell body.
154 Body by Design

design The purposeful arrangement of parts; a plan, a scheme, a project, or a purpose with intention or aim.
dialysis Refers to the process of separating molecules of different sizes using a semi-permeable membrane.
digestion Hydrolysis. The process by which large food molecules are broken down into simpler ones, thus
being able to be absorbed through the epithelium of the GI tract.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Nucleic acid found in all cells (except mature red blood cells); the genetic material
that specifies protein synthesis in cells.
Drosophila Genus of fruit fly that has been used in genetic gene expression testing for over a century. The
species most often used is Drosophila melanogaster.
E. coli, Escherichia coli, An enteric bacterial species used in many biological research projects which inhabits
the intestines of humans and other animals. Proliferation can cause newborn meningitis, diarrhea, and urinary
infections.
electrolyte A substance, such as a base, salt, or acid whose molecules, when in solution, separate into ions. Such
a solution is capable of conducting an electric current.
embryology The biological science which deals with the development of an organism.
emergent properties Properties found in living things that show that the sum together is greater than the
separate, independent parts.
enteric bacteria Bacteria that reside in the intestinal tract. Most of these bacteria are not harmful to the human
body and many are mutualistic with humans, providing valuable vitamins and breaking down nutrients. Many
of these beneficial bacteria are now called pro-bacteria.
erythrocytes Red blood cells.
evolution, (evolve) Mere change in living things over time; but also meaning descent with modification, and
particular mechanisms to account for change such as natural selection and gene mutation.
gene pool The total genetic material in the population of a species at a given point in time.
extracellular Outside of a cell or cells.
genome The total DNA for a given organism.
gradualism The view that evolution occurred slowly over time, with transitional forms grading finely in a line
of descent.
Great Physician This is Jesus, the God-Man who heals men/women of physical disability, infectious
disease, emotional and spiritual disorder. Restores men and women who are sick to health. Gives dignity
to those who are ashamed of their condition.
Haversian canal The longitudinal channel in the center of an osteon.
hemoglobin The pigment that gives red blood cells their characteristic red color. It functions in the transport
of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
hemophilia Refers to several different hereditary deficiencies of coagulation.
homeostasis A state of body equilibrium, or the maintenance of an optimal, or stable, internal environment of
the body.
hormone A chemical substance produced in an endocrine gland and secreted into the bloodstream to cause an
effect in a specific target organ.
homology (homologous structure) A body part with the same basic structure and embryonic origin as that of
another organism. In evolutionary theory, it implies the common ancestry of the two. In creationism, it implies a
common design.
hyperventilation State in which there is an increased amount of air entering the pulmonary alveoli, resulting in
reduction of carbon dioxide in blood.
hypothesis In scientific method, 1) an educated guess, 2) a tentative explanation, or 3) a proposition that is to
be confirmed by test.
immunodeficiency An impairment of immunological function which leads to greater susceptibility to oppor-
tunistic infections (e.g., SCIDS and AIDS).
immunity A specified defense against a disease.
integration The coordination of excitatory and inhibitory signals and processes received by the cell body and
processed at the axon hillock.
intelligent design (cause) Any theory that attributes the action, function, or structure of an object to the
creative mental capacities of a personal agent. In biology, the theory that biological organisms owe their origin
to a preexistent intelligence.
interdependent parts Body structures that are interdependent on each other. The body is one unit, though it is
made up of many different types of cells and tissues. The body parts work together, cooperate, and cannot exist
without each other. This resulting condition of these parts working together is that the sum of the actions is
greater than the separate, individual actions.
irreducible complexity Interdependent parts of living (and non-living) things that cannot be reduced further
without losing their intended function (e.g., mousetrap parts working together).
Body By Design 155

Jehovah Rapha The God who heals. The God who makes whole and the One who restores a life of calamity to
a life of dignity and usefulness.
lactose A disaccharide of glucose and galactose, or simply, milk sugar.
lamella A concentric ring of matrix surrounding the canal in an osteon of mature bone tissue.
large intestine A major part of the gastrointestinal tract consisting of the colon, cecum, rectum, and the anal
canal.
leukocytes White blood cells.
lipid Compounds that do not mix with water, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
lymph A clear, plasma-like fluid that flows through lymphatic vessels.
macroevolution The hypothesis of large-scale changes, leading to new levels of complexity. A large change from
one kind of plant or animal to a different kind (e.g., microbe to man). Also called vertical evolution. It is the
idea that all living forms are related as branches of one ancestral tree.
medulla oblongata Section of the brain stem controlling blood pressure, heartbeat, breathing, and other
important functions.
membrane A thin layer of soft, pliable, and often permeable tissue.
metabolism The chemical changes that occur within the body.
microevolution Small-scale genetic changes, observable in organisms. A small change within a specific group
(e.g., Darwin's finches; antibiotic-resistant bacteria). Also called horizontal evolution.
M. leprae Mycobacterium leprae causes peripheral nerve damage and it is the species of bacteria that is
responsible for leprosy (Hansens disease).
monocytes Largest of white blood cells. They are phagocytic and differentiate into tissue macrophages.
morphology The form or structure of an organism.
mosaic Patterns and designs showing contrasts among colors, pigments, structures, and/or organisms in their
environment.
mutation A relatively permanent change in the DNA involving either a physical change in chromosome(s) or
a biochemical change in the order or number of nucleotide bases in gene(s).
mucociliary escalator The mechanism where cilia of mucous membrane cells move particles along respiratory
membranes and down the throat, where they are swallowed.
natural selection Process in nature where one genotype leaves more offspring for the next generation than
other genotypes in that population. The explanation is that the elimination of less-suited organisms and the
preservation of more suited ones result from pressures within the environment, or competition, or both.
negative feedback A primary mechanism for homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that
is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.
nephron The functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a glomerulus, convoluted tubules, and a loop.
Neo-Darwinism The concept of Darwinism with the addition of mutation, population, and Mendelian
genetics.
nerve impulse Electrochemical change (action potential) traveling along a neuron.
neuron A nerve cell.
nucleotide The fundamental structural unit of a nucleic acid, or DNA, made up of a nitrogen-carrying base, a
sugar molecule, and a phosphate group.
ontogeny The development of an individual.
order A fixed or definite plan and system.
organ A structure of the body formed of two or more tissues and adapted to carry out a specific function.
organ system A group of organs that work together to perform a vital body function.
organism The living body that represents the sum total of all its organ systems working together to maintain
life.
organization A unified coherent group or systemized whole.
osteon A group of osteocytes and concentric lamellae surrounding a central canal, constitutitng the basic and
interwoven unit of bone tissue; also called the Haversion system.
pathogen Technical term for germ, or germ-causing microbe, such as virus, bacterium, or protozoan that may
be disease-causing.
phagocytosis The process of engulfing other organisms; the particle containing vacuole fuses with a lysosome
whose enzymes digest the food. An example of this is macrophages eating bacteria and other invaders of the
body.
phylogeny The racial history of an animal, person, or plant.
placenta The organ of nutrient and waste exchange between a mother and the fetus.
plasma cell (plasmacyte) A mature antibody-secreting B-cell found mainly in lymph nodes.
plasticity The ability of the brain to do long-term adjustments to long-term changes.
positive feedback A physiological control mechanism in which a change in some variable triggers mechanisms
that amplify the change.
156 Body by Design

physiology The science of the functioning of living organisms.
physiochemical forces Naturalistic view of how blind, mechanistic forces, through chance and natural selec-
tion, over millions of years, may explain the irreducible complexity of anatomical structures and physiological
functions of the human body.
pseudostratified columnar epithelium Tissue that has cells (like bricks on end) with relatively large cytoplas-
mic volumes.
pyemia Pus-forming infection.
recapitulation The idea that development in the embryo or fetus replays evolution. Ernst Haeckel first stated
this idea in his so called biogenetic law: ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.
reticular formation A complex brain network that arouses the cerebrum. It is also a site for the integration of
various brain signals.
retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) A structure in the posterior portion of the eye that maintains the
photoreceptor structure and function and is necessary for optimal vision. It provides nutrients for the retinal
cells and enhances new cell growth in the photoreceptor region of the eye.
selective advantage A genetic advantage of one organism over its competitors that causes it to be favored in
survival and reproduction rates over time.
septicemia Blood infection by bacteria, such as Streptococcus pyogenes.
simple columnar epithelium This tissue has cells with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes, and is often
located where secretion or active absorption of substances are important functions. Their cells are shaped like
bricks on end.
simple cuboidal epithelium This tissue is specialized for secretion and makes up the epithelia of the thyroid
gland. These cells are like sugar cubes in shape and secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
simple squamous epithelium This tissue has relatively leaky tissue. These cells (shaped like floor tiles) are
specialized for exchange of materials by diffusion.
small intestine Long, tube-like chamber of the digestive tract between the large intestine and stomach; divided
into three areas.
speciation The development of a new species by reproducing their ancestral population, resulting in the loss of
interfertility with isolation of organisms from it.
sphenomandibularis A muscle that was recently discovered by cutting a cadaver from an unconventional angle
and exposing an unfamiliar muscle connecting the mandible to the sphenoid bone behind the base of the eye
socket. It is thought to stabilize the jaw during chewing rather than actually moving the jaw.
STDs Sexually transmitted diseases.
synapse Region between two nerve cells where the nerve impulse is transmitted from one to the other, usually
from axon to dendrite.
systemic pressure Arterial blood pressure during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle.
stasis The constant morphology of a species over a long period of geologic time.
synergism Usually refers to properties found in non-living things (especially chemicals) that show the sum
together is greater than the separate, independent parts. (Occasionally refers to properties of organisms.)
tight junction Junction between epithelial cells where the membranes are in close contact, with no intervening
spaces. Helps to maintain boundaries in cells.
tissue A group of structurally similar cells performing a distinct function.
tissue trauma This trauma is caused by the puncture of the skin; a severe wound that is internal. It is so named
because the formation of prothrombinase is initiated by tissue factor (TF), leading to the extrinsic pathway.
Response is very rapid.
T-lymphocyte Specialized leukocytes processed in the thymus gland; these lymphocytes provide the body with
specific cell-mediated immunity.
urinary system The organs concerned with the formation, concentration, and elimination of urine (also
known as the excretory system).
villus A minute projection that extends outward into the lumen from the mucosal layer of the small intestine.
vestigial structure (organ) A body part that has no function, but which is presumed to have been useful in
ancestral species.
vitamin K Fat-soluble vitamin K1 is found in foods, and K2 is produced by E. coli. They are needed for the
clotting protein, prothrombin to form.
In this glossary, we define basic biological terms from a creation/design perspective. Included are words and terms which are used more than once
throughout the book. This glossary clarifies word meanings that may have a specialized meaning in the context of creationism, anatomy, and physiology.
For an extensive treatment of technical terms, we refer the readers to a standard medical, biology, and/or English dictionary (e.g., Webster). Some of the
better medical dictionaries would include Dorlands Illustrated Medical Dictionary, Mosbys Medical Dictionary, and Merriam Websters Medical Dictionary.
In addition, I would suggest the reader consult a biology, an anatomy and physiology, and/or a microbiology textbook.
Body By Design 157

Index
A common cold, 18, 82, 84, 85 G
acid(s), 23, 25, coccyx, 33 Galen, 7, 131
amino, 25 colon, 57 gall bladder 10, 55, 57, 124
nucleic, 27 computer, 93 germ theory, 132, 133, 135
stomach (HCl), 7, 25, 55 cortisol, 109 gill slits, 32, 33
adaptation, 12, 59, 80 creation science, 17 gland, 10, 105, 107-113
adenoid, 121 creation scientist, 141, 150 glucose, 12, 107-109
adrenaline, 106 Creator, et passim - throughout Gray's Anatomy, 47
adrenal gland, 109 Great Physician, 128, 150
aging, 13 D
all or none 91 DNA, 18, 22, 24, 143-144 H
ankle, 43 Darwin, C., (Darwinist) 16, 17, 19, Hack, G., 47
antibiotics, 20, 57, 94, 102, 141, 145 20, 141, 142, 149 Haeckel, E., 32
antibodies, 122 David, (see also bubble boy) 122-124 hand, 6, 7, 9, 52, 150
antigen, 122 dental caries, 60 Harvey, W., 6, 69, 74, 130, 136-137
arthritis, 38, 145 da Vinci, L., 131, 134 heart, 10, 69-73
arch, foot, 43 dendrites, 89 histology, 27
astrocytes, 10, 88-89 De Motu Cordis, 136 homeostasis, 11, 109-112
autonomic nervous system, 50, 71, diabetes, 12, 108, 116 human
87, 107 diaphragm, 50, 79, 80 body, et passim - throughout
axon, 89, 90 digestive system, 10, 54-61 development, 17, 31, 32
duodenum, 55 embryo, 31, 32
B evolution, 141-142
bacteria, 57-60, 64, 94, 124-126, E Human Genome Project, 23,
141, 145 ear, 100, 102 137-138
bases, 112, 144 electrolytes, 111, 112 hyperglycemic, 108
Behe, M., 73, 148 enamel, 60 hypoglycemic, 108
biogenetic law, 32 epithelium, 123 hypothalamus, 11, 107, 110
bioenergetics, 87 E. coli, 57-59
blood, 12, 68- 77 engineering, 43 I
circulation, 72-74 endocrine system, 10, 104-117 immune system, 10, 118, 119, 123
clotting, 73-75 entropy, 13, 147 integration, 12
bones, 10, 36-44 enzymes, 124 interdependent, 12, 148
boundaries, 11, 12, 118, 124 epithelium, 27 intertwining, 65
bone marrow, 32, 119 Epstein-Barr virus, 123 interwoven, 6, 7, 10, 28, 44, 55, 89,
brain, 10, 87-88 evidence, 148 120, 125, 127, 146
cerebrum, 87 evolution, et passim - throughout insulin, 11, 108
Brand, P., 91, 92, 94 excretory system, 10, 62-67 intestine, 10, 55, 58, 60
bubble boy, (see David) 122-124 eye, 97-99, 101 small, 55, 58, 60
large, 55, 58, 60
C F intelligence, 92, 93
calcaneus, 43 fabric(a), 7, 24, 46, 51, 126, 127, intelligent design, 19
Cannon, W., 105, 109 131,150 irreducible complexity, 26
capillaries, 69, 71-73, 76 filtration, 62, 65
cells, 12, 13, 25-28, 90 fingerprints, 6, 150 J
Schwann, 90 foot, 43, 44 jaw, 42
chyle, 120 fossilized, 42 Jehovah Rapha, 128, 149-150
cilia, 83 juxtamedullary nephron, 10
158 Body by Design

K O tendons, 47, 52
ketone, 116 organ, et passim - throughout The Origin of Species, 16
kidney, 10, 62-64 organelles, 80, 93 thermostat, 11, 110
Koch, R., 133, 135 organization, et passim - throughout thoracic duct, 120
osteon, 10, 44 throat, 54, 121
L thymus, 10, 33, 34, 104, 119
lactose, 59 P tissues, 27-28
leprosy, 94 pain, 91, 92, 94, 116, 143 tongue, 97
ligaments, 43 Paley, W., 19 tonsils, 34, 121, 122
lingula, 80 pancreas, 10, 107, 108 trabercula, 120
Lister, J., 132-133, 135 parathyroid, 111 transducer, 96
liver, 10, 55-57 Pasteur, L., 132, 133, 135 trigeminal nerve, 91
lung, 10, 78-81, 83 pathogen, 122
Lyme disease, 144-145 Peyers Patches 119, 120 U
lymph glands, 10 phagocytosis, 122 ulcers 60, 116
lymphatic system, 10, 118-121, physiological themes, 12 umbilical cord, 32
128-129 phylogeny, 32 ureter, 62
lymphatic tissue, 34 pituitary gland, 10, 104, 107, 110 urethra, 62
lymphocytes, 120, 122, 128 Plasmodium, 124 urinary bladder, 62
plasticity, 86 urine 62-65
M planes of body, 14
macroevolution, 8, 16-17, 19, 141 pneumonia, 80 V
macrophages, 26 Psalm, 6, 22, 24, 149, 150 variation, 19
malaria, 124 Vesalius, 6-8, 131
medulla, 71, 87 R vitamins, 57-59
membranes,mucous, 126 red blood cells, 76 veins, 72, 73
metacarpals, 37 reproductive system, 28, 30-31 vestigial organs, 32-34
metatarsals, 43 Rhinoviruses, 18, 82 villi, 10, 55
microevolution, 18-21, 141
microorganisms, 124 S W
mind-body connection, 115 Schwann cell, 92 waste(s), 62, 65
Mount Rushmore, 20, 75-76 sections of body, 14 white blood cells, 122, 128
mousetrap, 83, 151 sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), womb, 32
muscles, 8, 9, 46-53 33
mutations, 20 sickle cell anemia, 23, 25 XZ
mutualism, 57, 58 skeleton, 36-38, 41, 42 X-chromosome, 123, 138
skin, 10, 125-126 y-chromosome, 138
N sphenomandibularis, 47 yolk sac, 31, 32
natural selection, 141 spleen, 10, 119, 125 zygomatic bone, 39
naturalisitic descent, 19 stress, 109 zygote, 31
negative feedback, 108 stomach, 10
nervous system, 10, 95 Streptococcus, 121, 125
neuron, 87, 89- 91 synapse(s), 86, 90
neurotransmitter, 90, 91
nose, 97 T
nucleic acids, (see DNA) 18, 22, 24, tapestry, 8, 25, 128
143-144 teeth, 40-42, 60
temperature, 11, 110
Body By Design 159

About the Author
Dr. Alan Gillen is a biologist and zoologist with a doctorate in science education. He is an experienced biology
instructor at both the high school and college levels. He has authored more than 25 papers and two books in
biology, microbiology, zoology, anatomy and physiology, and medical issues. In addition to writing Body by Design,
he has authored a companion book, The Human Body: An Intelligent Design. This book provides physiological
evidence for creation. He has been active in bringing a biblical perspective in biology and medicine in the classroom
and local churches for the last eight years. He is also a regular contributor to Creation Matters, a CRS newsletter.
He is active in bringing a biblical perspective to biology and medicine in the classroom. Dr. Gillen is currently
working on a college-level biology textbook with Dr. Chris Carmichael and Frank Sherwin. His professional
interests include effects of exercise on the heart, blood clotting, antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and treatments for
the common cold. Outside of the lab and classroom, he enjoys tennis and exercising. Dr. Gillen presently is a pro-
fessor of biology at Liberty University.
Afterword
In Body by Design, I have attempted to weave together a pattern that better explains the anatomy and
physiology of the human body. In this book, I have described each and every body system, describing its basic
structure and function. In each system, we have examined an interwoven part, pointing to intelligent causation.
Creation concepts of adaptation, homeostasis, and interdependence throughout the body have been explored. I have
attempted to keep it practical by providing clinical, both wellness and disease issues. Many of these explorations
come from my own personal experience, either in my own life or a friends life. I trust that you will see the pattern
the Creator is weaving in your life and that you will also conclude that the human body was wondrously made as
the Psalmist did. Hopefully, you can better see the tapestry being formed and fashioned in your life. The
underpinnings may not only make sense in themselves, but the pattern above can be very beautiful as illustrated in
the human body. Finally, it is my prayer that you will ask God what is His design and will for your life.


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For thou hast possessed my reins: thou hast covered me in my mothers

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Master Books is a division of the New Leaf Publishing Group, Inc.

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Please visit our website for other great titles:

Dedicated to Jayne, Earl, and Barbara Gillen

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Inis Jane Bardella, M.D., FAAFP

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T he complexity of the human body is direct evidence

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A wesome, incredible, or ingenious are some of the adjectives

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ORGAN SYSTEM DESIGNED STRUCTURE PURPOSEFUL FUNCTION INTERWOVEN COMPONENTS

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A nother classic word picture used to describe the human

T here are basic principles, or themes, that can be observed

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Aging Theory: Why does the body wear out?

O ne of the topics of great interest to cell biologists and

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Planes 1. Coronal 2. Midsagittal 3. Transverse

Figure 1.5 The Principle of Uniform Experience

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2. List the 11 systems in the human body. Which of

3. Name six physiological themes that are consistent with

4. How does the body reveal wisdom in the inward

5. The anatomical masterpiece De Humani Corporis

6. Why must scientists be critical thinkers and sometimes

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