Computer

Modeling Applications for Environmental

Engineers
Computer Modeling Applications for Environmental
Engineers
Second Edition

Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

Mohammed Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Abd al-Majd, Ism Muammad,

author.
| Abdel-Magid, Mohammed Isam Mohammed, author.
Title: Computer modeling applications for environmental engineers / Isam Mohammed Abdel-
Magid Ahmed and Mohammed Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid.
Other titles: Modeling methods for environmental engineers.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017. | Revised edition
of: Modeling methods for environmental engineers / Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid, Abdel-Wahid
Hago Mohammed, Donald R. Rowe. 1997. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016054370 | ISBN 9781498776547 (print : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH:
Pollution control equipment--Design and construction--Data processing. | Pollution control
equipment--Computer simulation. | Sanitary engineering--Data processing. | Environmental
 management--Data processing. | Sanitary engineering--Computer simulation.
Classification: LCC TD192 .A25 2017 | DDC 628.0285--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016054370

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

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Dedication

Dedications to the Second Edition

To their souls, Mother Umsalama Al-Tahir Ahmed, Father Mohammed
Abdel-Magid Ahmed, and Wife Eng. Layla Salih Mahmoud I. M. Abdel-Magid
To mom, till we meet again M. I. M. Abdel-Magid
Dedications to the First Edition
To all my former teachers and professors I. M. Abdel-Magid
To all knowledge seekers A. W. Hago
To Amjad and Nasra
D. R. Rowe
Contents

List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Computer Programs
Appendix Contents
Preface
Preface and Acknowledgment to First Edition
Authors
Authors of First Edition
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
List of Acronyms

Chapter 1 Programming Concepts

1.1 How It All Started
1.2 Components of a Computer
1.3 Types of Programs
1.3.1 OS (Supervisor Programs)
1.3.2 Utility Programs (User Programs)
1.4 Programming and Languages
1.5 The Open-Source Movement
1.6 About the .NET Framework
1.7 What Is VS.NET?
1.8 Fundamentals of the VB.NET Language
1.8.1 Variables and Constants
1.8.2 Operators
1.8.3 The REM Statement (Remark or the Single Quote
1.8.4 The End Statement
1.8.5 The GoTo Statement (Transfer of Control and Unconditional Branching)
1.8.6 Intrinsic Functions (Library or Built-In Functions)
1.8.7 The IFTHEN Construct (Conditional Transfer)
1.8.8 The CASE Construct
1.8.9 The FORTONEXT Block (Building a Loop)
1.8.10 DOLOOP
1.8.11 The STRING Class
1.8.12 The FORMAT Family of Functions
 1.8.13 The Drawing Functions
1.8.14 The DIM Statement
1.8.15 Functions and Subroutines
1.8.16 The MSGBOX and INPUTBOX Functions
1.8.17 Objects and Their Properties
1.9 Programs on the Accompanying CD/ROM
1.10 Homework Problems in Programming Concepts
References

Chapter 2 Computer Modeling Applications for Water and Wastewater Properties

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Properties of Water and Wastewater
2.3 Physical Properties
2.3.1 Temperature
2.3.2 Conductivity
2.3.3 Salinity
2.3.4 Solids Content
2.3.5 Total Dissolved Solids
2.3.6 Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity
2.3.7 Viscosity (Rheological Properties)
2.3.8 Surface Tension and Capillary Rise
2.3.9 Bulk Modulus (Bulk Modulus of Elasticity)
2.4 Chemical Characteristics
2.4.1 Hydrogen Ion Concentration
2.4.2 Hardness
2.5 Biological Properties
2.5.1 Dissolved Oxygen
2.5.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
2.6 Radioactivity
2.7 Homework Problems in Water and Wastewater Properties
2.7.1 Discussion Problems
2.7.2 Specific Mathematical Problems
References

Chapter 3 Computer Modeling Applications for Water Resources, Usage, Groundwater, and Water
Storage and Distribution
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Water Sources and Footprints
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Water Footprint
3.2.3 Source Selection
3.3 Population Growth and Consumption Design Rates
3.4 Fire Demand
3.5 Groundwater Flow
3.6 Water Storage
 3.6.1 Water Storage
3.6.2 Mass Curve (Rippl Diagram and S-Curve)
3.7 Water Distribution
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 Patterns of Pipelines in Water Networks
3.7.3 Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
3.7.3.1 Fundamental Equations for an Incompressible Flow
3.7.4 Flow in Pipes
3.7.4.1 Laminar Flow (HagenPoiseuille Flow)
3.7.4.2 Turbulent Flow
3.7.4.3 Minor Losses
3.7.5 Pipes in Series
3.7.5.1 Equivalent-Velocity-Head Method
3.7.5.2 Equivalent-Length Method
3.7.6 Pipes in Parallel (Pipe Network)
3.7.6.1 Disadvantages of the Hardy Cross Method
3.7.6.2 Analysis of Pipe Networks by the Finite Element Method
3.7.6.3 Advantages of the Finite Element Method
3.8 Structural Design of Storage Tanks
3.8.1 Analysis of Forces
3.8.1.1 Circular Tanks
3.8.1.2 Rectangular Tanks
3.8.2 Design of the Section
3.9 Homework Problems in Water Resources, Water Storage, and Water Distribution
3.9.1 Discussion Problems
3.9.2 Specific Mathematical Problems
References

Chapter 4 Computer Modeling Applications for Water Treatment

4.1 Water Treatment Systems
4.2 Aims of Water Treatment
4.3 Screening
4.4 Sedimentation
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Types of Settling Phenomenon
4.4.3 Class I Settling
4.4.4 Settling Characteristics
4.4.5 The Ideal Sedimentation Basin
4.4.6 Elements That Reduce the Efficiency in the Performance of Sedimentation Basins
4.4.6.1 Turbulence
4.4.6.2 Bottom Scour
4.4.6.3 Nonuniform Velocity Distribution and Short-Circuiting
4.4.7 Design of the Settling Zone
4.4.8 Settling of Flocculent Particles
4.4.9 Analysis of Flocculent Settling
 4.4.10 General Design Considerations
4.4.10.1 Rectangular Tanks
4.4.10.2 Circular Settling Tanks (Dorr Settling Tanks)
4.5 Flocculation and Coagulation
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Electrokinetics of Coagulation
4.5.3 Design Parameters
4.5.4 Design of Flocculator
4.6 Aeration and Gas Transfer
4.7 Filtration
4.7.1 Introduction
4.7.2 Filtration Theory
4.7.3 Clogging of the Filter Bed
4.7.4 Backwashing a Rapid Sand Filter
4.8 Methods of Desalination
4.8.1 Introduction
4.8.2 Distillation
4.8.3 Osmosis
4.8.4 Electrodialysis
4.9 Disinfection Process
4.9.1 Introduction
4.9.2 Chlorination
4.10 Corrosion
4.10.1 Introduction
4.10.2 Corrosion Potential Indicators
4.10.2.1 Langelier Index
4.10.2.2 Ryznar Index
4.10.2.3 Aggressiveness Index
4.10.3 Rate of Corrosion
4.11 Homework Problems in Computer Modeling Applications for Water Treatment
4.11.1 Discussion Problems
4.11.2 Specific Mathematical Problems
References

Chapter 5 Computer Modeling Applications for Wastewater Collection System and Treatment
Technology and Disposal
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sewers and Sewerage Systems
5.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sewer Systems
5.2.1.1 Separate System
5.2.1.2 Combined System
5.2.1.3 Other Considerations
5.2.2 Flow Rates of Sanitary Wastewater
5.2.3 Storm Water
5.2.4 Hydraulics of Sewers
 5.2.5 Flow Friction Formulae
5.2.6 Design Computations
5.2.6.1 Capacity of Flow Estimates
5.2.6.2 Self-Cleansing Velocities
5.2.7 Summary of Sewer System Design
5.2.8 Corrosion in Sanitary Sewers
5.2.8.1 Sulfide Buildup Estimates
5.2.8.2 Filled Pipe Conditions
5.2.8.3 Partially Filled Pipe Conditions
5.3 Wastewater Disposal for Rural Inhabitants
5.3.1 Septic Tanks
5.3.1.1 Introduction
5.3.1.2 Designing Septic Tanks
5.3.1.3 Septic Tank Effluents
5.3.2 Imhoff Tanks
5.4 Sources and Evaluation of Wastewater Flow Rates
5.5 Concept of PE
5.6 Reasons for Treating Wastewater
5.7 Wastewater Treatment Unit Operations and Processes
5.8 Preliminary Treatment: Grit Removal
5.9 Secondary Treatment (Aerobic and Biological)
5.9.1 Introduction
5.9.2 Suspended Growth Systems (Aerobic Suspended Growth Process): Activated
Sludge Process
5.9.3 Activated Sludge Process Kinetics
5.9.4 Factors Affecting the Activated Sludge Process
5.9.4.1 Volume and Sludge Loadings
5.9.4.2 Sludge Age, Mean Cell Residence Time, Solids Retention Time, or Cell
Age
5.9.4.3 Effects of SVI (Mohlman Sludge Volume Index)
5.9.4.4 SDI or Donaldson Index
5.10 Attached Growth Treatment Processes: Trickling Filter
5.10.1 Introduction
5.10.2 Recirculation to the Trickling Filter
5.10.3 Efficiency of a Trickling Filter (BOD Removal Efficiency)
5.10.3.1 NRC Formula
5.10.3.2 Velz Formula
5.10.3.3 Rankin Formula
5.10.3.4 Rumpf Formula
5.10.3.5 Eckenfelder Equation
5.10.3.6 Galler and Gotaas Equation
5.10.4 Overall Treatment Plant Efficiency
5.10.5 Trickling Filter Clarifier
5.11 Combined Suspended and Attached Growth Systems WSP, Lagoon, or Oxidation Pond
5.11.1 Introduction
 5.11.2 WSP Design
5.11.2.1 General
5.11.2.2 Completely Mixed Conditions
5.11.2.3 Maturation WSP
5.12 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
5.12.1 Sludge Digestion
5.12.2 Sludge Dewatering
5.12.2.1 Introduction
5.12.2.2 Filtration of Sludge
5.12.2.3 Centrifugation
5.13 Wastewater Disposal
5.13.1 Dilution
5.13.2 Disposal into Natural Waters
5.13.2.1 Introduction
5.13.2.2 Oxygen Renewal and Depletion in Rivers
5.13.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Rivers
5.13.3 Disposal into Lakes
5.13.4 Disposal in Estuaries
5.14 Homework Problems in Wastewater Collection System, Wastewater Treatment
Technology, and Disposal
5.14.1 Discussion Problems
5.14.2 Specific Mathematical Problems
References

Chapter 6 Computer Modeling Applications for Municipal Solid Waste Classification, Quantities,
Properties, Collection, Processing, Material Separation, and Cost Estimates
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Physical Properties of Solid Waste
6.2.1 Moisture Content
6.2.2 Particle Size
6.2.3 Permeability of Compacted Waste
6.2.4 Apparent Density
6.2.5 Angle of Repose
6.2.6 Size of Reduction in Volume (Reduction Volume)
6.2.7 Material Abrasiveness
6.3 Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
6.3.1 Fusion Point of Ash (Ash Fusibility)
6.3.2 Proximate Analysis
6.3.3 Ultimate Analysis
6.3.4 Volatile Solids
6.3.5 Heat Value of Refuse
6.4 Solid Waste Collection
6.5 Solid Waste Collection, Processing, and Material Separation
6.6 Sanitary Landfill
6.7 Biochemical Processes, Combustion, and Energy Recovery
 6.8 Cost Estimates for Solid Waste Facilities
6.8.1 Capital Cost and Capital Recovery Factor
6.8.2 Present Worth Value and Present Worth Factor
6.8.3 Sinking Fund and Sinking Fund Factor
6.8.4 Total Cost
6.9 Homework Problems in Computer Modeling Applications for Municipal Solid Waste
Classification, Quantities, Properties, Collection, Processing, Material Separation, and
Cost Estimates
6.9.1 Discussion Problems
6.9.1.1 Solid Waste Research
6.9.1.2 Type of Waste
6.9.1.3 Solid Waste Types
6.9.1.4 Solid Waste Amount
6.9.1.5 Solid Waste Properties
6.9.1.6 Solid Waste Collection
6.9.1.7 Solid Waste Recycling and Reuse
6.9.1.8 Solid Waste Treatment
6.9.1.9 Solid Waste Finance and Costs
6.9.2 Specific Mathematical Problems
6.9.2.1 Amount of Solid Waste
6.9.2.2 Solid Waste Properties
6.9.2.3 Solid Waste Collection
6.9.2.4 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal
6.9.2.5 Solid Waste Finance and Cost Analysis
References

Chapter 7 Computer Modeling Applications for Air Pollution Control Technology

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Fundamental Concepts in Air Pollution
7.2.1 Units of Measurement
7.2.2 Mole and Mole Fraction
7.2.3 Basic Gas Laws
7.2.3.1 Boyles Law
7.2.3.2 Charless Law
7.2.3.3 Ideal Gas Law
7.2.4 Van der Waals Equation
7.2.5 Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
7.2.6 Henrys Law
7.2.7 ClausiusClapeyron Equation
7.2.8 Reynolds Numbers
7.2.9 Stokes Law
7.2.10 Particle Size DistributionLog Normal
7.3 Air Pollution Control Technology
7.3.1 Settling Chambers
7.3.2 Cyclones
 7.3.3 Electrostatic Precipitators
7.3.4 Venturi Scrubbers
7.3.5 Baghouse or Fabric Filters
7.3.6 Combustion Processes
7.3.7 Packed Column Absorption Towers
7.3.8 Adsorption
7.4 Air Quality Modeling
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Effective Stack Height
7.4.3 Dispersion Models
7.4.3.1 Basic Gaussian Dispersion Model
7.4.3.2 U.S. EPA Dispersion Models
7.4.3.3 SCREEN2 Dispersion Model
7.5 Homework Problems in Computer Modeling Applications for Air Pollution Control
Technology
7.5.1 Discussion Problems
7.5.2 Specific Mathematical Problems
References

Chapter 8 Computer Modeling Applications for Noise Pollution and Abatement

8.1 Sound and Noise
8.2 Effects of Noise
8.3 Decibel Scale
8.4 Sound Fields from Different Sound Sources
8.5 Noise Measurement
8.6 Homework Problems in Computer Modeling Applications for Noise Pollution and
Abatement
8.6.1 Discussion Problems
8.6.2 Special Mathematical Problems
References
Appendices
Index
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Components of a computing machine

Figure 1.2 Components of a computer (von Neumann model)

Figure 1.3 The system bus. I/O, input/output

Figure 1.4 QWERTY keyboard layout

Figure 1.5 Structure of a computer mouse

Figure 1.6 Components of a PC system

Figure 1.7 Different levels of abstraction in the programming model

Figure 1.8 Steps of programming

Figure 1.9 Form code and design

Figure 1.10 Changing the value of a variable

Figure 1.11 Declaring an array

Figure 2.1 Types of solids

Figure 2.2 Total dissolved solids as related to water quality

Figure 2.3 Different types of fluids

Figure 2.4 Viscosity concept

Figure 2.5 Surface tension: (a) capillary rise (wetting liquid); (b) capillary depression (nonwetting
liquid)

Figure 2.6 Variation of BOD with time

Figure 2.7 Radioactive decay

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the hydrological cycle

Figure 3.2 Source selection

Figure 3.3 Water use cycle

Figure 3.4 Moderate rate of growth method

Figure 3.5 A supply and an observation well

Figure 3.6 Solution to Example 3.4

Figure 3.7 Steady unconfined flow

Figure 3.8 An elevated water storage tank

Figure 3.9 Mass diagram

Figure 3.10 Mass diagram for Example 3.6

Figure 3.11 Pipe flow velocity profile and shear stress distribution

Figure 3.12 Pipes in series

Figure 3.13 Pipes in parallel

Figure 3.14 Example 3.11

Figure 3.15 Pipe element

Figure 3.16 Pipe network

Figure 4.1 Sedimentation and flotation

Figure 4.2 Sedimentation tanks: (a) schematic diagram of a rectangular horizontal sedimentation tank; (b)
schematic diagram of a circular sedimentation tank

Figure 4.3 Settling column test

Figure 4.4 Cumulative frequency distribution plot

Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of an ideal settling basin

Figure 4.6 Round-the-end baffles in a sedimentation tank

Figure 4.7 Rectangular sedimentation tank

Figure 4.8 Radial flow sedimentation tank

Figure 4.9 Schematic diagram of a sand filter

Figure 4.10 Summary of various desalination methods. TDS, total dissolved solids

Figure 4.11 Pressure regulation with a multiple-effect distiller

Figure 4.12 Osmosis process

Figure 4.13 RO process

Figure 4.14 Schematic representation of an electrodialysis process

Figure 4.15 Types of corrosion

Figure 4.16 Classification of corrosion

Figure 5.1 Phases of projects of a sanitary sewer

Figure 5.2 Cross section of a sewer

Figure 5.3 Regions in a septic tank

Figure 5.4 A schematic diagram of a septic tank: (a) elevation; (b) side view; (c) plan

Figure 5.5 Activated sludge process

Figure 5.6 Schematic diagram of a trickling filter process

Figure 5.7 (a) High- and (b) low-rate trickling filters

Figure 5.8 Schematic diagram of a facultative WSP

Figure 5.9 Specific resistance apparatus

Figure 5.10 Wastewater disposal into a stream (dilution)

Figure 5.11 Disposal into a lake

Figure 6.1 Angle of repose

Figure 6.2 Binary separator

Figure 6.3 Energy flow in a combustor

Figure 7.1 Settling chamber

Figure 7.2 (a) Typical dimension for single, high-efficiency cyclone. (b) Nomenclature for a single, high-
efficiency cyclone

Figure 7.3 Cyclone efficiency versus particle size ratio

Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of an ESP

Figure 7.5 High-voltage electrostatic precipitators: a) plate type precipitator and b) Tube type
precipitator

Figure 7.6 Venturi wet collector: a) isometric view b) sectional view

Figure 7.7 Baghouse filter

Figure 7.8 The gaseous contaminants that can be removed by catalytic system at both room temperatures
and elevated temperatures. (a) Teledynes room-temperature catalyst at room temperature
effectively removes carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), formaldehyde (HCHO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). (b) Teledynes room-
temperature catalyst at elevated temperature effectively removes hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
propane (C3H8), methane (CH4), and isobutane (C4H10)

Figure 7.9 (a) Countercurrent-packed column: a typical countercurrent-packed column absorber system.
(b) Countercurrent-packed column. (c) Countercurrent-packed column: graphical
presentation of the packed column

Figure 7.10 Straight-line form of the Freundlich adsorption isotherm

Figure 7.11 (a) Schematic of a regenerative adsorption-type system. (b) Schematic of a nonregenerative
adsorption-type system

Figure 7.12 (a) An example of plume rise calculations. (b) An example of the reduced ground-level
contaminant concentration due to doubling of the effective stack height

Figure 7.13 (a) Coordinate system showing Gaussian distribution in the horizontal and vertical
directions. (b) Flat terrain for Gaussian distribution

Figure 7.14 (a) Horizontal dispersion coefficient, y, as a function of downwind distance from the
source. (b) Vertical dispersion coefficient, , as a function of downward distance from
the source

Figure 7.15 (a) Schematic of ground-level concentration underneath the center line of the plume. (b)
Schematic of contaminants generated under ground-level conditions

Figure 8.1 Sound wave travel in space

Figure 8.2 Examples of environmental noise on a decibel scale

Figure 8.3 Amplitude and frequency

Figure 8.4 Frequency, pitch, amplitude, and sound level

Figure 8.5 Schematic diagram of a sound level meter

Figure 8.6 Important means for reducing noise pollution
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Some of the mathematical functions used in VB (part of the System.Math namespace)

Table 1.2 Relational (Boolean or logical) operators (Example column uses A = 1 and B = 0)

Table 1.3 Some of the common control properties

Table 1.4 Summary of VB.NET statements, functions, and commands

Table 2.1 Principal cations and anions associated with hardness

Table 2.2 Degrees of hardness

Table 2.3 Sewage strength in terms of BOD and COD

Table 3.1 Values of the coefficient Cf

Table 3.2 Residential fire flows

Table 3.3 Fire hydrant spacing

Table 3.4 Fire flow duration

Table 3.5 Typical total porosities for selected materials

Table 3.6 Typical hydraulic conductivities for selected materials

Table 3.7 Turbulent and laminar flows

Table 3.8 Iterations

Table 4.1 Comparison of rapid and slow sand filters

Table 4.2 Dissolved solids content for different waters

Table 4.3 Activation energies (E) for aqueous chlorine

Table 4.4 Aggressiveness index

Table 5.1 Typical values of c for the rational method

Table 5.2 Design computations for partial pipe flow

Table 5.3 Values of b

Table 5.4 Recommended minimum velocities

Table 5.5 Sulfide condition for different values of f

Table 5.6 Water and wastewater treatment units

Table 5.7 Grit chamber typical design parameters

Table 5.8 SLR for certain treatment units

Table 5.9 Mean cell residence time for various modifications of the activated sludge process

Table 5.10 Activated sludge settleability according to SVI

Table 5.11 Design criteria for conventional activated sludge

Table 5.12 Typical design information for trickling filter

Table 5.13 Design information for WSPs

Table 5.14 Design information for a conventional anaerobic digester

Table 5.15 Sludge characteristics as related to specific resistance

Table 5.16 River classification patterns

Table 5.17 Reaeration constants

Table 6.1 Sources and types of production units of solid waste

Table 6.2 Moisture content of uncompacted refuse components

Table 6.3 Ideal data for final analysis of components of a combustible MSW

Table 6.4 General overview of solid waste properties and characteristics of concern

Table 6.5 Summary of selected compounding factors

Table 6.6 Capital recovery factors for an interest rate of 6.125%

Table 7.1 National ambient air quality standards

Table 7.2 Air quality standards for selected pollutants in several countries (g/m3)

Table 7.3 Sources of air pollutants in the United States, 1993

Table 7.4 EPA recommended units of measurement

Table 7.5 Van der Waals constants for some gases

Table 7.6 Henrys law constants for some gases in water at 25C

Table 7.7 Values of K for Calculating Pressure Drop through Cyclone

Table 7.8 Pasquill stability types

Table 7.9 Average values of wind profile power law exponents (k) by stability class

Table 8.1 Speed of sound in different media at 0C

Table 8.2 Speed of sound in air at different temperatures

List of Computer Programs

2.1 (Chap2.1\Form1.vb): Converting temperature to different scales

2.2 (Chap2.2\Form1.vb): Electric conductivity for TDS value

2.3 (Chap2.3\Form1.vb): Solids content

2.4 (Chap2.4\Form1.vb): Density and specific gravity

2.5 (Chap2.5\Form1.vb): Kinematic viscosity from dynamic viscosity

2.6 (Chap2.6\Form1.vb): Capillary heights in surface tension

2.7 (Chap2.7\Form1.vb): Bulk modulus

2.8 (Chap2.8\Form1.vb): Hydrogen ion concentration ascertaining

2.9 (Chap2.9\Form1.vb): Hardness estimation

2.10 (Chap2.10\Form1.vb): Dissolved oxygen concentration

2.11 (Chap2.11\Form1.vb): BOD computations

2.12 (Chap2.12\Form1.vb): BOD determination according to Thomas

2.13 (Chap2.13\Form1.vb): Radioactivity rate of decay

3.1 (Chap3.1\Form1.vb): Population estimates

3.2 (Chap3.2\Form1.vb): Fire demand approximation

3.3 (Chap3.3\Form1.vb): Flow velocity within aquifers

3.4 (Chap3.4\Form1.vb): Depressions in observation wells

3.5 (Chap3.5\Form1.vb): Steady unconfined aquifer drawdown computations

3.6 (Chap3.6\Form1.vb): Reservoir capacity

3.7 (Chap3.7\Form1.vb): Viscous flow in pipes

3.8 (Chap3.8\Form1.vb): Head loss due to friction in pipes

3.9 (Chap3.9\Form1.vb): Equivalent-velocity-head method

3.10 (Chap3.10\Form1.vb): Equivalent-length method

3.11 (Chap3.11\Form1.vb): Hardy cross method

3.12 (Chap3.12\Form1.vb): FEM analysis of pipe networks

3.13 (Chap3.13\Form1.vb): Analysis of circular tanks

3.14 (Chap3.14\Form1.vb): Analysis of rectangular tanks

3.15 (Chap3.15\Form1.vb): Structural design of tanks

4.1 (Chap4.1\Form1.vb): Settling velocity for spherical discrete particles

4.2 (Chap4.2\Form1.vb): Suspended solids in a settling tank effluent

4.3 (Chap4.3\Form1.vb): Stability and effects of turbulence in a settling tank

4.4 (Chap4.4\Form1.vb): Design a circular sedimentation tank

4.5 (Chap4.5\Form1.vb): Electrokinetics of coagulation

4.6 (Chap4.6\Form1.vb): Power needed for a flocculator system

4.7 (Chap4.7\Form1.vb): Efficiency coefficient of a cascade aerator

4.8 (Chap4.8\Form1.vb): Number of filters, filtration area, and filter areas

4.9 (Chap4.9\Form1.vb): Head loss in filters

4.10 (Chap4.10\Form1.vb): Filtration rate for a given head loss

4.11 (Chap4.11\Form1.vb): Concentration of impurities of effluents of a filter

4.12 (Chap4.12\Form1.vb): Depth of bed expansion

4.13 (Chap4.13\Form1.vb): Temperature difference in multiphase still

4.14 (Chap4.14\Form1.vb): Osmotic pressure per unit volume for salt solutions

4.15 (Chap4.15\Form1.vb): Difference in osmotic pressure across membranes

4.16 (Chap4.16\Form1.vb): Electrodialysis maximum current density

4.17 (Chap4.17\Form1.vb): Chlorination time of kill

4.18 (Chap4.18\Form1.vb): Corrosion potential indicators

4.19 (Chap4.19\Form1.vb): Rate of corrosion of a metallic surface

5.1 (Chap5.1\Form1.vb): Wastewater collection

5.2 (Chap5.2\Form1.vb): Velocity of flow in pipes

5.3 (Chap5.3\Form1.vb): Capacity of flow estimates

5.4 (Chap5.4\Form1.vb): Sulfide build up indicator

5.5 (Chap5.5\Form1.vb): Design of septic tanks

5.6 (Chap5.6\Form1.vb): Dry weather flow, DWF

5.7 (Chap5.7\Form1.vb): Different per capita wastewater flows

5.8 (Chap5.8\Form1.vb): Population equivalent of industrial establishments

5.9 (Chap5.9\Form1.vb): Designing a grit chamber

5.10 (Chap5.10\Form1.vb): Determination of growth rate of microorganisms

5.11 (Chap5.11\Form1.vb): Activated sludge process

5.12 (Chap5.12\Form1.vb): Sludge volume index

5.13 (Chap5.13\Form1.vb): Trickling filter efficiency

5.14 (Chap5.14\Form1.vb): Design of a waste stabilization pond

5.15 (Chap5.15\Form1.vb): Retention time and volume of a pond

5.16 (Chap5.16\Form1.vb): Volumetric gas production rate in digesters

5.17 (Chap5.17\Form1.vb): Specific resistance of sludge

5.18 (Chap5.18\Form1.vb): Compressibility of sludges

5.19 (Chap5.19\Form1.vb): Sludge dewatering by centrifugation

5.20 (Chap5.20\Form1.vb): Concentration of pollutants in rivers

5.21 (Chap5.21\Form1.vb): DO and BOD of riverwastewater mixtures

5.22 (Chap5.22\Form1.vb): Concentration of pollutants in lakes

5.23 (Chap5.23\Form1.vb): Waste concentration in estuaries

6.1 (Chap6.1\Form1.vb): Diversion of solid waste

6.2 (Chap6.2\Form1.vb): Moisture concentration of solid waste

6.3 (Chap6.3\Form1.vb): Volume reduction of compacted solid waste

6.4 (Chap6.4\Form1.vb): Chemical composition and energy content of solid waste

6.5 (Chap6.5\Form1.vb): Heat value

6.6 (Chap6.6\Form1.vb): Number of cans and compacted blocks produced by a family

6.7 (Chap6.7\Form1.vb): Number of collection vehicles needed by a community

6.8 (Chap6.8\Form1.vb): Capacity of a crushing cylinder

6.9 (Chap6.9\Form1.vb): Recoveries and the effectiveness of separation of a binary separator

6.10 (Chap6.10\Form1.vb): Peak gas production from a landfill

6.12 (Chap6.12\Form1.vb): Vertical flow

6.13 (Chap6.13\Form1.vb): Production of CO2 and CH4

6.14 (Chap6.14\Form1.vb): Amount of water to be added to MSW to obtain the desired moisture content

6.15 (Chap6.15\Form1.vb): Stoichiometric oxygen and air required for combustion of a gas

6.16 (Chap6.16\Form1.vb): Temperature of stack gases

6.17 (Chap6.17\Form1.vb): Capital cost, capital recovery factor, and annual installments

6.18 (Chap6.18\Form1.vb): Amount of investment needed for a number of years

6.19 (Chap6.19\Form1.vb): Necessary funds to reach a certain value

6.20 (Chap6.20\Form1.vb): Refuse collection trucks costs

7.1 (Chap7.1\Form1.vb): Concentration of gaseous air contaminants

7.4 (Chap7.4\Form1.vb): Moles and mole fractions in a gaseous mixture

7.5 (Chap7.5\Form1.vb): Boyles law

7.6 (Chap7.6\Form1.vb): Boyles and Charles laws

7.8 (Chap7.8\Form1.vb): Ideal gas law

7.9 (Chap7.9\Form1.vb): Van der Waals equation

7.11 (Chap7.11\Form1.vb): Henrys law

7.13 (Chap7.13\Form1.vb): ClausisClapeyron equation

7.14 (Chap7.14\Form1.vb): Reynolds number

7.15 (Chap7.15\Form1.vb): Terminal velocity and Stokes law

7.17 (Chap7.17\Form1.vb): Particle size distribution

7.19 (Chap7.19\Form1.vb): Settling chamber

7.21 (Chap7.21\Form1.vb): Efficiency of cyclone

7.23 (Chap7.23\Form1.vb): Electrostatic precipitator

7.25 (Chap7.25\Form1.vb): Venturi scrubber

7.27 (Chap7.27\Form1.vb): Design and operation of a baghouse

7.28 (Chap7.28\Form1.vb): Catalytic system

7.29 (Chap7.29\Form1.vb): Multiple catalysts

7.31 (Chap7.31\Form1.vb): Packed columns absorption towers

7.33 (Chap7.33\Form1.vb): Freundlich adsorption isotherm

7.35 (Chap7.35\Form1.vb): Breakthrough working capacity of an adsorption bed

7.37 (Chap7.37\Form1.vb): Adsorbents service time before regeneration

7.39 (Chap7.39\Form1.vb): Effective stack height

7.41 (Chap7.41\Form1.vb): Downwind ground-level concentration

8.1 (Chap8.1\Form1.vb): Sound velocity and wavelength

8.2 (Chap8.2\Form1.vb): Sound pressure level

8.3 (Chap8.3\Form1.vb): Net sound pressure level

8.4 (Chap8.4\Form1.vb): Weekly average of noise exposures

8.5 (Chap8.5\Form1.vb): Sound level at a distance

Appendix Contents

A1 Physical properties of water

A2 Saturation values of dissolved oxygen in water exposed to water-saturated air containing 20.9%
oxygen under a pressure of 760 mmHg

A3 The periodic table of elements

A4 Hydraulic elements graph for circular sewers

A5 Alignment chart for flow in pipes

A6 Moodys diagram for Reynolds number versus relative roughness and friction factor

A7 Typical specific weight and moisture content data for residential, commercial, industrial, and
agricultural wastes

A8 Conversion table
Preface

Books and text material in the field of environmental, public health, and sanitary engineering are
numerous for addressing the principles, fundamentals, methods, models, concepts, designs, remedial
activities, and science-related ideas. Nonetheless, rare are the books that deal with practical problems,
problem solving in environmental engineering, and fundamental utilization of computer programming
perceptions and applications.
The broad objectives of this book are to facilitate teaching, improve learning, shoulder training, and
assist research in the application of computer programming based on well-established models, equations,
formulae, and procedures used in the environmental engineering domain. Visual Basic .NET was selected
and used as the programming language of choice throughout this book for its simplicity, comprehensive
usage, and easiness. It is a language that was traditionally considered a model language of teaching
purposes, not to undermine its wide range of applicability; it has been introduced into scripting,
application programming (VBA), databases (VB and SQL), and web scripting (VBScript), to mention but
a few uses.
Section I of first edition has been rewritten from scratch to reflect the advancements in computer
modeling and software programming that took place over the past two decades. The first edition was
written in Quick BASIC 4.5, a widely used and popular model programming language of the time. As
BASIC faded away and gave the stage to its descendants Visual Basic and Visual Basic .NET,
programming models and methods have changed vastly, new programming concepts emerged, and
graphical user interface (GUI) systems took over command-line environments. Object-oriented
programming (OOP) became the de facto programming model, and a whole set of new programming
languages has erupted to exploit these concepts.
In addition, severe competition emerged between Closed Source and Open Source camps. Companies
fighting to protect their royalties and copyrights by defending the Closed Source regime and closing arms
with the emerging and ever-growing Open Source movement, which has novel concepts such as the
freedom of source code and software copylefting (a pun on the word copyright to reflect the exact
opposite meaning, that is, freedom of information). These concepts are changing the face of contemporary
programming, more details on which can be found in Section I of the first edition.
Lastly, there are more operating systems (OSs) in active use today than when the first edition of the
book was published. MicrosoftTM and Apple were once the only horses in the OS arena (not to
undermine UNIX, but it was majorly a teaching OS used by universities and big institutions, not by regular
users on their home portable computers); nowadays, other systems such as Linux, Solaris, Android, and
iOS are actively contributing to the OS industry. As such, programmers are being faced with the problems
of system compatibility (ensuring software runs on different OSs) and architecture compatibility
(ensuring software runs on different platforms such as x86 and x86_64).
In the face of all these intermingled points, the authors were faced with the question of which
programming language to use in writing the examples of this text:
 1. Using a cross-platform language such as Java would seem logical. This ensures all the
examples will work on the widest possible range of target machines without recompilation. In
fact, this would have been the best choice had the intent been commercial software production,
not teaching. Java is an OOP language by nature; and the performance hit of using the
intermediate Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is negligible in most cases. This is all good, but using
Java means the need to discuss OOP in depth, having a few sections on the JVM, the garbage
collector, Java packages and built-in classes, and so on. This will shift the focus of the text from
modeling computer applications for solving environmental engineering problems to a text on
Java and OOP.
2. Using a simple procedural language such as C is perfect in a teaching setting like this, as it
will remove all the headache of OOP, virtual machines, intermediate compilers, garbage
collectors, and other things that are not primal to the teaching process. The reader will be able
to focus on the specific modeling techniques under discussion. In addition, pure C is text based
by nature, which is an important feature when programming console programs (such as Linux
terminal programs or MS-DOS prompt-like programs). However, unfortunately, console
programs have fallen out of favor to GUI programs, and most users (except power users and
system administrators) feel uncomfortable when faced with the black screen and its blinking
cursor. As such, using C alone is defective. One would usually combine C with a GUI toolkit;
the most popular combination is using C++ with Qt (pronounced cute; stands for the Q
toolkit). However, again, this will make it obligatory to include a whole chapter on Qt, its
history, structure, object classes, and its uses, not to mention the mandatory chapter on core C
programming. This will undoubtedly unnecessarily inflate the book out of scope.
3. Use of a traditional teaching language such as Pascal or Basic. This ensures that the focus of
the text will remain on problem solving and application modeling. The chapter on programming
itself will be supplementary, and habituated programmers can skip it and start directly on the
text proper. This is the solution we opted to use throughout this text.

That being said, there are important points and topics pertaining to computer programming in general,
and to modeling engineering applications specifically, which need to be discussed, or to the least, pointed
to. These topics have been handled in Section I of the first edition.
The more specified objectives are proposed to accomplish the main learning outcomes for students
enrolled in environmental engineering courses, which are as follows:
1. To help the reader in the design of treatment and disposal facilities
2. To introduce the basic concepts of computer design related to environmental engineering
3. To aid in teaching of environmental engineering unit operations and processes design
4. To improve the understanding by students and researchers in environmental engineering field
5. To improve the understanding of relevant physical, chemical, and biological processes, and
their mutual relationships within various sanitation components
6. To promote environmental protection, improvement, and sustainability, enhancing the overall
quality of life
7. To demonstrate effective problem-solving abilities
8. To utilize the current technology of waste collection, handling, treatment, final disposal, and
management
9. To apply appropriate regulations and guidelines in safeguarding environmental conditions
10. To be able to design and apply necessary procedures and precautions to establish sound
 environmental engineering systems
Recently, the Department of Environmental Engineering of the College of Engineering at the Imam
Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), sought the Accreditation Board for
Engineering and Technology Accreditation Commission (http://www.abet.org/). As such, student
outcomes were adhered to as per requirements. The program must have documented student outcomes that
prepare graduates to attain the program educational objectives. Student outcomes are outcomes (a)
through (k) plus any additional outcomes that may be articulated by the program are as follows:

a. An ability to apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

b. An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data
c. An ability to design a system, component, or process to meet the desired needs within realistic
constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety,
manufacturability, and sustainability
d. An ability to function on multidisciplinary teams
e. An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems
f. An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility
g. An ability to communicate effectively
h. The broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global,
economic, environmental, and societal context
i. A recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in, lifelong learning
j. A knowledge of contemporary issues
k. An ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering
practice
Computer-Aided Modeling in Environmental Engineering is chiefly intended as a supplement and a
complementary guide to basic principles of environmental engineering. Nonetheless, it can be sourced as
a stand-alone problem-solving text in the field. The book targets university students taking first-degree
courses in environmental, construction, civil, mechanical, biomedical, and chemical engineering or
related fields. The manuscript is estimated to have valuable benefits to postgraduate students and
professional sanitary and environmental engineers. Equally, it is anticipated that the book will stimulate
problem-solving learning and accelerate self-teaching. By writing such a script, it is hoped that the
included worked examples, set problems, and compiled computer programs will warrant that the booklet
is a treasured support to student-centered learning. To accomplish such goals, great attention was paid to
offer solutions to selected problems in a well-defined, clear, and discrete layout exercising step-by-step
procedures and explanation of the related solution employing crucial procedures, methods, approaches,
equations, data, figures, and calculations.
Chapter 6 has been added to the format of the book to address solid waste engineering and
management. The first part deals with municipal solid waste classification, quantities, and properties
stressing on introductory items, and physical and chemical properties of solid waste. The second part
deals with solid waste collection, processing, material separation, and financing facilities. Treatment
methods tackle incorporated sanitary landfill, biochemical processes, and combustion and energy
recovery. This chapter highlights financing solid waste facilities. Likewise, this part of the book
incorporates homework problems shouldering both discussion and special mathematical types of practical
questions to be encountered. Computer programs were written for every stage discussed in this chapter.
The authors hope this work will contribute toward the achievement of United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (UN SDGs*) numbers 1 (no poverty), 3 (good health and decent work and economic
growth), 4 (quality education), 6 (clean water and sanitation), 8 (decent work and economic growth), 9
(industry, innovation, and infrastructure), 11 (make cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable, i.e.,
sustainable cities and communities), 12 (Reasonable consumption and production), 13 (climate action),
14 (life under water), 15 (life on land), and 17 (partnership for the goals).
Users of this book will be able to access the contents of Appendix 9 (A Users Manual and Programs
Screenshots), the source codes and executables of all example programs, along with the solutions manual
on the downloads tab of the books CRC Press site: https://www.crcpress.com/Computer-Modeling-
Applications-for-Environmental-Engineers-Second-Edition/Ahmed-Abdel-Magid-Abdel-
Magid/p/book/9781498776547.

Prof. Dr. CEng. Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid Sr.

Dr. Mohammed Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid Jr.

Dammam, Doha, 2017

* UN SDGs include (1) end poverty in all its forms everywhere, that is, no poverty; (2) end hunger, achieve food security and improved
nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture, that is, zero hunger; (3) ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages, that
is, good health and welfare; (4) ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, that is, quality education; (5)
gender equality; (6) ensure access to water and sanitation for all, that is, clean water and sanitation; (7) affordable and clean energy; (8)
promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment, and decent work for all, that is, decent work and economic growth; (9)
industry, innovation, and infrastructure; (10) reduced inequalities; (11) make cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable, that is,
sustainable cities and communities; (12) responsible consumption and production; (13) climate action; (14) life below water; (15) life on
land; (16) peace, justice, and strong institutions; (17) partnership for the goals. (Source: United Nations, 2015,
http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/#.)
Preface and Acknowledgment to First Edition

Environmental engineering is the branch of engineering dealing with activities in the areas of air, water,
wastewater, solid waste, radiation, and hazardous materials. Many textbooks have been published in all
of these areas; however, most of them lack the fundamental utilization and application of computer
programming. Computer programming is now of paramount importance not only for the students but also
for the practicing engineers. This book presents computer programs in the air, water, wastewater, and
solid waste fields that can be used to evaluate and assist in the design of environmental control systems.
This book will be of value to environmental engineers, sanitary engineers, civil engineers, town planners,
industrial engineers, agricultural engineers, treatment plant designers, consultation firms, and researchers.
The BASIC programming language was selected for its simplicity and used throughout this book.
The broad objectives of this book are to facilitate improving teaching, learning, and research in the
application of computer programming based on well-established models, equations, formulae, and
procedures used in the environmental engineering field.
The more specified objectives are as follows:

1. To help the reader in the design of treatment and disposal facilities

2. To introduce the basic concepts of computer design
3. To aid in teaching of environmental engineering unit operations and processes design
4. To improve the understanding by students and researchers in the environmental engineering field
This book contains many illustrative figures, schematic diagrams, solved practical examples, design
problems, and tutorial homework problems. A wide range and spectrum of environmental engineering
subjects are covered. Many computer programs are included, and they cover both the environmental
design principles and the structural design parameters using different materials. This book is written in a
clear, concise manner in order to enhance understandability. SI units are used throughout this book.
The format of the book is divided mainly into four sections. Section I deals with an introductory
material that contains functions and layout of the computer, programming and modeling concepts, and the
basic outlines for the BASIC language, which is discussed in Chapter 1.
Section II covers water sources and resources, and is divided into three chapters. Chapter 2 deals with
the characteristics of water and wastewater, supported by mathematical equations in order to help
programming, water resources and sources, and groundwater flow. Emphasis is laid on water abstraction
from wells with the consequent drawdown relationships. Chapter 3 discusses water treatment unit
operations/processes and water storage and distribution. It outlines the design concepts adopted in
treatment plant unit operations (e.g., screens, sedimentation and flotation, and aeration) and treatment unit
processes (e.g., coagulation and flocculation, filtration, desalinization, and water stabilization). Each
treatment process is briefly introduced and emphasis is given to the design of the units using appropriate
equations, assumptions, and design tools. Chapter 4 deals with water storage and distribution. It highlights
the design of water storage tanks (communa and, dwelling) and the methods used for both urban and rural
water distribution.
Section III deals with wastewater engineering, measurement, collection, treatment units, and disposal.
It is divided into two main chapters. Chapter 5 focuses on wastewater collection systems for rural areas
and urban fringes. Sewerage system design is introduced within the context of this chapter. Chapter 5 also
discusses the selected methods for wastewater disposal for rural Inhabitants. Chapter 6 is introduced to
aid the design of wastewater treatment and disposal units. More stress is placed on in-depth design
considerations and parameters for selected systems universally adopted for both rural and urban regions.
This chapter emphasizes preliminary, primary, tertiary, and sludge treatment methods and the disposal of
treated wastewater to rivers, lakes, or oceans.
Section IV deals with air pollution control technology. It presents a brief overview of the air pollution
field followed by the fundamental concepts that are necessary for calculations dealing with air pollution
control. It also includes computer programs based on mathematical equations and models related to these
fundamental concepts. The most commonly used air pollution control devices for gaseous and particulate
pollutants are presented (e.g., absorption, adsorption, and combustion for gaseous contaminants and
settling chambers, cyclones, electrostatic precipitators, venturi scrubbers, and baghouse filters for
controlling particulate emissions). Each control device or technique is accompanied by a computer
program that can aid in the design or evaluation of air pollution control equipment. This section concludes
with mathematical models that can be used for the determination of effective stack heights (plume rise) as
well as dispersion models that can help estimate the concentrations of air pollutants dispersed in the
atmosphere. Computer programs for both stack height calculations and dispersion models are included.
All computer programs in the book are included on diskettes.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support, patience, encouragement, and understanding of their
families while they were engaged in the enjoyable task of writing this book.
CRC Press/Lewis editors are acknowledged for their forbearance and patience during all stages of the
manuscript preparation, review, editing, and publishing. Particular thanks and appreciation go to Andrea
Demby, Jan Boyle, and Victoria Held for their contributions and outstanding efforts to bring this book into
existence.
The authors are indebted to a number of institutions, organizations, and individuals for permission to
reproduce and draw published material, and these are acknowledged in the references. Thanks are also
extended to the reviewers of the manuscript for their helpful comments and numerous constructive
suggestions.
The authors extend their thanks to all who contributed in different ways toward the production of this
book. In the air pollution control section, special acknowledgment goes to Asa Raymond for typing,
reviewing, and developing the computer programs. Also a special thanks goes to Gary Whittle for his
significant contribution in locating pertinent literature in the air pollution control field. Special thanks are
also extended to Majid Soud Rashid Al-Khanjri and Taiseer Marhoon Al-Riyami for redrawing and
tracing Figures 7.16, 7.17, 7.32, and 7.33.
The authors trust that the book will serve the needs of the profession and provide help and stimulation
for candidates to develop their own computer models. They invite and welcome any comments,
suggestions, improvements, and constructive criticism from users of the text. Although diligent efforts
have been made by the authors, reviewers, editors, and publisher to produce an error-free book,
nonetheless, this may not have been achieved and some errors may have escaped the scrutiny of all. The
authors would appreciate if any omissions or errors found be brought to their attention so that corrections
can be made, which will enhance the usefulness of this publication.
Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

Abdel-Wahid Hago Mohammed

Donald R. Rowe
ISBN 1-56670-172-4
1997 by CRC Press, Inc.
Authors

Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid, BSc, PDH, DSE, PhD, FSES, CSEC, MSECS, is the professor of water
resources and environmental engineering. He received his BSc in civil engineering from the University of
Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan; diploma in hydrology from the University of Padova, Padova, Italy; MSc in
sanitary engineering from Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands; and PhD in public health
engineering from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, in 1977, 1978, 1979, and 1982, respectively.
Professor Abdel-Magid authored or coauthored many papers, publications, scientific text and reference
books, technical reports, and lecture notes in the areas of water supply; wastewater disposal, reuse, and
reclamation; solid waste disposal; water resources and industrial wastes; and slow sand filtration in both
English and Arabic. He has participated in several workshops, symposia, seminars, and conferences. He
has edited and coedited many conference proceedings and college bulletins.
The Sudan Engineering Society awarded him the prize for the Best Project in Civil Engineering in
1977. In 1986, the Khartoum University Press awarded him Honourly Scarf for Enrichment of
Knowledge. Ministry of Irrigation (MoI) awarded him the prize for the Second Best Performance in
fourth-year civil engineering. The Sudanese Press Council of Ministry of Information and Culture (MoIC)
awarded him the best book of the year. ALECSO awarded him the prize for a book in engineering.
Professor Abdel-Magid has taught environmental engineering subjects and supervised research
projects for graduate and postgraduate students at the University of Khartoum, United Arab Emirates
University (Al Ain, the United Arab Emirates), Sultan Qaboos University (Muscat, Oman), Sudan
University for Science and Technology (Khartoum, Sudan), Juba University (Juba, Sudan), Industrial
Research and Consultancy Centre (Khartoum, Sudan), Sudan Academy for Sciences (Khartoum, Sudan),
King Faisal University (Dammam, KSA), University of Dammam and Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal
University (Dammam, KSA). Professor Abdel-Magid acted as an external examiner for different
institutions and a founder of some institutions, centers, and refereed journals.
The current address of Prof. Abdel-Magid is as follows: Chair Development and Training Unit of
Postgraduate Studies Deanship, Head Proofreading and Revision Department of the Center of Scientific
Publications and member of its Council, and Professor of Environmental Engineering and Water
Resources at Environmental Engineering Department of the College of Engineering, Imam Abdulrahman
Bin Faisal University, Box 1982, Dammam 31451, KSA. Fax: +96638584331, phone: +966530310018,
+96633331686, e-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]. Web sites:
http://www/sites.google.com/site/isamabdelmagid/; http://www.isamabdelmagid.net/. Twitter:
twitter.com/IsamAbdelmagid. Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/isam.m.abdelmagid. Researchgate:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Isam_Abdel-Magid. Google scholar:
https://www.facebook.com/isam.m.abdelmagid. LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/nhome/?
trk=Isam%20Abdel-Magid. Amazon: https://authorcentral.amazon.com/author/isamabdelmagid.

Mohammed Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid, MBBS, BLS, ALS, MRCP(UK), PgDip in Diabetes, is a
graduate of the College of Medicine, the University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan, in 2008. He
completed basic training with the Ministry of Health, Khartoum, Sudan, then worked as a physician in the
department of internal medicine, Ribat University Hospital, Khartoum, Sudan, and the Ministry of Health,
Sultanate of Oman. He is currently working with the Health Assistance Medical Services, Doha, Qatar.
He completed his higher training with the membership of the Royal Colleges of Physicians of the
United Kingdom and accomplished postgraduate diploma in diabetes from the University of South Wales,
Wales.
He tutored in problem-based learning teaching sessions in the department of Internal Medicine, Sudan
International University, Sudan.
He is a registered practicing physician with the Sudan Medical Council, the Health Authority of Abu-
Dhabi, and the Saudi Commission of Health Specialties. He is a full member of the Society for Acute
Medicine (Edinburgh, UK), the European Society for Emergency Medicine (Brussels, Belgium), and the
European Respiratory Society (H.Q. Lausanne, Switzerland).
He is a peer reviewer of the Science Journal of Medicine & Clinical Trial and the Pan-African
Journal of Medical Sciences.
He is a qualified Linux system administrator, as he obtained the Linux Foundation Certified SysAdmin
qualification in 2015. He is an experienced computer programmer with more than 15 years of
programming, with a special focus on C/C++ and Visual Basic. He is the maintainer of several Fedora
GNU/Linux packages and is an active contributor to the GNU Project (with his GnuDOS and Fontopia
packages). He is a member of the Free Software Foundation (Boston, MA). He has designed and
packaged several fonts, all of which can be accessed and downloaded from the Open Font Library
(http://fontlibrary.org) or from the authors Web site (http://sites.google.com/site/mohammedisam2000).
Authors of First Edition

Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid Ahmed received his BSc degree in civil engineering from the University
of Khartoum, Khartoum Sudan; diploma in hydrology from the University of Padova, Padova, Italy; MSc
in sanitary engineering from Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands; and PhD in public
health engineering from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K. in 1977, 1978, 1979, and 1982,
respectively.
Abdel-Magid has authored more than 28 publications, 10 scientific textbooks, and numerous technical
reports, and lecture notes in the areas dealing with water supply and resources; wastewater treatment,
disposal, reclamation, and reuse; industrial wastes; and slow sand filtration, in both English and Arabic.
He has participated in several workshops, symposia, seminars, and conferences. He has edited and
coedited many conference proceedings and college bulletins.
The Sudan Engineering Society awarded him the prize for the Best Project in civil engineering in 1977.
In 1986, the Khartoum University Press awarded him Honourly Scarf and Badge for Enrichment of
Knowledge.
Abdel-Magid has taught at the University of Khartoum; United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu
Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates; Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman; and Omdurman Islamic
University, Omdurman, Sudan.

Abdel-Wahid Hago Mohammed received his BSc in civil engineering from the University of Khartoum,
Khartoum, Sudan in 1976. He received his PhD degree from Glasgow University, Scotland in 1982. Hago
has authored more than 13 publications, numerous reports, lecture notes, and more than 95 translated
articles. He headed the Design Office of Newtech Industrial and Engineering Group, Sudan for 3 years,
where he contributed in the design of buildings and factories in different parts of that country. In 1986, he
acted as a Senior Analyst for Associated Consultants and Partners, Khartoum, Sudan for the design of the
ElObied town water distribution system.
Hago has participated in several conferences, and was a member of the organizing committee of the
First National Conference on Technology of Buildings organized by the Sudan Engineering Society in
1984. Hago is a member of the Sudan Engineering Society. He has taught both undergraduate and
postgraduate courses at the University of Khartoum and Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. He has
supervised and cosupervised many MSc and PhD students.

Donald R. Rowe, PhD* is president of D. R. Rowe Engineering Services, Inc., Bowling Green, Kentucky.
He received his MS (1962) and PhD (1965) from the University of Texas at Austin, and his BSc degree
(1948) in civil engineering from the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
From 1964 to 1969 he was associate professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Tulane University,
New Orleans, Louisiana; from 1969 to 1982, he was associate professor, Department of Engineering
Technology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky; and from 1982 to 1988 he was
professor, Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. From 1971 to 1993, he
was vice president of the Larox Research Corporation, Kentucky and from 1990 to the present, he has
been president of his own company.
Rowe has authored or coauthored more than 70 reports and publications in the areas of air pollution,
solid waste, water treatment, and wastewater reclamation and reuse. He also coauthored Environmental
Engineering (McGraw-Hill Publishers) and the Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse
(CRC/Lewis Publishers).
Rowe holds, with coinventors, more than 10 patents on catalytic conversion removal processes of air
contaminants in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and Japan.
In 1980, he was recipient of a FulbrightHays Award to Ege University in Izmir, Turkey. Rowe also
carried our research on wastewater reclamation and reuse at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
From 1984 to the present, he has served on the Peer Review Evaluation Committee for research
projects funded by King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

* Professor Donald Richard Rowe, 82, died on May 21, 2009, at his residence. The Late Donald R. Rowe owned and operated D. R. Rowe
Engineering Services, Inc., Bowling Green, Kentucky, until his passing. This Vantage, Saskatchewan, Canada native was born in October
12, 1926. He moved from Saskatchewan to Austin, Texas, in the 1950s and married Nora Alice Crittenden in 1954. His passions in life
were traveling and his farm situated on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia. He was son of the late William Hazen Rowe and Donalda
McIntyre.
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbol Description Unit

A Area m2
AI Aggressiveness index
Alk Total alkalinity mg/L CaCO3
Ai Area of heat exchanger number i m2
An Area of an individual unit m2
At Total area m2
A Constant, coefficient, factor, fraction
a Effective sulfide flux coefficient m/h
aa Percentage open area for a clogged screen %
ac Cell constant
ao Percentage open area for a clean screen %

B Width, thickness m
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand mg/L
BODe Effective biochemical oxygen demand mg/L
BODload BOD load kg/m3
BODs BOD of standard sewage gBOD5 /c/day
BODt BOD that has been exerted in time interval t mg/L
BOD5 5-Day BOD of wastewater mg/L
b Constant
b Slope of the straight line of t/V versus V s/m6

C Concentration mg/L
C Idle resistance factor Dimensionless
C Efficiency factor
C Total amount percolating within the top layer of soil mm/year
C Capacity tons/h
CA Sludge age day
Cd Constant or shape factor Dimensionless
CON Conductance Ohm1
C Solubility of oxygen at barometric pressure P and given temperature mg/L
CD Newtons drag coefficient Dimensionless
Ce Concentration in effluent mg/L, g/m3
Cf Friction coefficient, coefficient of DeChezy m0.5 /s
Cm Concentration of the pollutant in mixture of river water and wastewater discharge, or concentration of pollutant in mg/L
the river downstream point of discharge
Co Concentration at time t = 0 (initial) mg/L
Cp Carbon concentration in the mixture prior to composting, as the percentage of total wet mass of mixture %
Cs Saturation concentration mg/L
Cs Carbon concentration in the sludge, as the percentage of total wet sludge mass %
Cr Concentration of the same pollutant in river upstream discharge point mg/L
Cr Carbon concentration in the refuse, as the percentage of total wet refuse mass %
Cv Volumetric concentration of particles (volume of particles divided by the total volume of the suspension) Dimensionless
Cw Concentration of pollutant in wastewater kg/m3
C Coefficient, constant
C Velocity of the sound in a given medium m/s
ch Chlorinity g/kg
cg Gas concentration in gas phase g/m3

D Cumulative passing weight fraction %

D Diameter m
D Disintegrating organic material
D Cylinder diameter m
D60 Particle (sieve) size where 60% of the particles are smaller than that size
D10 Particle (sieve) size where 10% of the particles are smaller than that size
Diff Molecular diffusion coefficient m3 /s
Dm Mean hydraulic depth ft
DOc Critical oxygen deficit mg/L
DI Dielectric constant
DOo Initial Oxygen deficit at the point of waste discharge, at time t = 0 mg/L
DOt Oxygen deficit at time t mg/L
DR Dilution rate Dimensionless
DWF Dry weather flow L/day
d Depth, diameter m
d Particle size
d and n Characteristic of the material studied
do Maximum particle size
dP Differential change in pressure Pa
du/dy Velocity gradient (rate of angular deformation, rate of shear) s 1
dV Differential change in volume m3
dmax Maximum depth m
dp The distance between blades or the scroll pitch m

E Coefficient of Eddy diffusion, or turbulent mixing m2 /s

E Evapotranspiration mm/year
EC Electrical conductivity Ohm/m
Eff Efficiency %
EM Electrophoretic mobility m/s/V/m
Eb Bulk modulus N/m2
Ev Rate of evaporation L/day
E Activation energy calories
Ee Electrochemical equivalent g/Coulumb
ee Expanded bed porosity Dimensionless
e Porosity Dimensionless

F Collection frequency, number of collections per week

F Speed factor Dimensionless
F
 Volume of reduction
Far Faradays constant Ampere*h
F/M Food-to-microorganisms ratio day1
Fr Froude number Dimensionless
Ft Shear force N
F1 , F2 Recirculation factor Dimensionless
f Factor, function, coefficient
f Frequency cycle/s (Hertz)

G Food waste, percentage by weight of total MSW, on a dry basis %

G Velocity gradient s 1
g Gravitational acceleration m/s 2

H Lift ft
H Total energy (total head, energy head) m
Hard Hardness mg equivalent CaCO3 /L
HCa Calcium hardness mg/L CaCO3
HEi Heat exchanged in effect number i J
Ho Initial resistance for a clean screen m
Hs Resistance for a clogged screen m of water
[H+] Concentration of hydrogen ions mol/L
h Height, depth, thickness m
hf Friction head m
hl Head loss m
ht Height of proposed tank m

I Mean rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration mm/h
Ir Average infiltration into the sewer owing to poor joints or pervious material L/day
i Annual interest rate fraction
i Current A
i Current density A/cm2

j Slope, gradient m/m

K Constant, factor, coefficient

K Coefficient of permeability
K Hydraulic conductivity of the drainage layer ft/day
K Intrinsic permeability or specific permeability
Kb Bunsen absorption coefficient g/J
KD Distribution coefficient
Ks Half-velocity constant mg/L
k Coefficient, constant
k Constant Dimensionless
k Exponent Dimensionless
k Landfill gas emission constant Time1
kH Henrys constant g/m3 *Pa (g/J)
kl Loss coefficient
kn Kinetic coefficient Dimensionless
kp Removal rate constant for waste stabilization pond day1
kt Decay constant for the particular decay reaction day1
k Reaeration constant day1
k First-order reaction rate constant day1
k1 Bacterial die-away rate day1

L Length of conveyor belt ft

L Length of cylinder m
Lb BOD5 20 of benthal deposit g/kg volatile matter
Le Effluent BOD mg/L
Li Influent BOD mg/L
Lm Maximum daily benthal oxygen demand g/m2
Lo Methane generation potential volume/mass of waste
Lo BOD remaining at time t = 0 (total or ultimate first stage BOD initially present) mg/L
Lt Amount of first-stage BOD remaining in the sample at time t mg/L
LEP ,d Daily personal noise exposure level dB
LEP ,w Weekly average of the daily personal noise exposure dB(A)
(LEP ,d)i Daily personal noise exposure of day i dB(A)
l Length, depth m
le Expanded bed depth m
le Equivalent pipe length m

M Moisture content, percentage (on a wet basis) %

M Mass of the material lb, tons, kg
MCRT Mean cell residence time day
MLVSS Mixed liquor suspended solids mg/L
MW Molecular weight of the gas g
Ma Moisture in solids as in shredded and screened refuse %
Md Moisture content, percentage (on a dry basis) %
Mi Mass of wet waste, placed at time i
MP Moisture in mixed pile (heap) ready to begin process of composting %
m Mass kg

N Number Dimensionless
N Number of conveyor leads or number of blades wrapped around conveyor hub
N Number of sound sources
N Number of collection vehicles needed
N Number of working days taken into account during the week
ND Nondecomposable material
Ne Effluent bacterial number, number of bacteria /100 mL
Ni Influent bacterial number, number of bacteria /100 mL
No Number of viable microorganisms of one type at time t = 0 /100 mL
n Number Dimensionless
n Number of installments
n Number of years
N Roughness factor, Manning and Kutter factor m1/6
N Sound intensity level dB
N Total time periods of waste placement

OL Organic loading rate of the sewage effluent g/L

P Distance between collection pipes ft

P Level of sound intensity to be measured W
P Number of people served by the sewer Dimensionless
P Paper, percentage by weight of total MSW, on a dry basis
P Precipitation mm/year
P Pressure mmHg, N/m2 (Pa)
P Pressure of sound wave Pa
P Pulley friction horsepower
PA(t) Time-varying value of A-weighted instantaneous sound pressure Pa
P ref Some reference sound pressure Pa
PE Population equivalent Dimensionless
POW Power J/s, W
Pg Partial pressure of the respective gas in the gas phase Pa, atm
P osm Osmotic pressure atm
pOH Negative logarithm of the hydroxyl ion concentration
pw Pressure of saturated water vapor mmHg, N/m2
Po A reference level, usually the intensity of a note of the same frequency at the threshold of audibility = intensity of W
the least audible sound
P ref Some reference sound pressure
P x1 Purity of the first output stream in terms of x %
pAlk Negative logarithm of total alkalinity Equivalent CaCO3 /L
pCa2+ Negative logarithm of calcium ion mol/L
Pf Peaking factor Dimensionless
pH Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
pHa Actual [measured] pH of the water
pHs Saturation pH

Q Rate of flow, fire demand m3 /s

Q Delivery of refuse m3 /min
Qa Average flow m3 /s
QI Total inflow volume during a specified period m3 /s
Qmax Maximum flow rate m3 /s
Qmin Minimum wastewater flow m3 /day
QO Total outflow volume during a specified period m3 /s
Qp Peak flow m3 /s
QR Recirculated flow m3 /s
QT Total gas emission rate from a landfill volume/time
ORx,y Overall recovery for components x and y
Qw Waste sludge flow m3 /day
q+ Charge on the colloid Coulomb
q Flow that can be applied per unit area L/m2 *day
q Vertical inflow (infiltration) ft/day

R Plastics, percentage by weight of total MSW, on a dry basis

R Rotational speed of screw rpm
R Universal gas constant J/K*mol,
L*atm/mol*K, J/kg*K
Re Reynolds number Dimensionless
RES Resistance of a conductor W
RESs Specific resistance of the suspension W*cm
RI Ryzner index
Rm Resistance of filter medium m1
R mr Rate of corrosion
Rs Specific resistance W1
RT Total removal %
Ru Recycling ratio Dimensionless
R x1 Recovery of component x in the first output stream (1)
r Coefficient of runoff (can be estimated for different types of soil)
r Radius m
rD Rate of deoxygenation
rH Hydraulic radius m
rr Rate of reaeration
rs Specific resistance of sludge cake m/kg
rs Constant

S Salinity correction term

S Storage in the soil or solid waste mm/year
S Speed of belt ft/min
S Total number of customers serviced
SA Sludge age days
SDI Sludge density index g/mL
SLR Sludge loading rate day1
SRT Solids retention time m
SS Suspended solids mg/L
SVI Sludge volume index mL/g
SWL sound power level dB
SPL Sound pressure level dB
SPLN Net sound pressure level dB
SLPA Sound level at distance DA from the noise source m
SLPB Sound level at distance DB from the noise source m
SPLi Sound pressure level from source i dB
Sc Specific capacity of well m3 /day*m
Su Sulfide concentration mg/L*h
Sudis Dissolved sulfide concentration in wastewater mg/L
s Distance of separation between cylinders (discs) m
sa Salinity g/kg
s.g. Specific gravity of settling particle Dimensionless
s* Growth-limiting substrate concentration in solution mg/L

T Capacity tons/h
T Temperature C, F, K
TDS Total dissolved solids mg/L
TOR Net torque input dyne/cm
TR Transmissibility of aquifer m3 /day*m
Tc Temperature correction factor Dimensionless
Tw Average trade waste discharge L/day
Te Duration of the persons personal exposure to noise
To Length of the working day h
t Time, detention time days
tc Critical time days
t Half-life of the particular nuclide s, days
t25 Time required for water surface to fall 25 mm s
ti Age of the ith section of waste Time

U Velocity at free plate surface LT 1

UC Uniformity coefficient
ua Average velocity m/s
ui Heat transfer coefficient for heat exchanger number i J

V m3
 Volume

V m3
 Volume of refuse between each pitch
V
 Volume of sanitary landfill area
Vr Volume of a layer of coverage required
VO Volatile organics
Vo Original size (initial)
Vc
 Volume after compaction
VOL Volumetric organic loading rate kg/m3 *s
VS Concentration of volatile solids kg/m3
VA Volume of material (A)
VB Volume of material (B)
Vg Volumetric gas production rate (specific yield) m3 gas/m3 digester/day
Vs Settled volume of sludge in a 1000 mL graduated cylinder in 30 minutes mL/L, %
v Velocity m/s
v Speed of cylinders rpm
v Hindered settling velocity m/s
va Approach, actual velocity m/s
vc Centerline velocity m/s
vf Filtration velocity m/s
vH Velocity of horizontal water movement m/s
vr Rotational velocity of the bowl rad/s
vs Settling rate ,displacement velocity, loading rate, overflow rate m/s
v sc Self-cleansing velocity m/s
v sco Scour velocity m/s
vw The difference in the rotational velocity between the bowl and the conveyor rad/s
vz Updraft velocity m/s

W Loading rate kg/day

W Number of workdays per week
W Organic loading of the trickling filter g BOD/day
W Power of sound wave W
W Water, percentage by weight, on a dry basis %
W Weight of SW to be buried
Wt Weight kg
Ww Initial (wet) weight of sample
Wd Final (dry) weight of the sample
Wo Some reference sound power W (pW)
wp Wetted perimeter m

X Amount borrowed, amount available every year

X Number of customers a single truck can service per day
XT Total removal %
Xs Total mass of sludge, wet tons per day
Xr Total mass of refuse, wet tons per day
x1 First component emerging of the first output stream (1) Mass/time
xo x Component entering to the binary separator Mass/time
xg Mole fraction of gas Dimensionless
xc Critical distance m
x Distance, drawdown m
x Percentage of compressed SW volume %
xa Mass of solids wet tons
xs Mass of sludge or other source of water tons

Y Distance from a fixed plate m

Y Installment cost, amount that has to be invested
Ymax Maximum saturated depth over the liner ft
Yt Ultimate gas yield m3 gas/kg VS added
y Distance, depth, width m

Z Depth, elevation m
ZP Zeta potential V
 Constant
Inclination of liner from horizontal
Beta function for a centrifuge
Surface tension N/m
Angle
Particle shape factor Dimensionless
sw Hydrogen sulfide flux to pipe wall g/m2 *h
Specific weight N/m3
Specific weight of water
Shear stress N/m2
Parameter related to the characteristics of centrifuge
F Sum of all forces acting on fluid contained between two cross sections N
Density kg/m3
Average density of solid waste and garbage
Density of the material g/cm3
o Original apparent density
c Apparent density after compaction
c = A Bulk density of the mixture of material (A) and material (B)
+ B
A Bulk density of material (A)
B Bulk density of material (B)
Thickness of laminar layer m
Rate of deposition m2 /s
Kinematic viscosity m2 /s
Eddy viscosity N*s/m2
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity N*s/m2
Dynamic viscosity of water
Ionic strength
Temperature coefficient Dimensionless
Roughness of the pipe wall m
o Filtration coefficient m1
wave length m
Impeller rotations Number of
rotations/min
Constant
s Growth rate of microorganism day1
( s)max Maximum specific growth rate of microorganisms day1
Specific volume of the fluid m3 /kg
T Change in temperature C
S Change in storage volume during specified interval
P Pressure difference Pa
List of Acronyms

Abbreviation Meaning

algorithmic language
ALGOL

arithmetic and logic unit

ALU

Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.

AMD

beginners all-purpose symbolic instruction code

BASIC

basic input/output system

BIOS

bitmapped picture
BMP

compact disc
CD

common intermediate language

CIL

command line interface

CLI

common business-oriented language

COBOL

central processing unit

CPU

cathode ray tube

CRT

digital versatile disc, or digital video disc

DVD

electronic numerical integrator and computer

ENIAC

formula translation
FORTRAN

free and open source software

FOSS

free software foundation

FSF

GNUs not Unix

GNU

GNU general public license

GPL

graphical user interface

GUI

International Business Machines Corporation

IBM

integrated developer environment

IDE
IoT internet of things

just-in-time translator
JIT

joint of picture experts group

JPEG

Java virtual machine

JVM

local area network

LAN

liquid crystal display

LCD

light emitting diodes

LED

memory mapped input/output

MMIO

DOS microsoft disk operating system

MS

microsoft developer network

MSDN

optical character recognition

OCR

object-oriented programming
OOP

operating system
OS

open source initiative

OSI

personal computer
PC

portable document format

PDF

portable network graphics

PNG

programming logic
PROLOG

The first six letters appearing from the left-hand side of a keyboard
QWERTY

same as QWERTY, German version

QWERTZ

random access memory

RAM

read-only memory
ROM

structured query language

SQL

text-user interface
TUI

universal serial bus

USB
VB.NET Visual Basic.NET

VB for applications
VBA

Visual Studio
VS

Windows Emulator
WINE
 1 Programming Concepts

This chapter presents an introduction to the basic functions, layout, and components of a computer
workstation. Computer programming languages are briefly outlined and summarized, delineating their
history, types, and uses, with an emphasis being placed on Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET) language as is the
language of choice to this book.
The management of water resources, wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal, solid waste
collection and ultimate recycling, reuse and disposal as well as air pollution and noise abatement and
control involves complex processes. This is due to many interacting parameters, some of which are
difficult in presenting a straightforward mathematical model, equation, or formula. Mathematical
modeling techniques can be used in predicting the quality and sequence of relationships that can help
management in an effort to solve potential environmental problems. A model can be regarded as an
assembly of concepts in the form of one or more mathematical equations that approximate the behavior of
a natural system or phenomenon (Ji 2008). Models can be divided into simulation, optimization, and
computer-aided design models (Chapra 2008). Simulation models address the presentation of a
mathematical model that simulates a specific situation, with the formulation of a mathematical relationship
and solution through a structured and valid process. Optimization models use mathematical techniques to
achieve a reasonable solution from a range of possibilities. Computer-aided design models help in the
preparation of design drawings and computation of quantities.
Modeling methods rely on computers for their validation, testing, speediness, and efficient use. The
basic concepts of mathematical modeling and formulation of a well-written operative computer program
form the central theme of this book. The aim is to train individuals to write, develop, validate, and use
their own environmental engineering control programs and simulation models.
In many of the examples tackled in this book, the best teaching method was adhered to. This is not
always the best working or the best method with regards to its real-world performance. Sometimes the
teaching method is longer, slower, or even more complex than what a production-level model should be,
but the authors opted to make all examples, presented throughout the manuscript, as readable and
understandable as possible. As such the reader is free to edit any selected examples to be more
performance efficient if so he or she desires. A live example is editing controls properties in the
form_load() function of each form. In reality, the programmer (including oneself for that matter) will
edit these properties in the design view. This will not only reduce code clutter, but it also helps separate
design from code and reduces the work that the program has to do when loading each new instance of the
form to memory upon execution. In this book, however, everything is placed inside code blocks to reduce
the complexity of the text. As such, the reader is able to follow easily the code and understand exactly
what it does without really looking into the form design. Suffice it to know that there are five labels, five
textboxes, and one button in the form. Every other detail about these 11 controls is found in one place
inside the form_load() function. Again, this design choice is not suitable for production-level software
as it is solely intended for teaching models like the ones presented in this script. Furthermore, error
checking has been dropped in some examples to keep the programs as direct, explicit, clear, and simple
as possible.

1.1 HOW IT ALL STARTED

Long before computers came to life, machines have been developed to perform certain tasks. These
ranged from ancient and simple devices like the Greek Abacus, which was used for counting (around 50
BC), to the Pascaline (a mechanical calculator), which was named after its inventor, Blaise Pascal, in the
seventeenth century, to help his father do his tax work. It functioned mainly to add numbers. The first real
calculator that could do the four basic calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division)
was developed by the Austrian Antonius Braun (1727). Later on, in 1822, Charles Babbage (1791
1871), known as the father of computers, designed a machine that would do complex calculations and
print the results. This was a revolutionary concept in his time. Although he never actually built the
machine due to the limitations present in the technology at that time, which was not precise enough to
match his designs, the design and functions he set are present in nearly all todays computers (see Figure
1.1). During World War II, German submarines were receiving encrypted messages from the bases that
were coded using a coding machine called the Enigma. Around that time, in the U.S. Army, a machine for
computing tables for ballistic trajectories, named electronic numerical integrator and computer, was being
developed (Murdocca and Heuring 1999).

FIGURE 1.1 Components of a computing machine.

1.2 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

Essentially, a computer is a machine that can perform complex, long, and repetitive sequences of
operations at very high speeds (Welsh and Elder 1988). It captures data in the form of instructions or
electronic signals, processes it, and then supplies the results in the form of information or electronic
signals to control some other device or process (Schneider 2013). Theoretically speaking, conventional
computers have five major components (as designed by von Neumann and others, often referred to as the
von Neumann model) (see Figure 1.2) (Murdocca and Heuring 1999):

1. An input unit
2. An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
3. An output unit
4. A memory unit
5. A control unit

A typical personal computer (PC) includes four hardware components (in analogy to the von Neumann
model): a processor (central processing unit [CPU], which contains both the control unit and the ALU),
input devices (a keyboard and a mouse), output devices (video display devices such as a monitor or a
projector, printers, and other peripherals), and storage media (memory, hard disks, optical media, and
flash memory).
 The main components of a PC system can be detailed as follows (see Figures 1.2 through 1.6):

1. The CPU: This component represents the brain or the control center of the computer. It carries
out the sequence of operations specified by a program, and it controls all computer activities.
The functions of the CPU can be divided as follows (Hager and Wellein 2010):

FIGURE 1.2 Components of a computer (von Neumann model).

FIGURE 1.3 The system bus. I/O, input/output.

FIGURE 1.4 QWERTY keyboard layout.

FIGURE 1.5 Structure of a computer mouse.
a. The control unit controls electronic signals passing through the processor, and it monitors the
operation of the whole system. It also controls the flow of code and data through the
processor, on system buses, to main memory and other destinations (such as hard disks,
Universal Serial Bus [USB] disks, and output devices such as printers).

FIGURE 1.6 Components of a PC system.

b. he ALU executes arithmetic and logical operations. These are of paramount importance, as
most of the commands performed by the processor involve data moving or operations on data.
As the processors golden currency is time, this must be handled as efficiently as possible.
As such, modern processors apply very complex logical operations to determine the best path
to take, how to handle data, and what operation to do next, and when to do it.
As the CPU is the maestro of the orchestra, it must have a method of contacting the other
components under its control (see Figure 1.2). It negotiates tasks with other components of the
system using a common channel known as the system bus (see Figure 1.3), which has three
components (Murdocca and Heuring 1999):
The control bus: It carries information about the operation being requested, for example, read
from memory and write to disk.
The address bus: It carries the address of the destination (or source) of the data, be it in the
 main memory or saved on the disk.
The data bus: It carries the data being read/written.
2. Input devices: There are several programmable input devices such as the keyboard, digital pen,
joystick, mouse, microphone, and document scanner. These input devices function much the same
as human sensory organs in that they provide input from different sources into the computer:
a. The keyboard is by far the primary and mostly used input device for entering commands and
data. It transfers characters to a special keyboard buffer in memory in response to each key
event. Key events include key press, key release, and sticky or persistent key presses. Each
key event corresponds to a special and well-defined scan code (Brouwer 2009), which is a
special byte number indicating the key that generated the event and the event itself (press,
release, repeat). Most key events generate one to three scan codes. In addition to the scan
codes, most keyboards generate special control codes that are used to convey messages to the
host computer (e.g., the presence of key input) or to respond to commands from the host
computer. A typical PC keyboard has 101 keys (some Windows-specific keyboards have
104). The keys generate scan codes as described previously. The operating system (OS) does
the job of transforming each key event to its respective key mapping (e.g., the user pressed the
key with A printed on it. This might result in a printed on the screen, or A if the user
pressed Shift simultaneously, or has turned Caps Lock on beforehand, or maybe it prints a
whole different letter in another language if the user is using international language mapping).
The keys on a typical keyboard can be divided into: (1) alphabetical letters and numbers
(also called the alphanumeric set), (2) special symbols and shapes, and (3) function and
control keys. As each scan code is 1 byte in length, the keyboard driver can generate 256
different scan codes (a byte is 8 bits, thus 28 different values can be represented in a single
byte). This is not an awful lot, but remembering that each key event can generate one to three
different scan codes means that all key events (press, release, repeat) can be generated by
using multiple scan codes for individual key events. There are different ways of arranging the
keys on a keyboard, which is termed the keyboard layout (see Figure 1.4). The most
commonly used layout is the QWERTY layout, which corresponds to the first six letters
appearing from the left hand side. This layout was adopted from early typewriters. Other
layouts exist, such as QWERTZ (a German layout) and others.
b. The mouse is a positioning device that is used to navigate graphical user interfaces (GUIs) by
controlling a cursor (commonly shaped as an arrow with changing sizes, shapes, and colors).
It eases user interaction with the system by providing a means of working with files,
operating on the disk file system, launching programs, and other functions, by the user
clicking on one (or more) of its two to three buttons. Older mice used to have three buttons by
default. More current mice dropped the middle button (but can usually be emulated by
pressing both buttons concurrently) and substituted it for the scrolling wheel (see Figure 1.5).
Although the mouse is commonly associated with GUI environments, a lot of contemporary
OSs provide some (albeit sometimes rudimentary) mouse support in text-based environments
(textuser interface; also called command-line interface). For example, most Linux
distributions provide mouse support by default on their virtual terminals.
c. The digital pen is a type of input device that can be used to convert analog data (like user
handwriting or hand drawing) to digital data that can be accepted, processed, and stored by a
computer system. A popular use is in sending handwritten articles (by authors or journalists,
for example) to the computer, after which it can be run through a special software known as
 optical character recognition (OCR) software, which can analyze the digital data, perform
complex calculations on it, and ultimately convert the raw pixel data it received into distinct
language characters, thus recovering the original piece of handwritten article. Text can then
be edited by a word processor to add visual effects and can thereafter be printed or emailed.
d. Document scanners are used to scan pages and save them in an image format (such as JPEG,
PNG, BMP, and others) or in the portable document format (PDF). The data can then be
handled as is or processed through the same type of OCR software described previously to
retrieve the data contained in it.
3. Output devices use different means to display the output of calculations, the results of different
computations, whole documents, spreadsheets, or even audio and video.
a. The monitor (visual display, display screen): This output unit permits the display of input
information as it is entered and allows the display of the output produced by computer
software. Many types of monitors are found on the market, with different vendors, sizes, and
capabilities. Current monitors are usually light-emitting diode displays, which use an array of
light-emitting diodes to present the pixels on screen. Some other monitors are using the
inferior liquid crystal display technique, which takes advantage of the light-modulating
capabilities of liquid crystals. The old cathode ray tube displays are rendered extinct by these
new technologies. The contents of the display are governed by data stored in a special area of
the memory known as the video memory. The video memory is typically built into the monitor
itself to allow for fast transfer of images from the memory to the screen proper. The OS
usually either writes directly to the video memory or channels the graphics (or text) it wants
output on the screen to a special area of the main memory, known as memory mapped
input/output (MMIO), which is connected to the main video memory. Writing to this special
MMIO area is akin to writing the main video memory, and changes in one are directly
reflected on the other. This technique is not exclusively used by video memory. In fact, most
(though not all) modern I/O devices use some sort of MMIO in their communication with the
system. Some vendors provide special capabilities with their video cards to enable programs
with higher visual needs to be run seamlessly, a feature that is very important in video game
programming (Hill and Pilkgton 1990).
b. Printers and plotters: A printer allows the generation of a permanent record or a hard copy
of the output. Printers can be broadly classified according to the following:
Users connected to the printer:
Personal printer: It is connected to one host computer. It is usually office or home
based. It is easy to install, operate, and maintain, and is suitable for personal or small
business use.
Shared or multiuser printer: It is connected to a network (usually local area network) of
users. Typically, it is found in corporate offices and is shared and used simultaneously
by different users at the same time. This type must be durable and highly maintained to
withstand the workload expected.
Physical versus virtual: Physical printers are real-world printers like the one sitting on top
of ones own desk. A virtual printer is a piece of software that acts and behaves as if it
was a real printer. From the applications point of view, the virtual printer is a printer, and
all data that were destined to be printed will be sent to the virtual printer as such. A
typical example is the indispensable generic PDF printer, which is installed by default
on almost all modern OSs.
 Dimensions of the printed document: Typical, everyday use printers are two dimensional.
With the advent of three-dimensional printers (3D), a new era of printing has emerged, and
it may not take long for 3D printing to be integrated into our daily life activities and
routine.
Mechanisms of character formation:
Dot matrix printers form individual characters by using a series of dots, one line at a
time. Although it is considered legacy technology, dot matrix printers are still used in
special situations where low cost, low quality, or large volume printing is required, for
example, in cash registers.
Solid font mechanisms produce fully formed characters via the formation of sharp
images. They are to be preferred to dot matrix printers when letter-quality output is
needed.
Method of transfer of data, or print, to page:
Impact printers form characters by striking the type against an inked ribbon that presses
the image onto the paper. This is obsolete nowadays.
Nonimpact printers do not involve physical contact but instead transfer the image to the
paper using ink spray, heat, xerography, or laser. They are usually quieter and faster
than impact printers. Most modern printers are nonimpact printers.
A plotter allows the sequential drawing of objects rather than using the raster-scan principle
adopted for printers. The plotter produces professional quality drawings on different paper sizes
and allows the production of final, multiple-colored drawings.
4. Data storage media: Storage of programs and data can be made on (fixed) internal hard disks,
optical media (including compact discs [CDs] and DVDs), memory sticks (USB or flash
drives), and external hard disk stores. Memory is considered storage medium, albeit temporary,
as all the information stored therein is lost whenever the electrical current is lost; hence, it is
often called volatile memory.
Generally, storage media are used to store information, either permanently (like CDs and hard
disks) or temporarily (like memory). They may be divided as follows:
Floppy disks (diskettes): These portable media are made of flexible plastics that can be
magnetized. Data are stored on the disks as magnetized spots or concentric tracks on its
magnetic coating by the head of the disk drive. They are largely obsolete and are rarely used
today as the other technologies have superseded them in terms of efficiency, reliability,
storage size, and cost effectiveness.
Hard disks (Winchester disks): These are made of inflexible metal and are installed and
fixed in the computer. They are more reliable with larger storage capacities and faster access
times than the floppies. Each computer system usually contains at least one hard disk, which
is fixed inside the computer case. This serves as the primary storage medium for the system.
Otherwise, disks can be used as a large medium for transferring data between systems or as
backup storage for data recovery in case of system failure.
CDs are made of polycarbonate plastic with a thin layer of aluminum (the reflective surface).
Data are stored on the surface of the disc as a series of microscopic indentations; this is read
later using a laser beam. These discs can be formatted to store media (e.g., music CDs), data
(e.g., software CDs), and video (e.g., movie CDs).
The primary memory is volatile, that is, when the computer is turned off, the information is
lost (also known as the main store, random access memory [RAM], or read/write memory). It
 is used by the processor as a temporary information storage device. The information can be
an input to the system, or it may be generated from internal calculations. The RAM is also
used to store and retrieve computer programs during program execution. The basic
measurement unit of computer memory is denoted as a byte (corresponds to 8 bits, a bit being
the smallest unit of information handled by a computer and either 1 or 0 in the binary number
system). Bytes are grouped into kilobytes (1 kB = 1024 or 210 bytes), megabytes (1 MB =
1024 kB), giga bytes (1 GB = 1024 MB), and tera bytes (1 TB = 1024 GB). The immutable
memory is called read-only memory (ROM) and contains the basic input/output system
(BIOS). The BIOS controls the major I/O devices in the system. ROM is not a volatile
memory, it is built into the computer, and this information is retained even when the computer
is off.

Figure 1.6 shows the main components of a computer. The inside of the computer contains the main board,
power supply, adapter cards, disk drives, processor, RAM, ROM, math coprocessor, and support chips.
For effective, trouble-free operation, routine corrective and preventive maintenance should be performed
regularly for the computer. Computer failures can be caused by excessive heat, dust buildup, noise
interference, powerline problems, corrosion, and the presence of magnetic flux (Andrews 2013).

1.3 TYPES OF PROGRAMS

A program is an orderly collection of instructions directed to the computer, instructing it to perform
specific tasks. Programs collectively available to the computer to be performed are termed software. This
is in contrast with the hardware, which is the solid component of a computer system, described in Section
1.2. Software is needed to direct the computer to perform the required tasks. Hardware without software
is just a collection of assembled material. Likewise, software has no purpose to do if there is no
hardware to control. Software can be divided into the following categories:

1.3.1 OS (SUPERVISOR PROGRAMS)

This is a group of programs that efficiently control the operation of the computer. It is usually the first
program to load into memory, immediately after the BIOS finishes inspecting the hardware, checks
memory for errors, does some household work, and then looks for a suitable OS to run. The BIOS looks
into its list of bootable media (editable through BIOS setup on all modern computers and laptops). For
example, if the first bootable medium is the CD ROM, the BIOS looks into the controller to see if there is
a CD in it. If there is, it inspects the disk to see if it is bootable. If so, it looks for the OS executable and
loads it into a special address of the main memory and handles it control of the system. If the CD is not
bootable (or no media is inserted in the drive), the BIOS checks the next bootable medium, typically one
of the hard disks, and if it finds an OS installed there, it loads it and passes control to it. The part of the
OS that forms the core of the system and is loaded by the BIOS is called the OS kernel. The kernel
permanently resides in the computer memory throughout the system operation. It continuously supervises
and coordinates other programs running on the machine and monitors device activities. Many OSs have
been, and will continue to be, developed, such as Mac O/S by Apple, Microsoft Windows by Microsoft
Corporation, and Unix and its successor Linux by Bell Laboratories.
Linux was originally developed by Linus Torvalds (started as a hobby project back in 1991). Since
then, Linux became a pillar of its own. It expanded vigorously, and with many contributions from the GNU
project (http://www.gnu.org), GNU/Linux has become an important and respected player in todays OS
arena. There are many systems built around the Linux kernel, which are called distributions, or shortly
distros. Such distros include Fedora Linux, SuSE Linux, and Gentoo Linux.

1.3.2 UTILITY PROGRAMS (USER PROGRAMS)

These programs are designed by manufacturers or software companies to perform specific tasks.
Examples of utility programs include text editors, debugging aids, disk formatters, file copiers, data
sorters, and data file mergers. The major difference between user and supervisor programs is that user
programs run in user mode, which means they are not granted direct control of the system except through
special requests to the kernel. For example, when the user opens a document in his/her word processor,
the user program (the word processor) asks the OS (the kernel) to do the operation of opening and reading
the document. The process of shielding the user programs and preventing them from doing such important
actions on the system is an important concept. Consider what happens if that same word processor had
frozen because of a bug in the program logic, or even worse, due to malware or viral infection. If the
word processor was given liberty while handling the disk and the files on it, a disaster could have
happened when the program is frozen: When a program goes down, it will take the whole system down
with it. This was the case in the old Microsoft Disk OS (MS-DOS) era, when system crash was common,
and every user knew the life-saving Ctrl-Alt-Del combination to reboot the system and start anew. In
modern OSs however, user programs must ask the kernel to do almost every task that involves interaction
with the computer system or its peripherals. As such, when a program freezes for whatever reason, the
system remains intact, and the user can simply click the kill this program button to get rid of the
offending software, leaving the rest of the system out of harms way.

1.4 PROGRAMMING AND LANGUAGES

As computers became more and more complex, so did the functions performed by a computer. Old-
fashioned computers were general purpose, whereas most of todays microprocessors serve specific
goals, such as driving a users smartphone, smart watch, or iPad, or even controlling a smart TV or a
smart fridge; the interconnection of all these objects together has led to the term Internet of Things. With
the universal explosion of information technology that resulted in virtually each person having at least a
personal laptop, a desktop PC at work, and a smartphone in his or her pocket, focus has shifted from the
older PC era, when the old-fashioned desktop PC was the center of the programming world, and every
effort was made to suit the programming process to ensure compatibility with the specific system
vendors specifications and needs.
Complexities in programs and their goals have led to the development of new programming languages,
some of which are specific, sometimes highly specific to the extent that one programming language might
be associated with just programming into another program (scripting). As such, there are different ways of
looking at the programming languages and grouping them into different categories:

Object-oriented versus procedural programming: Almost every programming language in todays

world is object oriented (OOP). In this paradigm, everything is an object: you, your car, your dog,
and every other thing in your world. Every object belongs to a class of objects, which defines in
general terms what are the common features held by objects of its type. Every class has members
that define its characteristics (such as color, model, and number of doors a car has) and methods
 that define how the outer world interacts with it (gas pedal to accelerate the car, user does not
need to know how it actually works internally). As such, every object contains two things: data
(members or fields) and code (methods) that works on this data. This programming model is
different from the old way in which programs were written, which is known as procedural
programming. In procedural programming, the program is written as one clump of code, which is
read and executed by the processor sequentially until the commands are finished. This method of
programming is considered retrospective in most todays programming aspects, but it still has its
important applications in selected cases. The user is directed to the references where more
information about OOP is provided (Buyya et al. 2009).
Event-driven environments: In an OOP world, everything is event driven; nothing happens on its
own. For example, the word processor program will continue staring back at the user unless he or
she strikes a key, clicks a mouse button, or touches a touch screen, instructing the program to do some
action. As such, every event (key press, mouse click, touch on a touch screen) has an event handler
(special part of the programs code that determines how to respond to certain events in specific
ways). Contrast this with procedural programming where the only event needed was the user
invoking the programs executable from the command line, after which the program will continue
running from the top down in a predetermined and well-known path. Each and every time the
program is run, it will run in the exact same way. It is worth mentioning that reference concerns the
output (or results), and not focuses on the steps taken to reach these results. In an event-driven
environment, how the program runs exactly depends on the events generated by the user, which are
different every time unless the user generates the exact set of events every time he or she runs the
program.
High-, intermediate-, and low-level programming (see Figure 1.7) (Dandamudi 2005): As more
basic functionality is hidden from the user (termed encapsulation [Buyya et al. 2009] under the OOP
umbrella), as more the language becomes high level. High-level programmers usually program
desktop application software; they do not need to know exactly how the OS or the underlying
hardware works. Examples of high-level languages are VB, (Visual) C and C++, Java, structured
query language (SQL), and many more. On the contrary, OS programmers need to have a detailed
knowledge of how the monitor paints pixels to display images, how the keyboard sends key strokes
in the form of scan codes, how the hard disk retrieves a sector from the disk to read part of a file, and
so on. In essence, these programmers need to know how the system behaves under the hood. As such,
they need a language that does not have all the ornaments of a high-level language but is actually
more close to the understanding of the underlying processor. This is known as the intermediate
language (or the assembly language, which differs slightly according to the type of the underlying
processor architecture). The lowest level of functionality is the bare bones, actual machine language,
which is not human readable, and it translates to the letter what the processor does, usually expressed
in the form of hexadecimal (letters and numbers) words.
General- and special-purpose languages: Languages used to program desktop software, games,
general web applications, and servers are general-purpose languages (most of the commonly used
programming languages fall into this category, including VB, C/C++, Java, among others). Special-
purpose languages are tailored toward more specific tasks, for example, database handling, program
scripting, or programming logic, and artificial intelligence (e.g., SQL for database handling, Visual
Basic for Applications, JavaScript for web scripting, and PROLOG [Programming in Logic] for
artificial intelligence programs).
Compiled and translated languages: Traditionally, every programming language was compiled.
 Compilation means transforming a programs source code (usually written in a high-level language
code) into a machine-specific low-level (binary) code. The compiler is a program that understands
both the high-level and machine languages for the specific platform, something akin to the human
language translators in international meetings, and as such, each language has its own compiler, being
specific for each and every processor. This is not a good scheme for certain conditions, for example,
web scripting. As the web page needs to be fast loading and small in size, having a precompiled
program is not always the good answer. Some languages were developed for this very purpose, being
resident as a source code, which will be executed by a mediocre program (the translator) at
execution time (e.g., JavaScript for web scripting). This scheme involves another step in programs
life: writing program source, distributing it, and letting another program (the translator) read it and
tell the processor what to do. Some languages took it even further, as there arose the problem of
system compatibility. A program written for MS Windows will not work on Unix or Linux. A
program written for Intels x86 architecture will not work on Motorola AMD processor, at least not
natively and easily. Therefore, the compatibility problem has two facets: OS and architecture
compatibility. Some languages such as Java solved this problem by inventing the Java virtual
machine (JVM). Java source code is compiled into an executable containing intermediate Java binary
code (similar, but not identical to, machine code). This executable needs a small program (the JVM)
to run it. The JVM is like a processor inside a processor; it reads the binary code and tells the real
processor what to do. Thus, programmers need not worry about distributing their original source
code (a headache for many corporations and programmers), and users only need to install a small-
sized virtual machine that is specific to their systems (e.g., JVM for x86 under Linux, JVM for AMD
under Windows). Every program written in Java will work on the fly (provided the JVM is installed
on the target system), with the price of some slowness of execution compared to a native machine-
coded program.

FIGURE 1.7 Different levels of abstraction in the programming model.

Writing ones own programs has many benefits over buying and using packaged programs. These
advantages include the following:

Solve specific problems, as the new program will be written specifically to answer the question at
hand
Speed, performance, and interpretation of calculations, compared to manual interpretation of data.
Computers are better than humans in doing complex calculations, provided the correct input is given
Enhancing graphical work, especially with the advent of new hardware that is specially tailored
toward graphical design and the continuous improvements in graphical design and modeling software
Formulating cost-effective design and operation of products. Certainly, a company that invents its
 own software solutions manages to save more money than the one that relies on presold software
Computer-aided design and manufacturing is a continuously growing market
Performing preliminary testing enables preemption of bugs and early correction of problems before
deploying software solutions to users
Controlling manufacturing and assembly operations
Control and automation of processes
Effective business and management operations
Communicating technical results in a reliable and effective way
Educational and training programs. Virtual tutors are becoming a common practice in many
educational institutions and corporate training schedules

Writing ones own software can have some drawbacks and problems also as follows:
Reinventing the wheel, which is the most fatal mistake a programmer might do. If there is some
problem that needs solving, one might better do some search around, looking at some programming
forums, running through a specialized website (like the Microsoft Developer Network
http://msdn.microsoft.com), or even asking Google or Bing: someone might have had the answer in
a more effective and elegant way, so there is no need to waste time and brain power.
Not knowing where to start. Sitting there with a void mind and an empty source file, staring at the
blinking cursor with no notion of what code to write. Therefore, good programming design and
preemptive thinking are paramount before grasping the keyboard and starting on writing code.
Not knowing which language to use. Having a look at the examples of programming languages and
their uses as discussed previously helps make this decision.
Working single handedly. Usually as programs grow bigger, team work becomes more efficient and
effective. Sometimes assigning team members with specific tasks help speed up the process and
make it more effective and reliable, such as having one software programmer, one debugger, and one
testing person.

Once a program has been written, it needs to be verified for its accuracy through the use of specific data.
This results in a cycle of checking and correcting the program to obtain required accuracy and
specifications. This process is called debugging, and it is carried out by running the program on a
computer with suitable test data to eliminate (almost) all compile time, runtime, and logical errors. Figure
1.8 shows the steps to be followed in order to obtain a virtually error-free program (we say virtually
because it is impossible to write a 100% error-free program. Each and every programexcept the most
trivial oneswill fail at some point in some way under the wrongor right?conditions). The process
of debugging is simply a trial to reduce these errors to a minimum and to ensure that the program runs as
expected under most normal conditions.
High-level programming languages are machine independent; after all, this is why they were developed
in the first place. The features considered essential to the success of a program include simplicity of the
algorithm or technique, program clarity, and efficiency in executing the program. Some of the most
commonly used high-level languages are described briefly as follows:
FIGURE 1.8 Steps of programming.
1. Java (Schildt 2007), first released in 1995 by Sun Microsystems, is a general-purpose, OOP
language. It became widely popular and is used in almost all electronic and digital devices of
todays use. From the desktop programming point of view, Java was intended to be a cross-
platform language, that is, a program written in Java language under one platform (e.g.,
Windows on an Intel processor) will be able to run without change in the source code to fit
another platform (e.g., Linux on AMD processor). Java does this by implementing the JVM and
by compiling the source code into an intermediate Java byte code that is run by the JVM. Java is
derived from C/C++, but it was made more stable, secure, and memory efficient. One of the
advancements introduced in Java is the garbage collector, which is a small program (part of the
Java machine) that scans the programs memory periodically to look for variables and data that
are no longer used, which are then deleted by the garbage collector, and their memory space is
revoked for other uses.
2. FORTRAN (Formula Translation) uses a notation that facilitates writing of mathematical
formulas. The language is useful especially when dealing with large amounts of data such as in
the case of business-oriented work. The language is excellent for sophisticated computations
 and is fast and precise with relatively powerful I/O capabilities. FORTRAN programs execute
quite rapidly because the language is almost a compiled one. In program writing, a number of
commands are used throughout the different stages of the program to its completion. Each
instruction is written as a single line and, in some systems, aligned in specific columns to
constitute the source program. The compiler translates the program for the computer to yield the
object program (Hager and Wellein 2010, Chivers and Sleightholme 2015). Many changes and
various versions have emerged since the language first appeared in the IBM labs in the 1950s
(FORTRAN, FORTRAN 77, FORTRAN 95, FORTRAN 2008), and the language is becoming
more user-friendly and object oriented.
3. VB.NET (Petroutsos 2002) (the successor to the older VB, which in turn is coming all the way
from BASIC, the Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is widely used as it is one
of the easiest programming languages to learn and provide an excellent platform for novice
programmers. It is an OOP language. It relies on the .NET framework for its functionality
(discussed later). It is usually programmed using Visual Studio (VS) integrated development
environment (IDE) or the free Visual Basic Express Edition supplied by Microsoft
(downloadable from their web-site: http://www.visualstudio.com/en-us/downloads/download-
visual-studio-vs.aspx). It is also used in most educational settings, university, and other
programming courses. VB.NET is interactive as all .NET languages (the IntelliSense feature of
VS allows the IDE to evaluate each statement on the fly and diagnose any potential errors and
then provides possible completion or correction options to the user). VB.NET syntax is much
easier than many other languages, and it is much simpler to use.
4. C++ (pronounced see plus plus), appeared as a successor to old C language. It started with
adding object-oriented features to C and was originally named C with classes, starting at Bell
Labs in 1979; it then was renamed C++ in 1983. It is a general-purpose, object-oriented, high-
level language, although most programmers consider C as an intermediate language (as assembly
language) because of many of the low-level and memory-manipulating features. C/C++ is
widely used in programming software, especially software needing fine-tuning with the
underlying hardware as OSs. Most programs are a hybrid with intervening assembly code
inserted in the middle of C/C++ code to do some basic hardware functions or specific system
calls.
5. Pascal is a structured language used to perform large-scale programming. The language uses a
restricted set of design structures and other organizing principles. The language rules are made
up of syntax and semantics. The former rules define how the words of the language can be put
together to form sentences; the latter ascribes meaning and significance to these combinations of
words (Welsh and Elder 1988). The language is excellent for large-scale and complicated
programs. Although Pascal per se is not largely used today, its successor, Delphi, is widely used
as a general-purpose OOP language.
6. Other programming languages include a wide variety of languages developed for specific
applications. The Assembly language is the one used primarily by system programmers to
address the hardware. It is rarely used for scientific applications, although it can be, but with
great difficulty and effort. It is excellent for direct negotiation with the hardware, but it is
limited by its complexity and lack of the programming structs that are present in high-level
languages. Another drawback is that it is platform dependent, that is, each platform (or
processor family) has its own instruction set, which dictates what assembly instructions can be
performed on this specific platform. Currently, high-level languages such as C and its extension
 C++ are satisfying the needs of most programmers, even those requiring interaction with the
hardware, and are being used for almost all purposes such as scientific, educational, system
programming, database, equipment control, games, and many other applications. However,
special languages such as SQL are intended for database programming only. Other languages
include ALGOL, ADA, COBOL, MODULA, and many others.

1.5 THE OPEN-SOURCE MOVEMENT

In the late 1970s and the early 1980s, computers have been becoming a commonplace that people started
to obtain their own PCs. At that time, computer world was dominated by big names such as IBM,
Microsoft, and Apple. Some people, specifically a visionary man named Richard Stallman, have felt that
something was wrong. Big companies were selling their software to customers for a price that included
copyright royalties and customer support fees, which is all right. The problem was that these proprietary
programs were closed source, meaning that the customer did not know what the program was really
doing, he or she has been promised a specific behavior, and he or she got that, but he or she did not know
how he or she got there. In other words, what steps did the program take to arrive at the result it
displayed? Was the algorithm undertaken by the program the best one in this case? Was there another way
of solving the problem that the original programmer did not use or did not know existed? Was the program
doing any side work (like spying on the users system determining what programs he or she is using and
sending a report to the mother company, a technique commonly used by many online companies nowadays
to tailor their advertisements to the users browsing history)? All these questions gave rise to the novel
idea of Dr. Stallman: software ought to be free (synonymous to open in this context).
Up to the time of this writing, there is a tribal war in the open-source community regarding whether
code should be open or free. This is reflected by the fact that there are two different governing bodies in
the open-source world: the Free Software Foundation (FSF) (Free Software Foundation 2016), founded
by Richard Stallman, and the Open Source Initiative (Open Source Initiative 2016). From the authors
point of view, the difference between the two is pure semantics. Whether one uses the term open-source
or free-source programming is entirely up to ones liking. They are essentially one and the same, and
troops in both camps are fighting for the exact same cause. In fact, it is common to hear the term FOSS,
referring to free- and open-source software.
The basic idea is that the user has the right to know not only what the program does but also how it
does it. This is why most open-source code is distributed under one of the GNU licenses (like the GNU
General Public License GPL [Free Software Foundation 2007]. Large programs and software, sometimes
whole OSs like the Linux kernel, are distributed under the GPL. This means the user is provided not only
with the program executable but also promised the source code. Sometimes even the executable is
dropped, and the software is distributed as source code to save space and avoid malware infection of
executable images. The software is usually protected with the GPL (or a similar) license that copyrights
the intellectual property of the author. Nonetheless, instead of building a wall around the code royalty, it
grants the user the permission to use, reuse, modify, enhance, and distribute the code, as long as the
original author and his or her license are not removed, and in turn, the user is granting the same
permissions to the other users he or she is redistributing the code to.
Some authorities are criticizing the movement out of misconception of the word free. The word free
meansin this contextfreedom of information, not freedom of price. This is depicted by the GNU
organizations motto: think of free as in free speech, not free beer. The GNU and the FSF outline four
freedoms for the user of a software in their scheme (Free Software Foundation 2015):
 The freedom to run the program in any way the user wishes, including using the software for any
purpose (called freedom 0)
The freedom to study how the program works and modify it to the user needs. This is achieved by
providing the source code for each and every program under one of the GNU licenses (called
freedom 1)
The freedom to redistribute the software (called freedom 2), including the source code itself and any
modified code thereof (see the next point)
The freedom to improve and modify the program and release the improved version publicly,
including the modified source code (called freedom 3)

The open-source movement has become an important paradigm embraced by more and more programmers
and institutions every day. As mentioned previously, whole systems have contributed to the advancement
of the movement; of note is GNU/Linux, the Apache web server, among other software.
An important idiom here is that the sharing spirit of the open-source movement is not limited to any
specific language as many authors believe. In fact, code written in proprietary programming languages
such as VS family of languages can be distributed under the GPL or another open-source license.
The choice of which language to use in programming these texts examples was a debatable topic. The
authors support the open-source movement and believe that it had contributed much to the advancement of
software technology, and it will continue to do for the foreseeable future. This means the choice should be
writing the code in C/C++ as it is the de facto language(s) for writing Unix/Linux software (the biggest
contender under the open/free-source paradigm as discussed previously). Another option was writing in
Java as it is the best cross-platform language, which means the authors code will be guaranteed to reach
the largest number of audiences. The point against the first choice was that C is a little uncomfortable for
beginner programmers, and C++ is much more so, although the authors are avid C programmers by heart.
As for Java, it did not deviate much from the C/C++ line of complexity; in addition, it would have
involved another level of indirection (the intermediate language) that would have needed another
discussion.
Finally, VB.NET has been selected for the models incorporated in this book for the following reasons:

MS Windows is one of the most (if not the most) popular OSs in use today. Market shares of MS
Windows are by far outgrowing all other competitive OSs collectively (Stat Counter 2015,
W3Schools 2016). Chances are, when buying a new PC or laptop, the user will face this OS first
and foremost (although other platforms are being dominated by other OSs, such as the Android
system which is dominating on smartphones and tablets).
The .NET framework is becoming very popular as an effective programming platform in computer
industry that it will be counterproductive not to learn and understand how to implement engineering
models using this platform. This is in part driven by the fact that .NET is a Microsoft technology
modeled for Windows, a Microsoft OS.
VB language is the de facto language of programming under MS Windows family of OSs. VB.NET
came from the good old BASIC (the Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), which was
very appealing to novice programmers as it was known to be an easy-to-learn language, although it
had modest-to-moderate capabilities compared with powerful languages of the time like C and
Pascal. One of its important aspects was that VB had many layers of abstraction (hiding details) that
the programmer did not need to know about the low-level workings of the system, he or she just
needed to focus on programming the solution at hand. This is why BASIC, its child VB, and its
 grandchild VB.NET are all considered the easiest programming languages to learn, especially for
beginners and those with no prior programming experience.
Simplicity of the language in structure and content. Compared to code written in C/C++ or Java, VB
is much clearer and easier to comprehend.
Ease of learning the language and its interactive use.
Flexibility in program alteration, updating, and patching.
Universal language, popular, interactive, and common in use.
Relatively standard language with many versions simple to run on different computer architectures
with little or no modification, provided it is run under MS Windows or a compatible OS (like Linux
with Windows Emulator WINE) installed, for example).
Relevance to engineering applications and scientific computations being a general-purpose language,
which is widely used in programming many mathematical and engineering models.
Availability of the language software on PCs (either as part of VS or as the free Visual Basic Express
Edition from Microsoft).
Immediate detection of errors (using the IntelliSense feature of the VS common language IDE, a
feature shared by all VS languages).
Production of acceptable quality graphics and ease of embedding video/sound and other object files.
The language requires no hardware knowledge, and it shields the user from the OS of the computer
(Kiong 2012).

Computer programs usually are formed of subprograms (subroutines and functions) that are easily
developed and tested separately. Generally, a subroutine functions to serve some specific goal and then
returns control to the main program. A function serves similar goals with the difference that it is required
to return a result to the main program. Most of the current OOP use an event-driven approach. In this
model, every task done by the program is triggered by an event (key press or mouse click or moving a
joystick), and the program responds by executing a specific subroutine (called the event handler). This
modular design approach results in short and highly focused programs.

1.6 ABOUT THE .NET FRAMEWORK

The newer version of the well-known VB language, which is known as VB.NET, does most of its work by
relying on the .NET (pronounced dot net) framework (shorthanded Fx), as does all the other members
of the .NET family of programming languages (C#pronounced see sharp, Visual C++, J++, and
others). What the framework essentially is, in simple terms, a large group of functions. These functions
serve to do virtually whatever a programmer wants to do. It consists of classes grouped into different
namespaces, with each class containing related functions that work on certain targets. For example, the
Drawing class holds the functionality of drawing lines, rectangles, circles, coloring, and much more
(Petroutsos 2002).
As such, Windows programming has come into a new paradigm, the OOP space. The user is not bound
to learning specific languages to do complex tasks that cannot be done in other languages (VB used to be
the sandboxed language, that is, it protected the user from knowing the lower level functionality of the
OS). But now this has changed, as with the .NET framework, every program that is written in a .NET
compatible language will be compiled to an intermediate language, known as the common intermediate
language (CIL). One can think of this as something similar to assembly language, but being specific to the
.NET framework (like Java byte code). All .NET programs translate to the CIL, which will finally be
compiled into the final binary executable to be run later by the machine.
At run time, a special program, part of the .NET Fx, known as the just-in-time translator, or, as
affectionately called between programmers, the Jitter, loads the program to be run into memory, reads in
the program instruction by instruction, and directs the processor to execute each instruction in turn. This is
akin to the JVM described previously, which was developed for making Java platform independent.
As such, .NET is being ambitious in trying to be platform independent in its own way. Any OS that can
run the .NET Fx or a similar platform cantheoretically at leastrun any CIL-compiled program. For
example, Windows native programs can be run under Linux by using an emulator (like the WINE,
http://www.winehq.org). Similarly, .NET programs can be programmed, tested, and debugged under
Linux (and other Unix-like systems) by using a cross-platform IDE such as MonoDevelop
(http://www.monodevelop.com). A major drawback that breaks the flow of this ambitious reach is the
issue of copyright, as the .NET Fx and all the .NET compatible languages are registered trademarks of
Microsoft.

1.7 WHAT IS VS.NET?

Traditionally, writing a working program used to involve many steps (see Figure 1.8), starting with
entering the raw program code into some sort of a text editor (usually part of a programming IDE),
checking the code for errors, running the program, and using a compiler to convert the program from a
source code into a machine language. Most of these steps are essential and so are retained in todays
programming, with some modifications into how they are done.
In the .NET programming world, one will eventually revert to the VS. VS is an IDE for developing
Windows and Web applications (Petroutsos 2002). Many languages use VS, including VB, Visual C++,
and others. What VS does is that it groups all the necessary tools used by a programmer and put it under
one umbrella. VB programmers, C++ programmers, and other .NET compatible languages use the VS to
program their code. Some parts of the programming process are not affected by which language is used,
such as the design of a form or the contents of a database, and these parts are provided for every
languages use in the common IDE of VS.NET.
In this text, we are using VB.NET (as the programming language) and VS (as the IDE).
Indeed, VS is a dynamic piece of software that changes very frequently, but changes are in terms of
patches, bug fixes, and security enhancements. VS itself may be regarded as a fancy (editor + compiler)
front end to make programmers life easier. We could have chosen any other IDE front end, like
MonoDevelop or Eclipse, the choice would not change anything in the source code listings of the book.
Those tools are just the front ends; the user is welcome to use his or her preferred IDE if he or she does
not like using VS. Though, in practice, most Windows programmers would use VS as it is the IDE
developed by the same company that devised the programming languages like VB. This is like choosing
between MS Word and another word processing program to edit our manuscript. It does not make any
difference as long as the final work is a DOCX or DOC file.
However, VB itself is a stern and solid programming language. The core of the language changed very
little through the years. This makes the programming listings of the book the same whether we were using
VB 10, VB 2013, or VB 2015, or even a future version of VB. We are not using any language extensions,
and we are not doing any funny business with templates, delegates, abstract classes, and other mind-
boggling topics, but we are just using the core language features that are mostly the same since the original
Windows 3.1 version of VB. In fact, the original manuscript we wrote over a year ago was compiled
using VS 2013, and this one is done using VS 2015. We changed exactly zero lines of code in the
transition. We just changed the screenshots as the window headers looked different under Windows 7 and
Windows 8, thats all!
As such, all in all, although the VS will surely change in the future, VB will not (or at least not so
dramatically), and so our programming modules should hold water for years to come.
As an additional security measure, we recompiled and ran all the source programs using VS versions
2010, 2013, and 2015, Professional and Enterprise editions. All programs ran smoothly and efficiently
under Windows XP, 7, and 8. Moreover, we ran a couple of the executables on a Fedora Linux box (with
WINE), and they ran like a charm; we edited them using MonoDevelop IDE on Linux, which is a world of
difference, compared to VS on Windows, and it worked also. As such, no matter what the editor is, be it
VS or something else, the user will get the programs up and running smoothly enough, provided that VB is
the language used, and the .NET framework is installed on his or her system.
In summary, the version of VS used in writing this books programs is VS 2015 Professional Edition,
but the programs should compile and run on other versions (e.g., VS 2010 or 2013, Enterprise, Basic, or
Express). Most of the examples have been tested and verified to be working under Linux (Fedora Linux
23) with WINE installed as an emulator (see Section 1.6).
For a step-by-step guide to using VS.NET for new users, refer to the users guide at the end of this
book (see Appendices).

1.8 FUNDAMENTALS OF THE VB.NET LANGUAGE

In VB.NET, the instructions can be entered in two ways (Gottfried 2002, Petroutsos 2002, Loffelmann and
Purohit 2011, Kiong 2012, Schneider 2013):

1. Directly entering program instructions into the editor (usually an IDE such as VS.NET)
2. Loading previously coded program from a saved file or project

During the stage of program preparation and execution, errors (bugs) may occur. These errors can be
grouped as follows:

Syntax errors (coding mistakes, diagnostic errors) are mistakes made in the usage of the high-level
language (e.g., misspelling of a key word or giving a function an inadequate number of
parameters). These are easy to spot as most modern text editors provide syntax highlighting to help
see erroneous words and missing braces. Furthermore, the compiler will spot such errors and will
report them to the programmer.
Runtime errors develop during program execution and are usually unforeseen during program coding
and compiling, for example, accessing a memory location that is inaccessible or referencing an
object that has not been initialized. These are harder to foresee as they are not visible until running
time.
Logical errors are due to faulty program logic. They are like incorrect order of expressions or
incorrect ordering of statements. Usually these types of errors are skipped by the diagnostics of the
compiler, as the compiler checks the syntax of the language and makes sure that references are
correct and language usage is plausible, but it has no idea about the intention of the programmer when
he or she wrote the code. As such, it cannot judge if the logic of the program is correct or not. This is
a hard type of error to spot, because sometimes the logical error is not apparent until there is an
abnormal result of a given calculation or an abnormal response to a specific task.
Debugging and testing should be carried out to produce a reliably operating program. After debugging the
program, the next phases are documentation, storage, maintenance, and updating. Documentation signifies
addition of language descriptions (may be English or any other Latin-letter based) to ease implementation
of the program by the user. Storage refers to saving the program in a suitable media, whereas maintenance
concerns the upgrading of the program and posting patches to fix errors and security issues.
VB.NET is a simple, reliable language. The instructions resemble elementary algebraic formulas and
use plain English words (those reserved by the language are known as the languages keywords). Use of
the language covers various disciplines such as science, engineering, business, mathematics, finance,
database management, commercial, and computer games, to name but a few.
The original BASIC language was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth
College, Hanover, New Hampshire, in the early 1960s. It was running under the command line DOS. It
then underwent extensive work and modification, and reemerged as VB. This then underwent the
evolution to become the current VB.NET version. Throughout this book, VB.NET 2015, of Microsoft, is
adopted for writing programs and models. There is an extensive help, both locally and online (from
Microsoftthe Microsoft Developer Network and from other programming forums).
The simplest VB.NET program structure is a single Windows form, which has a design interface (the
part holding the textboxes and buttons, and having everything to do with what the user sees) and a code
part (the processes and calculations that happen behind the scenes), as depicted in Figure 1.9. The code
is composed of a sequence of statements that are grouped into subroutines, each one being executed
whenever a specific action happens (e.g., when a user clicks a button to do some calculations). Sections
1.8.1 through 1.8.17 summarize the important statements and functions used in VB.NET programming and
are used in the models in this book. They do not cover all the commands in VB.NET; such a list will be
exhaustive and lengthy. The interested reader is directed to refer to the Microsoft documentation or other
publications dealing with this language (see References).

FIGURE 1.9 Form code and design.

1.8.1 VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS

Data are expressed in VB directly as raw data or constants and indirectly as variables. Constants refer to
values unaltered during program execution, that is, the value that was hard coded during design time is
preserved during execution time. Some constants are predefined as part of the .NET Fx, for example, Pi is
predefined as the constant System.Math.PI. Variables signify symbolic names to which a changing
(during execution) value is assigned. They are names that refer to a certain place in memory ready to store
values of a specific type (see Figure 1.10). The programmer usually specifies which type the variable is
during the writing of the code. Generally the types of variables are as follows:

Numbers can be positive or negative and can be expressed as integer quantities (whole numbers
without fraction part) or floating point (real) quantities (which include fractions). Integer
quantities are written as numbers without a decimal point and can be declared as short, integer, or
long, with a capacity to store 2, 4, and 8 bytes of memory, respectively (according to the platform,
but these are the commonest used quantities). This means short integers can have values in the
range of 32,768 to +32,767 (i.e., 215 to 215 1) for signed shorts and 0 to +65,535 (216 1) for
unsigned shorts (similarly, signed integers range from 231 to 231 1 and signed longs range from
263 to 263 1). In writing numbers, the following points need to be considered:
A number can be preceded by a (+, optional) or a () sign.
A number can be written in a scientific format as xEy, where x is the number and y is the
exponent. The exponent can be positive or negative but is devoid of a decimal point. For
example, 3E2 means 3 times 100.
Letters and symbols such as dollar signs and commas are not allowed in numeric constants.
Real numbers can be expressed in single or double precision. A single-precision number is a
real number stored with seven significant digits plus a decimal point; a double-precision
number is stored with 16 digits plus a decimal point. Both numbers are floating point numbers,
that is, the decimal point floats in its position in the number depending on the value of the
number. Usually, single-precision floating points are stored in 4 bytes, and double precisions
are stored in 8 bytes of memory.
Strings, which consist of a sequence of characters, are used to represent nonnumeric information. The
value is written between two double quotations.
Charactersa variable of this type stores only one character, represented as a two-byte Unicode
char.

FIGURE 1.10 Changing the value of a variable.

Booleansa variable of this type accepts only one of the two values: True or False, commonly
used in logical comparisons to direct program flow through loops, jumps, and the conditional (IF
ELSE) statements.
Others, less used types, like the Date and Object variables.

Examples of variable and constant declaration are as follows:

REM Declaring Gravitational Acceleration as a Constant
Const g as Double = 9.81
REM Declare some variables
Dim simpleInteger as Integer = 30
Dim myName as String = Abdel-Magid
Dim falseLogic as Boolean = False

1.8.2 OPERATORS
Operators are used to indicate arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and exponentiation as follows:

Function
Operator
+ Addition
Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
^ Exponentiation
Mod Modulus (remainder of integral division)

Order of execution gives priority to exponentiations to be followed by multiplication and division, with
addition and subtraction to be carried out last. The hierarchy of operation can be altered through the use
of pairs of parentheses at proper places in an equation or formula. If two operands of the same priority
exist in one formula, the order is left to right in execution, unless parentheses are present. For example:

results in the value of 14 stored in X, whereas

results in the value of 20.

1.8.3 THE REM STATEMENT (REMARK OR THE SINGLE QUOTE, )

The REMark statement adds descriptive comments anywhere into a VB.NET program. The compiler
ignores statements beginning with REM or a single quote. Comments are an importantand seldom
overlookedpractice in computer programming. Not only are comments important for the users and other
programmers looking into ones code, but they are of the utmost importance for the programmer himself or
herself. Consider pulling out a several month-old software to find a bug or apply an update. More often
than none, you will stop at one function staring at the screen and thinking what on earth was I thinking
when I wrote this piece of code? This is not only common, but it is standard. So comments are important
to keep the programmer sane several months down the road when he or she wants to revise the code, and
he or she will.

1.8.4 THE END STATEMENT

The End statement is used to indicate the end of a subroutine or a function, like End Sub or End
Function, or as an isolated End statement to dictate the end of execution, although this last one is not
needed, as an End is implied whenever a subroutine or a function comes to its last command. Sometimes,
the programmer needs to force the closure of a loop without executing the remaining rounds; in this case,
the word Exit is used. A piece of code is as follows:

Dim J as Integer = 3
For I = 1 to 10
If I > J Then Exit For
Next I

It will result in four iterations of the loop, with I being 1, 2, 3, then 4, at which point Exit For will cause
the loop to break.

1.8.5 THE GOTO STATEMENT (TRANSFER OF CONTROL AND

UNCONDITIONAL BRANCHING)
The GoTo statement is used to transfer the program to some other point of execution, changing the
sequence of commands. It can be combined with IF clauses to bind the branching decisions to different
situations, also known as conditional branching. The GoTo statement needs a label to jump to. A label is
just a name given to a specific point in the program, usually as a string followed by a colon. For example:

If X >= 0 Then GoTo PositiveX

GoTo NegativeX
PositiveX:

NegativeX:

1.8.6 INTRINSIC FUNCTIONS (LIBRARY OR BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS)

Table 1.1 outlines some of the mathematical functions that are commonly used in a scientific VB program.
Most of the mathematical functions are grouped in the namespace System.Math. A namespace is a name
used to define a group of classes that are related to each other in certain ways. The namespace can contain
class definitions, constants (such as Pi in the Math namespace), and functions (such as the mathematical
functions described next). Some of the popularly used namespaces in VB.NET programming are
System.Math (for mathematical functions), Microsoft.VisualBasic.FileIO (for file reading, writing,
and other operations), and Microsoft.Windows.Forms (general Windows forms functions). If a
namespace is required to be incorporated into the program, it will need to be imported or inserted at the
top of the code, before the Public Class Form statement (essentially, before any of its components are
used), such as

TABLE 1.1
Some of the Mathematical Functions Used in VB (Part of the System.Math Namespace)

Description
Function
Abs(x) Determines the absolute value of the function x; y = |x|
Sqrt(x) Determines the square root of x, x > 0; y = x
Log(x) Determines the natural logarithm of x, x > 0; y = logx
Log10(x) Determines the logarithm to base 10
Exp(x)
Determines the exponential of x; y = ex
Sin(x) Determines the sine of x (x in radians); y = sin(x)
Cos(x) Determines the cosine of x (x in radians); y = cos(x)
Tan(x) Determines the tangent of x (x in radians); y = tan(x)
Atan(x) Determines the arctangent of x (x in radians); y = atan(x)

Imports System.Math
Imports Microsoft.VisualBasic.FileIO
Public Class Form1

However, if only a few functions or declarations of the namespace are required and importing the whole
namespace seems like a lot, then accessing a specific member of the namespace can be done by prefixing
the namespace before the desired member and separate them by a dot, such as

REM Define Radius

Dim Radius As Double = 6.0
REM Calculate Area
Dim Area As Double = Math.PI * Math.Pow(Radius, 2)

1.8.7 THE IFTHEN CONSTRUCT (CONDITIONAL TRANSFER)

The IFTHEN statement construct is used to perform a conditional branching operation. The condition
occurring between the IF and the THEN relates an expression (variables, formulas, constants) to another
through one of the operators shown in Table 1.2. The result of the operation should be a Boolean
expression evaluating to True or False. It can be used in an IFTHENELSE block as follows:

IF {condition1} THEN
(What to do in case the condition is TRUE)
ELSEIF {condition2} THEN
(What else to do in the case second condition is TRUE)
ELSE
(What to do in case all the conditions are FALSE)
END IF

TABLE 1.2
Relational (Boolean or Logical) Operators (Example Column Uses A = 1 and B = 0)
Examples Result
Relationship
Operator Example Usage
= Equal A = B False
<> Not equal A <> B True
< Less than A < B False
> Greater than A > B True
<= Less than or equal to A <= B False
>= Greater than or equal to A >= B True
Not Negates the following expression Not A False

If the operator is omitted, the condition is assumed to be TRUE, for example:

IF Me.Visible = TRUE THEN

is syntactically equal to
IF Me.Visible THEN

1.8.8 THE CASE CONSTRUCT

The IFELSE construct is very useful and often used, but it can become tricky in case the conditions are
numerous, or in case one needs to nest many IF conditions inside each other. The CASE construct allows
the selection of one path from a group of alternative paths. It is syntactically equivalent to a long list of
IFELSEIFELSE statements in a more elegant and structured way. It has the following structure:

SELECT CASE x
CASE a
What to do
CASE b
What else

CASE ELSE
Default case if none is applicable
END SELECT

1.8.9 THE FORTONEXT BLOCK (BUILDING A LOOP)

The FORTO statement specifies the number of executions of a loop in the program. The statement includes
a running variable whose value changes each time the loop is executed. The NEXT statement is used to
end the loop. For example:

FOR X = 1 TO 12 STEP 2
Debug.Print(3*X)
NEXT

will print (in the Debug window):

3
9
15
21
27
33

If the index variable is intended to be incremented by 1 each time the loop is run, the STEP clause can be
omitted, such as

FOR I = 1 TO 12
Debug.Print(3*I)
NEXT

This will print the multiplication table of 3 in the Debug window.

1.8.10 DOLOOP
The DOLOOP construct is a control flow statement that repeats a block of statements while a condition is
true or until a condition becomes true. This is handy if the number of loops is not known beforehand, in
which case a FORNEXT loop will be impossible to use. For example, looping while waiting for user input
until the user gives a certain response means one needs to loop until some condition (user response equals
expected response) becomes true. This is known as the Until loop. However, one can loop as long as the
user is giving a specific response, which is known as the While loop. A While loop can be written as
follows:

Do

Loop While X = 0

The same loop can be written as a DoUntil loop:

Do

Loop Until X <> 0

Notice that the previous loops will be executed at least once, even if the condition is false (first loop) or
true (second loop). If this is not the desired behavior, the condition can be put on top of the loop as
follows:

Do While X = 0

Loop

In this case, the loop will be executed only if X = 0; otherwise, it will never be entered.

1.8.11 THE STRING CLASS

The STRING class is a class that contains string processing functions, such as string concatenation,
returning substring of a string, changing the strings capitalization case, and getting the length of a string.
This is an important and handy class when dealing with strings, a common and everyday practice.

1.8.12 THE FORMAT FAMILY OF FUNCTIONS

The FORMAT family of functions is used to format a string for output in a certain way. Some of the styles
used are predefined in the function. It takes a string input and a style, then applies the style to the input
string, and gives the result as a string object. One function that is helpful when dealing with number is the
FormatNumber() function, which is used as

FormatNumber(X, 3)

The first operand is the number to format, and the second is the number of decimal places to put. The
return value is the number formatted as a string with the requested decimal digits.

1.8.13 THE DRAWING FUNCTIONS

Some of the drawing functions with relevance to engineering applications are:

1. DrawLine() is a graphics function that draws a line on the graphics screen. The coordinates of
the ends of the line and the drawing color must be provided as parameters to the function.
2. DrawRectangle() is a graphics function that draws a rectangle (a box if the sides are of equal
length) on the graphics screen. The coordinates must be provided, along with the color of the
border.
3. DrawEllipse() and DrawArc() are used to draw circles, ellipses, and arcs, provided the X/Y
coordinates, and the width and height are given as parameters. The functions also need drawing
color to be given with the parameters.
4. DrawString() draws a string text on the graphics screen, using the Font selected, with the
specified color.

These drawing functions need a drawing board to draw on; this board is known as a Graphics object. A
Graphics object is associated with controls that have a drawing surface, such as a form (the window on
which the other controls appear) or a PictureBox (an object that is used to display pictures). The
Graphics object to draw on must be first created and then used to draw on. A simple example goes as
follows:

Dim g As Graphics
g = PictureBox1.CreateGraphics
REM Parameters are: Color, X, Y, Width, Height
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, 0, 0, 10, 10)
g.DrawString(Hello, New Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 8), Brushes.Blue, 50,
50)

1.8.14 THE DIM STATEMENT

The DIM (dimension) statement is used to declare variables. If used on arrays (which represent a
collection of variables of the same type and size, accessed all under one name, useful for representing a
list or a table), it allows specifying the maximum number of elements (size of array). Beware that arrays
are zero indexed (i.e., indexing starts at 0, not 1!), so the arrays dimension(s) is usually one size more
than the given dimension(s), for example, the declaration

FIGURE 1.11 Declaring an array.

DIM x(3) As Integer

Declares a one-dimensional array of integers, with four elements in the first dimension. Notice there are
four elements, not three, as indexing goes as 0, 1, 2, 3 and not as 1, 2, 3. The individual elements within
an array are called subscripted variables. The declared variable can be assigned a type on declaration
(called variable initialization) or later when assigned a value (Figure 1.11).
Arrays can be multidimensional (arrays of arrays):

Dim xy(3, 5) As Double

which declares an array, xy, which has two dimensions: three rows by five columns (or vice versa). If
you declare a size-less array such as

Dim noSize() as String

you will need to specify its size later with the ReDim command:

ReDim noSize(10)

1.8.15 FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES

As programs become more complex and bigger in size, the need to fragment a program into smaller
chunks that can be handled separately is imperative. A section of a program that handles a specific
function is called a subroutine, or simply a Sub. A subroutine that performs some calculations and returns
a result to the caller is called a Function. Hence, the difference between subroutines and functions is that
the latter returns a result to the caller, whereas the former does not. This indeed is such a subtle difference
that some languages such as C and most of its descendents ignore it completely.
In an event-driven environment where events trigger actions, the special subroutine that handles a
specific event is known as the event handler. Each and every object has a set of events associated with it,
for example, each action such as window resize, maximize, and minimize triggers a specific event that
calls on its specific event handler. To start coding an event handler to the default event associated with an
object, double-click that object in the Design window to open the Code window and point the cursor at
that event handler.
For example, when designing, if a programmer double-clicks on a button, the IDE automatically creates
an empty stub subroutine that functions as an event handler for the button_click event, because the click
event is the default event for a button object.
The CALL statement is used to transfer control to the subroutine, and the End Sub and Return
statements are used to cause control to transfer back to the calling part of the program or to the statement
following the point of reference. The function call is similar, except it ought to return a value to the caller.
An example of a subroutine definition is as follows:

Sub doSomeAction()

End Sub

And an example of a function is as follows:

Function addTwoNumbers(ByVal x as Double, ByVal y as Double) As Double

Return x+y
End Function

Passing parameters to a function or a subroutine can be done in two ways:

1. Passing by value (written as ByVal), which means the function is handed a copy of the original
variable. Any changes applied by the function to this copy do not affect the original variable in
the caller.
2. Passing by reference (written as ByRef), which means the function is handed a reference to the
variable, that is, a pointer that tells it where the variable resides in memory. This means any
changes applied by the function on the variable are visible and seen by the caller.

1.8.16 THE MSGBOX AND INPUTBOX FUNCTIONS

These are used to provide a predefined dialog box to the user, containing a message with response
options (e.g., a message box with the button YES/NO or OK/CANCEL) or providing a means of input for
the user (INPUTBOX). They are used frequently to convey messages to the user and to gather simple input
from the user during program execution. The parameters passed to the MSGBOX are the message to the
user (the prompt), the title (optional), and the buttons to display and/or the icon to show (a big I for
information, a red cross for error, etc.).

1.8.17 OBJECTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Everything is an object, and objects appear in programming as controls. Some of the most used controls
are as follows:

Windows form: A window that holds other controls inside it

TextBox: A text entry field that is commonly used to gather data input from user
Label: A control to show some text, like a message to the user, commonly used with textboxes to
 show the user what data to enter in a textbox
CheckBox: Used to give the user the option of enabling/disabling certain features
RadioButton: Used in groups; only one RadioButton can be checked at any time in a RadioButtons
group
ListBox: Used to provide multiple options to the user to select from or to display many data as a list
ComboBox: Similar to a ListBox, except the items are shown in a drop-down list
PictureBox: Originally used to display images, but can be used as a drawing board to provide
custom drawings to the user. This is done using functions described earlier as DrawLine() and
DrawRectangle()

Every control has properties that define how it looks and behaves. Some of the common properties are as
follows (see Table 1.3):

Text: What is displayed on the control or on the title bar of the form.
Visible: Shows/hides the control or form.
Size (height, width): Sets the coordinate size of the control (in pixels or other measurement units).
Location (x, y): Sets the coordinate location of the control on the screen (for forms) or inside a form
(for controls).
Items: Members of a ListBox or a ComboBox contain the items that are displayed on the control.
Checked: Boolean value that tells if the checkbox is checked or cleared.

To simplify the programming process, all programs in this book were written in a uniform way, with most
of the calculations contained in a function called calculateResults(). In some of the examples, an
additional showResults() function is responsible for showing the results on the form. Most of the other
assignments (giving names to labels, buttons, textboxes, etc) were written inside the code (usually the
Form_Load() subroutine) to make the process of following the code easy. The default names of the
controls were unchanged. This allows the reader easily to follow between the code and the design (e.g.,
TextBox1, Label2 and Button3 were left with their default names). Usually, in real-world programming,
giving names to controls, setting the text of a form, resizing a button, and other simple assignments will be
done during design time using the Properties window. In fact, the reader is encouraged to modify the
programming examples in this book by reading the assignments given in the Form_Load() sub of each
program, reverting to the design mode, and changing the properties as indicated. For example, if an
assignment is given Me.Text = Program 2.1, go to the design, select the form, then select Text in the
Properties window, and change its value to Program 2.1, then delete the statement from the code, and
so on.

TABLE 1.3
Some of the Common Control Properties

Purpose
Property Example
Text What is displayed on the control? TextBox1.Text = hello
Form1.Text = Example Program
Visible Shows/hides the control Me.Visible = True
TextBox1.Visible = False
Checked Gets or sets whether the checkbox or radio button is checked CheckBox1.Checked = True
Size (height, width) Sets the size of the control TextBox1.Height = 20
TextBox1.Width = 100

Multiline Determines if a textbox supports multiple lines of output textBox1.Multiline = True

Apart from using statements for entering data in a program, data may also be introduced using files. A
data file is a collection of records maintained on a disk or other storage media. Data files can easily be
read and updated by a VB.NET program. Files can be grouped as sequential and direct access files.
Sequential files are those files in which individual items are entered and accessed sequentially, one after
another, usually in the form of bytes or characters. Direct access (random access) files consist of
individual data items that are not arranged in any particular pattern or order. The latter files retrieve data
more quickly and more efficiently, and individual records can easily be modified. Table 1.4 presents a
summary of common VB.NET statements, functions, and commands.

1.9 PROGRAMS ON THE ACCOMPANYING CD/ROM

The programs on the CD accompanying this book are all in source form with their executables. Each set
of programs carries the name of the chapter in the book to which they pertain. For example, all the
programs of Chapter 2 are under the folder Projects\CHAP2\.
If a projects folder is opened in Windows Explorer (like Projects\CHAP2\CHAP2.1\), one will find
the following files and folders (this list is not comprehensive):

CHAP2.1.sln: This is the solution file (a solution contains one or more projects). It contains all
information VS needs to open your solution. When opening a project later after being closed, one
will double-click this file to reopen the project in VS.
CHAP2.1.suo: This is the solutions user options. This is used internally by VS.

TABLE 1.4
Summary of VB.NET Statements, Functions, and Commands
Statement/Function/Command
Example
 Purpose
Abs Gives absolute value Y = ABS(x)
Atan Returns arctangent Y = ATAN(x)
Call Calls a subroutine CALL doSomething()
DrawEllipse, DrawArc Draws a circle, an ellipse, or an arc g.DrawEllipse(Pens.Black,10,10,40,40)
DrawLine Draws lines g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, 0, 0, 10, 10)
DrawRectangle Draws a rectangle or a box g.DrawRectangle(Pens.Black, 0, 0, 20,
40)
DrawString Draws a text string, given the brush color, the XY coordinates g.DrawString(Hello, New
Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 8),
of where to start drawing, the string to be written, and the Brushes.Blue, 50, 50)
font to be used
FileOpen Opens a file, given file number (ID), file name, and open mode FileOpen(5, Hello.txt,
OpenMode.Input)
FileClose Closes a file FileClose(5)
Cos Determines cosine function Y = COS(x)
Dim Defines variables or arrays DIM x as Integer
DIM y(5,200) as Float
End Ends a function or subroutine END SUB
END FUNCTION
Exp Determines the exponential function (E to exponent x) Y = EXP(x)
ForNext Defines the beginning and end of a FORTO loop FOR m = 1 to 39
NEXT m
GoTo Transfers program to a remote statement GOTO someLabel
IfThen Conditional run IF y < 8 THEN
ELSE
END IF
Log Returns the natural logarithm Y = LOG(x)
Log10 Returns base 10 logarithm Y = LOG10(x)
REM Inserts comments and remarks in the program REM Program listing
Sin Determines the sine function Y = SIN(x)
Sqrt Determines the square root of a value Y = SQRT(x)
Atan Determines the arctangent Y = ATAN(x)
Val Changes a string to a numerical value Y = VAL(x)

CHAP2.1 (folder): This contains the files and resources of the project. Inside this folder, the
following files and subfolders are present:
a. CHAP2.1.vbproj: The projects file. If there is more than one project in the solution, each one
will have its own project file describing the respective projects.
b. CHAP2.1.vbproj.user: Users options, similar to the solutions user options, except this one is
for the individual project.
c. Form1.vb: Code for Form1 controls (button and form event handlers and user-defined functions
and subroutines). What is present in this file is what is found in the program listings in the text.
d. Form1.Designer.vb: Code generated by the designer to describe the layout of the form and the
different controls it contain.
e. Form1.resx: Resources associated with the form, such as images and icons.
f. Bin (folder): This folder contains two foldersDebug and Release. According to the build
mode selected when building the project in VS, the project executable files will be under one
(or both) of these directories. Inside either folder, there will be some files; the file named
CHAP2.1.exe is the program executable proper, which can be invoked by double-clicking it to
tell Windows to run the executable.

In order to use the accompanying CD/ROM, the following system hardware and software specifications
are proposed:

A PC or a laptop
A CD/ROM drive (or a CD emulator if using an ISO copy of the CD)
A hard disk drive with at least 70 MB free space (for the code and EXE files)
A math coprocessor chip recommended for enhancing performance (usually incorporated into modern
Intel processors)
A Windows OS version XP, 2003, 7 or higher
An installed .NET framework package version 4.x or later (see the Users Manual on how to
download and install the latest version)
To edit, compile, and test the source files, VS is required (see the Users Manual on how to
download and install it)

1.10 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

1. What are the hardware components of a computer system?
2. Describe briefly the von Neumann model and relate it to Babbages model structure.
3. What storage medium is most commonly used with microcomputers?
4. Compare between RAM and ROM.
5. What is the brain of a computer? What component functions much the same as the human
sensory organs?
6. Distinguish between bit and byte.
7. What are the various types of software?
8. Assess the three basic types of mathematical models.
9. Appraise the four types of special software available to direct the computer to perform required
tasks.
10. Grade at least five computer languages other than VB.
11. Justify the difference between high-level programming language and machine code.
12. Briefly describe the difference between the three levels of programming languages.
13. Choose three of the special-purpose languages and their uses.
14. What does the term debugging mean?
15. Revise the different types of errors or program bugs.
16. Value the term high-level language.
17. What are the steps involved in designing a computer program?
18. What is an algorithm?
19. What are the arithmetic operators and what are their meanings? Give an example of each.
20. What is the order a computer follows when executing an arithmetic expression? How to change
this order?
21. What is a keyword? Give five examples of VB keywords and their uses.
22. What is the purpose of the keyword REM?
23. What is the purpose of the End statement?
24. What is a constant? Give an example of a statement that declares a constant.
25. What is an integer? Give an example.
26. What is the range of signed and unsigned short integers?
27. Differentiate between supervisor and user programs.
 28. What is a loop?
29. What is an infinite loop?
30. Predict what happens when the computer executes an IFTHEN statement.
31. What is a character string?
32. How is a character variable formed?
33. Assess the difference between a function and a subroutine.
34. Write a short essay about free- and open-source software.

REFERENCES
Andrews, J. 2013. PC Troubleshooting Pocket Guide. Boston, MA: Course Technology.
Brouwer, A. 2009. Keyboard Scancodes. http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/kbd/scancodes-1.html (accessed February 10, 2016).
Buyya, R., Selvi, S. T., and Chu, X. 2009. Object Oriented Pro-gramming with Java: Essentials and Applications. New Delhi, India: Tata
McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.
Chapra, S. C. 2008. Surface Water-Quality Modeling. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Chivers, I., and Sleightholme, J. 2015. Introduction to Programming with Fortran: With Coverage of Fortran 90, 95, 2003, 2008 and 77,
3rd ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Dandamudi, S. P. 2005. Guide to Assembly Language Programming in Linux. New York: Springer Science.
Free Software Foundation. 2007. The GNU General Public License, Version 3. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html (accessed February 10,
2016).
Free Software Foundation. 2015. The GNU Operating System. http://www.gnu.org (accessed February 9, 2016).
Front Page Free Software Foundation 2016 working together for free software. http://www.fsf.org (accessed February 1, 2016).
Gottfried, B. S. 2002. Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Programming with Visual Basic. Schaums Outline Series. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Hager, G., and Wellein, G. 2010. Introduction to High Performance Computing for Scientists and Engineers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.
Hill, A. E., and Pilkgton, R. D. 1990. A Complete AutoCAD Databook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ji, Z. G. 2008. Hydrodynamics and Water Quality: Modeling Rivers, Lakes, and Estuaries. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
Kiong, L. V. 2012. Visual Basic 2010 Made Easy. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Loffelmann, K., and Purohit, S. 2011. Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 Developers Handbook. Developer Reference Series. Ottawa, Canada:
Microsoft Press.
Murdocca, M. J., and Heuring, V. P. 1999. Principles of Computer Architecture. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Open Source Initiative. 2016. http://www.opensource.org (accessed February 2, 2016).
Petroutsos, E. 2002. Mastering Visual Basic.NET. Alameda, CA: SYBEX Inc.
Schildt, H. 2007. Java: A Complete Reference, 7th ed. Osborne, KS: McGraw-Hill.
Schneider, D. I. 2013. An Introduction to Programming Using Visual Basic 2010 (with Visual Studio 2012 Express Edition DVD), 9th ed.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Stat Counter. 2015. Top 8 Operating Systems in Asia from Jan to Aug 2015. http://gs.statcounter.com/#all-os-as-monthly-201501-201508
(accessed February 12, 2016).
Welsh, J., and Elder, J. 1988. Introduction to Pascal, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
W3Schools.com. 2016. OS Platform Statistics. http://www.w3schools.com/browsers/browsers_os.asp (accessed February 12, 2016).
 2 Computer Modeling Applications for Water and Wastewater Properties

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents water and wastewater characteristics that can be expressed by mathematical
equations or models and then formulated into workable computer programs. Also included in this chapter
are computer programs dealing with water resources or sources, usage, and groundwater flow.
The importance of water for all ecosystems is well known, and the availability of water resources has
governed the location and evolution of civilizations, their progress, development, and the well-being of
mans socioeconomic situation (or condition). The importance of water is manifested in the following
(Abdel-Magid 1986; Abdel-Magid and ElHassan 1986; Grigg 2012; Howe et al. 2012; Lin 2014; London
and General Water Purifying Company 2012; McGhee and Steel 1991; Nemerow et al. 2009; Peavy et al.
1985; Ricketts et al. 2003; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Spellman 2013; Vesilind and Peirce 1997;
1.Viessman et al. 2015): Existence and evolution of the three kingdoms of plant, animal, and protista
2. 3.Dissolution of organic and inorganic materials Initiation and implementation of agricultural and
4.industrial development projects Initiation, execution, and operation of recreational activities such as
5.boating, site-seeing areas, fishing, swimming, and golf courses Transportation of raw materials and
6.navigational activities Conveyance and final disposal of wastes 2.2 PROPERTIES OF WATER AND
WASTEWATER
The characteristics of water or wastewater are important for various purposes such as the following
(Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995): Selecting treatment facilities
Evaluating operation of existing units
Evaluating relevance of methods and policies Estimating past, present, and future degrees of
pollution Managing discharge, recreation, and reuse Adopting guidelines, regulations, bylaws, and
standards Employing appropriate surveillance and monitoring systems Introducing or updating
operational, maintenance, and training schemes and programs Managing and controlling
environmental quality Classification of water and wastewater characteristics involves physical,
chemical, biological, and radiological parameters.

2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Physical characteristics are those parameters that are governed by forces of a physical nature. The most
important physical parameters include temperature, turbidity, taste, odor, color, conductivity, salinity,
solids content, viscosity, and moisture content. Those parameters that are most easily represented by a
mathematical equation or formula are presented in this chapter, as well as the computer programs
associated with that equation, formula, or model.

2.3.1 TEMPERATURE
Water and wastewater may experience variations in temperature due to climatic influences, hot
discharges, and industrial discharges. An increase in temperature can pose certain problems such as the
following: Affecting the performance of treatment units Reducing the concentration of dissolved oxygen
(DO) Accelerating the rate of chemical and biochemical reactions Reducing the solubility of gaseous
substances Increasing the rate of corrosion of materials Increasing the toxicity of dissolved substances
Increasing undesirable growths
Increasing problems of taste and odor

Equations 2.1 through 2.4 can be used to convert between Centigrade (C), Fahrenheit (F), Kelvin (K), and
Rankine (R) temperatures.

(2.1)

(2.2)

(2.3)

(2.4)

Example 2.1
1. Write a short computer program that enables converting temperatures between Fahrenheit,
Centigrade, Kelvin, and Rankine temperatures.
2. Convert 20F, 160F, and 40F to Celsius and Kelvin reading. Convert 30C, 75C, and
10C to Fahrenheit and Rankine degrees.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.1 (1), see the listing of Program 2.1.
a. Solution to Example 2.1 (2): Given: T = 20F, 160F, and 40F; T = 30C, 75C, and
2.
10C.
b. Determine C20 = (5/9)*(F32) = (5/9)*(2032) = 6.7. Similarly, C160 = 71.1 and C
40 = 40.
c. Find K6.7 = C + 273.15 = 6.7 + 273.15 = 266.45. Similarly, K71.1 = 344.25 and K40 =
233.15.
d. Find F30 = (9/5)*C + 32 = (9/5)*30 + 32 = 86
Similarly, F75 = 167 and F10 = 14.
* Compute R86 = 86 + 459.67 = 545.67
Similarly, R167 = 626.67 and R14 = 473.67.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.1 (CHAP2.1\FORM1.VB): CONVERTING

TEMPERATURE TO DIFFERENT SCALES

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.1
'Converts temperature to different scales
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim ttl(3) As String'The members of the list of selections Dim
f, c, k, r As Double'Variables used in calculations
**********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, 'i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory

**********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
ttl(0) = "Fahrenheit"
ttl(1) = "Centigrade"
ttl(2) = "Kelvin"
ttl(3) = "Rankine"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
r = f = c = k = 0'Initialize all variables to '0'
Me.MaximizeBox = False
'Text shown on top
Me.Text = "Program 2.1:Converts temperature to different scales"
'Label control on left upper part of the form
Label1.Text = "Convert temperature from:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()'Initialize
For i = 0 To ttl.Length - 1
ListBox1.Items.Add(ttl(i))'Add members to the list Next
'The labels on left and right lower part of the form will be
invisible initially, 'together with the Textbox and the NumericUpDown
control.
Label2.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
Label4.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
Label4.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Visible = False
Set sizes for label at upper right side of the form.
AutoSize is set to false to allow user resizing.
Label3.AutoSize = False
Label3.Height = 95
Label3.Width = 150
viewResults()
End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'Code in SelectedIndexChanged member of the ListBox will be executed
'when the user clicks on a member of the listbox and changes selection.
'The following code will recalculate the results and show them when ever
'the user changes his selection.
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Make sure
the selected unit is a valid one, else exit the sub safely.
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then
Label2.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Visible = False
Exit Sub
End If
Label2.Text = "Enter temperature in " +
ListBox1.SelectedItem.ToString Label2.Visible = True
TextBox1.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
NumericUpDown1.Visible = True
calculateResults()
viewResults()
End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'Code in TextChanged member of the TextBox will be executed 'when the
user changes the text.
'The following code will recalculate the results and show them when ever
'the user changes the input.
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
viewResults()
End Sub
Function FnCen(ByVal f)'Function to change Fahrenheit to
Centigrade Return 5 / 9 * (f - 32)
End Function
Function FnFah(ByVal c)'Function to change Centigrade to
Fahrenheit Return 9 / 5 * c + 32
End Function
Function FnKel(ByVal c)'Function to change Centigrade to
Kelvin Return c + 273.15
End Function
Function FnRan(ByVal f)'Function to change Fahrenheit to
Rankine Return f + 459.67
End Function
'****************************************************************************
'The following function is used to format the output of the calculations
'it uses the value selected in the NumericUpDown control as a guide to 'the
number of decimal places in output, then returns 'n' as a string 'formatted
according to the set number of decimals.
'****************************************************************************
Function formatN(ByVal n As Double) As String
Use the function as FormatNumber(NumberToFormat,
NumberOfDecimals).
Return FormatNumber(n, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End Function
'****************************************************************************
'The following code calculates the results of changing the degrees.
'It first checks for valid input in the TextBox, then calculates based
'on the selected item in the ListBox.
'****************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
Dim t = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If Not IsNumeric(t) Or t = 0 Then
r = f = c = k = 0
Exit Sub
End If
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
f = Val(TextBox1.Text)
c = FnCen(f)
k = FnKel(c)
r = FnRan(f)
Case 1
c = Val(TextBox1.Text)
f = FnFah(c)
k = FnKel(c)
r = FnRan(f)
Case 2
k = Val(TextBox1.Text)
c = k - 273.15
f = FnFah(c)
r = FnRan(f)
Case 3
r = Val(TextBox1.Text)
f = r - 459.67
c = FnCen(f)
k = FnKel(c)
Case Else
Safeguard mechanism. If any error in the selection,
'Zero all the variables.
r = f = c = k = 0
End Select
End Sub
****************************************************************************
'Show the calculations done in calculateResults() in the Label3 control.
****************************************************************************
Sub viewResults()
Label3.Text = "C=" + formatN(c) + Chr(10) + Chr(13) _
+ "F=" + formatN(f) + Chr(10) + Chr(13) _
+ "K=" + formatN(k) + Chr(10) + Chr(13) _
+ "R=" + formatN(r)
End Sub
****************************************************************************
'Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
viewResults()
End Sub
 End Class

2.3.2 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity denotes the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. This ability is a
function of concentration, mobility, valence and relative concentration of ions, and temperature.
Generally, solutions of most inorganic acids, bases, and salts are relatively good conductors. The
conductivity may also be defined as the electrical conductance of a conductor of unit length and unit
cross-sectional area (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
The relationship between conductivity and concentration of dissolved solids in a solution may be
expressed as follows:

(2.5)

where:
EC is the electrical conductivity, micromho/cm or microsiemens/cm
TDS is the total dissolved solids, mg/L
a is the constant

Example 2.2
1. Write a computer program that enables the computation of the electrical conductivity of a
sample of known concentration of total dissolved solids (TDSs), given the total dissolved
solids and electrical conductivity of another sample as TDS1 and EC1, respectively.
2. The TDS of a certain sample is recorded as 890 mg/L, and its EC amounted to 1025
mmhos/cm. Determine the electrical conductivity of another sample that has a TDS of 1450
mg/L.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.2 (1), see the listing of Program 2.2.
a. Solution to Example 2.2 (2): Find the constant a for the sample as a = TDS/EC by a =
2.
890/1025 = 0.87.
b. Determine the electrical conductivity for the second sample by EC2 = TDS2/a =
1450/0.87 = 1667 mmohs/cm.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.2 (CHAP2.2\FORM1.VB): ELECTRIC

CONDUCTIVITY FOR TDS VALUE

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.2: Conductivity
'Computes electric conductivity of a sample of known TDS concentration
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim TDS1, EC1, TDS2, EC2 As Double 'Variables used in calculations
'*********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, 'i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Electric conductivity of a sample of known TDS
concentration"
Label1.Text = "Enter total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
concentration(Sample1) mg/L:"
Label2.Text = "Enter electrical conductivity of Sample1umhos/cm:"
Label3.Text = "Enter total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
concentration(Sample2) mg/L:"
Label4.Text = "Electrical conductivity for Sample2:"
Label5.Text = "umhos/cm"
Label6.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'The following code calculates the result of EC2 depending on the input
'values in textboxes 1-3.
'The Val(x) function is used to convert from String to Numerical.
'The FormatNumber is used to format the output to specific decimals.
'****************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
Dim a As Double
TDS1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
EC1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
TDS2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
a = TDS1 / EC1
EC2 = TDS2 / a
Use the function as FormatNumber(NumberToFormat,
NumberOfDecimals).
TextBox4.Text = FormatNumber(EC2, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString
End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

2.3.3 SALINITY
Salinity may be described as the total solids in water after all carbonates have been converted to oxides,
all bromide and iodide have been replaced by chloride, and all organic matter has been oxidized (APHA
2012). The chloride content of natural waters may be augmented from geological formations containing
chlorides, or through salt water intrusion, or from agricultural, industrial, and domestic discharges (Rowe
and Abdel-Magid 1995). Salinity as a function of chlorinity is pr\esented as follows (APHA 2012):

(2.6)

where:
sa is the salinity, g/kg
ch is the chlorinity, g/kg

2.3.4 SOLIDS CONTENT

The term solids designates matter that is suspended or dissolved in water and wastewater. Generally,
solids are grouped as dissolved, suspended, volatile, fixed, and settleable solids. Most of the procedures
used to quantify solids are gravimetric tests involving measurement of the mass of residues as a function
of volume (see Figure 2.1).

Example 2.3
1. Write a short computer program that enables the computation of total, volatile, and fixed
solids of a certain sample. The following data are given: mass of crucible dish (m1) in
grams, volume of sample (V) in milliliters, constant mass of dish plus solids dried at 104C
(m2), and weight of cool dish (after being placed in 550C furnace) (m3).
2. Given for a certain sample that m1 = 35.6248 g, m2 = 35.6452 g, m3 = 35.6319 g, and V =
150 mL, find the total, volatile, and fixed solids of the sample.
FIGURE 2.1 Types of solids.
Solution
1. See the listing of Program 2.3.
a. Solution for Example 2.3 (2): Given: m1 = 35.6248 g, m2 = 35.6452 g, m3 = 35.6319 g, V =
2.
150 mL.
b. Evaluate the mass of total solids as follows: msolids = (mass of dish + solids) mass of
dish = m2 m1 = 35.6452 35.6248 = 0.0204 g = 20.4 mg.
c. Find the concentration of total solids: = mass of solids (mg)/volume of sample = msolids/V
= 20.4 * 1000/150 = 136 mg/L.
d. Determine the mass of volatile solids as follows: mvolatile = (mass of dish + volatile
solids) mass of dish = m3 m1 = 35.6319 35.6248 = 0.00071 g.
e. Determine the concentration of volatile solids as follows: mvolatile/V = 7.1 * 1000/150 =
47 mg/L.
f. Compute the concentration of fixed solids as follows: mfixed = content of total solids
content of volatile solids = msolids mvolatile = 136 47 = 89 mg/L.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.3 (CHAP2.3\FORM1.VB): SOLIDS CONTENT

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.3: Salinity
'Computes solid contents
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim m1, m2, m3, volume As Double
Const T1 = 104'Centigrade
'****************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, 'i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.FormBorderStyle =
Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.3: Determines the solids content"
Label1.Text = "Enter weight of crucible m1 (gm):"
Label2.Text = "Enter volume of sample V (mL):"
Label3.Text = "Enter weight of dish+solids at 104 C (mg):"
Label4.Text = "Enter weight of dish+ solids after heating to 550 C
(mg):"
Label5.Text = "Concentration of total solids (mg/L)="
Label6.Text = "Concentration of volatile solids (mg/L)="
Label7.Text = "Concentration of fixed solids (mg/L)="
Label8.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
m1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
volume = Val(TextBox2.Text)
m2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
m3 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Dim msds, csds, mvols, cvols, cfixs As Double
msds = m2 - m1'solids
csds = msds * 10 ^ 6 / volume'concentration of solids mvols
= m3 - m1 'volatiles
cvols = mvols * 10 ^ 6 / volume
cfixs = csds - cvols
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(csds, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString
TextBox6.Text = FormatNumber(cvols, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString
TextBox7.Text = FormatNumber(cfixs, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox4_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox4.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

FIGURE 2.2 Total dissolved solids as related to water quality.

2.3.5 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

TDS is the total amount of mobile charged ions, including minerals, salts, or metals dissolved in a given
volume of water, expressed in units of mg per unit volume of water (mg/L), also referred to as parts per
million (ppm). It is directly related to the purity of water and the quality of water purification systems and
affects everything that consumes, lives in, or uses water, whether organic or inorganic, whether for better
or for worse (see Figure 2.2).

2.3.6 DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, AND SPECIFIC

GRAVITY
Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. It is temperature dependent. The following
equation may be used to find the density:

(2.7)

where:
is the density of the fluid, kg/m3
m is the mass, kg
V is the volume, m3

The specific volume is the volume per unit mass, that is, it is the reciprocal of the density as shown by the
following equation:

(2.8)

where:
is the specific volume of the fluid, m3/kg
is the density of the fluid, kg/m3

The specific weight is the weight of unit volume as shown in the following equation:
 (2.9)

where:
is the specific weight, N/m3
m is the mass, kg
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
V is the volume, m3
is the density of the fluid, kg/m3

The specific gravity is the ratio of the density of fluid to the density of water at some specified
temperature. The following equation indicates the specific gravity concept:

(2.10)

Example 2.4
1. Write a computer program that allows the computation of density, specific volume, specific
weight, and specific gravity of a particular fluid, given the temperature, mass, and volume of
the fluid.
2. The specific weight of water at ordinary temperature and pressure conditions is 9.806
a. kN/m3. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Find Density of mercury.
b. Specific weight of mercury.
c. Density of water.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.4 (1), see the listing of Program 2.4.
a. Solution to Example 2.4 (2): Given: = 9.806 kN/m3, s.g.Hg = 13.55.
2.
b. Determine the density of water as follows: = water/g = 9.806 kN/m3/9.81 m/s2 = 1
Mg/m3 = 1 g/cm3.
c. Find the specific weight of mercury as follows: Hg = s.g.Hg*water = 13.55 * 9.806 = 133
kN/m3.
d. Compute the density of mercury as follows: Hg = s.g.Hg*water = 13.55 * 1 = 13.55
Mg/m3.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.4 (CHAP2.4\FORM1.VB): DENSITY AND

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.4: Density
'Computes Density and specific gravity
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const gamma = 1000'density of water KN/m3
Const g = 9.801'acceleration due to gravity
Dim t(3) As String
Dim m, Ro, V, sv, sw, sg As Double'Variables used in calculations
'*********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
****************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
t(0) = "Compute density"
t(1) = "Compute specific volume"
t(2) = "Compute specific weight"
t(3) = "Compute specific gravity"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()'Initialize
For i = 0 To t.Length - 1
ListBox1.Items.Add(t(i))'Add members to the list Next
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.4:Computes Density and specific gravity"
Label5.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
Label1.Text = "What to compute:"
Label2.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Visible = False
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following code shows/hides the labels and textboxes according to
the selected item from the list. It also sets the text displayed in each
label.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged If
ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label2.Text = "Enter the mass in Kg:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the volume in m3:"
Label4.Text = "The density 'Ro' (Kg/m3):"
Case 1
Label2.Text = "Enter the the density 'Ro' (Kg/m3):"
Label4.Text = "The Specific volume (m3/Kg):"
Case 2
Label2.Text = "Enter the the density 'Ro' (Kg/m3):"
Label4.Text = "Specific wight (N/m2):"
Case 3
Label2.Text = "Enter the the density 'Ro' (Kg/m3):"
Label4.Text = "Specific gravity:"
End Select
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
TextBox3.Text = ""
Label2.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
NumericUpDown1.Visible = True
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
Label3.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
Else
Label3.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
End If
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following code calculates the results according to the selected
item from the list box and displays the result in TextBox3.
****************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
m = Val(TextBox1.Text)
v = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Ro = m / v'the density
TextBox3.Text = formatN(Ro)
Case 1
Ro = Val(TextBox1.Text)
sv = 1 / Ro'specific volume
TextBox3.Text = formatN(sv)
Case 2
Ro = Val(TextBox1.Text)
sw = Ro * g'specific weight
TextBox3.Text = formatN(sw)
Case 3
Ro = Val(TextBox1.Text)
sg = Ro / gamma'specific gravity
TextBox3.Text = formatN(sg)
End Select
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following function is used to format the output of the calculations
it uses the value selected in the NumericUpDown control as a guide to the
number of decimal places in output, then returns 'n' as a string formatted
according to the set number of decimals.
****************************************************************************
Function formatN(ByVal n As Double) As String
Use the function as FormatNumber(NumberToFormat,
NumberOfDecimals).
Return FormatNumber(n, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End Function
 End Class

2.3.7 VISCOSITY (RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES)

Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation (Finnemore and Franzini
2001). Viscosity is the property that relates the applied forces to the rates of deformation of the fluid (see
Figure 2.3). It may be found from Newtons law as presented in the following equation:.

(2.11)

where:
is the shear stress, N/m2 (see Figure 2.4) F is the shear force acting on a very wide plate free to
move, N
A is the area, m2
is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity, N*s/m2
du/dy is the velocity gradient (rate of angular deformation, rate of shear), s1

Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, m, may be described as The shear force per unit area required to drag
one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer through unit distance in the fluid (Rowe and
Abdel-Magid 1995). Equation 2.12 gives the relationship between viscosity and density:

FIGURE 2.3 Different types of fluids.

(2.12)

where:
is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity, N*s/m2
is the kinematic viscosity, m2/s (usually defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density) is
the density, kg/m3
FIGURE 2.4 Viscosity concept.
For many liquids, the stressvelocity gradient relationship is not a simple ratio. Such liquids are termed
non-Newtonian, for example, sewage sludge. Figure 2.3 illustrates the variation of shear stress with
velocity gradient for different types of fluids. The factors that influence viscosity include temperature, rate
of variation of shearing stress, flow conditions, and characteristics of the fluid.

Example 2.5
1. Write a short computer program to determine the value of the kinematic viscosity of a fluid,
given its dynamic viscosity, density, and temperature.
2. For a liquid with a dynamic viscosity of 4.5 * 103 Pa*s and a density of 912 kg/m3,
determine its kinematic viscosity.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify data presented in (2).
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.5 (1), see the listing of Program 2.5.
a. Solution to Example 2.5 (2): Given: = 4.5 * 103 Pa*s, = 912 kg/m3.
2.
b. Determine the kinematic viscosity as follows: = / = 4.5 * 103 Pa*s/912 kg/m3 =
*106 m2/s.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.5 (CHAP2.5\FORM1.VB): KINEMATIC

VISCOSITY FROM DYNAMIC VISCOSITY

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.5: Viscosity
'Computes kinematic viscosity from dynamic viscosity
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim mu, rho, FnKinem'Variables used in calculations
****************************************************************************
Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
****************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Computes kinematic viscosity from dynamic viscosity"
Label1.Text = "Enter dynamic viscosity uinNs/m2:"
Label2.Text = "Enter density of liquid Ro inKg/m3:"
Label3.Text = "The Kinematic viscosity equals:"
Label4.Text = "m2/s"
Label5.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Code in TextChanged member of the TextBox will be executed when the
user changes the text.
The following code will recalculate the results and show them when ever
the user changes the input.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following code calculates the result according to the inputs in
the text boxes. It then shows result in TextBox3.
****************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
mu = Val(TextBox1.Text)
rho = Val(TextBox2.Text)
FnKinem = mu / rho
TextBox3.Text = FormatNumber(FnKinem,
NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

2.3.8 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARY RISE

Surface tension is a property of a liquid that permits the attraction between molecules to form an
imaginary film that is able to resist tensile forces at the interface between two immiscible liquids or at the
interface between a liquid and a gas (Munson et al. 2012). The capillary rise in a small vertical open tube
of circular cross section dipping into a pool of liquid may be obtained (Green and Perry 2007) from the
following equation (see Figure 2.5):

(2.13)

where:
h is the column height by which liquid rose along the capillary tube, m is the surface tension, N/m
is the angle of contact subtended by the heavier fluid and tube (= 0 for most organic liquids and
water against glass, provided the glass is wet with a film of the liquid [Green and Perry 2007]; =
130 for mercury against glass [Munson et al. 2012]) l is the density of liquid, kg/m3
g is the density of gas (or light liquid), kg/m3
g is the local gravitational acceleration, m/s2
D is the inside diameter of capillary tube, m

FIGURE 2.5 Surface tension: (a) capillary rise (wetting liquid); (b) capillary depression (nonwetting
liquid).

Example 2.6
1. Write a computer program to enable the determination of the rise of water along capillary
tubes for a temperature range between 0C and 100C and for tubes with diameters ranging
between 10 and 60 mm.
2. Compute the diameter of a clean glass tube required so that the rise of water at 30C in the
tube due to capillary action does not exceed 2 mm.
Solution
 1. For solution to Example 2.6 (1), see the listing of Program 2.6 (fluid properties calculators
may also be used such as:
http://www.mhtl.uwaterloo.ca/old/onlinetools/airprop/airprop.html).
a. Solution to Example 2.6 (2): Given: h = 2 * 103 m, T = 30C.
2.
b. For a temperature of 30C and from Appendix A1, = 0.07118 N/m and = 9.765
kN/m3.
c. COMPUTE THE DIAMETER AS FOLLOWS: D = 4*S*COS/*H = [4 * 0.07118*COS
0]/[9.765 * 103 * 2*103] = 14.6 mm.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.6 (CHAP2.6\FORM1.VB): CAPILLARY

HEIGHTS IN SURFACE TENSION

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.6: Tension
'Computes capillary heights in surface tension problems
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
'Arrays used to store temperature values
Dim temp(40), sigma(40), density(40) As Double
Dim ttl(2) As String
Dim diam, T, Rog As Double'Variables used in
calculations Dim sigmaData, densityData As String 'Raw termperature
data 'constants
Const pi = 3.142857
Const g = 9.81 'acceleration due to gravit
Const phiw = 0 'angle of contact water & glass Const phim =
130'angle of contact mercury & glass Const Hgd = 13.55
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
ttl(0) = "Determine capillary height h"
ttl(1) = "Determine the diameter of the glass tube for a specific
h"
ttl(2) = "Determine surface tension"
Temperature-Surface tension table for water- in dyne/cm sigmaData
= "74.92,74.78,74.64,74.50,74.36,74.22,74.07,73.93,73.78,73.64,"
sigmaData = sigmaData +
"73.49,73.34,73.19,73.05,72.90,72.75,72.59,72.44,72.28,72.13,"
sigmaData = sigmaData +
"71.97,71.82,71.66,71.5,71.35,71.18,71.02,70.86,70.7,70.53,"
sigmaData = sigmaData + "70.38,70.21,70.05,69.88"
Temperature-Density table- kg/m3
densityData =
"999.965,999.941,999.902,999,849,999.781,999.7,999.605,999.498,"
densityData = densityData +
"999.377,999.244,999.099,998.943,998.774,998.595,998.405,998.203,"
densityData = densityData +
"997.992,997.77,997.538,997.296,997.044,996.783,996.512,996.232,"
densityData = densityData +
"995.944,995.646,995.34,995.025,994.702,994.374,994.03,993.68,"
densityData = densityData + "993.33,992.296"
Parse the above data, storing it from String format into Array
format..
readData(sigmaData, densityData)
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.6:Computes capillary heights in surface
tension problems"
Add the options to the list box
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
For i = 0 To ttl.Length - 1
ListBox1.Items.Add(ttl(i))
Next
Options used when calculating the capillary height
RadioButton1.Text = "Water tube"
RadioButton2.Text = "Mercurial tube"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
RadioButton1.Visible = False
RadioButton2.Visible = False
Hide all labels and text boxes at the start
Label2.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
Label7.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 15
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 8
Label7.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Visible = False
End Sub
****************************************************************************
This function reads the data stored in two strings,
the sigmaData and densityData strings. It uses call-back to itself to
add elements to the sigma and destiny arrays, chopping the first value
stored in each string every time it loops, until the last value in the
string is reached.
****************************************************************************
Sub readData(ByVal sigmaData As String, ByVal densityData As String)
Static count = 5'Declared static so one instance of it is used
temp(count) = count
If sigmaData.IndexOf(",") < 0 Then'if last value in the string is
reached..
sigma(count) = Val(sigmaData)
sigma(count) = sigma(count) / 1000'convert to N/m
density(count) = Val(densityData)
Else 'if there are still values in the string..
Read from inside-out: first determine the index of the first
','
'in the string,
then take the substring from the beginning to just before the
',' and then convert this string to numerical value.. Simple!!
sigma(count) = Val(sigmaData.Substring(0,
sigmaData.IndexOf(","))) sigma(count) = sigma(count) / 1000'convert to
N/m density(count) = Val(densityData.Substring(0, densityData.IndexOf(",")))
Remove the first value, which is already stroed in the array, 'from the
string,
using the index of the ',' removing everything before the
comma (equals the first value)..
sigmaData = sigmaData.Remove(0, sigmaData.IndexOf(",") + 1)
densityData = densityData.Remove(0, densityData.IndexOf(",") + 1) count +=
1'increase the count by one
'call-back to the function, passing the new strings
readData(sigmaData, densityData)
End If
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged If
ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then
Label7.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Visible = False
Exit Sub
End If
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Determine capillary height h
Label2.Text = "Enter diameter of tube in (mm) (between 10
to 60mm):"
Label3.Text = "Enter temperature t (C) (5<t<38):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the density of the gas (kg/m3):"
Label6.Text = "The column height h (m):"
Case 1
Determine the diameter of the glass tube for a specific
h Label2.Text = "Enter the density of the liquid or gas, kg/m3:"
Label3.Text = "Enter surface tension coefficient, N/m:"
Label4.Text = "Enter angle of contact in degrees:"
Label5.Text = "Enter the exent of the liquid rise in the
tube, m:"
Label6.Text = "the required diameter of the tube (m):"
Case 2
Determine sigma
Label2.Text = "Enter the density of the liquid or gas,
kg/m3:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the diameter of the capillary
tube,m:"
Label4.Text = "Enter angle of contact in degrees:"
Label5.Text = "Enter the exent of the liquid rise in the
tube, m:"
Label6.Text = "the surface tension coefficient (N/m)="
End Select
Make the labels and text boxes visible after the user makes the
selection Label2.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = True
NumericUpDown1.Visible = True
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
TextBox3.Text = ""
TextBox4.Text = ""
TextBox5.Text = ""
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
RadioButton1.Visible = True
RadioButton2.Visible = True
Else
Label5.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
RadioButton1.Visible = False
RadioButton2.Visible = False
End If
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Code in TextChanged member of the TextBox will be executed when the
user changes the text.
The following code will recalculate the results and show them when ever
the user changes the input.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox4_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox4.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following code calculates the result according to the inputs in
the text boxes. It then shows result in TextBox5.
****************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then
Exit Sub
Dim s, Roww, h, Ro, sig, phi, d As Double
Select ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
diam = Val(TextBox1.Text)
T = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Rog = Val(TextBox3.Text)
If diam < 10 Or diam > 60 Then
TextBox5.Text = "The Diameter should be between 10
and 60 mm."
Exit Sub
End If
If T < 5 Or T > 38 Then
TextBox5.Text = "The Temperature should be between 5
and 38 degrees."
Exit Sub
End If
get the value of sigma and density of water
corresponding to temp t For i = 5 To 38
If T = temp(i) Then
s = sigma(i)
Roww = density(i)
Exit For
End If
Next i
compute height h
If RadioButton1.Checked Then 'Use water tube h = 4 * s
* Cos(phiw * pi / 180) / (g * diam * (Roww - Rog)) Else
'Use mercurial tube
h = 4 * s * Cos(phim * pi / 180) / (g * diam * (Roww -
Rog)) End If
TextBox5.Text = formatN(h)
Case 1
Ro = Val(TextBox1.Text)
sig = Val(TextBox2.Text)
phi = Val(TextBox3.Text)
h = Val(TextBox4.Text)
phi = phi * pi / 180 'in radians
d = 4 * sig * Cos(phi) / (Ro * g * h)
TextBox5.Text = formatN(d)
Case 2
Ro = Val(TextBox1.Text)
d = Val(TextBox2.Text)
phi = Val(TextBox3.Text)
h = Val(TextBox4.Text)
phi = phi * pi / 180 'in radians
sig = h * Ro * g * d / (4 * Cos(phi))
TextBox5.Text = formatN(sig)
End Select
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following function is used to format the output of the calculations
it uses the value selected in the NumericUpDown control as a guide to the
number of decimal places in output, then returns 'n' as a string formatted
according to the set number of decimals.
****************************************************************************
Function formatN(ByVal n As Double) As String
Use the function as FormatNumber(NumberToFormat,
NumberOfDecimals).
Return FormatNumber(n, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End Function
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

2.3.9 BULK MODULUS (BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY)

Bulk modulus is a property that is used to evaluate the degree of compressibility. The following equation
gives the bulk modulus:

(2.14)

where:
Eb is the bulk modulus, N/m2
dP is the differential change in pressure, Pa
dV is the differential change in volume, m3
V is the volume, m3
is the density of fluid, kg/m3

The negative sign shows that an increase in pressure produces a reduction in volume. Large values of
bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively incompressible (i.e., a large pressure change is needed to
create a small change in volume) (Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015).

Example 2.7
1. Write a computer program to compute the bulk modulus, given any differential change in
pressure needed to create any differential change in volume of a specified volume.
2. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 2 L at 1000 kPa and a volume of 1805
cm3 at 2000 kPa. What is its bulk modulus of elasticity?
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.7 (1), see the listing of Program 2.7.
a. Solution to Example 2.7 (2): Given: V1 = 2000 mL, V2 = 1805 ml, P1 = 1000 kPa, P2 = 2000
2.
kPa.
b. Determine the bulk modulus of the liquid as follows: Eb = dP/(dV/V) =
(20001000)kPa/[(1805 2000)/2000] = 10.3 MPa.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.7 (CHAP2.7\FORM1.VB): BULK MODULUS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.7: Bulk
'Computes Bulk modulus given dV and dP
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim v1, v2, p1, p2, Eb As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.7: Computes Bulk modulus given dV and dP"
Label1.text = "Enter initial volume V1 in mL:"
Label2.text = "Enter final volume V2 in mL:"
Label3.text = "Enter initial pressure P1 in kPa:"
Label4.text = "Enter final pressure P2 in kPa:"
Label5.Text = "The bulk modulus Eb in kPa:"
Label6.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Code in TextChanged member of the TextBox will be executed when the
user changes the text.
The following code will recalculate the results and show them when ever
the user changes the input.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox4_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox4.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
****************************************************************************
The following code calculates the result according to the inputs in
the text boxes. It then shows result in TextBox5.
****************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
v1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
v2 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
p1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
p2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Eb = -(p2 - p1) / ((v2 - v1) / v1)
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Eb, numericupdown1.value).ToString End
Sub
 End Class

2.4 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Chemical characteristics of significance in the field of water and wastewater include pH, alkalinity,
acidity, hardness, DO, dissolved gases, chloride content, nitrogen (ammonia-nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate),
nutrients, protein content, oil and grease, carbohydrates, phenols, detergents, toxic metals, biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). The chemical characteristics that are
supported by mathematical equations, formulae, or models are presented here along with computer
programs associated with the equation, formula, or model.

2.4.1 HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION

The hydrogen ion concentration, pH, is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH
influences the treatment methods and quality of water supply or wastewater discharge. The following
equation gives a numerical expression for the determination of the pH:

(2.15)

where:
pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
[H+ (aq)] is the concentration of hydrogen (hydroxonium ion, H3O+) ions, mole/L

pH ranges from a value of 014. Solutions with pH of 7 are regarded as neutral, whereas solutions with
pH < 7 constitute acids, and those above pH of 7 are alkalis. A strongly acidic solution can, in theory,
have a pH < 0, and a strongly alkaline solution can have a pH > 14 (Davis 2011).
At a temperature of 298 K, the following equation is valid:

(2.16)

where:
pOH is the negative logarithm of the hydroxyl ion concentration
pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration

Example 2.8
a. Write a short computer program to determine the pH, given one of the following: Hydrogen
1.
ion concentration
c. Hydroxyl ion concentration or its numerical value The molar concentration of hydrogen
b.
2. ions Determine which of the following solutions is more acidic or alkaline: A solution
with a pH of 7.2 or another containing 1.95 * 109 g of H+ per liter?
 + concentration in grams of H+ per liter of a solution containing 1 *
3. Calculate the pH and H
108.3 mole of OH per liter.
4. Use the program developed in 1(a) to verify computations conducted on 1(b) and 1(c).
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.8 (1), see the listing of Program 2.8.
a. Solution to Example 2.8 (1): Given: pH of the first solution = 7.2, H+ and pH of the second
2.
solution = 1.95 * 109 M.
b. Find pH of the second solution as follows: pH = Log [H+] = Log 1.95 * 109 = 8.7.
c. Since the pH of the second solution is lower, it is more alkaline than the first solution.
3. The dissociation constant for water is [H+][OH] = 1014. Find the concentration of
hydrogen ions as follows: [H+] = 1 * 1014/1*108.3 = 105.7 M. pH = Log [H+] = Log 1 *
105.7 = 5.7. Hydrogen ion concentration = [H+] = 105.7*MW = 105.7 * 1.008 = 2.01 * 106
g H+/L.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.8 (CHAP2.8\FORM1.VB): HYDROGEN ION

CONCENTRATION ASCERTAINING

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.8: Ph
'Computes Hydrogen ion concentration
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim TTL(2) As String
Dim H, OH, POH As Double'Variables used in calculations
*********************************************************************************
Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
****************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.9: Computes Hydrogyn ion concentration"
TTL(0) = "Given Concentration of Hydrogen ions H+ in mg/L or molar"
TTL(1) = "Given Hydroxyl ion concentration in mg/L or molar"
TTL(2) = "Given negative logarithm of hydroxyl ion concentration"
Label1.Text = "Select an option:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
For i = 0 To TTL.Length - 1
ListBox1.Items.Add(TTL(i))
Next
Label2.Text = "Select an option from list above"
Label4.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged If
ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label2.Text = "Enter concentration of Hydrogen ion H+ in
mg/L or molar:"
Case 1
Label2.Text = "Enter the Hydroxyl ion concentration in
mg/L or molar:"
Case 2
Label2.Text = "Enter the negative logarithm of hydroxyl
ion concentration:"
End Select
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim PH As Double
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
H = Val(TextBox1.Text)
PH = FnLg10(H)
Case 1
OH = Val(TextBox1.Text)
PH = -FnLg10(10 ^ -14 / OH)
Case 2
POH = Val(TextBox1.Text)
PH = 14 - POH
End Select
Label3.Text = "PH of the solution="
TextBox2.Text = FormatNumber(PH, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString + "
(" + checkPH(PH) + ")"
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Function FnLg10(ByVal x) As Double
Return -0.4342944818# * LOG(x)'this is log base 10 of x End
Function
Function checkPH(ByVal PH) As String
If PH < 7 Then Return "Acidic"
If PH = 7 Then Return "Neutral"
If PH > 7 Then Return "Alkaline"
Return ""
End Function
 End Class

2.4.2 HARDNESS
Hardness prevents the formation of a soap lather and is generally associated with divalent metallic
cations of calcium, Ca2+; magnesium, Mg2+; strontium, Sr2+; ferrous ion, Fe2+; and manganous ions, Mn2+,
as presented in Table 2.1. (Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the major ions generally associated with hardness).
Hardness may be computed by using Equation 2.17 (APHA 2012).
Lenntech water hardness calculator (Lenntech 2016), or Calculator 8 water hardness calculator
(Groundwater Software 2016), or Casio water hardness calculator (Casio 2016), and so on may be used
to compute its value taking into account the limits set by them for indication of the degree of water
hardness.

(2.17)

where:
Hard is the hardness, milliequivalent CaCO3/L
Ca2+ is the concentration of calcium ion, mg/L
Mg2+ is the concentration of magnesium ion, mg/L

TABLE 2.1
Principal Cations and Anions Associated with Hardness

Anions
Cations
Ca2+ HCO3
Fe2+ NO3
Mg2+ SO4
Mn2+ Cl
Sr2+ SiO3

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.

When alkalinity < total hardness, carbonate hardness = alkalinity (mg/L).
When alkalinity > total hardness, carbonate hardness = total hardness (mg/L) (Rowe and Abdel-
Magid 1995).

Advantages and disadvantages of hardness in water:

Advantages:

1. Hard water aids in the growth of teeth and bones.

2. Hard water reduces lead oxide (PbO) toxicity from pipelines made of lead.

Disadvantages:

1.
2. Hard waters are thought to be associated with cardiovascular disease Financial losses due to
3. consumption of soap Scaling of hot water systems, boilers, domestic appliances, fittings,
5.
4. utensils, bath tubs, sinks, and dishwashers Staining of clothes and household utensils Hard water
6. residues can remain in the pores of skin Increased laxative effect of hard waters containing
magnesium sulfates Table 2.2 offers a classification of waters according to their degree of
hardness.

Example 2.9
1. Write a computer program that will determine the concentration of anions and cations in
milliequivalents per liter and milligrams per liter calcium carbonate for the range of ions to be
found in hard water. Design the program so that the total, carbonate, and noncarbonate hardness;
experimental error; and the degree of water hardness can be calculated as presented in Table
2.2.

TABLE 2.2
Degrees of Hardness
mg/L as CaCO3
 Degrees of Hardness
075 Soft
75150 Moderately soft
150175 Moderately hard

175300 Hard
300 Very hard

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.

2. Laboratory analysis of a water sample yielded the following data:
Cation (mg/L) Anion (mg/L)
Na+ = 17.25 HCO3 = 91.5
Ca2+ = 19 SO4 = 19.2
Mg2+ = 12.2 Cl = 28.4
Sr2+ = 3.1

a. Express the concentrations of ions in milliequivalents per liter.

b. Comment about the experimental error, assuming that an error of 10% is acceptable.
c. Draw a bar graph of the sample.
d. Determine the total, carbonate, and noncarbonate hardness of the sample.
3. Use program developed in (1) to verify results obtained in (2).
Solution
1. For solution to Example 2.9 (1), see the listing of Program 2.9.
a. Solution to Example 2.9 (2): Given: concentration of ions.
2.
i. Determine the concentration of given species in units of mEq/L by dividing the given concentration
(mg/L) by the equivalent weight of each substance, that is, Cmeq = Cmg/L/equivalent weight (EW).
ii. Convert the concentrations (mEq/L) to units of mg/L as CaCO3. This is achieved by multiplying the
concentrations (mEq/L) by the EW of CaCO3. The EW of calcium carbonate = molecular weight of
calcium carbonate (MW)/valency (Z), that is, EW of CaCO3 = MW/Z = (40 + 12 + 16 * 3)/2 = 50.
Tabulate results as in the table shown below:
 Concentration
Constituent c = C/EW c*50
(mEq/L) (mg/L CaCO3 )
EW C
(mg/mEq) (mg/L)
Cations
Ca2+ 20 19 0.95 47.5
Mg2+ 12.2 12.2 1.00 50
Sr2+ 43.8 3.1 0.07 3.5
Na+ 23 17.25 0.75 37.5
2.77
Anions

HCO3 61 91.5 1.5 75

SO4 48 19.2 0.4 20
Cl 35.5 28.4 0.8 40
2.70

Compute experimental error as follows: Percentage of experimental error = (cations anions)*100/cations = (anions cations)*100/anions =
[(2.77 2.7)/2.77]*100 = 3%. Because the computed experimental error is < 10%, the analysis can be considered acceptable.

b. Plot the bar graph as indicated in the following diagram:

c. Determine the hardness as follows: total hardness = Ca2+ + Mg2+ + Sr2+ = 0.95 + 1.0 + 0.07
= 2.02 mEq/L = 2.02 * 50 = 101 mg/L as CaCO3. Carbonate hardness = HCO3 = 1.5 mEq./L
= 75 mg/L CaCO3. Noncarbonate hardness = total hardness carbonate hardness = 101 75
= 26 mg/L CaCO3.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 2.9 (CHAP2.9\FORM1.VB): HARDNESS

ESTIMATION

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.9: Hardness
'Program to compute hardness
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Drawing
Public Class Form1
Dim EW(12) As Double, SYMBOL(12) As String, CONCENTRATION(12), OPT,
COL2(12), COL3(12) Dim SCATION = 0
Dim SANION = 0
'****************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, 'i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
defConstants()
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.10: Computes hardness"
Label1.Text = "Select concentration:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("Concentration in mg/Litre")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Concentration in mequivalent/Litre") Dim I As
Integer = 1
For Each c As Control In Me.Controls
If c.Name.StartsWith("Label") Then
If Not c.Name.Equals("Label1") Then
c.Text = "Concentration of " + SYMBOL(I) + ":"
I += 1
End If
End If
Next
End Sub
Sub defConstants()
EW(1) = 20.0485
EW(2) = 12.1525
EW(3) = 27.9235
EW(4) = 27.4654
EW(5) = 43.81
EW(6) = 22.98977
EW(7) = 30.0246
EW(8) = 61.019
EW(9) = 48.033
EW(10) = 35.453
EW(11) = 62.0049
EW(12) = 38.0419
SYMBOL(12) = "Ca2+"
SYMBOL(11) = "Mg2+"
SYMBOL(10) = "Fe2+"
SYMBOL(9) = "Mn2+"
SYMBOL(8) = "Sr2+"
SYMBOL(7) = "Na+"
SYMBOL(6) = "CO3-"
SYMBOL(5) = "HCO3"
SYMBOL(4) = "SO4-"
SYMBOL(3) = "CL-"
SYMBOL(2) = "NO3-"
SYMBOL(1) = "SiO3-"
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged
calculateResults()
drawResults()
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
SCATION = 0
SANION = 0
Dim i As Integer
For Each c As Control In Me.Controls
If c.Name.StartsWith("TextBox") Then
i = Val(c.Name.Remove(0, 7))
CONCENTRATION(i) = Val(c.Text)
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
COL2(i) = CONCENTRATION(i) / EW(i) 'C/EW
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 1 Then COL2(i) =
CONCENTRATION(i) If i <= 6 Then SCATION = SCATION + COL2(i) 'Sum cat.
If i > 6 Then SANION = SANION +
COL2(i) 'Sum anions
COL3(i) = COL2(i) * 50
End If
Next
Dim EERROR = (SCATION - SANION) * 100 / SCATION
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
ListBox2.Items.Clear()
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("ION", "CATION/ANION")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CONCMGL", "CONC.(MG/L)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CONCML", "CONC.(MEQUIV/L)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CONCMGL", "CONC.(MG/L) AS CACO3") Else
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("ION", "CATION/ANION")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CONCML", "CONC.(MEQUIV/L)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CONCMGL", "CONC.(MG/L) AS CACO3") End If
For i = 1 To 12
If i = 7 Then
DataGridView1.Rows.Add("TOTAL CATIONS: ", fN(SCATION)) End If
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(SYMBOL(i), fN(CONCENTRATION(i)),
fN(COL2(i)), fN(COL3(i))) Else
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(SYMBOL(i), fN(COL2(i)), fN(COL3(i)))
End If
Next
DataGridView1.Rows.Add("TOTAL ANIONS: ", fN(SANION))
DataGridView1.Rows.Add("TOTAL ERROR: ", fN(EERROR) + "%") Dim
TOTHARD1 = COL2(1) + COL2(2)'Total hardness as Ca2+ Mg2+
Dim TOTHARD2 = COL3(1) + COL3(2)
ListBox2.Items.Add("Total Hardness =" + fN(TOTHARD1) + " mEq/L=" _
+ fN(TOTHARD2) + " mg/L as CaCO3")
Dim TOTHARD3 = COL2(7) + COL2(8)'Carbonate hardness as CO3
+ HCO3
Dim TOTHARD4 = COL3(7) + COL3(8)
ListBox2.Items.Add("Carbonate Hardness =" + fN(TOTHARD3) + "
mEq/L=" _
+ fN(TOTHARD4) + " mg/L as CaCO3")
Dim NONCARB = TOTHARD1 - TOTHARD3
Dim NONCARB2 = TOTHARD2 - TOTHARD4
If NONCARB < 0 Then NONCARB = 0
If NONCARB2 < 0 Then NONCARB2 = 0
ListBox2.Items.Add("Noncarbonate Hardness =" + fN(NONCARB) + "
mEq/L=" _
+ fN(NONCARB2) + " mg/L as CaCO3")
Determine the degree of hardness
Dim chk = TOTHARD2, d$
If chk > 0 And chk <= 75 Then d$ = "Soft"
If chk > 75 And chk <= 150 Then d$ = "Moderately Soft"
If chk > 150 And chk <= 175 Then d$ = "Moderately Hard"
If chk > 175 And chk <= 300 Then d$ = "Hard"
If chk > 300 Then d$ = "Very Hard"
ListBox2.Items.Add("The degree of hardness is " + d$) End Sub
Function fN(ByVal N As Double) As String
'Formats a number into two decimal points
Return FormatNumber(N, 2).ToString
End Function

'****** Plot the results into bar graph

Sub drawResults()
On Error Resume Next
Dim P(12)
Dim SUMCAT As Double = 0
Dim SUMAN As Double = 0
For I = 1 To 12
If I <= 6 Then SUMCAT = SUMCAT + COL2(I)
If I > 6 Then SUMAN = SUMAN + COL2(I)
P(I) = COL2(I)
Next I
SCALE VALUES
Dim sum1 As Double = 0
For I = 1 To 6
P(I) = Int(P(I) * (PictureBox1.Width - 10) / SUMCAT) sum1 =
sum1 + P(I)
Next
For I = 7 To 12
P(I) = Int(P(I) * sum1 / SUMAN)
Next
Draw the bar graph. Each ion is represented by a RectangleShape
shape, which is then filled with a preselected brush color.
Dim lastX As Double = 5
Dim font As New Font("Microsoft Sans Serif", 14)
Dim g = PictureBox1.CreateGraphics
Dim XSUM As Double = 0
Dim brush(16) As Brush
brush(1) = Brushes.AliceBlue
brush(2) = Brushes.Aqua
brush(3) = Brushes.Azure
brush(4) = Brushes.Beige
brush(5) = Brushes.BlanchedAlmond
brush(6) = Brushes.BlueViolet
brush(7) = Brushes.BurlyWood
brush(8) = Brushes.Chocolate
brush(9) = Brushes.Cornsilk
brush(10) = Brushes.Cyan
brush(11) = Brushes.DarkGreen
brush(12) = Brushes.DeepPink
brush(13) = Brushes.Fuchsia
brush(14) = Brushes.Green
brush(15) = Brushes.Lavender
brush(16) = Brushes.LightBlue
g.FillRectangle(Brushes.White, 0, 0, PictureBox1.Width-1,
PictureBox1.Height-1) For I = 1 To 6
g.DrawRectangle(Pens.Black, CInt(lastX),
CInt((PictureBox1.Height / 2) - 30), CInt(P(I)), 30)
g.FillRectangle(brush(I), New Rectangle(CInt(lastX) + 1,
CInt((PictureBox1.Height / 2) - 28), CInt(P(I)) - 1, 28))
If P(I) > 0 Then
g.DrawString(SYMBOL(I), font, Brushes.Black, New
Point(lastX, (PictureBox1.Height / 2) - 30))
XSUM = XSUM + COL2(I)
g.DrawString(FormatNumber(XSUM, 2), font, Brushes.Black,
_
New Point(lastX, (PictureBox1.Height / 2)
30 - font.GetHeight))
End If
lastX += P(I)
Next
lastX = 5
XSUM = 0
For I = 7 To 12
g.DrawRectangle(Pens.Black, CInt(lastX),
CInt((PictureBox1.Height / 2) + 1), CInt(P(I)), 30)
g.FillRectangle(brush(I), New Rectangle(CInt(lastX) + 1,
CInt((PictureBox1.Height / 2) + 2), CInt(P(I)) - 1, 28))
If P(I) > 0 Then
g.DrawString(SYMBOL(I), font, Brushes.Black, New
Point(lastX, (PictureBox1.Height / 2) + 1))
XSUM = XSUM + COL2(I)
g.DrawString(FormatNumber(XSUM, 2), font, Brushes.Black,
_
New Point(lastX, (PictureBox1.Height / 2) + 31))
End If
lastX += P(I)
Next
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
calculateResults()
drawResults()
End Sub
End Class
2.5 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
The biological properties of water and wastewater are of notable importance. Of great interest and
essential consideration are growth, decay, turn over time, biological half-life, retention time, composition
and its change, and active ingredients. Biological properties allow identification of biological concepts,
reactions, and effects on tissues. Of significance in this area are DO and biological oxygen demand.

2.5.1 DISSOLVED OXYGEN

DO is of paramount importance in aerobic metabolic reactions. The saturation concentration of oxygen
may be determined as follows:

(2.18)

where:
Cs is the saturation concentration, g/m3
KD is the distribution coefficient
Cg is the gas concentration in gas phase, g/m3, which may be calculated from the following equation:

(2.19)

where Pg is the partial pressure of the respective gas in the gas phase, Pa, which may be calculated from
the following equation:

(2.20)

where xg is the mole fraction of gas, which may be calculated from the following equation:

(2.21)

where:
Ng is the moles of gas
Nw is the moles of water
kH is the Henrys constant
MW is the molecular weight of the gas
R is the universal gas constant = 8314.3 J/kg*K
T is the absolute temperature, K

Equation 2.22 relates oxygen solubility concentration to pressure:

 (2.22)

where:
C is the solubility of oxygen at barometric pressure P and given temperature, mg/L
Cs is the saturation concentration at given temperature, mg/L
P is the barometric pressure, mmHg
pw is the pressure of saturated water vapor at the temperature of the water, mmHg Oxygen is slightly
soluble in water. The actual content of oxygen that can be found in a solution is influenced by
different interacting parameters such as solubility of the gas, partial pressure of the gas in the gas
phase, temperature, and degree of water purity (e.g., level of salinity, concentration of suspended
solids, etc.). Drinking water saturated with oxygen has a pleasant taste, whereas water devoid of DO
has an insipid taste.

Example 2.10
1. Write a computer program to evaluate the saturation concentration of oxygen dissolved
in water for any value of pressure and at any temperature and chloride concentration in
water.
2. Calculate the concentration of DO in a water sample (with zero salinity) having a DO
saturation concentration of 9.2 mg/L at a temperature of 20C for an atmospheric gauge
pressure of 695 mmHg.
3. Use the computer program developed in (a) to verify computations achieved in (b).

Solution

1. For solution to Example 2.10 (1), see the listing of Program 2.10.
2. Solution to Example 2.10 (1):
* Given: T = 20C, C = 9.2 mg/L, P = 695 mmHg, Salinity = 0.
* From Appendix A2 (Viessman et al. 2015; Whipple and Whipple 1911), for T =
20C, find the vapor pressure as pw = 17.535 mmHg.
* Find the oxygen saturation concentration as follows:
Cs = C*(760 pw)/(P pw) = 9.2*(760 17.535)/(695 17.535) = 11.07 mg/L.

Listing of Program 2.10 (Chap2.10\Form1.vb): Dissolved Oxygen

Concentration

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.10: DO
'Computes Dissolved oxygen concentration
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim T(31), Pwi(31) As Double
Dim pTable As String
****************************************************************************
Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
*********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
pTable = "05, 05, 05, 06, 06, 07, 07, 08, 08, 09, 09, 10, 11, 11,
12, 13,"
pTable += " 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,"
pTable += " 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.10: Computes dissolved oxygen concentration"
Table of temperature-pressure relationship
For i = 0 To 30
T(i) = i
Pwi(i) = Val(pTable.Substring(i * 4, 2))
Next i
Label1.Text = "Enter temperature in the range 0 to 30 C="
Label2.Text = "Enter gauge pressure in mm Hg="
Label3.Text = "Enter oxygen solubility concentration in mg/L ="
Label4.Text = "Oxygen saturation concentration at the given temp.
(mg/L)="
Label5.Text = "Salinity assumed=0"
Label6.Text = "Decimal places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim T1, P, C As Double
T1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
P = Val(TextBox2.Text)
C = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Error checking
If T1 < 0 Or T1 > 30 Then
MsgBox("Temp should be between 0 and 30",
vbOKOnly Or vbCritical)
Exit Sub
End If
Calculations
Find Pw corresponding to temperature T
Dim Pw As Double
For i = 0 To 30
If T1 <= T(i) Then
Pw = Pwi(i)
Exit For
End If
Next
Dim Ps = 760 'mmHg
Dim Cx = C * (Ps - Pw) / (P - Pw)
TextBox4.Text = FormatNumber(Cx, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End
Sub
 End Class

2.5.2 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

The BOD test measures the relative amount of oxygen that is needed to biologically stabilize organic
matter present in a sample. The advantages of the test include estimation of the size of treatment units,
evaluation of treatment efficiency, and estimation of the relative amount of oxygen required for oxidation
of organic pollutants (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
The BOD reaction is assumed to follow a first-order reaction, and it may be expressed as follows:

(2.23)

where:
Lt is the amount of first-stage BOD remaining in the sample at time t, mg/L
L0 is the initial remaining BOD, total, or ultimate first-stage BOD present at zero time k is the rate
constant (to base e), per day
k1 is the rate constant (to base 10), per day (=0.4343*k) t is the time, days

Equation 2.24 gives the value of BOD exerted at any time t and temperature T (see Figure 2.6):

FIGURE 2.6 Variation of BOD with time.

(2.24)

The usual standard for reporting BOD is based on the 5-day BOD at a temperature of 20C (BOD520).
Oxidation of the organic matter is from 60% to 70% complete within the 5-day test period. The 20C
temperature represents an average value for slow-moving streams in temperate climates and is easily
duplicated in the laboratory (Metcalf and Eddy 2013). Table 2.3 gives the wastewater strength in terms of
BOD5 or COD.

TABLE 2.3
Sewage Strength in Terms of BOD and COD
Strength BOD5 (mg/L) COD (mg/L)
Weak <200 <400
Medium 200350 400700
Strong 351500 7011000
Very strong >750 >1500

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.

The COD test is employed to measure the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter by using
a strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic medium. The standard reagent used in the determination is a
boiling mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), together with silver
sulfate as a catalyst. Generally, the COD of a wastewater is greater than its 5-day BOD. This is for the
following reasons:

1. More compounds are likely to be oxidized chemically than can be oxidized biologically.
2. The 5-day BOD does not equal the ultimate BOD.

The advantages of the COD test include the following:

1. The test can be conducted in a short period of time (23 h). This is more convenient than
the 5-day period required for determination of the BOD.
2. The test can be used to aid in design, operation, and control of treatment works (if related
with BOD).

The Thomas method can be used to determine values for k and L0 from a series of BOD measurements.
This method is based on the similarity of two series functions (expansions for 1 ek*t) and k*t*(1 + k
*t/6)3)). Thomas developed the approximate linearized formula presented in the following equation:

(2.25)

where:
t is the time, s
BOD is the BOD exerted in time t, mg/L
k is the reaction rate constant (to base e), day1
L0 is the ultimate BOD, mg/L

Equation 2.25 can be put in the form of a straight line as indicated in the following equation:
 (2.26)

where:
y is the (t/BOD)1/3
b is the intercept of the line:

(2.27)

a is the slope of the straight line:

(2.28)

The reaction rate constant and ultimate BOD may therefore be determined as shown in the following
equations:

(2.29)

(2.30)

Example 2.11
1. Write a computer program to determine the BOD of a wastewater at any time t, rate
constant k, and temperature T. Design the program so that t or k or L0 can be
determined, given the other two parameters. The program should show the strength of
the sewage in accordance with Table 2.3.
2. Find the amount of the 5-day BOD compared to the ultimate BOD for a sewage sample,
which has a rate constant (k1) value of 0.103/day.
3. A wastewater sample has a 5-day BOD of 324 mg/L and an ultimate BOD of 405 mg/L.
Find the rate of biological oxidation for the wastewater.
4. The 3-day BOD of a sample is 255 mg/L at a temperature of 20C. Determine its 5-day
BOD, assuming that the rate constant is 0.22/day (to base 10).

Solution

1. For solution to Example 2.11 (1), see the listing for Program 2.11.
2. Solution to Example 2.11 (2):
1. Given: k1 = 0.103/day.
2. Find the ratio of 5-day BOD to ultimate BOD for the sample as follows:
BOD205/L0 = (1 10k1*t) = 1 100.103 * 5 = 0.69
 3. This shows that the 5-day BOD is ~69% of the ultimate BOD.
3. Solution to Example 2.11 (3):
1. Given: BOD205 = 324 mg/L, L0 = 405.
2. Determine the reaction rate constant as follows: 324 = 405(1 105k1). This
yields a value for k1 equal to 0.14/day.
4. Solution to Example 2.11 (4):
1. Given: BOD3 = 255 mg/L and k1 = 0.22/day.
2. Determine the ultimate BOD as follows: L0 = BOD/(1 10k1*t) = 255/(1
100.22 * 3) = 326.4 mg/L.
3. Find the 5-day BOD as follows: BOD5 = 3264*(1 100.22 * 5) = 300 mg/L.

Listing of Program 2.11 (Chap2.11\Form1.vb): BOD Computations

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.11: BOD-1
'Estimates the BOD for wastewater for a given rate k, temperature T
' and at any time t
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Variables used in calculations
Dim k1, kd, t, BOD5, BOD, Lo As Double
****************************************************************************
Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
*********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 2.11: Estimates the BOD for wastewater"
Dim ttl(3) As String
ttl(0) = "Determine BOD at any time t"
ttl(1) = "Determine the reaction rate constant k1 to base 10"
ttl(2) = "Determine the reaction rate constant k1 to base e"
ttl(3) = "Determine the ultimate BOD (Lo)"
For i = 0 To 3
ListBox1.Items.Add(ttl(i))
Next
Label1.Text = Select an option:
Label2.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Visible = False
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged If
ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Determine BOD at any time t
Label2.Text = "Enter rate constant k1 (/day) to base 10:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the time t (days), t:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the 5-day BOD in mg/L:"
Label5.Text = "The value of BOD at" + t.ToString + "
days="
Label6.Text = " of the ultimate BOD"
Label7.Text = "The value of BOD at " + t.ToString + "
days(mg/L)="
Case 1
Determine k1 to base 10


Label2.Text = "Enter the value of the ultimate BOD mg/L:"

Label3.Text = "Enter the value of the 5-day BOD mg/L:"
Label5.Text = "Rate at which water is being oxidized
k1(to base 10)="
Label6.Text = " /day"
Case 2
Determine k1 to base e
Label2.Text = "Enter the value of the ultimate BOD mg/L:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the value of the 5-day BOD mg/L:"
Label5.Text = "Rate at which water is being oxidized
k1(to base e)="
Label6.Text = " /day"
Case 3
Determine the ultimate BOD (Lo)
Label2.Text = "Enter rate constant k1 (/day):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the time t (days), t:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the BOD at that time, BOD, mg/L:"
Label5.Text = "The ultimate BOD ="
Label6.Text = " mg/day"
End Select
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
Label2.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label9.Visible = True
NumericUpDown1.Visible = True
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 3 Then
First and fourth selections have three inputs, so show the third textbox
TextBox3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = True
Else
The other options have two inputs, so hide the third textbox
TextBox3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
End If
calculateResults()
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Determine BOD at any time t
k1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
t = Val(TextBox2.Text)
BOD5 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
First order reaction rate
Dim BODRATIO = (1 - 10 ^ (-k1 * t))
Label5.Text = "The value of BOD at " + t.ToString + "
days="
TextBox4.Text = FormatNumber(BODRATIO,
NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString Label6.Text = " of the ultimate BOD"
Dim B = BODRATIO * BOD5
Label7.Text = "The value of BOD at " + t.ToString + "
days(mg/L)="
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(B,
NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString Classify sewage strength
Dim c As String

If B <= 200 Then

c = "Weak"
ElseIf B > 200 And B <= 350 Then c = "Medium"
ElseIf B > 350 And B <= 500 Then c = "Strong"
ElseIf B > 750 Then
c = "Very Strong"
Else
c = "Unknown"
End If
Label8.Text = "The strength of sewage is " + c Case 1
Determine k1 to base 10
Lo = Val(TextBox1.Text)
BOD5 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
t = 5
k1 = -Log(1 - (BOD5 / Lo)) / (t * Log(10)) TextBox4.Text
= FormatNumber(k1, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString Case 2
Determine k1 to base e
Lo = Val(TextBox1.Text)
BOD5 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
t = 5
k1 = -Log(1 - (BOD5 / Lo)) / (t * Log(10)) kd = k1 /
0.4343
TextBox4.Text = FormatNumber(kd,
NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString Case 3
Determine the ultimate BOD (Lo)
k1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
t = Val(TextBox2.Text)
BOD = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Lo = BOD / (1 - 10 ^ (-k1 * t))
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Lo,
NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString End Select
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then Label8.Visible = True _
Else Label8.Visible = False
End Sub
****************************************************************************
Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the
results.
****************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 2.12
1. Write a computer program for the estimation of the ultimate BOD and the rate constant
by using the Thomas method for the following data.
2. A BOD test for a wastewater sample, at a temperature of 20C, gave the following
results:

t (days) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

BOD (mg/L) 63 112 150 180 202 220 234 241 248 254

Using the Thomas method, find

1. The reaction rate constant.
2. The ultimate first-stage BOD.
3. The value of k1 (to base 10).

Solution

1. For solution to Example 2.12 (1), see the listing for Program 2.12.
2. Solution to Example 2.12 (2):
1. Use the Thomas method to construct the following table:

t (days) BOD (mg/L) (t/BOD)1/3

0.5 63 0.007937
1.0 91 0.008929
1.5 20 0.01
2.0 142 0.011111
2.5 158 0.012376
3.0 169 0.013636
3.5 177 0.014957
4.0 184 0.016598
4.5 187 0.018145
5.0 190 0.019685

2. Plot a graph of (t/BOD)1/3 versus t.

3. From the constructed straight line, estimate the slope and intercept as follows: a =
slope = 0.015729 = k2/3/6L01/3 (1); b = intercept = 0.191745 = (k*L0)1/3 (2).
 4. Use Equations (1) and (2), find: k = 0.492/day (to base e) and L0 = 288.5 mg/L.
5. Determine the reaction rate constant to base 10 as follows: k1 = 0.4343*k =
0.4343 * 0.492185 = 0.214/day.

Listing of Program 2.12 (Chap2.12\Form1.vb): BOD Determination

According to Thomas

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.12: BOD-2
'Thomas method for determining BOD
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
'Variables used in calculations
Dim T(), BOD(), tbod() As Double
Dim a, b As Double
Dim k1, kd, Lo As Double
'*****************************************
'get_max(): Gets the largest number of an
'array, given a reference to
'the array and member count.
'*****************************************
Private Function get_max(ByRef array() As Double, ByVal count As
Integer) As Double Dim i As Integer
Dim max As Double = array(0)
For i = 1 To count - 1
If max < array(i) Then
max = array(i)
End If
Next
Return max
End Function
'***********************************************
'Calc's a straight line from the scattered
'point data. The algorithm used is simple:
'(1) Divide data into two sets
'(2) Find a mid-point in each set
'(3) Find line equation from these two points
'(4) Find the first and last points in this line
'(5) Get the line equation.
'***********************************************

Private Sub get_straight_line()

Dim count As Integer = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
Dim max_T As Double = get_max(T, count)
Dim max_BOD As Double = get_max(tbod, count)
Dim mid_count As Integer = count / 2
Dim sum1X, sum1Y, sum2X, sum2Y As Double
Dim i As Integer
sum1X = 0 : sum2Y = 0
sum1Y = 0 : sum2Y = 0
For i = 0 To mid_count - 1
sum1X += T(i)
sum1Y += tbod(i)
Next
sum1X /= mid_count
sum1Y /= mid_count
For i = mid_count To count - 1
sum2X += T(i)
sum2Y += tbod(i)
Next
sum2X /= (count - mid_count)
sum2Y /= (count - mid_count)
Dim m As Double
m = (sum2Y - sum1Y) / (sum2X - sum1X)
find straight line equation:
y = a + bx
b = -(m * sum1X) + sum1Y
a = m
End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, 'i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
'*********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 2.12: Thomas method for determining BOD"
Label1.Text = "a (slope):"
Label2.Text = "b (intercept):"
Label3.Text = "k' (per day, to base E):"
Label4.Text = "k' (per day, to base 10):"
Label5.Text = "Lo (mg/L):"
Label6.Text = "Decimal points:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("tCol", "t (days)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("bodCol", "BOD (mg/L)") End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If DataGridView1.ColumnCount <> 3 Then
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("tbodCol", "(t/BOD)^(1/3)") End If
prepare the third column
Dim i As Integer
Dim count As Integer = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
If count = 0 Then Exit Sub
ReDim T(count), BOD(count), tbod(count)

For i = 0 To count - 1
T(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("tCol").Value) BOD(i) =
Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("bodCol").Value) tbod(i) = Math.Pow((T(i) /
BOD(i)), (1 / 3)) 'tbod(i) = (T(i) / BOD(i))
DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("tbodCol").Value =
tbod(i).ToString Next
use our data to mathematically estimate
a straight line equation.
get_straight_line()
then calculate
Reaction rate constant (to base e)
kd = 6 * a / b
Ultimate first stage BOD
Lo = 1 / (b ^ 3 * kd)
Reaction rate constant (to base 10)
k1 = 0.4343 * kd
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Output results
TextBox1.Text = FormatNumber(a, NumericUpDown1.Value) TextBox2.Text
= FormatNumber(b, NumericUpDown1.Value) TextBox3.Text = FormatNumber(kd,
NumericUpDown1.Value) TextBox4.Text = FormatNumber(k1, NumericUpDown1.Value)
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Lo, NumericUpDown1.Value) End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

2.6 RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a property of unstable atoms. It arises from the spontaneous breaking up of certain heavy
atoms into other atoms, which themselves might be radioactive. This phenomenon continues producing a
transformation series. This disintegration results in three kinds of radioactive emissions known as alpha
particles, beta particles, and gamma rays (Figure 2.7).

FIGURE 2.7 Radioactive decay.

Each radioactive substance is characterized by its half-life. The half-life period is the time required for
half the atoms in any given sample of the substance to decay. The half-life periods are different for each
element. The unit of radioactivity is the Curie, which is the number of disintegrations occurring per
second in 1 g of pure radium (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
The rate of decay of any nuclide is directly proportional to the number of atoms present and follows a
first-order reaction as given by the following equation:

(2.31)

where:
N0 is the number of atoms at time t0
Nt is the number of atoms found at time t kt is the decay constant

Equation 2.32 gives the relationship between decay time and half-life:

(2.32)

where t is the half-life of a particular nuclide.

Example 2.13
1. Write a computer program for the computation of the number of atoms present after time
t for any fraction of the remaining mass and design the program so as to determine the
time needed by the following substances to lose any fraction of their initial mass:
polonium, Po218 (3.05 min); bromine, Br78 (6.4 min); lead, Pb214 (26.8 min); sodium,
Na24 (15 h); fluorine, F131 (8 days); phosphorous, P32 (14.3 days); thorium, Th234 (24.1
days); cobalt, Co60 (5.3 years); hydrogen, H3 (12.3 years); cesium, Cs137 (30 years);
radium, Ra226 (1600 years); carbon, C14 (5730 years); strontium, Sr90 (28.1 years);
uranium, U234 (2.48 * 105 years); potassium, K40 (1.28 * 109 years); and uranium, U238
(4.51 * 109 years). (Note: Number within parentheses indicates the half-life period of
the radioactive substance).
2. Radioactive radium has a half-life of 1600 years. Find the mass remaining unchanged of
50 units of this radioactive material after 3200, 4800, and 6400 years. Compute the
time needed for the substance to lose 10% of its mass.

Solution

1. For solution to Example 2.13 (1), see the listing of Program 2.13.
2. Solution to Example 2.13 (2):
1. Determine the decay constant as follows: kt = 0.693/t = 0.693/1600 = 4.33 *
104 year1.
2. Find the mass remaining after time t as follows: N = N0*ek*t for t = 1600, N =
50*e0.000433 * 1600 = 25; for t = 3200, N = 12.5; for t = 4800, N = 6.25; for t =
6400, N = 3.13.
1. Plot a graph of mass remaining versus time, and find from the graph for a
remaining mass of [=50 (10 * 50/100)] 45, the required time = 243 years,
or weight lost = 10 * 50/100 = 5; weight remaining = 50 5 = 45.
2. Or use Ln 45/50 = 4.33 * 104*t to find t = 243 years.

Listing of Program 2.13 (Chap2.13\Form1.vb): Radioactivity Rate of Decay

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 2.13: radioactivity
'Computes radioactivity
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim elem(16), sym(16) As String
Dim t_half(16) As Double
Dim th, kt, no, p As Double
Dim tmp1, tmp2, tmp3 As String
'convert days to years
Const F1 As Double = 1 / 365.25
'convert hours to years
Const F2 As Double = F1 / 24
'convert minutes to years
Const F3 As Double = F2 / 60
'**************************************
'load calculation tables
'**************************************
Sub load_tables()
sym(0) = "Br 78"
sym(1) = "C 14"

sym(2) = "Co 60"

sym(3) = "Cs 137"
sym(4) = "F 131"
sym(5) = "H 3"
sym(6) = "Pb 124"
sym(7) = "K 40"
sym(8) = "Na 24"
sym(9) = "P 32"
sym(10) = "Po 218"
sym(11) = "Ra 226"
sym(12) = "Sr 90"
sym(13) = "Th 234"
sym(14) = "U 238"
sym(15) = "U 234"
elem(0) = "Bromine"
elem(1) = "Carbon"
elem(2) = "Cobalt"
elem(3) = "Cesium"
elem(4) = "Flourine"
elem(5) = "Hydrogen"
elem(6) = "Lead"
elem(7) = "Potassium"
elem(8) = "Sodium"
elem(9) = "Phosphorus"
elem(10) = "Polonium"
elem(11) = "Radium"
elem(12) = "Strontium"
elem(13) = "Thorium"
elem(14) = "Uranium"
elem(15) = "Uranium"
convert all half times to years
t_half(0) = 6.4 * F3
t_half(1) = 5730
t_half(2) = 5.3
t_half(3) = 30
t_half(4) = 8 * F1
t_half(5) = 12.3
t_half(6) = 26.8 * F3
t_half(7) = 1280000000.0
t_half(8) = 15 * F2
t_half(9) = 14.3 * F1
t_half(10) = 3.05 * F3
t_half(11) = 1600
t_half(12) = 28.1
t_half(13) = 24.1 * F1
t_half(14) = 4510000000.0
t_half(15) = 248000.0
End Sub
'****************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading, 'i.e.,
first thing after program loads into the memory
'*********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 2.8: Radioactivity"
load the tables with default values
load_tables()

Label1.Text = "Select material from below:"

ListBox1.Items.Clear()
For i = 0 To 15
ListBox1.Items.Add(sym(i))
Next
ListBox1.Items.Add("Other material..")
Label2.Text = "Initial mass of material="
Label3.Text = "What period of time for decay in years:"
GroupBox1.Text = " Decay: "
label4.text = "Mass remaining after time period t is:"
Label5.Text = "Time to loose that percentage (years):"
GroupBox2.Text = " Mass Loss: "
Label6.Text = "What percentage of mass to lose:"
Label7.Visible = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
TextBox4.Enabled = False
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged If
ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 16
Dim sym = InputBox("Enter the symbol of the material:",
"Other material")
th = Val(InputBox("Enter the half life period:", "Other
material")) Label7.Text = "Using material (" + sym + "), t1/2 of " +
th.ToString Label7.Visible = True
Case Else
th = t_half(ListBox1.SelectedIndex)
Label7.Visible = False
End Select
Decay constant
th is the half-life period
kt = 0.693 / th
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged no = Val(TextBox1.Text)
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged Dim t = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Mass remaining after any time t for an initial mass no Dim n = no
* EXP(-kt * t)
textbox3.text = n.tostring
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox5_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox5.TextChanged p = Val(TextBox5.Text)
to find the time to loose a percentage p
Dim n1 = (100 - p) / 100 * no
Dim t1 = Log(no / n1) / kt
TextBox4.Text = t1.ToString
End Sub
 End Class

2.7 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN WATER AND WASTEWATER PROPERTIES

2.7.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS

1. Why is water vital for human survival?
2. What benefits are to be gained by acquiring knowledge about the characteristics of water
and wastewater?
3. Outline the main physical quality parameters relevant in water quality management.
4. What are the main effects of an increase in the temperature of water or wastewater?
5. Define conductivity and indicate the units of measurements.
6. Indicate the different methods that contribute to increase water salinity.
7. Describe a method for measuring the solids content of a water sample.
8. How can you relate mathematically density, specific volume, specific weight, and specific
gravity?
9. What are some of the problems associated with viscous fluids?
10. Give one example for each of the following: dilatant, thixotropic, ideal liquid, ideal solid,
non-Newtonian, Newtonian, plastic, and pseudoplastic fluid.
11. Illustrate the differences between kinematic and absolute viscosity coefficients.
12. What is surface tension?
13. What are the practical benefits of surface tension?
14. Define bulk modulus.
15. Describe the differences between alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
16. Outline the main chemical characteristics relating to water quality.
17. Outline the factors that affect the pH of water and wastewater.
18. How can you differentiate between an alkaline and an acidic solution?
19. Define hardness of water. Note the main classes of hardness, and discuss cons and pros.
20. Indicate how to differentiate between a hard and a soft water sample.
21. Discuss the factors that influence the solubility of a gas in water.
22. What is BOD?
23. What are the advantages of the BOD test?
24. Potable palatable water that is supplied by a certain municipality may contain chemicals
which were initially not in the source (raw) water. In the following table, give three
examples of such chemicals. Indicate the way they entered the water. Outline their potential
health impacts and effects. Suggest methods for avoiding such ailments.

Table (1) Chemicals not in source (raw) water

Chemical First Chemical Second Chemical Third Chemical

Example
 How chemical entered water?
Potential health impacts and effects
Suggested methods for getting rid of harmful chemical

25. Describe the hydraulic cycle.

26. Outline the preferable water source characteristics.
27. Rearrange group I with the corresponding relative ones of group II in the area allocated for
the answer shown in the following table.

Group I Rearranged Group II Group II

Pollution Hand washing
True solutions removal Water loss
Pathogen removal Quality related
Colloidal suspensions removal Anopheles mosquitoes
Physical treatment Fecal related
Preliminary treatment Water based
Leakage Quantity related
Sanitation barrier Water site related
House fly African sleeping sickness
Scistosomiasis Blue babies syndrome
Malaria Chlorination
Eye disease Tooth decay
Water contact diseases Grit removal
Water-washed diseases Gas transfer
Sanitation-related diseases Chemical coagulation
Water-borne diseases Sedimentation
Water insect vector Scistosoma
Trypanosomiasis Trachoma
Methemoglobinemia Musca domestica
Fluoride Improper storage
Desalination

28. Indicate whether the following sentences are true (T) or false (F):
1. Water project components, structures, and equipment are assumed to serve the project
for its design period. ( )
2. Reasons for water treatment include removal or reduction of SS or floating solids,
colloids, dissolved salts, oil, color, taste, and odor. ( )
3. Choice of type of needed water treatment requires completing surveys on source,
operation, and presence of skilled workers, funding, and costs of construction
maintenance. ( )
4. Water-based diseases are caused by aquatic organisms that spend part of their life
cycle in the water and another part as a parasite affecting humans or animals. ( )
5. Hardness is related to scale deposition (soap curd) and taste, and it hampers soap
lather formation. ( )
6. Although E. coli is considered to be the best indicator of fecal contamination, but the
disclosure of temperature-tolerant coliform bacteria is considered an acceptable
alternative. ( )
7. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater provide hundreds of
laboratory tests of water quality and properties. These methods represent the best
current practice of water and wastewater analysis. ( )
 8. Langelier Index is an expression of the tendency for deposition (noncorrosiveness) or
dissolution of calcium carbonate scale in a pipe. ( )
29. Complete missing titles and fill in blanks by using the following words and phrases (health,
corrosive, lead, lethal dose, guidelines, poverty, disease causing)
1. An objective of treatment is removal of bacteria, viruses, pathogens, and other
. organisms that hamper health of the individual.
2. .. is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
3. Unsafe and bad water quality is the basis of causes of
4. may accumulate in bones (skeletal changes) and is associated
with kidney damage, constipation, loss of appetite, anemia, abdominal pain, paralysis,
poisoning, metabolic interference, and central and peripheral nervous system toxicity.
5. Factors affecting the toxic effects of chemicals include chemical characteristics,
.., average daily intake, ability of chemical to reach and
accumulate in the tissues, and routes of exposure to the chemical
6. .. envisage drinking water free from
pathogenic microbes, or types and quantities of toxins that affect the public health in
the short or long term.
7. A water supply that exhibits .. characteristics may cause health,
aesthetic, and economic problems in distribution pipelines and residential plumbing
systems.

2.7.2 SPECIFIC MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1. Write a short computer program to illustrate the effect of angle of contact on surface
tension.
2. Write a short computer program to enable determination of the temperature when the
readings on a Celsius and a Fahrenheit thermometer coincide.
3. Write a simple computer program to find the weight of a liquid, given its volume and
specific gravity.
4. Write a short computer program that allows for the conversion of viscosity (dynamic and
kinematic) between the SI system of units and the British system.
5. Write a short computer program that allows the determination of the molecular weight and
equivalent weight of the materials found in the periodic table. Test the program by
determining the molecular weights of the following compounds: barium acetate
(Ba(C2H3O2)2), nitrous oxide (N2O), ammonium aluminum sulfate (NH4)2Al2(SO4)4,
strontium sulfate (SrSO4) and copper sulfate, (Blue Vitriol) (CuSO4 5H2O).
6. Write a computer program to determine the normality (N) and molarity (M) of a solution
given that N = (wt/EW)/V and M = (wt/MW)/V, where wt is the weight, EW is the
equivalent weight, MW is the molecular weight, and V is the volume. Test your program by
finding the molarity of a solution that contains 2.5 g of sulfuric acid, in 4 L of solution.
7. Write a computer program to determine the percentage of elements found in a compound
composed, say, of nine substances: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen
(O). Test your program by determining the percent carbon in fructose
 CH2OH(CHOH)3COCH2OH and the percent zinc in the compound zinc dimethyl-
dithiocarbamate Zn[S2CN(CH3)2]2.
8. Write a computer program that computes the pH of a solution. Design the program so as to
indicate whether the solution is acidic or alkaline. The program is to differentiate between
the acidity of different solutions, given [H+] or [OH] ion concentration.
9. Write a computer program that enables estimating the concentration of a cation or an anion
from data of cations involving calcium, magnesium, sodium, strontium, and iron, and anions
containing chloride, sulfate, nitrate, carbonate, and bicarbonate, given the total hardness
and percent experimental error.
10. Assuming an experimental error of 3%, use the program developed in problem 9 to find the
missing chloride concentration for the following data of a sample of water (all values are
in mg/L):

Ca++ 35 Cl 18
Mg++ 40 HCO3 122

Sr+++ 9 SO4 34

Fe+++ 23 NO3 22
SiO3 14

11. Write a computer program that enables the computation of the BOD of organic compounds
(containing hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) with a known concentration (in mg/L).
Assume reaction products to be carbon dioxide, water, or nitrogen oxide according to
reactants entering chemical reaction. Check the validity of your program by determining the
total BOD of the following compounds:
1. 0.1 molar solution of ether [(CH3CH2)2O]
2. 5 g of glycerol [CH2OHCHOHCH2OH]
3. 20 mg/L uric acid [C5H4O3N4]

REFERENCES
Abdel-Magid, I. M. 1986. Water Treatment and Sanitary Engineering. Khartoum, Sudan: Khartoum University Press (Arabic).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1962.0883.
Abdel-Magid, I. M., and ElHassan, B. M. 1986. Water Supply in the Sudan. Khartoum, Sudan: Khartoum University Press, Sudan National
Council for Research (Arabic). doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.2371.6882.
Abdel-Magid, I. M., and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M. 2015. Problem Solving in Environmental Engineering, 2nd ed. Dammam, Saudi Arabia:
CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
APHA. 2012. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 22nd ed. Washington, DC: American Water Works
Association.
Casio Computer Co. 2016. Water Hardness Calculator. http://keisan.casio.com (accessed on February 20, 2016).
Davis, W. M. 2011. Physical Chemistry: A Modern Introduction, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Finnermore, E., Franzini, J. 2001. Fluid Mechanics With Engineering Applications, 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Green, D. W., and Perry, R. H. 2007. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Grigg, N. 2012. Water, Wastewater, and Storm water Infrastructure Management, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Groundwater Software. 2016. Calculator 8 - Water Hardness Calcul-a-tor. http://www.groundwatersoftware.com (accessed on February
18, 2016).
Howe, K. J., Hand, D. W., Crittenden, J. C., Trussell, R. R., and Tchobanoglous, G. 2012. Principles of Water Treatment, 1st ed. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley.
Lenntech. 2016. Water Hardness Calculator. http://www.lenntech.com/ro/water-hardness.htm#ixzz2iQsTNzz5 (accessed on February 17,
2016).
Lin, S. D. 2014. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
London and General Water Purifying Company. 2012. Water: Its Impurities and Purification. Nabu Press.
McGhee, T. J., and Steel, E. W. 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R. and Burton, F. 2013. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.
Munson, B. R., Rothmayer, A. P., Okiishi, T. H., and Huebsch, W. W. 2012. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Nemerow, N. L., Agardy, F. J., and Salvato, J. A. 2009. Environmental Engineering, 6th ed. New York: Wiley.
Peavy, H. S., Rowe, D. R., and Tchobanoglous, G. 1985. Environmental Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Ricketts, J., Loftin, M., and Merritt, F. S. 2003. Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Rowe, D. R., and Abdel-Magid, I. M. 1995. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. New York: Lewis Publishers.
Spellman, F. R. 2013. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Vesilind, P. A., and Peirce, J. J. 1997. Environmental Pollution and Control, 4th ed. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Viessman, W., Perez, E. M., Chadik, P. A., and Hammer, M. J. 2015. Water Supply and Pollution Control. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Publishing.
Whipple, G. C., and Whipple, M. C. 1911. Solubility of oxygen in sea water. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 33:362.
 3 Computer Modeling Applications for Water Resources, Usage, Groundwater,
and Water Storage and Distribution

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter emphasized on conventional and non-conventional water sources (reclaimed and renovated
supplies) and source selection. Water footprints were stressed upon within the chapter. Demographic and
population growth estimates were stressed upon due to their direct effects on consumption design rates
and for design and operation of water supply units and wastewater processes. Likewise, the chapter
looked into water requirements for extinguishing fires and preventing them from flaring into
uncontrollable firestorm. Also, the chapter expanded on groundwater flow, aquifer characteristics, well
yield and groundwater recharge. Groundwater recharge is stressed upon to overcome aquifer water
reduction, augment usage of surface runoff, and conserve and increase yield of wealth. Various types of
water storage reservoirs were dealt with together with computations for storage volume and hydraulic
and structural design of storage tanks. Use of mass curve techniques signified a study of storage effects on
stream flow conditions. Water distribution analysis and design received attention for appropriate design
merits for urban sectors and rural fringes using suitable design techniques and procedures. The chapter
introduced relevant computer programs modeled for solving specific problems in water resources, water
storage and distribution within areas and domains of importance.

3.2 WATER SOURCES AND FOOTPRINTS

3.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The sources for a water supply can be grouped into three major categories: rainwater (precipitation),
surface water (runoff), and groundwater. Surface water includes both rainwater and groundwater where
the water table lies above the ground surface. Surface waters include water in rivers, streams, lakes,
lagoons, ponds, and oceans. Groundwater is contained in the soil or rocks below the water table (Smith
2005).
The movement of water on the earth follows a complex cyclic pattern from the sea to the atmosphere
and then by precipitation to the earth, where it collects in rivers, streams, and lakes, and then runs back to
the sea. The cycle may be short-circuited at several stages; there is no uniformity in the time a cycle takes;
and the intensity and frequency of the cycle depend on geographical and climatic conditions (Gupta 2007)
(see Figure 3.1).

3.2.2 WATER FOOTPRINT

The water footprint of a country is defined as the volume of water needed for the production of goods
and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country. The global water footprint is 1240 m3/cap/year
(Chapagain and Hoekstra 2004).
The water footprint of a country can be calculated with either the top-down approach or the bottom-up
approach.
 In the top-down approach, the water footprint is being calculated as the sum of water use in the country
plus gross virtual water import (entering) into the country minus gross virtual water export (leaving the
country), as shown in the following equation:

(3.1)

The bottom-up approach aggregates the individual water footprints of the inhabitants of a country to get
the total water footprint of a country. It considers the sum of all goods and services consumed multiplied
with their respective virtual water content, where the virtual water content of a good will vary as a
function of place and conditions of production. Individual water footprints are calculated by multiplying
all consumed goods and services with their respective virtual water content as presented in the following
equation (Chapagain and Hoekstra 2004, Zhang et al. 2013, National Geographic 2016, Water Footprint
Network 2016):

(3.2)

FIGURE 3.1 Schematic diagram of the hydrological cycle.

The national water footprint may be determined from the website of water footprint network, and the
global average water footprint (for comparison) may be taken as 1385 m3/year per capita (Water
Footprint Network 2016). To find out ones ecological footprint, the global footprint network
computations may be used to discover ones biggest areas of resource consumption and to learn how to
effectuate changes (Global Footprint Network 2016).

3.2.3 SOURCE SELECTION

The process of selecting a water source must consider the following items:
1. Is the source free from toxic or undesirable chemicals?
2. Does the source contain:
 Domestic sewage: It may contain disease-causing agents or undesirable substances that pose a
a.health hazard.
b.Industrial waste: It may contain materials that may render the water unsuitable for the
intended use.
c.Agricultural waste: It may contain residues of herbicides, insecticides, pesticides, and
nutrients.

Figure 3.2 gives an outline that can be followed during the process of source selection.
Water use and consumption can be grouped into several broad categories: domestic, industrial,
commercial and public, agricultural, and recreational. Unaccounted for water consumption in general
makes up approximately 10%15% of the total water consumption. The total consumption is the sum of
all the aforementioned uses and losses. Water use and consumption data are generally expressed in liters
per capita per day, (L/c/d).

FIGURE 3.2 Source selection.

FIGURE 3.3 Water use cycle.

There is a wide range of uses for water and properly treated and reclaimed wastewater such as in
power plant and industrial cooling water, groundwater recharge, aquaculture (fish farming), silviculture,
landscape irrigation, recreational purposes, firefighting, industrial processes, stock watering, stream flow
augmentation, and agricultural irrigation. Figure 3.3 shows an overlap of the water use cycle.

3.3 POPULATION GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION DESIGN RATES

Population estimates are required for design and operation of water supply and wastewater units
operations and processes. The most important of these estimates used are estimates for short periods
(within 110 years) and estimates for a long term (within 1050 years and more). Many methods are used
to estimate population such as arithmetic progression and graphical methods to estimate future population.
Census data in previous years are used to assess the prospects for the current and foreseeable
circumstances, without taking into account unusual variables such as migration of people due to new
industries; or the migration of population to the discovery of oil, gold, and other metals of value; or
escape, displacement, and refugees due to the ravages of war or as a result of disasters and calamities; or
changes in industry and industrial growth; or factors of births and deaths; or military and government
activities and other considerations.
Methods of calculating short-period estimates include computational mathematical, geometrical
growth, interim increase method, decreasing rate of increase, and graphical extension method.
Mathematical methods for calculating long-period estimates include graphical comparison with rate of
growth of large similar cities and choice of a mathematical method such as the logical curve and its
satisfaction to observational data. These methods of estimates are not to be adopted for a long period for
the possibility of impact of unexpected factors on outcomes and estimates.

1. In the arithmetic progression method for population estimates for a short period, a steady
increase of growth is added in it for periods. The number of population can be found as follows:

(3.3)

where:
Pn is the number of population after n years or a decade (10 years)
P is the number of present population
i is the increase in the number of the population annually or every decade
2. The moderate rate of growth for population estimates for arithmetic growth (to be used for
large established cities) is calculated as presented in Equation 3.4

(3.4)
FIGURE 3.4 Moderate rate of growth method.
where:
Pm is the population of the desired area for time tm
Pe is the population of earlier census at time te
Pl is the population of later census for time tl

Estimate of the number of the population censuses by arithmetic growth for postcensal estimates is
given as follows

(3.5)

3. Geometric estimates progression method gives intercensal population geometric estimates as

depicted in Equation 3.6, whereas Equation 3.7 offers the postcensal population estimates:

(3.6)

(3.7)

Example 3.1
1. Write a computer program that enables the computation of population growth in a certain
area.

2. A city recorded a population of 135,000 in its earlier decennial census and 1,95,000 in its
later one. Assuming a census date of April 1, estimate the midyear (July 1) populations for
a. the following: For the fifth intercensal year
b.For the ninth postcensal year by geometric increase
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.1 (1), see the listing of Program 3.1.
a. Solution to Example 3.1 (2): Given: Pl = 195,000 and Pe = 135,000
2.
b.Intercensal geometric growth estimates after the fifth year

c.Postcensal geometric growth estimates for the ninth year

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.1 (CHAP3.1\FORM1.VB): POPULATION

ESTIMATES

'*******************************************************************************
'Program 3.1: Population
'Computes Population Growth Estimates
'*******************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
'*******************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*******************************************************************************

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.Text = "Example 3.1: Population Growth Estimates"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "(tm-te) in years:"
Label2.Text = "(t1-te) in years:"
Label3.Text = "P1 (population at time t1):"
Label4.Text = "Pe (population at time te):"
Label5.Text = "Calculation:"
Label6.Text = "Pm (population at time tm):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Intercensal population growth")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Postcensal population growth")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
'*** Sanity check
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please select a calculation from the list.",
vbOKOnly Or vbExclamation)
Exit Sub
End If
Dim tmte, t1te As Double
Dim Pm, P1, Pe As Double
'*** Gather inputs
tmte = Val(TextBox1.Text)
t1te = Val(TextBox2.Text)
P1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Pe = Val(TextBox4.Text)
'*** Calculate
Dim logPm As Double
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
logPm = Log(Pe) + ((Log(P1) - Log(Pe)) * (tmte / t1te))
Else
logPm = Log(P1) + ((Log(P1) - Log(Pe)) * (tmte / t1te))
End If
Pm = Pow(Math.E, logPm)
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Pm, 0)
End Sub
 End Class

3.4 FIRE DEMAND

Water is required to extinguish fires and to prevent them from spreading into uncontrollable firestorm.
Usually, the quantity of water to be used for firefighting is small. Nevertheless, the rate of application is
high. For a community of 20,000 or less (IPHE 1984), the following equation may be used to estimate the
fire demand:

(3.8)

where:
Q is the fire demand, L/min
P is the population, in thousands

The U.S. Insurance Service Office advocates the use of the formula presented in the following equation to
estimate the fire flow required for a given floor area:

(3.9)

where:
Q is the required fire flow, L/s
Cf is the coefficient related to the type of construction
A is the total floor, area including all stories in the building, but excluding its basement, m2

The values of the coefficient Cf may be taken as presented in Table 3.1.

Regardless of the computed value, the fire flow need not exceed 500 L/s for wood frame or ordinary
construction, or 380 L/s for noncombustible or fire-resistive constructions. For normal one-storey
construction of any type, the fire flow may not exceed 378 L/s. The minimum fire flow may not be less
than 32 L/s, and the maximum for all purposes for a single fire is not to exceed 760 L/s. Extra flow may
be needed to protect adjacent buildings. For groups of single-family residences and small two-family
residences not exceeding two stories in height, the fire flow outlined in Table 3.2 may be used to evaluate
the required fire demand (McGhee and Steel 1991).

TABLE 3.1
Values of the Coefficient Cf
 Cf
Description
Wood frame construction 1.5
Ordinary construction 1.0
Noncombustible construction 0.8
Fire-resistive construction 0.6

Source: Viessman, W. et al., Water Supply and Pollution Control, Pearson Pub, 2015; McGhee, T. J. and Steel, E. W., Water Supply and
Sewerage, 6th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

TABLE 3.2
Residential Fire Flows
Distance between Adjacent Units (m) Required Fire Flow (L/min)
>30.5 1890
9.530.5 28353780
3.49.2 37805670
3 56707660a

Source: McGhee, T. J. and Steel, E. W., Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
Note a For continuous construction, use 9450 L/min.

The maximum flow required for an individual fire is 45.4 m3/min for all purposes. In large
communities, the possibility of concurrent fires should also be considered. In residential districts, the
required fire flow ranges from a minimum of 1.9 m3/min to a maximum of 9.5 m3/min (McGhee and Steel
1991). Hydrant spacing is dictated by the required fire flow because the capacity of a single hydrant is
limited. Table 3.3 presents the proposed distances for fire hydrants. The required duration for a fire flow
is indicated in Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.3
Fire Hydrant Spacing
Distance (m)
Hydrant Location
Ordinary 60150 At street intersections where streams can be taken in any direction
High-value districts As close as 30 Additional hydrants may be necessary in the middle of long blocks
Low-risk areas 100150 In towns

Source: McGhee, T. J. and Steel, E. W., Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

TABLE 3.4
Fire Flow Duration
Required Fire Flow (L/min) Duration (h)
<3780 4
37804725 5
47255670 6
56706615 7
66157560 8
75608505 9
>8505 10

Source: McGhee, T. J. and Steel, E. W., Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

Example 3.2
1. Write a computer program that enables the computation of fire demand for communities of
different numbers of populations taking in to consideration the type of construction and
restrictions outlined in Section 3.4.
2. Find the fire demand for a town having a population of 0.9 million.
3. Estimate the fire demand for a single-storey building made of a wood frame construction,
given that the total floor area amounts to 10,000 m2.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.2 (1), see the listing of Program 3.2.
a. Solution to Example 3.2 (2): Given: P = 900,000 = 900 in thousands.
2.
b.Determine the fire demand as follows: Q = 3860(P)1/2 [(10.01(P1/2)] = 3860 * 9001/2*
(10.01 * 9001/2) = 81 m3/min.
a. Solution to Example 3.2 (3): Given: A = 10000 m2.
3.
b.Determine the fire flow as follows: Q = 3.7 * Cf * (A)0.5.
c.From Table 2.4 for a wood frame construction, the coefficient, Cf = 1.5.
d.Compute the fire demand as follows: Q = 3.7 * 1.5*(10000)0.5 = 555 L/s.
e.Since this is a wood frame single-storey building, the maximum fire demand may not
 exceed 380 L/s.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.2 (CHAP3.2\FORM1.VB): FIRE DEMAND

APPROXIMATION

'*******************************************************************************
'Program 3.2: Fire
'Computes Fire demand for communities of different population
'*******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim ttl(3), Cw(4), limit(4)
Dim opt1
'maximum fire flow for all purposes
Const global_max = 760
'minimum fire flow for all purposes
Const global_min = 32
'*******************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*******************************************************************************

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 3.2: Computes Fire demand for communities"
limit(1) = 500
limit(2) = 500
limit(3) = 300
limit(4) = 300
Cw(1) = 1.5
Cw(2) = 1
Cw(3) = 0.8
Cw(4) = 0.6
RadioButton1.Text = "Estimate fire demand for a building"
RadioButton2.Text = "Estimate fire demand for a whole town"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
RadioButton3.Text = "Wood frame construction"
RadioButton4.Text = "Ordinary construction"
RadioButton5.Text = "Non conmbustible construction"
RadioButton6.Text = "Fire-resistive construction"
RadioButton3.Checked = True
opt1 = 1

Label1.Text = "Enter total floor area in sq.m:"

GroupBox1.Text = " Select construction: "
GroupBox2.Text = " Output: "
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
Dim A, Q As Double
A = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Q = 3.7 * Cw(opt1) * A ^ 0.5
If Q < global_min Then
TextBox2.Text = global_min.ToString + " (original result is " +
Q.ToString + ")"
ElseIf Q > limit(opt1) Then
TextBox2.Text = limit(opt1).ToString + " (original result is " +
Q.ToString + ")"
Else
TextBox2.Text = Q.ToString
End If
Else
Dim pop, Q As Double
pop = Val(TextBox1.Text)
pop = (pop / 1000) ^ 0.5
Q = 3860 * pop * (1 - 0.01 * pop)
TextBox2.Text = Q.ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton3_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton3.CheckedChanged
If RadioButton3.Checked Then opt1 = 1
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton4_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton4.CheckedChanged
If RadioButton4.Checked Then opt1 = 2
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton5_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton5.CheckedChanged
If RadioButton5.Checked Then opt1 = 3
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton6_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton6.CheckedChanged
If RadioButton6.Checked Then opt1 = 4
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged
showHideGroups()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
End Sub

 Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged
showHideGroups()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
End Sub

Sub showHideGroups()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
'View both groupboxes, and put the second one below the first
GroupBox1.Visible = True
GroupBox2.Location = New Point(GroupBox2.Location.X, 171)
Label1.Text = "Enter total floor area in sq.m:"
Label2.Text = "Total fire demand for this building (L/sec):"
Else
'Hide the first groupbox and put the second groupbox in its place
GroupBox1.Visible = False
GroupBox2.Location = New Point(GroupBox2.Location.X,
GroupBox1.Location.Y)
Label1.Text = "Enter population of town:"
Label2.Text = "FIRE DEMAND FOR THIS TOWN (L/min):"
End If
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

3.5 GROUNDWATER FLOW

Groundwater aquifers are depleted by pumping, natural discharge to surface water systems, and to a
minor extent evaporation and evapotranspiration. The balance between the depletion rate and the recharge
of an aquifer determines the average annual water table level (Viessman and Lewis 2002). The principal
method for depletion of an aquifer is the pumping of water. The main factors that influence groundwater
flow are the following: Liquid characteristics such as density and viscosity
Media, through which the liquid flows, such as porosity and permeability Existing boundary
conditions

Movement of groundwater starts from levels of higher energy to levels of lower energy. Basically, its
energy is due to elevation and pressure. The velocity heads are neglected because flow is essentially
laminar (the velocity of flow in laminar conditions reaches approximately 1 cm/s, and the Reynolds
number achieves values ranging between 1 to 10) (Valsaraj and Melvin 2009).
From the continuity equation, the groundwater flow for a particular aquifer may be determined from the
following equation:

(3.10)
where:
Q is the groundwater flow, m3/s
v is the average velocity of flow in voids of water bearing material, m/s

(3.11)

va is the actual velocity of flow, m/s

e is the porosity, dimensionless (see Table 3.5) k is the coefficient of permeability (or conductivity),
m/s (see Table 3.6) j is the hydraulic gradient, dimensionless
A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow direction, m2
The area may be computed from the following equation:

(3.12)

where:
B is the width of aquifer, m
h is the saturated thickness of aquifer, m

TABLE 3.5
Typical Total Porosities for Selected Materials
Porosity (%)
Material
Unaltered granite and gneiss 02
Quartzite 01
Shales, slates, mica-schists 010
Chalk 540
Sandstones 540
Volcanic tuff 3040
Gravels 2540
Sands 1548
Silt 3550
Clays 4070
Fractured basalt 550
Karst limestone 550
Limestone, dolomite 020

Source: Nielsen, D. M. ed., Practical Handbook of Groundwater Monitoring, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, 1991. With permission.

TABLE 3.6
Typical Hydraulic Conductivities for Selected Materials
Range of K (m/s)
Geologic Material
Coarse gravel 101 102
Sands and gravels 102 105
Fine sands, silts, loess 105 109
Clay, shale, glacial till 105 1013
Dolomite limestone 103 105
Weathered chalk 103 105
Unweathered chalk 106 109
Limestone 103 109
Sandstone 104 1010
Unweathered granite, gneiss, compact basalt 107 1013

Source: Nielsen, D. M. ed., Practical Handbook of Groundwater Monitoring, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, 1991. With permission.

As such, the groundwater flow may be determined as follows:

(3.13)

The transmissibility, or hydraulic conductivity, TR, of a certain aquifer may be defined as the capacity of
a unit prism of aquifer to yield water. The transmissibility may also be defined as the rate at which water
of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic
gradient. Equation 3.14 may be used for determination of transmissibility of an aquifer:

(3.14)

where:
TR is the transmissibility of aquifer, m3/d*m
k is the permeability coefficient, m/d
h is the saturated thickness of aquifer, m

Using the concept of transmissibility, the groundwater flow may be determined as presented in Equation
3.15:

(3.15)

where:
Q is the groundwater flow, m3/s
TR is the transmissibility of aquifer, m3/day*m
j is the hydraulic gradient, dimensionless
B is the width of aquifer, m

Example 3.3
 1. Write a computer program to determine the actual velocity of flow in an aquifer, quantity of
groundwater flow, and transmissibility, given porosity, permeability, hydraulic gradient,
saturated thickness, and width of aquifer.
2. An aquifer has a porosity of 20% and an average grain size of 1.5 mm. Experimental studies
reveal that a tracer needs 540 min to move between two observation wells, 20 m apart. Find
the permeability of the aquifer to yield a difference in water surface elevation of 80 cm and
a water temperature of 15C.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.3 (1), see the listing of Program 3.3.
a. Solution to Example 3.3 (2): Given: e = 0.2, d = 1.5 * 103 m, l = 20 m, t = 540 min = 9 h,
2.
and h = 0.8 m.
b.For a temperature of T = 15C, find from Appendix A1 the coefficient of viscosity as
follows: = 1.1447 * 103 N*s/m2 and density r = 999.099kg/m3.
c.Find the velocity of the traveling tracer by using velocity = distance/time; thus, va = l/t =
20/9 = 2.22 m/h.
d.Determine the seepage velocity: v = k * j = k * h/l = k * 0.8/20 =0.04*k.
e.Find the actual velocity as follows: v = va* e = 2.22*(20/100) = 0.444 m/h = 1.235 * 104
m/s.
f.Compute the coefficient of permeability as follows: k = 0.444/0.04 = 11.1 m/h = 3.08 *
103 m/s.
g.Determine the value of the Reynolds number as follows: Re = r*v*d/ = 999.1 * 1.235 *
104 * 1.5 * 103/1.1447 * 103 = 0.162 (since this value is less than 1, computations are
justifiable).

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.3 (CHAP3.3\FORM1.VB): FLOW VELOCITY

WITHIN AQUIFERS

**********************************************************************************
'Program 3.3: Aquifers
'Computes Actual velocity of flow in aquifers
'*******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim const$(4), ttl$(4), Cw(4)
'*******************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*******************************************************************************

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 3.3: Computes Actual velocity of flow in aquifers"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("Determine actual velocity of flow")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Determine flow rate")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Determine transmissibility")
Label1.Text = "Select an option:"
Label1.Visible = True
Label2.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
End Sub

Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Label2.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label2.Text = "Enter the porosity of the material (as a ratio):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the permeability of the material in m3/day.m2:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the hydraulic gradient:"
Label5.Text = "Enter the starturated thickness of the aquifer m:"
Label6.Text = "Enter the width of the aquifer in m:"
Label7.Text = "Actual velocity of flow (m/s):"
Label7.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True

TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
TextBox6.Visible = True
Case 1
'Determine flow rate
Label2.Text = "Enter transmissibilty (m2/day):"
Label3.Text = "Enter hydraulic gradient:"
Label4.Text = "Enter width of aquifer (m):"
Label5.Text = "The flow rate (m3/day):"
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
Case 2
'Determine transmissibility
Label2.Text = "Enter the permeability (m/day):"
Label3.Text = "Enter saturated thickness of aquifer (m):"
Label4.Text = "The transmissibilty (m2/day):"
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
End Select
resetTextBoxes()
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged
calculateresults()
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 2 Then Exit Sub
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox4_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox4.TextChanged
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex >= 1 Then Exit Sub
calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox5_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox5.TextChanged
calculateResults()
End Sub
'This Subroutine resets all textboxes into Null value.
Sub resetTextBoxes()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""

TextBox3.Text = ""
TextBox4.Text = ""
TextBox5.Text = ""
TextBox6.Text = ""
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim por, per, TR, h, Q, velocity, j, B, k
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
 Case 0
por = Val(TextBox1.Text)
per = Val(TextBox2.Text)
j = Val(TextBox3.Text)
h = Val(TextBox4.Text)
B = Val(TextBox5.Text)
per = per / (24 * 3600) 'permeability in m/s
TR = per * h'Transmissibility
'Actual equations are:
'Q = TR * j * B
'and v = Q / (B * h)
Q = TR * j'Groundwater flow
velocity = Q / h'velocity of flow
TextBox6.Text = velocity.ToString
Case 1
'Determine flow rate
TR = Val(TextBox1.Text)
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
B = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Q = TR * j * B
TextBox4.Text = Q.ToString
Case 2
'Determine transmissibility
k = Val(TextBox1.Text)
h = Val(TextBox2.Text)
TR = k * h'transmissibility
TextBox3.Text = TR.ToString
End Select
End Sub
End Class

Field experiments were proposed to find the permeability coefficient of an aquifer by drilling observation
wells in the cone of depression of a well and noting the corresponding drawdown in observation wells
(McGhee and Steel 1991). By applying the continuity equation and Darcys law, the steady-state
discharge from a well with radial flow in a steady confined aquifer may be predicted by the following
equation (see Figures 3.5 and 3.6):

(3.16)

where:
k is the coefficient of permeability, m/s
Q is the steady-state discharge from the well (pumping rate from supply well), m3/s x1, x2 are the
drawdowns at observation wells, m
r1, r2 are the distances of observation wells from the pumped well (radial direction), m h is the depth
of aquifer (average thickness of bed at r1 and r2 for water table conditions), m Equation 3.16 is the Thiem
formula or equilibrium equation. The equation may be used to estimate the permeability of the aquifer for
measurements around a pumping well.
The specific capacity of a well is defined as the output of the well as divided by the drawdown. This
definition is presented mathematically in the following equation:

(3.17)

where:
Sc is the specific capacity of well, m3/day*m
Q is the discharge (output) from well, m3/s
x is the drawdown, m

FIGURE 3.5 A supply and an observation well.

FIGURE 3.6 Solution to Example 3.4.

Example 3.4
1. Write a computer program to find the draw-down, coefficient of permeability,
transmissibility, or specific capacity for a steady confined aquifer with known
characteristics and pattern of flow between two observation wells.
2. Pumping in an artisan well is conducted at the rate of 0.04 m3/s. At observation wells 100 m
and 200 m away, the drawdowns noted are 0.5 and 0.3 m, respectively. The average
thickness of the aquifer at the observation wells is 8 m. Compute the coefficient of
 permeability of the aquifer.
3. A 30-cm well penetrates 25 m below the static water table. After a long period of pumping
at a rate of 2500 L/min, the draw down in wells 20 and 60 m from the pumped well was 1.9
and 0.6 m, respectively. Determine the transmissibility of the aquifer.
4. A well after prolonged pumping produces 800 m3/h. For a drawdown from the static level of
75 cm, estimate the specific capacity.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.4 (1), see the listing of Program 3.4.
b. Solution to Example 3.4 (2): Q = 0.04 m3/s (see Figure 3.6) Given: Q = 0.04 m3/s, r1 = 100
a.
2.
m, r2 = 200 m, x1 = 0.5 m, x2 = 0.3 m, and h = 8 m.
c.Compute the permeability coefficient as follows: k = (0.04)Ln(200/100)/[2*8(0.5
0.3)] = 2.8 * 103 m/s.
a. Solution to Example 3.4 (3): Given: h = 25 m, Q = 2500 L/min, r1 = 20, r2 = 60 m, x1 = 1.9
3.
m, and x2 = 0.6 m.
b.Use Thiem equation to determine the permeability coefficient as follows: k =
Q*ln(r2/r1)/[(h1)2(ho)2].
c.Determine h1 = h x2 = 25 0.6 = 24.4 m and ho = h x1 = 25 1.9 = 23.1 m.
d.Find the permeability as follows: k = [(2500/1000 * 60) * Ln (60/20)]/[(24.4)2 (23.1)2]
= 7.41 * 104 m/s = 64 m/day.
e.Compute the value of the transmissibility of the aquifer as follows: TR = k * h = 64 * 25 =
1.6 * 106 Lpd/m.
4 Solution to Example 3.4 (4):
a.Given: Q = 800 m3/h and x = 0.75 m.
b.Determine the specific capacity of the well as follows: Sc =Q/x = 800/75 = 10.7 m3/h/cm.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.4 (CHAP3.4\FORM1.VB): DEPRESSIONS IN

OBSERVATION WELLS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.4: Aquifers-2
'Computes Properties of aquifers
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.142857
'*******************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*******************************************************************************

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 3.4: Computes Properties of aquifers"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
listbox1.items.add("To determine permeability")
listbox1.items.add("To determine transmissibility")
listbox1.items.add("To determine the specific capacity")
Label1.Text = "Select an option:"
Label2.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
TextBox8.Visible = False
TextBox9.Visible = False
Button1.Visible = False
End Sub
Sub clear_text()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
TextBox3.Text = ""
TextBox4.Text = ""
TextBox5.Text = ""
TextBox6.Text = ""
TextBox7.Text = ""
TextBox8.Text = ""
TextBox9.Text = ""
End Sub

Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
Label2.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Button1.Visible = True
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label2.Text = "Enter distance to the first test well r1 (m):"
Label3.Text = "Enter distance to the second test well r2 (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the drawdown at the first test well x1 (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the drawdown at the second test well x2 (m):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the average depth of the aquifer h (m):"
Label7.Text = "Enter the pumping flow rate from the well m3/s:"
Label8.Text = "Coefficient of permeability K (m/s):"
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
TextBox6.Visible = True
TextBox7.Visible = True
TextBox8.Visible = False
TextBox9.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = True
Label8.Visible = True
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False
TextBox3.Enabled = True
TextBox7.Enabled = False
Case 1
Label2.Text = "Enter distance to the first test well r1 (m):"
Label3.Text = "Enter distance to the second test well r2 (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the draw down at the first test well x1 (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the draw down at the second test well x2 (m):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the average depth of the aquifer h (m):"
Label7.Text = "Enter pumping flow rate from the well Q (L/min):"
Label8.Text = "Coefficient of permeability K (m/s):"
Label9.Text = "Coefficient of permeability K1 (m/day):"
Label10.Text = "Transmissibility of the aquifer (m3/day*m):"
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
TextBox6.Visible = True
TextBox7.Visible = True
TextBox8.Visible = True
TextBox9.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = True
Label8.Visible = True
Label9.Visible = True
Label10.Visible = True
TextBox3.Enabled = True
TextBox7.Enabled = False
TextBox8.Enabled = False
TextBox9.Enabled = False
Case 2
Label2.Text = "Enter flow rate from the well Q (m3/h):"
Label3.Text = "Enter drawdown from static level X (m):"

Label4.Text = "The specic capacity Sc (m3/h/m):"

TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
TextBox8.Visible = False
TextBox9.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
End Select
clear_text()
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim X, K, r1, r2, x1, x2, h, Q As Double
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
r1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
r2 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
x1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
x2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
h = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox6.Text)
X = r2 / r1
If r1 > r2 Then X = r1 / r2
K = ABS(Q * LOG(X) / (2 * pi * h * (x1 - x2)))
TextBox7.Text = K.ToString
Case 1
r1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
r2 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
x1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
x2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
h = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox6.Text) / 1000 * 60
X = r2 / r1
'If r1 > r2 Then X = r1 / r2
Dim h1 = h - x2
Dim ho = h - x1
K = Q * Log(X) / (Pow(h1, 2) - Pow(ho, 2))
Dim K1 = K * 3600 * 24 'in m/day
TextBox7.Text = K.ToString
TextBox8.Text = K1.ToString
Dim TR = K1 * h
TextBox9.Text = TR.ToString
Case 2
 Q = Val(TextBox1.Text)
X = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Dim Sc = Q / X
TextBox3.Text = Sc.ToString
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

FIGURE 3.7 Steady unconfined flow.

For a steady unconfined flow, the discharge of a well may be estimated as presented in the following
equation (see Figure 3.7):

(3.18)

where:
Qo is the steady-state discharge from the well, m3/s
k is the coefficient of permeability, m/s
h1 is the depth to original water table when r = R, m
ho is the depth to original water table when r = ro, m R is the radius of influence, m
ro is the radius of well, m

Example 3.5
1. Write a computer program to find the radius of zero drawdown, coefficient of permeability,
and drawdown in a pumped well for a steady unconfined aquifer with known characteristics
and pattern of flow between two observation wells.
2. A well of diameter 0.3 m contains water to a depth of 50 m before pumping commences.
After completion of pumping, the drawdown in a well 20 m away is found to be 5 m,
whereas the drawdown in another well 40 m further away reaches 3 m. For a pumping rate
 a. of 2500 L/min, determine The radius of zero drawdown.
b.The coefficient of permeability.
c.The drawdown in the pumped well.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.5 (1), see the listing of Program 3.5.
a. Solution to Example 3.5 (2): Given: h = 50 m, r1 = 20m, x1 = 5 m, r2 = 40 m, x2 = 3 m, and
2.
Q = 2500 L/min.
i. Find h1 = h x1 = 50 5 = 45 m and h2 = h x2 = 50 3 = 47 m.
ii. Use Equation 2.43 for both observation wells:

iii.
By substituting given values into the previous equation, then

This yields R = 119.7 m.

b.Find the permeability coefficient by using the data of one of the wells. For h = 50 m, ho =
45 m, r = 20 m, R = 119.7 m, Q = 2500 * 103 * 60 * 24 = 3600 m3/day,

i Depth of the water in the pumped well may be found as follows:

This yields h = 27 m.
c.Determine the drawdown at the well as follows: x = h h1 = 50 27 = 23 m.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.5 (CHAP3.5\FORM1.VB): STEADY

UNCONFINED AQUIFER DRAWDOWN COMPUTATIONS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.5: Aquifers-3
'Computes drawdown from a steady unconfined aquifer
'with known characteristics
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 22.0! / 7.0!
'*******************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*******************************************************************************

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 3.5: Computes draw down from unconfined aquifers"
Label1.Text = "Enter distance to the first test well r1 (m):"
Label2.Text = "Enter distance to the 2nd test well r2 (m):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the draw down at the first test well x1 (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the draw down at the 2nd test well x2 (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the average depth of the aquifer h (m):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the pumping flow rate from the well (m3/s):"
Label7.Text = "Enter the diameter of the well (m):"
Label8.Text = "Radius of zero draw down R (m):"
Label9.Text = "Coefficient of permeability K (m/s):"
Label10.Text = "The draw down at the well X (m):"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
calculateResults()
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim r1, r2, x1, x2, h, Q, diam
Dim h1, h2, c, R, K
r1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
r2 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
x1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
x2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
h = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox6.Text)
diam = Val(TextBox7.Text)
h1 = h - x1
h2 = h - x2
c = (h ^ 2 - h1 ^ 2) / (h ^ 2 - h2 ^ 2)
R = EXP(1 / (c - 1) * (c * LOG(r2) - LOG(r1)))
TextBox8.Text = R.ToString
Dim Qday = Q * 60 * 24 / 1000
K = Qday * Log(R / r1) / (pi * (h ^ 2 - h1 ^ 2))
TextBox9.Text = K.ToString
Dim radius = diam / 2
Dim ho = (h ^ 2 - Qday * Log(R / radius) / (pi * K)) ^ 0.5
Dim x = h - ho
TextBox10.Text = x.ToString
End Sub
 End Class

Groundwater recharge is useful for a number of reasons such as overdraft reduction, surface runoff
conservation, and increasing yield of groundwater sources. Groundwater recharge can be placed in two
main categories: incidental recharge (e.g., surplus irrigation water) or intentional (deliberate) recharge
(e.g., municipal waste, surface water). Artificial or intentional recharge may be defined as augmenting the
natural replenishment of groundwater storage by some man-made processes such as surface spreading of
water or water well injection (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Todd and Mays 2004). Groundwater
recharge by reclaimed water has been practiced to augment the groundwater volume and increase its
development. The factors that influence this practice include the location of natural recharge areas,
geological formations, soil structure, hydrological conditions, the quantity of water withdrawn, and the
degree of wastewater treatment (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).

3.6 WATER STORAGE

The first section of this chapter deals with the various types of water storage reservoirs. The mass flow
curve that can be used to evaluate the volume of water needed in storage to meet the uniform users
demand is included here. Also, accompanying this is a computer program that enables determination of
the required volume of water in storage, provided the necessary data are available. The next section deals
with the water distribution system and includes patterns and configurations of pipeline networks and
fundamental hydraulic principles for both laminar and turbulent flows. Computer programs for both
laminar (Poiseuilles equation) and turbulent flow (Darcys equation) are presented. The hydraulic design
and analysis of flow in pipes in the distribution systemsuch as the equivalent-velocity-head method, the
equivalent-pipe-length method, the pipes-in-parallel method, the Hardy Cross method, and the analysis of
pipe networks by the finite element methodare covered. In all of these cases, computer programs are
provided, and each computer program incorporates all the elements involved in the design and evaluation
of flow of water in pipes in network in water distribution systems. The last section of this chapter deals
with the structural design of water storage tanks, circular or rectangular (deep or shallow). Computer
programs for the design of both steel and reinforced concrete water tanks are included.

3.6.1 WATER STORAGE

Water storage is needed before and after treatment in order to maintain a reliable, uniform, and constant
water supply; to balance out fluctuations in flow; and to furnish large volumes of water during
emergencies such as fires. Fire insurance rates generally depend upon water storage capacity available.
Water storage in the distribution system is also used to equalize operating pressures as well as to equalize
pumping rates. The fluctuations in water demand depend upon many variables, such as the following:
Time of day
Day of the week
Season of the year
Weather conditions
Living standards in the community
 Industrial demands
Fires
Main breaks

Benefits of water storage reservoirs include flood control, hydroelectric power, irrigation, water supply,
navigation, sailing, preservation of aquatic life, fire protection, emergency needs, recreation, and
pollution abatement (Henry and Heinke 1996, Smith and Scott 2002, Davis and Cornwell 2006, Viessman
1.et al. 2015). Reservoirs can be grouped as follows: Storage (conservation, impounding, direct-supply)
reservoirs: These reservoirs store water in excess of demand, from a natural source in periods of high
flow, to be used during periods of dry weather or low flows. Water is stored for periods ranging from a
few days to several months or even longer (Smith and Scott 2002).
2. Distribution reservoirs: These reservoirs can be either elevated (see Figure 3.8) or ground
(reserve water supply under pressure). They store water to provide for varying demands of the
community over a period of a day or several days. Water stored in distribution reservoirs is
often supplied at a steady rate from a storage reservoir. The distribution reservoirs (elevated
storage tanks and towers) provide equalizing storage, provide emergency storage (firefighting,
power blackouts, pump station failure), and reduce necessary size and capacity of pipes and
treatment facilities (Nathanson 2007). Generally, the volume of water needed to balance or
equalize peak hourly flows is approximately 20% of average daily demand in the service area
(Nathanson 2007). When the height of the reservoir exceeds its diameter, it is referred to as
stand pipe. Stand pipes are basically tall cylindrical tanks, the upper portion of which
constitutes useful storage to produce the necessary lead; the lower portion serves to support the
structure (Henry and Heinke 1996). A water tower (elevated tank) is a service reservoir or tank
(>15 m in height) raised above ground level (Henry and Heinke 1996, Smith and Scott 2002).
3. Plant storage reservoirs (clear wells): Clear wells are important for the storage of filtered
water and to provide operational storage to average out high and low demands. Clear wells
with sufficient capacity can prevent the need for varying filtration rates and can prevent frequent
on/off cycling of water pumps. The clean well also provides storage for filtered water before it
is introduced into the distribution system.
FIGURE 3.8 An elevated water storage tank.
The storage volume depends on the water demand as well as the purpose of storage. The amount of
storage that needs to be provided can be determined by using the following equation (Viessman et al.
2015):

(3.19)

where:
S is the change in storage volume during a specified time interval
Q1 is the total inflow volume during a specified time interval
Q0 is the total outflow volume during a specified time interval

The storage volume required above the minimum operating conditions can be determined by Analytical
techniques, which are numerical analyses of historical flow records, especially during periods of low
flow.
The graphical method (Rippl mass curve) which evaluates the cumulative deficiency between
outflow and inflow and selects the maximum value as the required storage (Viessman et al. 2015).

3.6.2 MASS CURVE (RIPPL DIAGRAM AND S-CURVE)

A flow-mass curve may be defined as a graph of cumulative values of a hydrologic quantity (e.g., runoff
or other flows) plotted as ordinates versus time on the abscissa. Use of the mass curve technique includes
a study of the storage effects on the stream flow conditions. The ordinate of any point in the Rippl diagram
indicates the total amount of water flowing past a given station during a certain time. Equation 3.20
mathematically represents the flow-mass curve:

(3.20)

where:
v is the volume of runoff, m3
Q is the discharge as a function of time t, m3/s
t is the time, s

FIGURE 3.9 Mass diagram. See text for details.

The capacity of a reservoir needed to maintain a uniform flow in a stream may be estimated by drawing,
on the mass curve, a draft line tangent to a point at the beginning of the critical period. The slope of the
draft line signifies the uniform regulated discharge. The storage capacity, to meet the uniform demand, is
represented by the maximum ordinate between the draft line and the curve. Other ordinates, between the
draft line and the mass curve, represent the amount of draft on the reservoir corresponding to other times.
Where the draft line intercepts the curve once more, the reservoir is again full, and supply to the reservoir
exceeds demand, resulting in overflow (spillage) conditions. The maximum storage required to meet
demand also should consider the local rate of evaporation.
The mass diagram provides the following information regarding the condition of the reservoir (see
1.Figure 3.9) (Gupta 2007): From a to b, inflow rate exceeds use rate, and reservoir is full and
overflowing.
2. At b, inflow rate is equal to use rate, and reservoir is full but not overflowing.
3. From b to c, use rate or demand exceeds inflow rate, and the amount of depletion (drawdown) is
increasing.
4. At c, use rate is equal to inflow rate, and drawdown is at a maximum.
5. From c to d, inflow rate exceeds use rate, and drawdown is decreasing.
6. At d, the reservoir is full.
7. From d to e, conditions are the same as from a to b.
8. The greatest vertical distance(s) between bd and bcd occurs at c. This is the storage required to
maintain a use rate during the low flow period from b to c. The largest value, such as s for the
 entire period of record, is the minimum size of reservoir that would provide this uniform user
rate or demand.

Example 3.6
1. Write a computer program that enables determination of the storage requirement to meet a
uniform user water draw off (with no losses from the reservoir). The reservoir is to supply a
constant flow rate of Q (in m3/s) and uses the water flowing from a particular catchment
area. The monthly stream flow records are given in total cubic meters.
2. A reservoir is to supply a constant flow rate of 3.1 m3/s using the amounts of water flowing
from a particular catchment area. The monthly stream flow records, in one total cubic meter,

are as follows:

Assuming uniform water draw off and no losses, determine the storage requirement to meet the
aforementioned uniform draw off.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the computations in (2).
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.6 (1), see the listing of Program 3.6.
a. Solution to Example 3.6 (2): Given: stream flow records.
2.
b.Determine the cumulative total flow as tabulated in the following table.
c.Draw the mass curve for the data given by drawing the cumulative total flow versus months
(see Figure 3.10).

FIGURE 3.10 Mass diagram for Example 3.6.

d.Determine the annual constant draw off (for the month of December) = 3.1 m3/s*3600 s/h*24
h/d*365 d/year = 97.8 * 106 m3.
e.Plot the uniform draw off as a straight line from the origin to the point of 97.8 Mm3 on the
mass curve. Draw a parallel line from the point where reservoir is full.
f.From the mass curve, determine the storage-minimum reservoir required to give demand = 14
 106 m3.

Monthly Flow
Month Total Flow
1 12.8 12.8
2 6 18.8
3 1.2 20
4 4.5 24.5
5 9 33.5
6 18.5 52
7 46.9 98.9
8 25.1 124
9 15 139
10 10.5 149.5
11 7.5 157
12 7 164

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.6 (CHAP3.6\FORM1.VB): RESERVOIR

CAPACITY

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 3.6: Reservoir capacity
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim g As Graphics
Dim mult_factor As Integer
Dim vAcc() As Double
Dim month_str() As String = {"Jan", "Feb", "Mar", "Apr", "May", "Jun",
"Jul", "Aug", "Sep", "Oct", "Nov", "Dec"}
Dim ys(12), yd(12), ysd(12), x(12), diff(12) As Double
Dim supply, max As Double
Dim Y1, P, Maxd, Qt, q As Double
Dim mon As Integer

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Label1.Text = "Constant flow rate, Q
(m3/s):"
Label2.Text = ""
Label3.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "Calculate"
Me.Text = "Example 3.6: Reservoir capacity"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("monthCol", "Month")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("volCol", "Water flow *10^6 (m3)")
DataGridView1.Columns("monthCol").ReadOnly = True
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
DataGridView1.AllowUserToDeleteRows = False
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(12)
DataGridView1.Rows(0).Cells("monthCol").Value = "January"

DataGridView1.Rows(1).Cells("monthCol").Value = "February"
DataGridView1.Rows(2).Cells("monthCol").Value = "March"
DataGridView1.Rows(3).Cells("monthCol").Value = "April"
DataGridView1.Rows(4).Cells("monthCol").Value = "May"
DataGridView1.Rows(5).Cells("monthCol").Value = "June"
DataGridView1.Rows(6).Cells("monthCol").Value = "July"
DataGridView1.Rows(7).Cells("monthCol").Value = "August"
DataGridView1.Rows(8).Cells("monthCol").Value = "September"
DataGridView1.Rows(9).Cells("monthCol").Value = "October"
DataGridView1.Rows(10).Cells("monthCol").Value = "November"
DataGridView1.Rows(11).Cells("monthCol").Value = "December"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Dim count As Integer = 12
Dim flow As Double = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Dim i As Integer
ReDim vAcc(count)
Dim v As Double = 0
For i = 0 To count - 1
vAcc(i) = v + Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("volCol").Value)
v = vAcc(i)
Next
Dim flowDec As Double
flowDec = flow * 3600 * 24 * 365
Label2.Text = "Annual constant draw off (m3): " + FormatNumber(flowDec,
2)
Dim m As Double = flowDec / 12.0 'slope of demand curve
m /= 1000000
Dim last As Integer = 0
For i = 1 To 12
x(i) = i
ys(i) = vAcc(i - 1)
yd(i) = m * i 'demand
diff(i) = ys(i) - yd(i)
Next i
max = 0
mon = 0
For i = 1 To 12
If diff(i) < 0 Then GoTo jump
If diff(i) > max Then
max = diff(i)
mon = i
End If
Next i
jump:
If mon = 0 Then
MsgBox("Couldn't find maximal flow!",
vbOKOnly Or vbCritical)
Exit Sub
End If
Label3.Text = "Slope max at: " + month_str(mon - 1) + " = " +
FormatNumber(max, 2) 'parallel line to demand curve
For i = 0 To 12
ysd(i) = yd(i) + max
diff(i) = ys(i) - ysd(i)
Next i
Y1 = mon

For i = mon + 2 To 12
If Math.Sign(diff(i)) <> Math.Sign(diff(i - 1)) Then GoTo jump2
Next i
jump2:
P = i - 1
Q = i
Maxd = 0
For i = mon To P
If Math.Abs(diff(i)) > Maxd Then Maxd = Math.Abs(diff(i))
Next i
drawResults()
End Sub
Sub drawResults()
Dim Maxy, Miny, Y, X As Double
Dim bmp As Bitmap = New Bitmap(PictureBox1.Width, PictureBox1.Height)
g = Graphics.FromImage(bmp)
g.Clear(Color.White)
Maxy = ys(12)
If yd(12) > Maxy Then Maxy = yd(12)
Miny = -Maxy / 15
'sX and sY are variables used to scale the points to fit in the
PictureBox
'each point with be multiplied by these factors to scale it to fit.
Dim sX, sY, pY As Double
sX = PictureBox1.Width / 12
sY = PictureBox1.Height / Maxy
'drawing starts at zero point (0,0) which is the upper-left corner of
PictureBox 'all values on the y-scale will be substracted from this to make
the figure upside down 'i.e., start at the lower-left corner instead.
pY = PictureBox1.Height
'black rectangle as a border to the figure
g.DrawRectangle(Pens.Black, 0, 0, CInt(12 * sX) - 1, CInt(Maxy * sY) -
1)
Dim lastPoint As Point
lastPoint = New Point(0, 0)
For X = 0 To 12
Y = ys(X)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Red, lastPoint, New Point((X * sX), pY - (Y * sY)))
lastPoint = New Point(X * sX, pY - Y * sY)
Next X
lastPoint = New Point(0, 0)
For x = 0 To 12
Y = yd(x)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, lastPoint, New Point((X * sX), pY - (Y * sY)))
lastPoint = New Point(X * sX, pY - Y * sY)
Next x
lastPoint = New Point(0, 0)
For x = 0 To 12
Y = ysd(x)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Blue, lastPoint, New Point((X * sX), pY - (Y * sY)))
lastPoint = New Point(X * sX, pY - Y * sY)
Next x
Label3.Text += vbCrLf + "Capacity = " + FormatNumber(Maxd, 2) + " m3"
PictureBox1.Image = Image.FromHbitmap(bmp.GetHbitmap)
g.Dispose()
bmp.Dispose()
End Sub
 End Class

3.7 WATER DISTRIBUTION

3.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Systems used for distribution of water for public water supplies are networks of pipes within networks of
streets. The distribution system is designed to serve each individual property, household, commercial
establishment, public building, or industrial factory, and so on. Flow type and character depend on
interrelated factors that include street plan, topography of land, location of supply works, and service
storage. The analysis of a water distribution system includes quantifying flows and head losses in the
network of pipes and finding the resulting residual pressures.

3.7.2 PATTERNS OF PIPELINES IN WATER NETWORKS

Basically, there are two patterns of pipelines (Fair et al. 1966, Henry and Heinke 1996, Smith and Scott
2002, Davis and Cornwell 2006, Nathanson 2007, Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015, Viessman et al.
1.2015): Branching pattern with dead ends: This system resembles the branching of a tree. The flow of
the water continues in the same direction, and single pipe supplies water to a particular area. The
a.advantages of the branching pattern include the following: Simplicity of water distribution
b.Simplicity in design of pipe network
c.Usage of economical pipe dimension
However, the disadvantages include the following:
a.Accumulation of sediments (due to stagnation of dead ends)
b.Tastes and odors (due to absence of regular flushing)
c.d.Water shortage (during breakdowns, repair, and maintenance) Occurrence of insufficient
2.water pressure (especially during extension of services) Grid pattern: This system serves an
area with a high demand for water using a large diameter pipe loop around the area. In this
plan, all the pipes are interconnected together with no dead ends. Water can reach any point
a.from more than one direction. The advantages of this system include the following: Free
movement of water in more than one direction
b.c.Less possibility of stagnation (comparable to the branching system) Continuous water flow
d.(no disconnection during repair or breakdown) Little adverse effect on supply when there are
large variations in consumption The disadvantages of this system include the following:
a.Complicated calculations when designing pipes
b.More pipes and fittings required

3.7.3 VISCOUS FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS

A closed conduit may be defined as a pipe or a duct through which fluid flows while completely filling its
cross section. Since the flowing fluid has no free surface, it can be either a liquid or a gas, its pressure
may be above or below atmospheric pressure, and this pressure may vary from one cross section to
another along its length (Douglas et al. 2006). A closed conduit is commonly called a pipe if it has a
round cross section or a duct if it is not round, and they are designed to withstand a considerable pressure
difference across their walls without undue distortion of their shape (Munson et al. 2012). Fluid flow in a
pipe may be laminar or transitional or turbulent (see Table 3.7). The criterion used to determine whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent is the Reynolds number presented in the following equation:

TABLE 3.7
Turbulent and Laminar Flows
Criterion Value of Reynolds Number
Laminar <2100
Transitional 2100 > Re > 4000
Turbulent >4000

(3.21)

where:
Re is the Reynolds number, dimensionless
is the density of fluid, kg/m3
v is the average velocity in the pipe, m/s
D is the pipe diameter, m
is the dynamic viscosity of fluid, N*s/m2 or kg/m*s

3.7.3.1 Fundamental Equations for an Incompressible Flow

For steady, fully developed, incompressible flow (neglecting gravitational effects), the relationship of
pressure difference and shear for an element of fluid in a horizontal pipe can be determined by using the

following equation (see Figure 3.11):

Figure 3.11 Pipe flow velocity profile and shear stress distribution.

(3.22)
where:
P is the pressure difference, Pa
l is the length of circular cylindrical element, m
w is the maximum shear at pipe wall (wall shear stress), N/m2
D is the pipe diameter, m

Equation 4.4 indicates that a small shear stress can produce a large pressure difference if the pipe is
relatively long (l/D >> 1).

3.7.4 FLOW IN PIPES

3.7.4.1 Laminar Flow (HagenPoiseuille Flow)
For laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid within a horizontal pipe, the velocity and discharge may be
obtained from the Poiseuilles law presented in the following equations:

(3.23)

where:
v is the average velocity, m/s
P is the pressure difference, Pa
D is the diameter of pipe, m
l is the length, m
is the dynamic viscosity, N*s/m2

(3.24)

where Q is the flow rate through the pipe, m3/s

To account for a pressure drop in nonhorizontal pipes, the DarcyWeisbach equation may be used as
presented in the following equation:

(3.25)

where:
f is the friction factor (Darcy friction factor = 64/(v*D*) = 64/Re for laminar flow) g is the
gravitational acceleration, m/s2

Since P = *hl and from Equation 3.25,

(3.26)
where hl is the head loss (drop in hydraulic grade line), m*N/N

Example 3.7
Write a computer program to determine the viscosity of a fluid that flows in a pipe of
diameter d (m) and of length l (m) at a rate of flow of Q (m3/s), with the head loss in the pipe
given as hf (m). Let the program indicate whether the flow is laminar or turbulent by
checking its Reynolds number.
Given the values of d = 5 mm, l = 20 cm, Q = 0.95 L/min, and hf = 0.8 m, determine v, V,
and Re.
Use the program developed in (1) to check the computations in (2).
Solution
For solution to Example 3.7 (1), see the listing of Program 3.7.
Solution to Example 3.7 (2): Given: d = 5 mm, l = 20 cm, Q = 0.95 L/min, and hf = 0.8 m.
Find Q = 0.95 * 103 m3 / 15 * 60 s = 1.06 * 106 m3/s.
Determine the kinematic viscosity as: v = (*D4*g*h1)/(128*l*Q) = (*(5 * 103)4 * 9.81
* 0.8)/(128 * 20 * 102 * 1.06 * 106) = 5.7 * 104 m2/s.
Compute the velocity of flow as follows: v = Q/A = 1.06 * 106/(*(5 * 103)2/4) = 0.054
m/s.
Determine the Reynolds number as: Re = V*d/v = 0.054 * 5 * 103/5.7 * 104 = 0.5.
Since the Reynolds number is less than 2100, the flow is laminar.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.7 (CHAP3.7\FORM1.VB): VISCOUS FLOW IN

PIPES

'*******************************************************************************
'Program 3.7: Viscous flow in pipes
'*******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const Pi = 3.1415962#
Const g = 9.81
Dim d, L, Q, hf As Double
Dim Nu, A, V, Re As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.7: Viscous flow in
pipes"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Diameter of pipe, D (mm):"
Label2.Text = "Length of pipe, L (m):"
Label3.Text = "Flow rate, Q (L/min):"
Label4.Text = "Head loss, hf (m):"
button1.text = "&Calculate"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = ""
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
d = Val(TextBox1.Text)
L = Val(textbox2.text)
Q = Val(textbox3.text)
hf = Val(textbox4.text)
d = d / 1000 'convert to metre
'convert to m3/s
Q = (Q / 1000) / (15 * 60)
Nu = (Pi * (d ^ 4) * g * hf) / (128 * L * Q)
A = Pi * (d ^ 2) / 4
V = Q / A
Re = V * d / nu
Label5.Text = "Kinematic viscosity (m2/s) = " + FormatNumber(Nu, 5)
Label6.Text = "Reynolds number = " + FormatNumber(Re, 2)
If Re < 2100 Then
label6.text += " LAMINAR"
Else : label6.text += " TURBULENT"
End If
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

3.7.4.2 Turbulent Flow

Turbulent pipe flow actually is more likely to occur than laminar flow in a practical situation (White
2010; Munson et al. 2012). The main differences between laminar and turbulent flows occur due to
variables such as velocity, pressure, shear stress, and temperature. Shear stress for turbulent flow can be
determined by using the following equation:

(3.27)

where:
is the Eddy viscosity, N . s/m2
ua is the average velocity, m/s

The velocity profile may be obtained by the empirical power law velocity profile as presented in the
following equation:

(3.28)

where:
b is the constant (function of Reynolds number)
vc is the centerline velocity, m/s

The one-seventh power law velocity profile (b = 7) is often used as a reasonable approximation for many
practical flows (White 2010; Munson et al. 2012).
Using the technique of dimensional analysis of pipe flow, the experimental data and semiempirical
formulas used in analysis of turbulent flow can be grouped in a dimensionless form. For steady,
incompressible turbulent flow in a horizontal round pipe, the pressure drop and head loss can be
determined by using the following equations :

(3.29)

where:
 f is the friction factor = (Re, /D) = 64/Re for laminar flow (independent of /D) = (/D) for
completely (wholly) turbulent flow is the roughness of the pipe wall, m
D is the pipe diameter, m
l is the length of pipe, m
v is the average velocity, m/s

(3.30)

where hl is the head loss, m.

It is difficult to estimate the dependence of the friction factor on Reynolds number and relative
roughness. Experimental findings have correlated data in terms of relative roughness of commercially
available (new and clean) pipe materials and plotting this information in a diagram termed the Moody
chart. The Moody chart is valid for steady, fully developed, incompressible pipe flows. The Colebrook
formula gives the roughness for the entire nonlaminar range of the Moody chart, as indicated in the
following equation (White 2010; Munson et al. 2012):

(3.31)

Example 3.8
1. Write a computer program that enables the computation of head loss due to friction and the
power needed to maintain flow Q (m3/s) through a circular horizontal pipe of diameter d (m)
and length l (m). Use different pipe materials (different roughness coefficients) and different
temperatures (different viscosities) in the program.
2. Water flows at the rate of 0.08 L/s through a horizontal, circular 500 m long pipe of diameter
6 cm at a temperature of 20C. Assuming an absolute roughness of 0.08 mm for the pipe,
determine the head loss due to friction using both Poiseuille and Darcy equations. Estimate
the power required to maintain the flow in the pipe.
3. Verify your computations in (2) by using the program developed in (1).
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.8 (1), see the listing of Program 3.8.
a. Solution to Example 3.8 (2): Find the viscosity corresponding to the given temperature from
2.
Appendix A1 as follows: = 1.0087 * 103 N*s/m2, = 998.203 kg/m3, and = 9792 N/m3.
b. Determine the Reynolds number as follows: Re = *V*D/ = *Q*D/*A = 998.203 * 0.08
* 103 * 6 * 102/1.0087 * 103*[*(6 * 102)2/4] = 1680. Therefore, the flow is laminar
since Re < 2000.
c. For laminar flow, find the loss of head due to friction by using Poiseuilles equation as
 follows:

d. Determine the head loss using Darcys equation (f = 64/Re) as follows: hf = f*l*v2/2*D*g =
512*l*Q2/D5*g*Re*2 = 512 * 500*(0.08 * 103)2/(6 * 102)5 * 9.81 * 1680*2 = 0.013 m.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.8 (CHAP3.8\FORM1.VB): HEAD LOSS DUE

TO FRICTION IN PIPES

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.8: Head loss due to friction in pipes
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const g = 9.81
Dim D, L, Q, Mu, Rho, roughness As Double
Dim T As Integer
Dim gamma, A, V, Re As Double
Dim f, hf, hf1, hf2, EPSILON As Double
Dim temp_table() As Integer =
{5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38
}

Dim viscosity() As Double =

{1.5188, 1.4726, 1.4288, 1.3872, 1.3476, 1.3097,
1.2735, 1.239, 1.2061, 1.1748, 1.1447, 1.1156,
1.0875, 1.0603, 1.034, 1.0087, 0.9843, 0.9608,
0.938, 0.9161, 0.8949, 0.8746, 0.8551, 0.8363,
0.8181, 0.8004, 0.7834, 0.767, 0.7511, 0.7357,
0.7208, 0.7064, 0.6925, 0.6791
}
Dim density() As Double =
{0.999956, 0.999941, 0.999902, 0.999849, 0.999781,
0.9997, 0.999605, 0.999498, 0.999377, 0.999244,
0.999099, 0.998943, 0.998774, 0.998595, 0.998405,
0.998203, 0.997992, 0.99777, 0.997538, 0.997296,
0.997044, 0.996783, 0.996512, 0.996232, 0.995944,
0.995646, 0.99534, 0.995025, 0.994702, 0.994371,
0.99403, 0.99368, 0.99333, 0.99296
}
'*********************************************************************************
'Find viscosity as a function of temp (Table A1).
'*********************************************************************************
Function find_viscosity(ByVal T As Integer)
For i = 0 To temp_table.Length - 1
If temp_table(i) = T Then Return viscosity(i)
Next
Return 0
End Function
'*********************************************************************************
'Find density as a function of temp (Table A1).
'*********************************************************************************
Function find_density(ByVal T As Integer)
For i = 0 To temp_table.Length - 1
If temp_table(i) = T Then Return density(i)
Next
Return 0
End Function

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.8: Head loss due
to friction in pipes"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Diameter of pipe, D (m):"
Label2.Text = "Length of pipe, L (m):"
Label3.Text = "Flow rate, Q (m3/s):"
Label4.Text = "Temperature (C):"
Label5.Text = "Absolute Roughness (mm):"
Label6.Text = ""
Label7.Text = ""
Label8.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 3
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
D = Val(textbox1.text)
L = Val(textbox2.text)
Q = Val(TextBox3.Text) / 1000
T = Val(TextBox4.Text)
roughness = Val(TextBox5.Text)

If T < 5 Or T > 38 Then

MsgBox("Please enter temperature between 5 and 38 inclusive.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
Mu = find_viscosity(T) / 1000
Rho = find_density(T) * 1000 'kg/m3
gamma = Rho * g
A = Pi * (D ^ 2) / 4
V = Q / A
Re = Rho * V * D / Mu
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
Label6.Text = "Reynolds number = " + FormatNumber(Re, decimals)
If Re < 2000 Then
label6.text += " LAMINAR"
hf1 = 128 * Mu * L * Q / (Pi * (D ^ 4) * gamma) 'Poiseuille eqn.
f = 16 / Re
hf2 = 4 * f * L * V ^ 2 / (2 * D * g) 'Darcy eqn.
Label7.Text = "hf = " + FormatNumber(hf1, decimals) + " POISEUILLE hf
= " + FormatNumber(hf2, decimals) + " DARCY"
Else
label6.text += " TURBULENT"
f = getf(E, D, Re)
hf = f * L / D * V ^ 2 / (2 * g)
Label7.Text = "hf = " + FormatNumber(hf, decimals)
End If
End Sub
Function getf(ByVal e, ByVal D, ByVal Re)
Dim RHS, LHS As Double
For i = 0.000001 To 0.001 Step 0.000001
RHS = f ^ -0.5
LHS = -2 * log10(e / (D * 3.7) + 2.51 / (Re * f ^ 0.5))
If ABS(RHS - LHS) < EPSILON Then
Return i
End If
Next i
Return Nothing
End Function

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged If Re = 0
Then Exit Sub
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
Label6.Text = "Reynolds number = " + FormatNumber(Re, decimals)
If Re < 2000 Then
Label6.Text += " LAMINAR"
Label7.Text = "hf = " + FormatNumber(hf1, decimals) + " POISEUILLE hf
= " + FormatNumber(hf2, decimals) + " DARCY"
Else
Label6.Text += " TURBULENT"
Label7.Text = "hf = " + FormatNumber(hf, decimals)
End If
End Sub
 End Class

3.7.4.3 Minor Losses

Losses (pressure drops) are either major or minor in nature. Major losses are associated with friction in
the straight portions of the pipes, whereas minor losses are due to losses from valves, bends, and tees.
Minor head losses may be determined by specifying the loss coefficient as shown in the following
equation:

(3.32)

where k1 is the loss coefficient (depends on the geometry of the component and fluid properties) =
(geometry, Re).

3.7.5 PIPES IN SERIES

3.7.5.1 Equivalent-Velocity-Head Method

This method concerns a pipe composed of sections of different diameters. In pipes in series, the same
fluid flows through all the pipes, and the head losses are cumulative (see Figure 3.12). As such, continuity

and energy equations yield the following equations:

Figure 3.12 Pipes in series.

(3.33)

(3.34)

where:
hli is the contribution of head loss from ith section, m
 N is the number of pipes

(3.35)

where Di is the diameter of ith pipe, m.

Example 3.9
1. Write a computer program that enables the determination of flow from a large tank to which
two pipes are connected in series using the equivalent-velocity-head method. The two pipes
have the following characteristics: their diameters are D1 mm and D2 mm, their lengths are l1
m and l2 m, and their friction factors are f1 and f2, respectively. The head loss is equal to hl.
2. Two pipes of diameters 200 and 150 mm and lengths 250 and 150 m are connected in series
from a large tank. For a head loss of 8 m and given friction factors of 0.018 and 0.21,
respectively, determine the rate of flow from the tank to the second pipe using the
equivalent-velocity-head method.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.9 (1), see the listing of Program 3.9.
a. Solution to Example 3.9 (2): Given: d1 = 200 * 103 m, l1 = 250 m, f1 = 0.018 m, d2 = 150 *
2.
103 m, l2 = 150 m, hf = 8 m, f2 = 0.021 m.
b.Use continuity equation as follows: v22 = v12*(D1/D2)4 = v12*(200/150)4 = 3.16* v12.
c.Use energy equation for the two pipes as follows: hf = (f1*l1*v12/2g*D1) +
(f2*l2*v22/2g*D2) = (0.018 * 250*v12/2 * 9.81 * 200 * 103) + (0.21 * 150* v22/2 * 9.81 *
150 * 103) = 1.15* v12 + 1.07* v22 = (1.15 + 1.07 * 3.16) v12 = 4.53* v12. Thus, v1 = 1.32
m/s.
d.Determine the flow rate as follows: Q = v*A = 1.32**(200 * 103)2/4) = 0.041 m3/s.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.9 (CHAP3.9\FORM1.VB): EQUIVALENT-

VELOCITY-HEAD METHOD

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.9: Equivalent-Velocity-Head Method
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const Pi = 3.1415962#
Const g = 9.81
Dim N As Integer
Dim d(), l(), f() As Double
Dim sum, R, V1, Q, H, V As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.9: Equivalent-
Velocity-Head Method"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter how many pipes connected in series:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("colD", "Diameter")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("colL", "Length")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("colF", "Friction factor")
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
TextBox1.Text = "2"
Label2.Text = ""
Label3.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub

Sub calculateResults(ByVal calcHead As Boolean)

N = CInt(Val(TextBox1.Text))
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
For i = 1 To N
d(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(0).Value)
l(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(1).Value)
f(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(2).Value)
Next
If calcHead Then
Dim H = Val(InputBox("Enter head loss H (m):", "Enter H", "0"))
sum = f(1) * l(1) / (2 * g * d(1))
For i = 2 To N
R = (d(1) / d(i)) ^ 4
sum = sum + f(i) * l(i) * R / (2 * g * d(i))
Next i
V1 = (H / sum) ^ 0.5 'velocity in pipe 1
Q = V1 * Pi / 4 * d(1) ^ 2 'discharge
Label2.Text = "The flow rate for this head loss = " + FormatNumber(Q,
decimals) + " m3/s"
Else 'compute head loss in pipes
Q = Val(InputBox("Enter discharge Q(m3/s):", "Enter Q", "0"))
H = 0
For i = 1 To N
V = 4 * Q / (Pi * d(i) ^ 2)
H = H + f(i) * l(i) * v ^ 2 / (2 * g * d(i))
Next i
Label2.Text = "Total head loss (m): " + FormatNumber(H, decimals)
End If
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged If N > Val(TextBox1.Text) Then
'delete some rows
For i = N To Val(TextBox1.Text) + 1 Step -1
DataGridView1.Rows.RemoveAt(i - 1)
Next

Else
'add some rows
For i = N + 1 To Val(TextBox1.Text)
DataGridView1.Rows.Add()
Next
End If
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
ReDim d(N)
ReDim l(N)
ReDim f(N)
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Dim i = MsgBox("You want to compute
discharge for a given head loss?", vbYesNo, "Prompt") If i = vbYes Then
calculateResults(True)
Else
calculateResults(False)
End If
End Sub
 End Class

3.7.5.2 Equivalent-Length Method

In this method, pipes are replaced by equivalent lengths of a selected pipe size. Usually the selected pipe
size is one that figures most prominently in the system. An equivalent length may be defined as length, le,
of pipe of a certain diameter, De, which for the same flow will give the same head loss as the pipe of
length l and diameter D under consideration (Currie 2012). Thus, pipe friction and continuity equations
yield the following equation:

(3.36)

where:
le is the equivalent length for pipe to be replaced, m
l is the length of pipe to be replaced, m
f is the friction factor of selected pipe, m
v is the velocity of flow through selected pipe, m/s
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
D is the diameter of pipe to be replaced, m
fe is the friction factor of selected pipe, m
ve is the velocity of flow through equivalent pipe, m/s
De is the diameter of selected pipe

The equivalent-length method is of value when there are minor losses, such as bends, which are
expressed in terms of equivalent lengths of pipe.

Example 3.10
1. Write a computer program to solve Example 3.9 using the equivalent-length method.
2. Solve Example 3.9 using the equivalent-length method.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.10 (1), see the listing of Program 3.10.
a. Solution to Example 3.10 (2): Given: d1 = 200 * 103 m, l1 = 250 m, f1 = 0.018 m, d2 = 150
2.
* 103 m, l2 = 150 m, hf = 8 m, f2 = 0.021 m.
b.Choose the 200-mm diameter pipe as the standard pipe. The equivalent length for the
second pipe may be found as follows: le = l * (f/fe) * (De/D)5 = 150*(0.021/0.18)*
(200/150)5 = 737 m of 200 mm diameter.
c.Determine the total effective length as 250 + 737 = 987 m of 200 mm pipe.
 2
d.Use the energy equation for the equivalent pipe as follows: hf = (f1*le v1 /2g* D1) = 0.018 *
987* v12/2 * 9.81*(200/1000) = 8, which yields v1 = 1.33 m/s.
e.Determine the flow rate as follows: Q = v * A = 1.33*(*(200 * 103)2/4) = 0.042 m3/s.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.10 (CHAP3.10\FORM1.VB): EQUIVALENT-

LENGTH METHOD

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.10: Equivalent-Length Method
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const g = 9.81
Dim N, EQP As Integer
Dim d(), l(), f(), MAXD As Double
Dim sum, R, V1, Q, H, V As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.10: Equivalent-
Length Method"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter how many pipes connected in series:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("colD", "Diameter")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("colL", "Length")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("colF", "Friction factor")
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
TextBox1.Text = "2"
Label2.Text = ""
Label3.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub

Sub calculateResults(ByVal calcHead As Boolean)

N = CInt(Val(TextBox1.Text))
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
For i = 1 To N
d(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(0).Value)
l(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(1).Value)
f(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(2).Value)
If MAXD < d(i) Then
MAXD = d(i)
EQP = i
End If
Next
'determine the equivalent length
sum = 0
For i = 1 To N
sum = sum + l(i) * f(i) / f(EQP) * (MAXD / d(i)) ^ 5
Next i
If calcHead Then
Dim H = Val(InputBox("Enter head loss H (m):", "Enter H", "0"))
V1 = (2 * g * MAXD * H / (sum * f(EQP))) ^ 0.5 'velocity in pipe
Q = V1 * Math.Pi / 4 * d(1) ^ 2 'discharge
Label2.Text = "The flow rate for this head loss (m3/s): " +
FormatNumber(Q, decimals) Else 'compute head loss in pipes
Q = Val(InputBox("Enter discharge Q(m3/s):", "Enter Q", "0"))

V = 4 * Q / (Math.Pi * MAXD ^ 2)
H = f(EQP) * sum * V ^ 2 / (2 * g * MAXD)
Label2.Text = "Total head loss (m): " + FormatNumber(H, decimals)
End If
End Sub

Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged If N > Val(TextBox1.Text) Then
'delete some rows
For i = N To Val(TextBox1.Text) + 1 Step -1
DataGridView1.Rows.RemoveAt(i - 1)
Next
Else
'add some rows
For i = N + 1 To Val(TextBox1.Text)
DataGridView1.Rows.Add()
Next
End If
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
ReDim d(N)
ReDim l(N)
ReDim f(N)
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Dim i = MsgBox("You want to compute
discharge for a given head loss?", vbYesNo, "Prompt") If i = vbYes Then
calculateResults(True)
Else
calculateResults(False)
End If
End Sub
 End Class

3.7.6 PIPES IN PARALLEL (PIPE NETWORK)

A pipe network is formed by a group of pipes that are interconnected to allow the flow of a fluid from a
particular inlet to a certain outlet through different directions. A loop is defined as a string of connected
1.pipes. Loops may be classified as follows (Abdel-Magid et al. 1996): Closed loop: Last pipe in the
closed loop is connected to the first pipe in it.
2. Pseudo loop: It contains a series of pipes that are not closed, but whose starting and ending
nodes have fixed hydraulic grade line elevations, for example, a loop connecting two reservoirs.
3. Open loop: It is a loop that does not end at its starting node or a pseudo loop that does not have
fixed-head end nodes.

Generally, the number of loops is equal to the number of pipes minus the number of nodes minus 1 as
shown in the following equation:

(3.37)

In parallel pipes, head losses are the same in any of the lines, whereas discharges are cumulative.
Equations 3.38 and 3.39 can be formulated from Figure 4.6 (size of pipes, fluid properties, and roughness
are assumed to be known):

(3.38)

where:
Q is the total flow through a node, m/s3
Qi is the flow through pipe number i, m/s3
N is the number of pipes

(3.39)

where:
hl is the total head loss, m
hli is the head loss at pipe number i, m

The cases that can be met are

1. Unknown discharge for known elevation of hydraulic grade line.
 2. Unknown direction and quantity of flow and head loss in each line for known discharge.

Analysis of a network of pipes by Bernoullis and continuity equations would result in formulation of a
large volume of simultaneous equations that are tedious to solve. Instead of this lengthy procedure, the
method of successive approximations may be employed. This method assumes values for flow in each
pipe or head losses at each node, and it checks that the chosen values satisfy the following requirements
1.(Douglas et al. 2006): The head loss between any two junctions is the same for all routes between these
junctions.
2. The inflow to each junction equals the outflow from that junction.

Assumptions are corrected by successive approximations until they satisfy the requirement within the
required degree of accuracy (Douglas et al. 2006). The procedure used in the corrections is the Hardy
Cross (relaxation) method. This method considers the network as a combination of simple loops
(circuits). Each loop in the network is balanced to maintain compatible flow conditions in the system.
The procedure adopted for individual loops is summarized as follows:
1. Continuity equation is satisfied at all junctions. This indicates that at every junction, the total
quantity of water entering is equal to the algebraic sum of water leaving, including any water
removed from or added to the system at that junction, that is,

(3.40)

where:
Qi is the flow at node i, m3/s
N is the number of nodes

Equation 3.40 is referred to as Kirchoffs node law.

1. Law of conservation of energy is valid. Energy loss is the same for all routes through which
water passes. This indicates that around any closed loop of pipes, the algebraic sum of the
energy losses must be zero. Furthermore, the sum of the pipe head losses (in a series of pipes
connecting two constant head sources) must equal the difference in head between the two
sources, that is, in every loop, the algebraic sum of head losses through any chosen path is zero.

(3.41)

Equation 3.41 is termed Kirchoffs loop law.

For solving a network problem, the following methods can be used:
1. Balancing heads by correcting assumed flows
2. Balancing flows by correcting assumed heads

The Hardy Cross method analyzes the network by using the former concept of assuming initial flows. The
imbalance in the energy equations is then determined, and flows in each loop are corrected accordingly.
Corrections are carried out until convergence is achieved when the largest correction is less than some
tolerance level. Energy losses may be found using any one of the standard energy loss equations,
neglecting similar minor losses and kinetic energy. All energy loss equations can be expressed as
indicated in the following equation:

(3.42)

where:
h is the head loss, m
k is the resistance coefficient, numerical constant (a function of pipe geometry, diameter, length,
material and age of conduit, and fluid viscosity) Q is the volume rate of flow in the pipe, m3/s
n is the constant exponent for all pipes. If the DarcyWeisbach equation is used (h = f * l* v2/2D*g), n
= 2; if Mannings formula is used (v = rH2/3*j1/2/n), n = 2 (turbulent flow). If the HazenWilliams
formula is used (v = 0.894*c*(rH)0.63*j0.54), n = 1.85; c is the HazenWilliams roughness factor
(depends on the material and age of the conduit). Generally, v = constant*Dx(hf /l)y, where x and y
are constants depending upon the equation used.

The relationship of the discharges and corrections may be determined from the following equation:

(3.43)

where:
Q2 is the second set of assumed values of discharge
Q1 is the initial set of assumed values of discharge
Q1 is the first-order correction to the discharge

The sum of the energy losses around a loop based on the first assumption is as indicated in the following
equation:

(3.44)

The sum of energy losses when the first correction is applied yields the following equation:

(3.45)

Equation 3.46 is obtained by expanding Equation 3.45 into a series and neglecting small values:

(3.46)

where h2 is the algebraic sum of the losses around a loop (=0).

Putting Equation 3.46 equal to zero and solving for Q gives the following equation:

(3.47)
The negative sign illustrates that the positive (clockwise) discharges ought to be reduced, and the negative
(anticlockwise, Tawaf-wise) discharges ought to be increased. The process is iterative and must be
continued until the desired degree of accuracy is achieved (Douglas et al. 2006).
In summary, the Hardy Cross method involves the following steps:
1. Geometric configuration of the network is established.
2. Appropriate flows are assumed in each pipe (continuity must be satisfied at each junction,
clockwise flows are positive, and they produce positive head losses).
3. For each elementary loop in the system:
a.Sign convention is established.
b.Head loss in each pipe is estimated.
c.Algebraic sum of the head loss around the loop is evaluated.
d.Correction factor is determined for each loop.
e.Flow adjustment is conducted for the loop.
4. The aforementioned step is applied to each circuit in the network, with flow correction
established to each pipe, and the procedure is repeated to fulfill the required accuracy. It is to be
noted that a common element in two different loops receives two different flow rate corrections.
5. For large complex networks, the analysis needs to be conducted by using a computer program.

In modeling a water supply network, the necessary data needed include system maps or pipe and valve
grid maps; geometric data, such as pipe diameters, lengths of pipes, materials, pipe junction elevations,
pump characteristic curves, valve types, and sets; operational data, such as total water production,
consumption and system losses, control valve set options, and reservoir levels.

Example 3.11
1. Write a computer program to compute the flow through each pipe of the network of the three
pipes (A, B, and C) in parallel as shown in Figures 3.13 and 3.14, given the rate of flow to
system Q, water temperature T, pipe diameters Da, Db, and Dc; friction factors fa, fb, and fc;
lengths la, lb, and lc; pressure at point 1, with point 1 at a level of z1; and point 2 at elevation
of z2. Let the program determine the pressure at point 2. Use DarcyWeisbach equation.
Figure 3.13 Pipes in parallel.

Figure 3.14 Example 3.11.

2. Solve for flow through each pipe of the network discussed in (1), given values of Da = 150
mm, Db = 250 mm, Dc = 200 mm, fa = 0.001, fb = 0.0013, fc = 0.0015, la = 600 m, lb = 1000
m, lc = 800 m, P1 = 140 kPa, z1 = 15 m, z2 = 9 m, Q = 36 m3/min, and temperature = 20C.
3. Use the program written in (1) to verify computations in (2).
Solution
1. For solution to Example 3.11 (1), see the listing of Program 3.11.
a. Solution to Example 3.11 (2): Given: Da = 150 mm, Db = 250 mm, Dc = 200 mm, fa = 0.001,
2.
fb = 0.0013, fc = 0.0015, la = 600 m, lb = 1000 m, lc = 800 m, P1 = 140 kPa, z1 = 15 m, and
z2 = 9 m, Q = 36 m3/min.
b.Use DarcyWeisbach equation for the flow as follows: h = f*l*v2/2D*g =
8*f*l*Q2/(2*D5*g) = k*Q2.
c.Assume flow passing through each pipe (long, narrow pipe offers more resistance to
flow) and take clockwise flow (anti-Tawaf-wise) to be positive.
d.Find the values of k (=8*f*l/(2*D5*g)), h, and h/Q for each pipe in a loop.
e.Compute the correction factor for each loop, Q = h/{2(h/Q)}, and make adjustments
of flow as shown in Table 3.8.
 f.Repeat previous steps, taking into consideration the correction factor for each pipe in a loop
and especially treating the common element 1B2 as shown in Table 3.8.
g.Adjustments are carried on until a desirable conversion is achieved.
h.Values of flow in pipes are Q1A2 = 0.123 m3/s, Q1B2 = 0.229 m3/s, and Q1C2 = 0.178 m3/s.
i.Pressure at point 2 can be determined by using Bernoullis equation between points 1 and
2 as follows: (P1/) + (v12/2g) + z1 = (P2/) + (v22/2g) + z2 = hf1B2.
j.The head loss through pipe 1B2 can be found as follows: hf1B2 = k*Q2 = 109.9*(0.299)2 =
9.8 m.
k.For the same pipe: v1 = v2; therefore, P2 = P1 + (z2 z1) hf1B2 = 140 * 103 + 998.2*
(15 9) 998.2 * 9.8 = 136.2 kPa.

TABLE 3.8
First Iteration

 LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.11 (CHAP3.11\FORM1.VB): HARDY CROSS
METHOD

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.11: Hardy Cross method
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const g = 9.81
Dim Npipes As Integer = 3
Dim Nnodes As Integer = 2
Dim Nloops = Npipes - (Nnodes - 1)
Dim iter As Integer = 1
Dim d(Npipes), f(Npipes), l(Npipes), k(Npipes), Q(Npipes) As Double
Dim h(Npipes), hQ(Npipes) As Double
Dim Qtotal, P1, P2, z1, z2 As Double
Dim deltaQ(Nloops) As Double
Dim T As Integer
Dim dTotal As Double = 0
Dim Rho_table() As Double =
{0.999956, 0.999941, 0.999902, 0.999849,
0.999781, 0.9997, 0.999605, 0.999498,
0.999377, 0.999244, 0.999099, 0.998943,
0.998774, 0.998595, 0.998405, 0.998203,
0.997992, 0.99777, 0.997538, 0.997296,
0.997044, 0.996783, 0.996512, 0.996232,
0.995944, 0.995646, 0.99534, 0.995025,
0.994702, 0.994371, 0.99403, 0.99368,
0.99333, 0.99296
}

Dim temp_table() As Double =

{5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38
}

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 3.11: Hardy Cross
Method"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Button1.Enabled = True
Button2.Text = "&Next >>"
Button2.Enabled = False
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("DCol", "Pipe diameter, mm")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("FCol", "Friction factor")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LCol", "Pipe length, m")
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(3)
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Label1.Text = "Pipe data:"
Label2.Text = "Flow rate, Q (m3/min):"
Label3.Text = "Temperature, T (C):"
Label4.Text = "Pressure P1 (kPa):"
Label5.Text = "Point 1 level, z1 (m):"
Label6.Text = "Point 2 level, z2 (m):"
Label7.Text = "Pressure P2 (kPa):"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Qtotal = Val(TextBox1.Text) / 60
T = Val(TextBox2.Text)
P1 = Val(TextBox3.Text) * 1000
z1 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
z2 = Val(TextBox5.Text)
dTotal = 0
For i = 0 To Npipes - 1
d(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("DCol").Value) / 1000
f(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("FCol").Value)
l(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("LCol").Value)
k(i) = 8 * f(i) * l(i) / ((PI ^ 2) * (d(i) ^ 5) * g)
dTotal += d(i)
Next
For i = 0 To Npipes - 1
'estimate Q and h for each pipe
Q(i) = Qtotal * (d(i) / dTotal)
h(i) = k(i) * (Q(i) ^ 2)
hQ(i) = h(i) / Q(i)
Next
iter = 1
calc_deltaQ()
calc_P2()
showOutput()
Button2.Enabled = True
End Sub
Sub showOutput()

'****************************************************************************
'Output calculations
'****************************************************************************
Dim j As Integer = 0
If DataGridView1.Columns.Count < 8 Then
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("kCol", "k")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("qCol", "Q")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("hCol", "h")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("hQCol", "h/Q")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("deltaQCol", "dQ")
End If
For i = 0 To Npipes - 1
DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("kCol").Value = k(i)
DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("qCol").Value = Q(i)
DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("hCol").Value = h(i)
DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("hQCol").Value = hQ(i)
Next
j = 0
For i = 0 To Nloops - 1
DataGridView1.Rows(j).Cells("deltaQCol").Value = deltaQ(i)
j += 2
Next
Label1.Text = digit_to_str(iter) + " Iteration"
TextBox6.Text = FormatNumber(P2, 2)
End Sub
Sub calc_deltaQ()
'Calculate correction factor (delta Q) for each pipe in a loop
Dim j As Integer = 0
Dim hTotal As Double = 0
Dim hQTotal As Double = 0
For i = 0 To Nloops - 1
hTotal = h(j) - h(j + 1)
hQTotal = hQ(j) + hQ(j + 1)
j += 1
deltaQ(i) = -hTotal / (2 * hQTotal)
Next
End Sub
Sub calc_P2()
Dim Rho As Double = -1
For i = 0 To temp_table.Length - 1
If T <= temp_table(i) Then
Rho = Rho_table(i)
Exit For
End If
Next
Not found?
If Rho = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please enter a temperature between 5 and 38.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
Rho *= 1000

P2 = P1 + (Rho * Abs(z2 - z1)) - (Rho * h(1))

P2 /= 1000
End Sub
Function digit_to_str(ByVal n As Integer) As String
Select Case n
Case 1 : Return "First"
Case 2 : Return "Second"
Case 3 : Return "Third"
Case 4 : Return "Fourth"
Case 5 : Return "Fifth"
Case 6 : Return "Sixth"
Case 7 : Return "Seventh"
Case 8 : Return "Eighth"
Case 9 : Return "Ninth"
Case 10 : Return "Tenth"
Case 11 : Return "Eleventh"
Case 12 : Return "Twelfth"
Case 13 : Return "Thirteenth"
Case 14 : Return "Fourteenth"
Case 15 : Return "Fifteenth"
Case 16 : Return "Sixteenth"
Case 17 : Return "Seventeenth"
Case 18 : Return "Eighteenth"
Case 19 : Return "Nineteenth"
Case Else
If n Mod 10 = 1 Then
Return n.ToString + "st"
ElseIf n Mod 10 = 2 Then
Return n.ToString + "nd"
ElseIf n Mod 10 = 3 Then
Return n.ToString + "rd"
Else
Return n.ToString + "th"
End If
End Select
End Function

Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click Dim dQ As Double = deltaQ(0) -
deltaQ(1)
Q(0) += deltaQ(0)
Q(1) -= dQ
Q(2) = Qtotal - (Q(0) + Q(1))
For i = 0 To Npipes - 1
'calc h for each pipe
h(i) = k(i) * (Q(i) ^ 2)
hQ(i) = h(i) / Q(i)
Next
iter += 1
calc_deltaQ()
calc_P2()
showOutput()
End Sub
End Class
3.7.6.1 Disadvantages of the Hardy Cross Method
1. A lot of time and tedious work is exhausted in assuming initial flows.
2. Limitations in usage for large flows result in convergence problems.
3. Direction of flow is assumed incorrectly occasionally.
4. There are complications in the method for complex systems such as reservoirs, interior pumps,
and valves (McCormich and Bellamy 1968; Shamir and Howard 1968; Liu 1969; Epp and
Fowler 1970; Wood and Charles 1972; Collins and Johnson 1975; Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-
Magid et al. 1991).

3.7.6.2 Analysis of Pipe Networks by the Finite Element Method

The finite element method for the analysis of water distribution networks may be used with the aid of
personal computers, which make tedious, iterative calculations more amenable to quick solutions (Lam
and Wolla 1972; Wood and Charles 1972; Gientke 1974; Collins and Johnson 1975; Abdel-Magid 1987;
Abdel-Magid et al. 1991). Application of the finite element method to a structural problem demands the
subdivision of the structure into a number of discrete elements. Each of these elements must satisfy the
1.following three conditions (Collins and Johnson 1975; Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-Magid et al. 1991):
Equilibrium of forces
2. Compatibility of strains
3. Forcedisplacement relationship specified by the geometric and elastic properties of the
discrete element An equivalent set of conditions for a pipe network exists; hence, the ability to
1. draw the analogy (Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-Magid et al. 1991): The algebraic sum of the
flows at any point or node must be zero.
2. The value of the piezometric head at a joint or node is the same for all pipes connected to that
joint.
3. The flowhead relationship (such as DarcyWeisbach or HazenWilliams) must be satisfied for
each element or pipe.
For a direct application of the finite element method involving a matrix solution, a linear relationship is
required to define the element or pipe (see Figure 3.15). Hence, there is a relationship of the form

indicated in the following equation:

FIGURE 3.15 Pipe element.

(From Abdel-Mageid et al. Water International J, 16, 96101, 1991, With permission.)

(3.48)

where:
q is the flow, m3/s
h is the head loss, m
 c is the hydraulic properties of the pipe (to be assumed)

The solution technique can be subdivided into three steps (Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-Magid et al. 1991):
1.An initial value of the pipe coefficient, c, is selected for each pipe and is then combined to yield the
system matrix coefficient (C). The system matrix is then solved for the value of the piezometric head at
each joint.
2. The individual pipe flows, q, are computed by means of Equation 3.48 using the difference
between the determined piezometric heads. These flows are then substituted in the Darcy
Weisbach equation to calculate the pipe head losses. If the pipe head losses obtained from the
DarcyWeisbach equation correspond to those obtained from the matrix solution, then the unique
solution, satisfying both the DarcyWeisbach equation and the linear Equation 3.48, has been
found.
3. If there is a difference between the values of head loss calculated by the two methods, the values
of c are changed to cause the problem to converge to a solution.

In analysis of a pipe network, Figure 3.16 is used (Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-Magid et al. 1991) to show
the application of the finite element method. Nodes and pipes are numbered for identification purposes.
As a sign convention, any external flow at a joint will be positive when fluid is input and negative when
actual consumption occurs. Applying the equilibrium flow criteria at each node then gives

Figure 3.16 Pipe network.

(From Abdel-Mageid et al. Water International J. 16, 96101, 1991, With permission.)

(3.49)

However, the pipe flows in individual elements are given by

(3.50)
Applying the sign convention on the flow in the element, it will be noted that although the flow at one end,
j, of the element will be input (i.e., positive), it is an output (i.e., negative) at the other end, k, of the
element. It follows that if the flow in element m, whose ends are nodes j and k, is given by qm = cm (Hj
Hk ) at end j, the same flow when considering end k will be qm = cm (Hk Hj ). Thus, substituting Equation
3.50 in Equation 3.49, observing the sign convention and writing in matrix form, we get the following
equation:

Equation 3.51 may be put in a compact form as shown in the following equation:

(3.52)

where:
Q is the network consumption vector
C is the network characteristics matrix
 H is the network head vector

The input data in the finite element procedure consist of the following:

1. The number of nodes, elements, known consumption nodes, known head nodes, and fluid
2. properties The element number, its diameter, its length, and the number of its first and second
3. node connectivities The node number and its known head or consumption The DarcyWeisbach
relationship may be used in the analysis of head loss, as presented in the following equation:

(3.53)

where:
hf is the head loss, m
f is the friction factor
L is the length of pipe, m
D is the diameter of pipe, m
A is the cross-sectional area of pipe, m2
g is the acceleration of gravity, m/s2
q is the flow discharge, m3/s

The friction factor may be determined from the following equation (Wood and Charles 1972, Wood 1980,
Abdel-Magid 1987, Abdel-Magid et al. 1991):

(3.54)

where:
f is the friction factor
Re is the Reynolds number

(3.55)

where = roughness coefficient

a is the constant to be found from the following equation:

(3.56)

The initial value of pipe coefficient, C0, was chosen to correspond to Re = 200,000 in each pipe, a
typical value for practical problems (Collins and Johnson 1975). Accordingly, and since Re = qD/(Av),
the initial flow in the pipe becomes
 (3.57)

where:
A is the area of the pipe, m2
D is the diameter, m
v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, m2/s

The value of head loss, h0, corresponding to the flow, q0, can be calculated from Equation 3.53. The pipe
coefficient is then found from Equation 3.48 as indicated in the following equation:

(3.58)

This initial value of the pipe coefficient, c0, for each pipe was then combined, according to the geometry
of the network, to obtain the initial network characteristic matrix [C1]0. Using a standard finite element
procedure, the matrix assembly process to form the global matrix can be summarized. Starting with a zero
1.matrix, the following operations are performed for each element: Add coefficientC1 to position (k, k)
and (j, j).
2. Add coefficientC1 to position (k, j) and (j, k), according to the connectivity table. Once all
elements are considered, the [C] matrix is assembled.

Before the total system of equations can be solved, it is necessary to introduce proper boundary
conditions for at least some of the nodes of the network. The two possible types of boundary conditions
involve specifying either head or consumption for any given node. The introduction of the boundary
1.conditions for prescribed heads can be implemented by performing the following steps: Add the
contribution of the prescribed unknown Hj to the vector of nodal consumption [Q].
2. Zero the jth column and jth row of the matrix [C].
3. Make the jth coefficient of the vector nodal consumption equal to Hj .

A boundary condition of the second type, where the discharge rather than the head is prescribed, is
handled by simply placing the value of the prescribed discharge or consumption in the proper position in
the vector of nodal consumption. The solution of the simultaneous algebraic equations can be done using
the Gauss elimination technique (Burden and Faires 2010). The solution of the system of equations could
provide the values of the previously unknown nodal heads. With these, discharges could be computed for
every element using Equation 3.48.
During the checking procedure, the flow, qc, for each pipe calculated via Equation 3.48, and the matrix
solution may be used to determine the head loss, hc, from the DarcyWeisbach equation (Collins and
Johnson 1975; Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-Magid et al. 1991). The first step in the development of the
program is to obtain the correction for the c value for each pipe by assuming that the point (hc, qc) is the
unique solution. Thus, the correct linear relationship is defined by the straight line joining this point to the
origin and is defined by the following equation:

(3.59)
The new value of c is then set equal to qc/hc. When all pipe coefficients are corrected in a similar way,
the flow distribution obviously is altered, and this method can be overcorrected when the matrix is
resolved. To dampen this overcorrection effect, an averaging technique is introduced. The corrected value
of c is taken to be the mean of the c value defined by Equation 3.59 and the value of c used to obtain the
matrix solution (Abdel-Magid 1987; Abdel-Magid et al. 1991).

Example 3.12
Write a computer program to predict flows in a network that consists of E number of elements and N
number of nodes, given input and withdrawals at nodes, pipe characteristics for each pipe in the
system, and water level in tank at a fixed node.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.12 (A) LISTING OF FORM1

(CHAP3.12\FORM1.VB): FEM ANALYSIS OF PIPE NETWORKS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.12: FEM Analysis of Pipe Networks
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim loadFromFile As Boolean
Dim N
Dim ICHECKER, EE, WW, DIF As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load loadFromFile = False
Me.Text = "Program 3.12: FEM Analysis of Pipe Networks"
Me.Width = 322
TextBox6.Multiline = True
TextBox6.Height = 291
TextBox6.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
TextBox6.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 10)
Button1.Text = "Browse"
Label1.Text = "Open data file:"
Label2.Text = ""
GroupBox1.Text = " Load data from file: "
GroupBox2.Text = " OR, Enter new data: "
Button2.Text = "Browse"
Label3.Text = "Select a file to save data.."
Label4.Text = ""
Label5.Text = "Enter number of elements:"
Label6.Text = "Enter number of nodes:"
Label10.Text = "Are you using metric units?:"
Label7.Text = "Enter number of nodes with known head:"
Label8.Text = "Enter number of nodes with known flow:"
Label9.Text = "Enter roughness (enter zero if unknown):"
RadioButton1.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton2.Text = "No"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Button3.Text = "Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
N = NELEM
If NNODE > NELEM Then N = NNODE
If loadFromFile Then
ReDim DIAM(N), XLEN(N), AK(N), LNODS(N, 2), HEAD(N), H(N), Q(N), C(N),
F(N) ReDim D(N), NODEH(N), Z(N, N), DELH(N), QO(N), CO(N), R(N), DH(N)
End If
For I = 1 To NNODE
H(I) = 0.0!
Q(I) = 0.0!
Next I

If loadFromFile Then
For I = 1 To NELEM
Input(1, DIAM(I))
Input(1, XLEN(I))
Input(1, LNODS(I, 1))
Input(1, LNODS(I, 2))
Next I
For I = 1 To NPFLOW
Input(1, NODEQ)
Input(1, Q(NODEQ))
Next I
For I = 1 To NVFIX
Input(1, NODEH(I))
Input(1, HEAD(NODEH(I)))
Next I
FileClose(1)
End If
'CONSTANT VALUES
If UCase$(met$) = "Y" Then unit$ = "Metric" Else unit$ = "fps"
Re = 200000.0! 'ASSUMED INITIAL REYNOLDS NUMBER
EPSILON = 10 ^ -3 'ITERATION CONTROL FACTOR
If ROUGHNESS = 0.0! Then
ROUGHNESS = 0.004 'IN FEET
If unit$ = "Metric" Then ROUGHNESS = 0.0013 'IN METRES
End If
PI = 22 / 7.0!
viscous = 1.059 * 10 ^ -5
G = 32.2 'GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION
CNVRT = 1.0!
If unit$ = "Metric" Then
viscous = 0.000000976
G = 9.807
CNVRT = 3600.0! * 24 'CONVERT TO M3/DAY
End If
'****************************************************************************
'****************************************************************************
For I = 1 To NNODE
QO(I) = Q(I)
Next I
'CALCULATE PIPE COEFFICIENT C(I)
For I = 1 To NELEM
AK(I) = ROUGHNESS / DIAM(I)
FF = -1.62 * AK(I) ^ 0.134
BK = 88.0! * AK(I) ^ 0.44 * Re ^ FF
F(I) = 0.094 * AK(I) ^ 0.225 + 0.53 * AK(I) + BK
Q1 = Re * viscous * PI / 4.0! * DIAM(I)
CT = 8.0! * F(I) * XLEN(I) / (PI ^ 2 * G * DIAM(I) ^ 5)
H1 = CT * Q1 ^ 2
CO(I) = Q1 / H1
C(I) = CO(I)
Next I
'Assembly of global matrix z(i,j)
ITER = 0
Start:
Dim J
ITER = ITER + 1
For I = 1 To NELEM
Q(I) = QO(I) / CNVRT

For J = 1 To NNODE
Z(I, J) = 0.0!
Next J
Next I
For I = 1 To NELEM
L1 = LNODS(I, 1)
L2 = LNODS(I, 2)
Z(L1, L1) = Z(L1, L1) + C(I)
Z(L2, L2) = Z(L2, L2) + C(I)
Z(L1, L2) = Z(L1, L2) - C(I)
Z(L2, L1) = Z(L2, L1) - C(I)
Next I
'IMPOSE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
For INODE = 1 To NVFIX
J = NODEH(INODE)
Z(J, J) = Z(J, J) * 100000000.0
Q(J) = HEAD(J) * Z(J, J)
Next INODE
'SOLVE THE EQUATIONS BY GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Call GAUSS(NNODE, Z, Q, H)
'COMPUTE HEADLOSSES AND DISCHARGES
ICHECKER = 0
For I = 1 To NELEM
L1 = LNODS(I, 1)
L2 = LNODS(I, 2)
DELH(I) = Abs(H(L1) - H(L2))
D(I) = C(I) * DELH(I)
R(I) = 4.0! * D(I) / (PI * viscous * DIAM(I))
EE = -1.62 * AK(I) ^ 0.134
WW = 88.0! * AK(I) ^ 0.44 * R(I) ^ EE
F(I) = 0.094 * AK(I) ^ 0.225 + 0.53 * AK(I) + WW
DH(I) = XLEN(I) * D(I) ^ 2 / DIAM(I) ^ 5
DH(I) = DH(I) * 8.0! * F(I) / (G * PI ^ 2)
DIF = Abs(DH(I) - DELH(I))
If DIF > EPSILON Then
ICHECKER = ICHECKER + 1
C(I) = 0.5 * (C(I) + (D(I) / DH(I)))
End If
Next I
If ICHECKER > 0 Then GoTo start
'RESULTS
Dim s As String
s = "Element No. Discharge HEAD LOSS"
For I = 1 To NELEM
s += vbCrLf + Format(I, "####")
s += Format((D(I) * CNVRT), "####.#####")
s += Format(DELH(I), "####.#####")
Next
s += vbCrLf + "Node Number Head"
For I = 1 To NNODE
s += vbCrLf + Format(I, "####")
s += Format(H(I), "####.#####")
Next
s += vbCrLf + "TOTAL ITERATIONS = " + ITER.ToString
TextBox6.Text = s
Me.Width = 691
End Sub

Sub GAUSS(ByVal NNODE, ByVal Z(,), ByVal Q(), ByVal H())
'****************************************************************************
'SOLVES A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
'****************************************************************************
Dim ZZ, COF As Double
'FORWARD ELIMINATION
For I = 1 To NNODE - 1
ZZ = Z(I, I)
Q(I) = Q(I) / ZZ
For J = 1 To NNODE
Z(I, J) = Z(I, J) / ZZ
Next J
For K = I + 1 To NNODE
COF = -Z(K, I)
Q(K) = Q(K) + COF * Q(I)
For J = 1 To NNODE
Z(K, J) = Z(K, J) + COF * Z(I, J)
Next J
Next K
Next I
'BACK SUBSTITUTION
H(NNODE) = Q(NNODE) / Z(NNODE, NNODE)
For I = NNODE - 1 To 1 Step -1
H(I) = Q(I)
For J = I + 1 To NNODE
H(I) = H(I) - Z(I, J) * H(J)
Next J
Next I
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Dim f = OpenFileDialog1.ShowDialog
If f = DialogResult.Cancel Then Exit Sub
Label2.Text = OpenFileDialog1.FileName
FileOpen(1, OpenFileDialog1.FileName, OpenMode.Input)
Input(1, NELEM)
Input(1, NNODE)
Input(1, met$)
met$ = met$.Trim()
Input(1, NVFIX)
Input(1, NPFLOW)
Input(1, ROUGHNESS)
loadFromFile = True
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click Dim f = SaveFileDialog1.ShowDialog
If f = DialogResult.Cancel Then Exit Sub
Label4.Text = SaveFileDialog1.FileName
saveFileName = SaveFileDialog1.FileName
loadFromFile = False
End Sub
Private Sub Button3_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button3.Click If Not loadFromFile Then
NELEM = Val(TextBox1.Text)

NNODE = Val(TextBox2.Text)
NVFIX = Val(TextBox3.Text)
NPFLOW = Val(TextBox4.Text)
ROUGHNESS = Val(TextBox5.Text)
If RadioButton1.Checked Then met$ = "Y" Else met$ = "N"
Dim f2 As New Form2
f2.ShowDialog()
End If
calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class
(B) LISTING OF FORM2 (CHAP3.12\FORM2.VB)
Public Class Form2
Private Sub Form2_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load TabPage1.Text = "Pipe data"
GroupBox1.Text = ""
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("DCol", "Diameter")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LCol", "Length")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("E1Col", "End 1")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("E2Col", "End 2")
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(CInt(NELEM))
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
TabPage2.Text = "Ext. Node flow"
GroupBox2.Text = ""
DataGridView2.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView2.Columns.Add("NCol", "Node No.")
DataGridView2.Columns.Add("ECol", "Ext. flow")
DataGridView2.Rows.Add(CInt(NPFLOW))
DataGridView2.AllowUserToAddRows = False
TabPage3.Text = "Node head"
GroupBox3.Text = ""
DataGridView3.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView3.Columns.Add("NCol", "Node No.")
DataGridView3.Columns.Add("HCol", "Known head")
DataGridView3.Rows.Add(CInt(NVFIX))
DataGridView3.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Button3.Text = "&Save data"
End Sub
Sub saveData()
Dim N = NELEM
ReDim DIAM(N), XLEN(N), AK(N), LNODS(N, 2), HEAD(N), H(N), Q(N), C(N),
F(N) ReDim D(N), NODEH(N), Z(N, N), DELH(N), QO(N), CO(N), R(N), DH(N)
FileOpen(2, saveFileName, OpenMode.Output)
Print(2, NELEM, NNODE, Chr(34), met$, Chr(34))
Print(2, NVFIX, NPFLOW, ROUGHNESS)
For I = 1 To NELEM
DIAM(I) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(I - 1).Cells("DCol").Value)
XLEN(I) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(I - 1).Cells("LCol").Value)
LNODS(I, 1) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(I - 1).Cells("E1Col").Value)
LNODS(I, 2) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(I - 1).Cells("E2Col").Value)
Print(2, DIAM(I), XLEN(I), LNODS(I, 1), LNODS(I, 2))
Next
'INPUT EXTERNAL NODAL FLOWS
For I = 1 To NPFLOW


nodeq = Val(DataGridView2.Rows(I - 1).Cells("NCol").Value)

Q(nodeq) = Val(DataGridView2.Rows(I - 1).Cells("ECol").Value)
Print(2, NODEQ, Q(NODEQ))
Next
'INPUT KNOWN HEAD AT NODES
For I = 1 To NVFIX
nodeH(I) = Val(DataGridView3.Rows(I - 1).Cells("NCol").Value)
head(nodeh(I)) = Val(DataGridView3.Rows(I - 1).Cells("HCol").Value)
Print(2, NODEH(I), HEAD(NODEH(I)))
Next
FileClose(2)
End Sub
Private Sub Button3_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button3.Click saveData()
Me.Hide()
End Sub
End Class
(c) LISTING OF MODULE1 (CHAP3.12\MODULE1.VB)
Module Module1
Public NELEM, NNODE, NVFIX, NPFLOW, ROUGHNESS As Double
Public ITER, CNVRT, L1, L2, FF, BK, Re, Q1, viscous, CT, H1 As Double
Public DIAM(), XLEN(), AK(), LNODS(,), HEAD(), H(), Q(), C(), F()
Public D(), NODEH(), Z(,), DELH(), QO(), CO(), R(), DH()
Public EPSILON, NODEQ As Double
Public saveFileName As String
Public PI, G As Double
Public met$, unit$
End Module

3.7.6.3 Advantages of the Finite Element Method

The major advantages of the finite element method over the Hardy Cross method include the following
1.(Abdel-Magid 1987, Abdel-Magid et al. 1991): The speed of convergence and the apparent lack of
2.3.convergence problems No need for an initial guess of flow distribution Flexibility in applying
boundary conditions
5. Ease of modifying and extending network without interrupting the whole system Absence of
4.
artificial loops
6. The choice of flowhead loss relationships
7. Ease of input data
8. The ability to account for temperature effects
9. The unlimited network size (depending only on computer storage capacity) The effect of pumps,
boosters, pressure-reducing valves, nonreturn valves, and so on can easily be incorporated in
the program if their actual headflow relationships are known.

3.8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF STORAGE TANKS

The structural design procedure involves two steps:
 1. Analysis of forces: Finding the distribution of the vertical and horizontal bending moments and
2. the axial forces in the tank Design of sections: Proportioning the sections and determining the
necessary amounts of steel required 3.8.1 ANALYSIS OF FORCES

3.8.1.1 Circular Tanks

Assuming that the thickness of the walls of the tank is small in comparison with the overall dimensions of
the tank, the tank can be analyzed as a cylindrical shell. Considering a tank with a uniform wall thickness
under lateral fluid pressure, the governing equilibrium equation in terms of the lateral deflection of the
tank w is given by the following differential equation (Reddy 2006):

(3.60)

where:
w is the lateral deflection of the tank
x is the distance along the height of the tank measured from its base
H is the height of the tank
is the density of liquid, KN/m3
is a constant given by the following equation:

(3.61)

where:
v is the Poissons ratio of the material of the tank
a is the radius of the tank
t is the thickness of the walls of the tank
D is the flexural rigidity of the tank, given by the following equation:

(3.62)

where E is the Youngs modulus of the material of the tank, KN/m2.

For a tank with its walls fixed to the base, a solution to Equation 3.62 is given by the following
equation:

(3.63)

The constants C1 and C2 are obtained by applying the boundary conditions and are given by the following
equations:
 (3.64)

(3.65)

Using the solution given by Equation 3.64, together with the strain displacement relationship and Hooks
law, the bending moments in the walls of the tank can be found as shown in Equation 3.66:

(3.66)

where Mx is the vertical moment on the wall per unit width, KNm.

(3.67)

(3.68)

The horizontal moment My on the walls per unit width is given by the following equation:

(3.69)

where v is the Poissons ratio of the material of the tank.

The axial thrust on the walls of the tank per unit width Ny, which acts in the horizontal direction, is
given by the following equation:

(3.70)

The maximum shear force at the foot of the walls will be given by the following equation:

(3.71)

Example 3.13
1. Write a computer program to compute the bending moments, axial thrust, and shearing forces
 in a circular tank of height H, radius R, and wall thickness t. The tank retains a fluid with
density .
2. A cylindrical tank with radius of 9 m and height of 8 m has a wall thickness of 0.35 m and
retains a liquid with a density of 9.99 KN/m3. Assuming Poissons ratio of 0.25, compute the
bending moments, axial thrust, and shearing forces at midheight and at the base of the walls.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 3.13 (1), see the listing of Program 3.13.

a. 2 Using the data with Program 3.13, the following results are obtained: At a depth of 4 m:
1.
Mx = 4.17 kNm/m, My = 1.04 kNm/m, N = 390.41 kN/m, Q = 5.39 KN/m.
b. At a depth of 8 m: Mx = 62.2 kNm/m, My = 15.5 kNm/m, N = 0, Q = 100.15 KN/m.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.13 (CHAP3.13\FORM1.VB): ANALYSIS OF

CIRCULAR TANKS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.13: Analysis of Circular Tanks
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim H, t, D, gamma, Mu, y As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.13: Analysis of
Circular Tanks"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the height of tank, H (m):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the thickness of wall, t (m):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the diameter of the tank, Dt (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the density of the liquid, (KN/m3):"
Label5.Text = "Enter Poisson's ratio of the material of tank:"
Label6.Text = "Enter depth at which forces are required, x(m):"
Button1.Text = "Load another section"
Button2.Text = "Calculate"
TextBox7.Multiline = True
TextBox7.Height = 144
TextBox7.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = 2
H = Val(TextBox1.Text)
t = Val(TextBox2.Text)
D = Val(TextBox3.Text)
gamma = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Mu = Val(TextBox5.Text)
y = Val(TextBox6.Text)
Dim X, R, b, bh, c0, c1, c2, N, M, V As Double
X = H - y
R = D / 2
b = (3 * (1 - (Mu ^ 2))) / ((R ^ 2) * (t ^ 2))
b = (b ^ 0.25)
bh = b * H
c0 = (12 * (1 - Mu ^ 2)) ^ 0.5
Dim theta As Double = Exp(-X) * Cos(b * X)
N = gamma * R * H * (1 - X / H - Exp(-b * X) * Cos(b * X) - (1 - 1 / bh)
* Exp(-b * X) * Sin(b * X)) M = gamma * R * H * t * (-Exp(-b * X) * Sin(b *
X) + (1 - 1 / bh) * Exp(-b * X) * Cos(b * X)) / c0
c1 = 1 / bh
c2 = -(2 - (1 / bh))
V = -gamma * R * H * t / c0 * (b * Exp(-b * X)) * (c1 * Sin(b * X) + c2
* Cos(b * X)) Dim _My As Double = Mu * M
Dim s As String
s = "At a depth = " + y.ToString + " m from the top of the tank:" +
vbCrLf s += "Vertical moment Mx = " + FormatNumber(M, decimals) + " KNm/m" +
vbCrLf s += "Horizontal moment My = " + FormatNumber(_My, decimals) + "
KNm/m" + vbCrLf s += "Axial ring force N = " + FormatNumber(N, decimals) + "
KN/m" + vbCrLf s += "Shearing force V = " + FormatNumber(V, decimals) + "
KN/m"
TextBox7.Text = s
End Sub

Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click TextBox6.Text = ""
TextBox7.Text = ""
TextBox6.Focus()
End Sub
 End Class

3.8.1.2 Rectangular Tanks

Rectangular tanks can be divided into two types: deep and shallow tanks.
Deep tanks: Here, the height of the walls H is greater than twice the lateral dimensions, that is, H > 2Lx
and H > 2Ly, where Lx and Ly are the plan length and width of the tank, respectively. Such tanks will
resist the applied forces primarily horizontally. The moments in the horizontal strips of the walls can be
found using the equation of three moments as shown in Equations 3.72 through 3.74.
At the center of the longer side Lx:

(3.72)

At the center of the shorter side Ly:

(3.73)

where:
Mx1 and Mx2 are the horizontal moments at the center of the long and short sides of the tank,
respectively a is the side ratio = Lx/Ly
P is the fluid pressure at any depth z from the top of the tank = z is the density of the retained
material
z is the depth at which the moments and forces are calculated

The horizontal moment at the junction between the walls of the tank Ms will be opposite in direction to
both Mx1 and Mx2 and will be given by the following equation:

(3.74)

The moment on the vertical strips of the walls of the tank My per unit width of the walls can be calculated
from the following equations:

(3.75)
 (3.76)

The axial force in the wall acts horizontally and is equal to the reaction on the other wall. For the side
with length Lx, the axial force is as given by the following equation:

(3.77)

And that on the side with length Ly is given by the following equation:

(3.78)

where P is the pressure of the fluid at the depth under consideration.

Shallow tanks: Here, the depth H < 2Lx and H < 2Ly. In such a case, the tank walls act as two-
dimensional two-way plates. The analysis of the walls in this case requires the solution of the equilibrium
equation for plates (Reddy 2006):

(3.79)

where:
w is the lateral deflection of the tank walls
q is the lateral pressure on the walls
D is the flexural rigidity of the walls of the tank

The usual procedure is to assume each plate to be completely fixed to its neighboring plate, whereas its
top can be free or simply supported. The moments are then found by solving Equation 3.79. Various
methods exist for the solution, which includes the approximate elasticity methods described by
Timoshinko and Krieger (Timoshinko and Krieger 1989), or the numerical approximate methods of the
finite differences (Reddy 2006), or the finite elements (Arya 2002). The moments found in this way at the
edges of the plates will not be in equilibrium and can be distributed using the stiffness of the mating walls
in the normal way (Obrien and Dixon 2012). Details of the method of solution for Equation 3.79 using the
finite difference method are given in Chapter 5. The method is suitable for both shallow and deep tanks
(see Program 5.5).

Example 3.14
1. Write a computer program to analyze a rectangular tank, given its plan dimensions Lx and Ly,
the wall thickness t, its depth H, and the density of the retained material .
2. Use the program developed in (1) to analyze a rectangular tank of plan dimensions 3 m 2 m
with a depth of 8 m and a wall thickness of 0.2 m, at a depth of 4 m and at a depth of 8 m.
 The material retained has a density of 9.81 KN/m3. Take Poissons ratio = 0.25.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 3.14, see the listing of Program 3.14.

2. Using the following data with the program: H = 8 m, t = 0.2 m, Lx = 3 m, Ly = 2 m, = 9.81
KN/m3, and Poissons ratio = 0.25, we get the following results: at a depth of 4 m: Mx =
21.255 KNm/m, My = 3.27 KNm/m, Mc = 35.97 KNm/m, Nx = 39.24, Ny = 58.86 NK/m;
at a depth of 8 m, Mx = 42.51 KNm/m, My = 6.54 KNm/m, Mc = 71.48 KNm/m = 78.48
KN/m, Ny = 117.72 KN/m.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.14 (CHAP3.14\FORM1.VB): ANALYSIS OF

RECTANGULAR TANKS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.14: Analysis of Rectangular Tanks
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim H, t, Lx, Ly, gama, mu, y As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.14: Analysis of
Rectangular Tanks"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the height of tank, H (m):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the thickness of wall, t (m):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the length of the tank, Lx (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the width of the tank, Ly (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the density of the liquid (KN/m3):"
Label6.Text = "Enter Poisson's ratio of the material of tank:"
Label7.Text = "Enter depth at which forces are required, x (m):"
Button1.Text = "Load another section"
Button2.Text = "Calculate"
TextBox7.Multiline = True
TextBox7.Height = 144
TextBox7.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
H = Val(textbox1.text)
t = Val(textbox2.text)
Lx = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Ly = Val(TextBox4.Text)
gama = Val(TextBox5.Text)
mu = Val(TextBox6.Text)
y = Val(TextBox8.Text)
Dim a, P, Mx1, Mx2, Mc, Nx, Ny As Double
a = Lx / Ly
P = gama * y
Mx1 = (0.5 * a ^ 2 + a - 1) * P * Ly ^ 2 / 12
Mx2 = (0.5 + a - a ^ 2) * P * Ly ^ 2 / 12
Mc = (1 - a - a ^ 2) * P * Ly ^ 2 / 12
Nx = P * Ly / 2

Ny = P * Lx / 2
Dim s As String
s = "At a depth = " + y.ToString + " m from the top of the tank:" +
vbCrLf s += "Horizontal moment at the center of the long side Mx = " +
Mx1.ToString + " KNm/m" + vbCrLf s += "Horizontal moment at the center of the
short side My = " + Mx2.ToString + " KNm/m" + vbCrLf s += "Horizontal moment
at the joints of the sides Mc = " + Mc.ToString + " KNm/m" + vbCrLf s +=
"Horizontal thrust on the long sides Nx = " + Nx.ToString + " KN/m" + vbCrLf
s += "Horizontal thrust on the short sides Ny = " + Ny.ToString + " KN/m"
TextBox7.Text = s
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click TextBox8.Text = ""
TextBox7.Text = ""
TextBox8.Focus()
End Sub
 End Class

3.8.2 DESIGN OF THE SECTION

For a section subjected to a bending moment M, the amount of steel needed can be computed from the
following equation:

(3.80)

where:
Ast is the area of steel needed, mm2
M is the applied bending moment, Nmm
fy is the yield strength of the steel, N/mm2
Z is the level arm, mm

For a certain moment M, the lever arm Z can be obtained from the following equation:

(3.81)

where d is the effective depth of the section (mm), that is, total depth minus the cover to steel.

where:
M is the bending moment, N*mm
b is the breadth of the section, mm
d is the effective depth, mm
fcu is the concrete strength, N/mm2

If the section is subjected to an axial tensile force N in addition to the bending moment M (as is the
case with the horizontal strips in tanks), the total area of steel can be obtained from the following
equation:

(3.82)

where:
N is the axial tensile force on the section, N
fst is the design steel stress, N/mm2
M is the bending moment on the section, Nmm
d is the effective depth of the section, mm
t is the thickness of the section, mm
Z is the lever arm given by Equation 3.81, mm To cover the effects of thermal and shrinkage, a check for
cracks can be made. However, most codes of practice recommend that the area of the steel in any section
must not be less than Astmin, given by the following equation:

(3.83)

where:
b is the breadth of section, mm
t is the thickness of walls, mm
F = 0.0024 for mild steel reinforcement (i.e., grade 250); = 0.0015 for high-yield steel reinforcement
(i.e., grade 460)

Example 3.15
1. Write a computer program to design the reinforcement for a section of a concrete tank for a
certain moment M and axial tension N, given the wall thickness t, the concrete strength (grade of
concrete) fcu, and the steel yield strength fy.
2. Use the program developed in (1) to design a concrete tank section subject to a vertical bending
moment Mx = 4.17 KNm/m, horizontal bending moment of 1.04 KNm/m, an axial (ring) tension
of 390.41 KN/m, and a shearing force of 5.39 KN/m. Take fcu = 30 N/mm2, fy = 250 N/mm2, and
a wall thickness of 0.2 m, assuming severe exposure conditions.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 3.15 (1), see the listing of Program 3.15.
2. Input for the program will be in the following form: fcu = 30, fy = 250, Mh = 1.04, Mv = 4.17, N
= 390, V = 5.39, t = 0.2, severe exposure conditions. The following results will be obtained:
cover to steel = 40 mm, horizontal steel = 1739.1 mm2, and vertical steel = 300 mm2.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 3.15 (CHAP3.15\FORM1.VB): STRUCTURAL

DESIGN OF TANKS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 3.15: Structural design of tanks
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Public d(3), A(4), spac(4), NB(4)
Public CV, fcu, fy, Mh, Mv, N, V, t As Double
Public Astv, Ra, Vc, fu, Stress As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 3.15: Structural
design of tanks"
Label1.Text = "Enter grade of concrete, fcu (N/mm2):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the steel yield stress, fy (N/mm2):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the horizontal moment, Mh (KNm/m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the vertical moment, Mv (KNm/m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the ring tension, N (KN/m):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the maximum shear, V (KN/m):"
Label7.Text = "Enter the thickness of the wall, t (m):"
Label8.Text = "Select exposure conditions:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
TextBox8.Multiline = True
TextBox8.Height = 114
TextBox8.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Mild")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Moderate")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Severe")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Very severe")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Extreme")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
fcu = Val(TextBox1.Text)
fy = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Mh = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Mv = Val(TextBox4.Text)
N = Val(TextBox5.Text)
V = Val(TextBox6.Text)
t = Val(TextBox7.Text)

If t < 0.2 Then

MsgBox("Please enter 't' value more than 0.2", vbOKOnly +
vbInformation, "Prompt") Exit Sub
End If
Dim K, Z, Ast, Ast2, Br, Astmin, Fst, maxMu, d As Double
'determine the cover to steel reinforcement
Dim index = ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
If index = 0 Then
If fcu <= 30 Then CV = 25
If fcu >= 35 Then CV = 20
ElseIf index = 1 Then
If fcu <= 35 Then CV = 35
If fcu = 40 Then CV = 30
If fcu = 45 Then CV = 25
If fcu = 50 Then CV = 20
ElseIf index = 2 Then
If fcu <= 40 Then CV = 40
If fcu = 45 Then CV = 30
If fcu = 50 Then CV = 25
ElseIf index = 3 Then
If fcu <= 40 Then CV = 50
If fcu = 45 Then CV = 40
If fcu = 50 Then CV = 30
ElseIf index = 4 Then
If fcu <= 45 Then CV = 60
If fcu = 50 Then CV = 50
Else
MsgBox("Please select exposure condition.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
Br = 1000 '1m width
t = t * 1000 'convert to mm
d = t - CV - 10 'effective depth, assuming 20mm bars
Astmin = 0.0015 * br * t 'minimum area of steel for grade 250 steel
If fy > 250 Then Astmin = 0.0024 * br * t 'for grade 460 steel
Mh = Abs(Mh) * 10 ^ 6 'convert to KNmm
Mv = Abs(Mv) * 10 ^ 6 'convert to KNmm
N = Abs(N) * 10 ^ 3 'convert to KN
V = Abs(V) * 10 ^ 3 'convert to KN
Fst = 0.87 * fy 'design steel stress
RECYCLE:
'Horizontal steel
maxMu = 0.156 * fcu * br * d ^ 2
Do
d = d + 100
t = t + 100
Loop While Mh > maxMu
K = Mh / (fcu * br * d ^ 2)
Z = d * (0.5 + (0.25 - K / 0.9) ^ 0.5)
If z > 0.94 * d Then z = 0.94 * d
Ast = N / fst
Ast2 = (Mh - N * (d - t / 2)) / (fst * z)
If Ast2 > 0 Then Ast = Ast + Ast2
If Ast < Astmin Then Ast = Astmin
'Vertical steel
Do
d = d + 100
t = t + 100
Loop While Mv > maxMu
K = Mv / (fcu * br * d ^ 2)

Z = d * (0.5 + (0.25 - K / 0.9) ^ 0.5)

If z > 0.94 * d Then z = 0.94 * d
Astv = Mv / (fst * z)
If Astv < Astmin Then Astv = Astmin
'Check for shear stress
Ra = 100 * Ast / (Br * d)
If d > 400 Then d = 400
Vc = 0.79 * Ra ^ (1 / 3) * (400 / d) ^ 0.25 / 1.25
If fu > 40 Then fu = 40
If fu > 25 Then Vc = Vc * (fu / 25) ^ (1 / 3)
Stress = V / (br * d)
If stress > Vc Then
d = d * V / Vc * 1.1
t = d + CV + 10
GoTo RECYCLE
End If
Dim Mmax, Asm, Dr, Ec, Es, Alpha, R, X, Fsa, Fs As Double
'check for cracking at serviceability limit state
N = N / 1.5 'service ring tension
Mmax = Mh
Asm = Ast
Dr = 1
If Mmax < Mv Then
Mmax = Mv
Asm = Astv
Dr = 2
End If
Mmax = Mmax / 1.5 'service maximum moment
Ec = 4500 * fcu ^ 0.5 'Youngs modulus of concrete
Ec = 0.5 * Ec 'service Youngs modulus
Es = 2 * 10 ^ 5 'Youngs modulus for steel
Alpha = Es / Ec 'modular ratio
R = Alpha * Asm / (Br * d) 'steel ratio
X = d * R * ((1 + 2 / R) ^ 0.5 - 1)
Z = d - X / 3 'level arm
Fs = Mmax / (Asm * z) 'service stress in steel
Fsa = 0.58 * fy 'allowable service stress
If fs > fsa Then
'cracking is excessive, so increase area of steel
Dim Fact = Fs / Fsa
If dr = 1 Then Ast = Ast * fact Else Astv = Astv * fact
End If
Dim s As String
Dim decimals As Integer = 2
s = "The cover to reinforcement (mm) = " + FormatNumber(CV, decimals) +
vbCrLf s += "Area of horizontal steel (sq.mm/m): " + FormatNumber(Ast,
decimals) + vbCrLf s += "Area of vertical steel (sq.mm/m): " +
FormatNumber(Astv, decimals) + vbCrLf s += "Shear stress (N/mm2): " +
FormatNumber(Stress, decimals) + vbCrLf
s += "Service steel stress (N/mm3): " + FormatNumber(Fs, decimals) + "
O.K.: No Cracking" + vbCrLf s += "Final depth of wall required (mm): " +
FormatNumber(t, decimals) + vbCrLf TextBox8.Text = s
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
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3.9 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN WATER RESOURCES, WATER STORAGE,

AND WATER DISTRIBUTION

3.9.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS

1. What are the main categories into which water usage may be grouped?
2. What are the factors that influence fire demand?
3. Define the following terms: transmissibility coefficient, confined aquifer, unconfined aquifer,
draw- down, and radius of influence.
4. Compare between confined, unconfined, and perched aquifers in accordance with items outlined
in the following table. Illustrate your answer with suitable sketches.

Unconfined
Item Confined
Water movement
Possibility of contamination
Pressure
Depth
Recharge and replenishment
Groundwater age
Typical examples

5. Define the term water foot print. Indicate how to measure its value for your country.
6. How do you estimate future population in your locality with the available data?
7. In the following table, give two examples of vital standards related to water and its use,
describe the most essential influencing parameters and responsible authority within a certain
municipality (Dammam University, B.Sc. exam 2013).

Table of Examples of Standards Related to Water

Standard Affecting Factors Responsible Body

8. In the following table, outline the importance of each term as related to water supply from an
engineering prospective (Dammam University, B.Sc. exam 2013).

Table of Water Supply Engineering Issues

Item Significance
Hand as a germ farm
Concentration of desalination plants along the Arabian Gulf
Water awareness message highlighted in a municipality water storage tank
Hand washing
KSA hydrogeological map
Pipe material in KSA
WHO drinking water guidelines
Personal distance
Wash hand basin water reuse
Sampling techniques
Water leakage rate
Water footprints

 Compare between ground water and surface water from different points of view as per activity
9.
parameters shown in the following table:

Groundwater
Activity Surface Water
Natural recharge
Availability
Quality
Production cost
Storage
Properties

10. Why is water storage needed?

11. Outline the classification used for water storage reservoirs.
12. What are the differences between an elevated water storage tower and a stand pipe?
13. What parameters govern the size of storage reservoirs?
14. Define the following terms: mass curve and water supply network.
15. Show how to estimate the required reservoir storage capacity in order to maintain uniform user
flow.
16. Rate accuracy of a rating (mass, S-curve, Rippll diagram) curve and its representation of the
relationship between measured water level (at a particular measuring station) and the discharge
passing.
17. What are the main types of pipeline patterns? Indicate the advantages and disadvantages of each
system.
18. What is the difference between a pipe and a duct?
19. Differentiate between laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows.
20. Define the following numbers: Reynolds number, Froude number, and Weber number. Show that
each number is a dimensionless quantity. Show examples and the use of each of these numbers.
21. Differentiate between steady-state and non-steady-state flow.
22. What are the differences between compressible and incompressible flows?
23. Define the following: shear wall, eddy viscosity, dimensional analysis, and network loop.
24. What are the advantages of the Moody chart? Indicate the range of the validity of the Moody
chart.
25. What is the value of the equivalent-velocity-head method in analysis of pipe flow? Indicate the
differences between this method and the method of equivalent length.
26. Outline the classification of loops in pipe networks. What are the differences between them?
27. What are the disadvantages of analyzing networks by the Bernoulli and continuity equations?
28. Define the method of successive approximations and finite element method. Indicate their main
differences.
29. Indicate the assumptions made in the method of successive approximations. Show how to
correct these assumptions.
30. Briefly describe the Hardy Cross method of network analysis. Indicate its disadvantages and
limitations.
31. What are the required data needed for appropriate modeling of a water supply network?
32. What are the steps involved in the structural design of a water storage tank?
33. How can you structurally differentiate between a cylindrical shell, a deep rectangular tank, and
 a shallow rectangular tank?
34. Indicate the assumptions made in the structural design of a water storage tank.
35. Briefly describe the following methods for determining moments: approximate elasticity
method, numerical approximate methods of finite differences, and finite elements method.
36. Why is it important to check a structural design for cracks?

3.9.2 SPECIFIC MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1. A city recorded a population of 245,000 in its earlier decennial census and 315,000 in its later
one. Write a computer program that enables the computation of the midyear (1 Muharram)
populations (Dammam University, B.Sc. exam 2013).
a.For the fifth intercensal year.
b.For the ninth postcensal year by both arithmetic and geometric increases. Assume a census
date of 1 Rabi-2.
c.Comment on your results.
d.Select your design engineering population. State your reasons for the selection.
e.Determine the amount of water to be supplied to the city if the average water consumption
amounts to 450 L/c/day.
2. Write a computer program that enables to find the future fire demand for a town having a
population of 18,000 inhabitants with a population growth rate of 2% for a design period of 15
years (Dammam University, B.Sc. exam 2013).
3. a. Using the following equation:

write a computer program to calculate transmissivity (T) of an aquifer, hydraulic conductivity

(K) of an aquifer material, and radius of influence (R) of a well.
b.A 250-mm-diameter well that fully penetrates a confined aquifer of thickness 20 m is pumped
at a constant rate of 1875 m3/day. The steady-state drawdown in the well is 9 m, and the
drawdown in a piezometer 120 m from the well is 1.8 m, ignoring well losses (Dammam
i.University, B.Sc. exam 2015): Calculate the transmissivity (T) of the aquifer.
ii. Find the hydraulic conductivity (K) of the aquifer material.
iii. Compute the radius of influence (R) of the well.
iv. Repeat the calculation for an unconfined aquifer with a saturated thickness of 25 m.
i. What would be the calculated values of T, K, and R in (a, b, and c) if the well is 80% efficient?
4. a. Write a computer program to determine for a given aquifer radius of zero drawdown,
coefficient of permeability, drawdown in the pumped well, transmissibility of the aquifer, and
suitability of well diameter to its yield.
 b.A well is 30 cm diameter and penetrates 50 m below the static water table. After 36 h of
pumping at 4.0 m3/min, the water level on a test well 200 m distance is lowered by 1.2m, and in
a well 40 m away, the drawdown is 2.7 m (Dammam University, B.Sc. exam 2013).
i. Determine the radius of zero drawdown.
ii. Find the coefficient of permeability.
iii. Compute the drawdown in the pumped well.
iv. What is the transmissibility of the aquifer?
c.Using expected well yield estimates as presented in the following table, comment about the
yield of the well as related to its diameter, and suggest a more suitable well diameter. Explain
and validate your answer.

Table of Expected Well Yield
Well Diameter (cm) Expected Well Yield (m3 /day)
15 <500
20 4001,000
25 8002,000
30 2,0003,500
35 3,0005,000
40 4,5007,000
50 6,50010,000
60 8,50017,000

5.a. Write a computer program to plot a mass curve for given river discharges. Determine the
minimum capacity of a reservoir if the entire annual inflow is to be drawn off at a uniform rate
(with no flow going into waste over the spillway) and to compute the amount of water, which
must be initially stored to maintain the uniform draw-off.
b.The following table is a record of the mean monthly discharges of a river in a dry year
(Dammam University, B.Sc. exam 2015).
i. Plot the mass curve for the river discharges given.
ii. Determine the minimum capacity of a reservoir if the entire annual inflow is to be drawn off at a
uniform rate (with no flow going into waste over the spillway).
iii. Compute the amount of water that must be initially stored to maintain the uniform draw-off.

Mean Flow (cumec)
Month
January 42
February 88
March 79
April 69
May 35
June 38
July 80
August 62
September 87
October 79
November 53
December 38

6.. Write a computer program to determine the pressure difference in a horizontal circular pipe,
given its length, l (m); diameter, D (m); and the maximum shear that can develop at pipe wall, w
(N/m2). Check the validity of your program, given D = 300 mm and w = 0.4 kPa per unit length.
7. Write a short program to estimate minor losses in a piping system, h1 (m), given the loss
coefficient, k1, and the velocity of flow, v (m/s). Use the relationship: h1 = k1*v2/2g. Check the
validity of your program for the following data: v = 15 m/s, k1 = 0.5.
8. Write a computer program that enables the determination of the pressure drop in a pipe using
Poiseuilles law (P = 32lv/D2). Let the program also find the pressure drop through the
DarcyWeisbach equation (P = f lv2/2D) with the friction factor found either for laminar flow
(f = 64/Re) or for turbulent flow, f, determined from Colebrooks equation: 1/(f)1/2 =
2log[((/D)/3.7) + (2.51/(Re*( f )1/2))] and given the roughness of pipe wall, (m); the pipe
diameter, D (m); the velocity of flow through pipe, v (m/s); and fluid properties (density,
[kg/m3], dynamic viscosity, [N*s/m2], and kinematic viscosity, v [m2/s]). Let the program
determine whether the flow is laminar, transition, or turbulent. Check the validity of your
program for a gas flowing through a tube at v = 10 m/s, D = 5 mm, = 0.002 m, l = 0.2 m, =
1.33 kg/m3, = 2 * 105 N*s/m2, and v = 1.5 * 105 m2/s.

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 4 Computer Modeling Applications for Water Treatment

This chapter outlines the concepts used in the design of treatment facilities for both unit operations and
processes. Unit operations are physical in nature, whereas unit processes involve chemical and biological
principles. Each treatment process, whether physical, chemical, or biological or a combination thereof, is
briefly described with an emphasis being placed on the design of the units, applying well-established
formulae, equations, and models that are then used to develop computer programs that can aid in the
various design procedures.

4.1 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Generally, water treatment processes are broadly classified as follows:
1. Physical treatment, unit operations: Generally, these are the simplest forms of water treatment.
Factors that govern treatment here are physical in nature and include particle size, specific
gravity, and viscosity. Examples of such treatment units include screening, sedimentation,
flotation, aeration, and filtration.
2. Chemical treatment, unit processes: These are capable of changing the nature of the pollutants
and existing contaminants to by-products that are no longer objectionable. Examples include
coagulation, color and odor removal, and disinfection.
3. Biological treatment, unit processes: These are capable of removing organic matter and
soluble and colloidal particles in an engineered system under controlled environmental
conditions. An example of such a process is biological filtration.

4.2 AIMS OF WATER TREATMENT

Municipal water works are required to produce a water supply that is hygienically safe (potable),
aesthetically attractive (palatable), and economically satisfactory for its intended uses. Water treatment
unit operations and unit processes are both used to provide a water supply that is free of the following:
Suspended or floating substances (e.g., leaves, debris, soil particles) Colloidal substances (e.g., clay,
silt, microorganisms)
Dissolved solids (e.g., inorganic salts)
Dissolved gaseous substances (e.g., carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide) Immiscible liquids, such as
oils and greases
Substances that cause corrosion or encrustation
Odor/taste/color-producing substances
Pathogenic organisms (bacteria, viruses, amoebas, worms, fly nymphs, Cyclops, etc.) Compounds
(organic or inorganic) that have an adverse effect, acute or long term, on human health Some of the
first information needed in order to design an economically feasible water treatment facility includes
the source of the water supply, the quality and quantity of water available, and the population to be
served, as well as the commercial and industrial development in that community so that present
demands and further trends can be evaluated. Design capacity must also include social and economic
conditions within the community. Estimates must be made as to the design period, design population,
design flow, peak flows, design area, and design hydrology.
4.3 SCREENING
Screening devices are installed to facilitate the removal of coarse suspended and floating matter.
Presence of coarse solids may damage or interfere with the operation of the pumps and other mechanical
equipment. Solids can also obstruct valves and other devices in the plant. Generally, these materials
consist of leaves, rags, sticks, vegetable matter, broken stones, tree branches, boards, and other large
objects that are relatively inoffensive. The coarse solids are usually removed by simple screening
devices.
The minimum velocity, through a screen, that is needed to prevent the deposition of sand and suspended
matter is related to size and density of the suspended impurities and to flow velocity in the channel from
which water or wastewater emerges. The approach velocity of the water in the channel upstream should
not be less than 0.30.5 m/s. This velocity is recommended to prevent settling out of suspended matter.
The passing velocity of the water through the openings between the bars should not exceed 0.71 m/s to
prevent fluffy and soft matter from being forced through the openings in the screen.
With the blockage of screen openings, resistance to flow rapidly increases. Flow resistance increases
can be evaluated according to the following equation (Huisman 1977):

(4.1)

where:
Hs is the resistance for a clogged screen, m of water
H0 is the initial resistance for a clean screen, m
aa is the percentage open area for a clogged screen
a0 is the percentage open area for a clean screen

The development of this head loss will produce a considerable load on the bar screen, which
necessitates an adequate structural design to meet the developing hydraulic load. Frequent cleaning of the
screen openings helps to limit the effects of this hydraulic load. Cleaning of openings keeps the maximum
value of the resistance below a practical value of 0.5 m. In general, two screens should be provided so
that one screen can be shut down, whereas the other is being cleaned or repaired.

4.4 SEDIMENTATION

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Sedimentation may be defined as the gravitational settling of suspended particles that are heavier than the
surrounding fluid. The water to be clarified by sedimentation is held in a tank for a considerable period of
time. For tanks with large cross-sectional areas, flow velocities are small. This condition induces a state
of virtual quiescence (Huisman 1977). As such, heavier particles (with a mass density greater than that of
the surrounding fluid) start settling under gravitational forces (a process referred to as sedimentation; see
Figure 4.1). Lighter particles (with a mass density less than that of the surrounding fluid) tend to move
vertically upward (a process denoted as flotation; see Figure 4.1). Accordingly, suspended particles are
retained either in the scum layer (top layer) at the water surface or in the sludge layer at the tank floor
(bottom layer). Removal of settled and floatable particles clarifies the raw water. With the same capacity
and tank volume, long, narrow, and shallow basins have greatest potential for solids removal.
The aims of the sedimentation process include the following:

Removal of grit (grit chamber)

Reduction of content of particulate solids, both settleable and floatable (primary settling) Reduction
of BOD5 (primary clarifier)
Removal of chemical floc (chemical coagulation)
Removal of biological floc (activated sludge system)
Separation of solids from mixed liquor (activated sludge)

FIGURE 4.1 Sedimentation and flotation.

Production of a concentrated return sludge flow to sustain biological treatment (secondary clarifiers)
Increase of solids concentration (sludge thickeners and dewatering units) Provision of recirculated
water flow (high-rate trickling filtration) Sedimentation can be improved by adding coagulant aids,
such as lime, soda ash, NaOH, H2SO4, clay, bentonite, powdered stone, or polyelectrolytes. Flotation
can be facilitated by bubbling air or chlorine gas into the liquid at the bottom of the sedimentation
tank.
Sedimentation tanks may be constructed as rectangular, circular, or square in plan. The water in the tank
may be at rest or continuously flowing, either vertically or horizontally. Figure 4.2 illustrates the two
types of sedimentation tanks. Square or circular basins may be preferred, for one or all of the following
reasons: They make better use of the land area allocated for the project (multiple rectangular tanks
require less area than multiple circular tanks).
They offer savings in cost.
They use smaller amounts of raw construction materials.
They allow use of more durable materials (e.g., prestressed concrete).

Best results can be obtained with vertical flow basins, which have large depths and inlet structures that
spread the incoming water equally over the entire tank plan area (Huisman et al 1986, Wang and Hung
2009, Hammer and Hammer 2011, Riffat 2012).

4.4.2 TYPES OF SETTLING PHENOMENON

The settling phenomenon is governed by the particle shapes, sizes, and characteristics. Particle settling is
often classified as follows: Class I: Discrete particle settling. Under discrete particle settling,
nonflocculating conditions develop, and particles maintain their identity throughout the settling process
with a constant velocity, that is, particles experience no change in their size, shape, or density. General
features of discrete settling can be summarized as follows (Viessman et al. 2008): Particles settle as
individual entities.
No significant interaction occurs between adjacent particles.
Settling is unhindered by the basin walls.

This class of particle settling can be represented by the settling of sand grains in water treatment or the
removal of grit in grit chambers in the field of wastewater treatment.

FIGURE 4.2 Sedimentation tanks: (a) schematic diagram of a rectangular horizontal sedimentation tank;
(b) schematic diagram of a circular sedimentation tank.
Class II: Flocculent settling. Under flocculent settling conditions, particles flocculate during
sedimentation, that is, they experience a change in their size, weight, and shape. The main features of this
class of particle settling include the following: Particles coalesce together or flocculate.
Particles are hindered by their neighbors.
Due to the close proximity of particles, the change in their size is mainly due to particle contact.
Particles increase in mass with depth and settling time.
Particles settle rapidly.

Examples of this class of settling occur in alum or iron coagulation (Davis and Cornwell 2006).
Class III: Hindered (zone) settling. Hindered settling occurs when high-density particles interact, and
individual particles are so close together that the displacement of water by the settling of one affects the
relative settling velocities of its neighbors (Steel and McGhee 1991). With the cross-sectional area of a
settling tank being fixed, the water displaced by the settling particle must flow in the opposite direction to
that of the moving particles. The essential features of this kind of settling include the following:
Settling characteristics of adjacent particles are influenced by existence of interparticle forces.
Moving particles have similar settling velocities.
Settlement occurs for a mass of particles that are able to settle as one unit.
Particles remain in fixed places relative to each other.

Examples of this kind of settling may be encountered in lime-softening tanks, sludge thickeners, and
activated sludge sedimentation (Davis and Cornwell 2006). Compared to the stationary walls of the
sedimentation tank, the settling rate under hindered settling conditions is reduced from a value of v to a
value of v as given by Equation 4.2 (Huisman 1977):

(4.2)

where:
v is the hindered settling velocity, m/s
v is the initial settling velocity of the particle, free settling velocity, m/s
Cv is the volumetric concentration of particles (volume of particles divided by the total volume of the
suspension) = Vparticle/Vsuspension
f is the coefficient that varies with the type of particles

An estimate of the extent to which settling is hindered can also be calculated from Equation 4.3, which is
valid for Reynolds numbers less than 0.2, which is generally the situation with hindered settling (Steel
and McGhee 1991):

(4.3)

where:
v is the hindered settling velocity, m/s
v is the free settling velocity of the particle, m/s
Cv is the volume of particles divided by the total volume of the suspension Class IV: Compression
settling. In this class, the concentration of particles forms a distinct structure. Compression, under the
weight of the particles, governs the settling process. This kind of settling occurs at the bottom of deep
secondary settling tanks and takes place under sludge settling conditions (Metcalf and Eddy 2013).
Usually, more than one type of settling occurs in a sedimentation basin.

4.4.3 CLASS I SETTLING

When a particle is placed in a liquid of a density lesser than its own, its settling velocity will accelerate
until a limiting (terminal) velocity is reached. Beyond this velocity, the settling forces and the submerged
weight of the particle are in balance with the frictional drag forces. This yields turbulent flow conditions.
The relationship for this settling velocity is presented in the following equation:

(4.4)

where:
v is the settling (terminal) velocity of particle, m/s
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
d is the diameter of spherical particle, m
s.g. is the specific gravity of the particle

The settling velocity of a spherical particle under laminar flow conditions can be expressed by Stokes
law, which is presented in the following equation:

(4.5)

where:
v is the settling (terminal) velocity of particle, m/s
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
d is the diameter of spherical particle, m
s.g. is the specific gravity of the particle = s/
is the density of fluid, kg/m3
s is the particle density, kg/m3
v is the kinematic velocity, m2/s

(4.6)

where is the dynamic viscosity (absolute), N*s/m2

Example 4.1
1 Write a computer program to determine the settling velocity for spherical discrete particle
settling under different flow conditions (laminar or turbulent). Provide a program to check
the Reynolds number for the computed overflow rate (at different temperatures).
2. Particles are allowed to settle in a settling column test. The particles have a specific gravity
of 1.3 and an average diameter of 0.1 mm. Using Stokes law, determine the settling velocity
of the particles in water (the temperature of the water is 20C).
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the computations in (2).
Solution
 1 For solution to Example 4.1 (1), see the listing of Program 4.1.
a. Solution to Example 4.1 (2): Given: s.g. = 1.3, d = 0.1 * 103 m.
2.
b.Find the viscosity coefficient from Appendix A1 that corresponds to a temperature of T =
20C as follows: = 1.0087 * 103 N*s/m2 and = 998.2 kg/m3.
c.Use Stokes law to find the settling velocity of the particles, v = *g*d2 (s.g. 1)/(18 * ).
d.Substitute the given values in Stokes equation to find the settling velocity as follows: v =
998.2 * 9.81(0.1 * 103)2(1.3 1)/18 * 1.0087 * 103 = 1.62 * 103 m/s = 1.62 mm/s.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.1 (CHAP4.1\FORM1.VB): SETTLING

VELOCITY FOR SPHERICAL DISCRETE PARTICLES

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.1: Settling
'computes settling velocity for spherical
'discrete particles
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim temp(34) As Integer
Dim density(34), viscosity(34) As Double
Const G = 9.81 'gravity constant
Dim Velocity, sg, d, Ro, Mu As Double
Dim T As Integer
'*******************************************************************************
'Fill the tables with default values,
'taken from Appendix A1.
'*******************************************************************************
Private Sub fill_tables()
temp(0) = 5
temp(1) = 6
temp(2) = 7
temp(3) = 8
temp(4) = 9
temp(5) = 10
temp(6) = 11
temp(7) = 12
temp(8) = 13
temp(9) = 14
temp(10) = 15
temp(11) = 16
temp(12) = 17
temp(13) = 18
temp(14) = 19
temp(15) = 20
temp(16) = 21
temp(17) = 22
temp(18) = 23
temp(19) = 24
temp(20) = 25
temp(21) = 26
temp(22) = 27
temp(23) = 28
temp(24) = 29
temp(25) = 30
temp(26) = 31
temp(27) = 32
temp(28) = 33
temp(29) = 34
temp(30) = 35
temp(31) = 36
temp(32) = 37
temp(33) = 38
density(0) = 999.956
density(1) = 999.941
density(2) = 999.902
density(3) = 999.849
density(4) = 999.781
density(5) = 999.7
density(6) = 999.605
density(7) = 999.498


density(8) = 999.377
density(9) = 999.244
density(10) = 999.099
density(11) = 998.943
density(12) = 998.774
density(13) = 998.595
density(14) = 998.405
density(15) = 998.203
density(16) = 997.992
density(17) = 997.77
density(18) = 997.538
density(19) = 997.296
density(20) = 997.044
density(21) = 996.783
density(22) = 996.512
density(23) = 996.232
density(24) = 995.944
density(25) = 995.646
density(26) = 995.34
density(27) = 995.025
density(28) = 994.702
density(29) = 994.371
density(30) = 994.03
density(31) = 993.68
density(32) = 993.33
density(33) = 992.96
viscosity(0) = 1.5188
viscosity(1) = 1.4726
viscosity(2) = 1.4288
viscosity(3) = 1.3872
viscosity(4) = 1.3476
viscosity(5) = 1.3097
viscosity(6) = 1.2735
viscosity(7) = 1.239
viscosity(8) = 1.2061
viscosity(9) = 1.1748
viscosity(10) = 1.1447
viscosity(11) = 1.1156
viscosity(12) = 1.0875
viscosity(13) = 1.0603
viscosity(14) = 1.034
viscosity(15) = 1.0087
viscosity(16) = 0.9843
viscosity(17) = 0.9608
viscosity(18) = 0.938
viscosity(19) = 0.9161
viscosity(20) = 0.8949
viscosity(21) = 0.8746
viscosity(22) = 0.8551
viscosity(23) = 0.8363
viscosity(24) = 0.8181
viscosity(25) = 0.8004
viscosity(26) = 0.7834
viscosity(27) = 0.767
viscosity(28) = 0.7511
viscosity(29) = 0.7357
viscosity(30) = 0.7208
viscosity(31) = 0.7064
viscosity(32) = 0.6925
viscosity(33) = 0.6791
End Sub

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load 'read tables
fill_tables()
RadioButton1.Text = "Liquid is water"
RadioButton2.Text = "Any other fluid"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 4.1: Computes settling velocity for discrete
particles"
Label5.Text = "The settling velocity (m/s)="
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
button1.text = "&Calculate"
Label8.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton1.Checked Then
Label1.Text = "Enter the temperature (Centigrade):"
Label2.Text = "Specific gravity of the particles:"
Label3.Text = "Diameter of particles d (m):"
Label4.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
Else
Label1.Text = "Density of liquid (kg/m3):"
Label2.Text = "Specific gravity of the particles:"
Label3.Text = "Diameter of particles d (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter viscosity of fluid (Pa.s):"
Label4.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
End If
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
T = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If T = 0 Then Exit Sub
sg = Val(TextBox2.Text)
d = Val(TextBox3.Text)
'determine the density and the viscosity
Dim kr As Integer = -1
For i = 0 To 33
If T = temp(i) Then
kr = i
Exit For
End If
If T > temp(i) And T < temp(i + 1) Then
kr = i
Exit For
End If
Next i
'not found?
If kr = -1 Then
Exit Sub
End If
Ro = density(kr)
Mu = viscosity(kr) / 1000

Else
Ro = Val(TextBox1.Text)
sg = Val(TextBox2.Text)
d = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Mu = Val(TextBox4.Text)
End If
'compute settling velocity (Stokes law)
Velocity = Ro * G * (d ^ 2) * (sg - 1) / (18 * Mu)
End Sub
Private Sub showResults()
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Velocity, NumericUpDown1.Value).ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click If RadioButton1.Checked Then
'** Check the validity of temp as we will use it
'** to index our tables later in calculateResults()
T = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If T < 5 Or T > 38 Then
MsgBox("Please enter a valid temp. between 5 & 38",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
End If
calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
'*******************************************************************************
'Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the results.
'*******************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.4.4 SETTLING CHARACTERISTICS

Laboratory experiments are often conducted to evaluate the settling phenomenon of suspended particles,
as well as to provide the information needed for the design of sedimentation tanks. The tests are
conducted in a settling column apparatus (Figure 4.3), which consists of a cylindrical container having a
uniform surface area and tapping points (ports) at preset level. The cylinder is of a height equal to that of
the proposed tank. The temperature of the container can be kept constant by using a water bath. The test
1procedure may be summarized as follows: The initial suspended solids (SS) concentration, C0, is
determined.
2. The settling column is filled with a well-mixed suspension of the sample to be tested.

FIGURE 4.3 Settling column test.

FIGURE 4.4 Cumulative frequency distribution plot.
3. Samples are taken at various depths (h1, h2, etc.) and analyzed for solid concentrations, c1,
c2, and so on. Thus, all particles with a settling velocity less than the design settling velocity
(vso) will not be removed during the settling time. Particles with a settling velocity greater than
vso will have settled past the sampling point. As such, the ratio of removal for particles with v <
vso (i.e., portion of particles x1 that have settling velocity less than v1) is given by x1 = c1/c0.
The entire range of settling velocities present in the system can be obtained by making use, for
example, of a sieve analysis plus a hydrometer (wet sieve analysis), or a Coulter counter, or any
other appropriate device or a technique according to standard procedures.
4. The above procedure is repeated at various time intervals (t1, t2, etc.).
5. Data are then plotted to give the cumulative settling characteristics curve for the suspension as
presented in Figure 4.4. The overall removal efficiency of the sedimentation tank (degree of
removability of particles) can be found though the relationship indicated in the following
equation:

(4.7)

The settling velocity for a discrete particle that enters the sludge zone at the end of the sedimentation tank
can be determined from the following equation:

(4.8)

where:
vso is the settling velocity of the discrete particle, m/s
h is the depth of tank, m
 t is the detention time, s (see Equation 4.9)
V is the volume of tank, m3
Q is the flow rate entering the tank, m3/s
A is the area perpendicular to direction of flow, m2

(4.9)

where:
V is the volume of tank, m3
Q is the flow rate entering the tank, m3/s

Equation 4.8 illustrates that for a discrete particle, the solids removal is independent of the depth of the
sedimentation tank. To account for the less than optimum conditions encountered in practice, the design
settling velocity (vso) obtained from the column test is often multiplied by a factor of 0.650.85 (Metcalf
and Eddy 2013), and the computed detention times are multiplied by a factor of 1.251.5. Efficiently
designed and operated, primary clarifiers remove 50%65% of the total SS and 25%40% of the BOD5
(Riffat 2012).

Example 4.2
1 Write a computer program to compute the removal efficiency and concentration of SS in
effluent, given the relevant column test results.
2. A wastewater treatment plant incorporates four sedimentation tanks for treating a wastewater
flow of 1200 m3/h. Each of the circular sedimentation tanks has a diameter of 21 m. The
settling column test conducted for a sample of the wastewater indicated the data tabulated
below. Determine the SS removal efficiency of the sedimentation units.

Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.2 (1), see the listing of Program 4.2.
a. Solution to Example 4.2 (2): Given: Q = 1200 m3/h, D = 21 m, number of sedimentation
2.
 tanks = 4, SS concentrations at different depths for different times.
b.Determine the settling velocity as follows: settling velocity = depth/time = h/t.
c.Find the percentage SS remaining, Cr, in the sample for different time intervals and
sampling ports indicated as follows: Cr = 100 SS concentration removed = 100 (C/C0).
d.Determine the percentage SS with settling velocity less than that stated as follows: X =
Cr/C0, as shown in the tabular form.
e.Plot the percentage SS with settling velocity less than that stated versus settling velocity to
obtain the cumulative frequency distribution curve for the settling particles.
f.Find the flow rate introduced to each tank = total flow/number of tanks = (1200/(60 *
60))/4 = 0.083 m3/s.
g.Compute the surface area of each tank: A = (21)2/4 = 346.4 m2.
h.Determine the surface loading rate for the settling particles: vso = Q/A = 0.083/346.4 = 2.4
* 104 m/s = 0.24 mm/s.
i.From the plotted graph and for a design surface loading of 0.24 mm/s, the value of X0 =
72%.
j.Determine the removal efficiency of the tank by using the following equation:

k.The integral part of the previous equation may be determined by using a

planimeter or by making use of Simpsons rule, by manual means, or by any other
appropriate method. In this case, the integral part = 0.76 * 103.
l.Find the removal efficiency as follows: XT = 100 72 + (0.76 * 103/2.4 * 104) = 31%.
3. Use the computer program presented in (1) to check the results obtained in (2).

Depth (mm) Time (s) Velocity (mm/s) SS Remaining (mg/L) SS with v Less Than Stated (%)
200 3600 0.056 89 46.8
200 7200 0.028 24 12.6
200 10,800 0.019 7 3.7
200 14,400 0.014 4 2.1
500 3600 0.139 133 70
500 7200 0.069 105 55.3
500 10,800 0.046 76 40
500 14,400 0.035 66 34.7
1000 3600 0.278 137 72.1
1000 7200 0.139 132 69.5
1000 10,800 0.093 120 63.2
1000 14,400 0.069 104 54.7
1500 3600 0.417 140 73.7
1500 7200 0.208 136 71.6
1500 10,800 0.139 130 68.4
1500 14,400 0.104 124 65.3
2000 3600 0.556 146 76.8
2000 7200 0.278 136 71.6
2000 10,800 0.185 134 70.5
2000 14,400 0.139 133 70
2500 3600 0.694 150 78.9
2500 7200 0.347 140 73.7
2500 10,800 0.231 139 73.2
2500 14,400 0.174 134 705

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.2 (A) LISTING OF FORM1

(CHAP4.2\FORM1.VB): SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN A SETTLING TANK
EFFLUENT

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.2: Removal
'computes percentage of suspended solids in a settling
'tank effluent
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim timeS, depthS, ssStr As String
Dim Numdepth, Numsampletime, k As Integer
Dim f2 As Form2

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load RadioButton1.Text = "Input new data"
RadioButton2.Text = "Use the built-in data"
RadioButton2.Checked = True
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Program 4.2: Computes percentage of suspended solids in a
settling tank effluent"
GroupBox1.Text = " Inputs: "
Label1.Text = "Number of sampling times:"
Label4.Text = "Enter sampling times (h):"
Label2.Text = "Number of sampling depths:"
Label3.Text = "Enter depths (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter concentration of SS removed (mg/L) for each depth
and time"
Button1.Text = "Calculate"
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
DataGridView2.AllowUserToAddRows = False
DataGridView3.AllowUserToAddRows = False
End Sub
Sub loadDefaults()
'Data of example 3.2
timeS = "0, 1, 2, 3, 4,"
depthS = "0.2, 190, 101, 166, 183, 186,"
ssStr = "0.5, 190, 57, 85, 114, 124,"
ssStr += "1, 190, 53, 58, 70, 86,"
ssStr += "1.5, 190, 50, 54, 60, 66,"
ssStr += "2, 190, 44, 54, 56, 57,"
ssStr += "2.5, 190, 40, 50, 51, 56,"
Numdepth = 6
Numsampletime = 5
Dim last = 0
For i = 1 To Numsampletime
time(i) = Val(timeS.Substring(last, timeS.IndexOf(",", last) - last))
last = Val(timeS.IndexOf(",", last)) + 1
time(i) = 3600 * time(i) 'time converted to seconds
Next
last = 0
For i = 1 To Numdepth
depth(i) = Val(depthS.Substring(last, depthS.IndexOf(",", last) -
last))
last = Val(depthS.IndexOf(",", last)) + 1
depth(i) = depth(i) * 1000 'convert depth to mm
Next
last = 0
For i = 1 To Numdepth
For j = 1 To Numsampletime
SS(i, j) = Val(ssStr.Substring(last, ssStr.IndexOf(",", last) -
last))
last = Val(ssStr.IndexOf(",", last)) + 1
Next
Next
'put the defaults in the DataGridViews
TextBox1.Text = Numsampletime.ToString
TextBox2.Text = Numdepth.ToString
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("timeCol", "time")
DataGridView2.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView2.Columns.Add("depthCol", "depth")
DataGridView3.Columns.Clear()

For i = 1 To Numsampletime
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(time(i) / 3600)
Next
For i = 1 To Numdepth
DataGridView3.Columns.Add("depth" + i.ToString, depth(i).ToString)
Next
For j = 1 To Numsampletime
DataGridView3.Rows.Add()
DataGridView3.Rows(j - 1).HeaderCell.Value = time(j)
Next
For i = 1 To Numdepth
DataGridView2.Rows.Add(depth(i))
DataGridView2.Rows(i - 1).HeaderCell.Value = time(i)
For j = 1 To Numsampletime
DataGridView3.Rows(j - 1).Cells(i - 1).Value = SS(i, j)
Next
Next
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
Numdepth = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Numsampletime = Val(TextBox1.Text)
'read in sampling times
For i = 1 To Numsampletime
time(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells(0).Value)
time(i) = 3600 * time(i) 'time converted to seconds
Next
'obtain depth and SS concentration
For i = 1 To Numdepth
depth(i) = Val(DataGridView2.Rows(i - 1).Cells(0).Value)
'Convert from m to mm
depth(i) *= 1000
For j = 1 To Numsampletime
SS(i, j) = Val(DataGridView3.Rows(j - 1).Cells(i - 1).Value)
Next
Next
End If
'Prepare output form
Try
f2.Label1.Text = "Output results:"
Catch ex As Exception
f2 = New Form2
f2.Label1.Text = "Output results:"
End Try
f2.DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
f2.DataGridView1.Columns.Add("depthCol", "Depth (mm)")
f2.DataGridView1.Columns.Add("timeCol", "Time (s)")
f2.DataGridView1.Columns.Add("velCol", "Velocity (mm/s)")
f2.DataGridView1.Columns.Add("ssrCol", "Suspended Solids remaining
(mg/L)")
f2.DataGridView1.Columns.Add("sspCol", "Suspended solids with v less
than stated (%)") 'Computations
k = 0
For i = 1 To Numdepth
For j = 2 To Numsampletime
k = k + 1
VELOCITY(k) = depth(i) / time(j)
ssr(k) = SS(i, 1) - SS(i, j)
SSP(k) = ssr(k) / SS(i, 1) * 100

f2.DataGridView1.Rows.Add(FormatNumber(depth(i), 2),
FormatNumber(time(j), 2), _ FormatNumber(VELOCITY(k), 2),
FormatNumber(ssr(k), 2), FormatNumber(SSP(k), 2)) Next
Next
COUNT = k
f2.ShowDialog()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton2.Checked Then
loadDefaults()
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton1.Checked Then
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView2.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView3.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(Numsampletime)
DataGridView2.Rows.Add(Numdepth)
DataGridView3.Rows.Add(Numsampletime)
End If
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged Dim i As Integer
i = CInt(Val(TextBox1.Text))
If i > Numsampletime Then
'add some rows
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(i - Numsampletime)
ElseIf i < Numsampletime Then
'delete some rows
For j = Numsampletime To i + 1 Step -1
DataGridView1.Rows.RemoveAt(j - 1)
Next
End If
Numsampletime = i
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged Dim i As Integer
i = CInt(Val(TextBox2.Text))
If i > Numdepth Then
'add some rows
DataGridView2.Rows.Add(i - Numdepth)
ElseIf i < Numdepth Then
'delete some rows
For j = Numdepth To i + 1 Step -1
DataGridView2.Rows.RemoveAt(j - 1)

Next
End If
Numdepth = i
End Sub
End Class
(B) LISTING OF FORM2 (CHAP4.2\FORM2.VB): SETTLING TANK EFFICIENCY
Public Class Form2
Dim Q, D, Q1, a, Vs, IND, sum, RAV, Xr As Double
Dim numTanks As Integer
Dim Kount, Notav As Integer
Private Sub Form2_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Text = "Calculate"
Label2.Text = "Flow Rate Q (m3/min):"
Label3.Text = "Number of tanks:"
Label4.Text = "Diameter of the tank (m):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Button2.Text = "Close"
Me.CancelButton = Button2
Me.AcceptButton = Button2
TextBox4.Multiline = True
TextBox4.Text = ""
TextBox4.Height = 85
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(TextBox1.Text)
numtanks = Val(TextBox2.Text)
D = Val(TextBox3.Text)
'flow in m3/sec
Q = Q / (60 * 60)
'flow per tank
Q1 = Q / numTanks
'surface are of a tank
a = pi * (D ^ 2) / 4
'surface loading rate for settling particles mm/s
Vs = Q1 * 1000 / a
'search for an estimate for SS corresponding to Vs
Call integrate(COUNT, Vs)
End Sub
Sub integrate(ByVal N, ByVal Vs)
'****************************************************************************
Dim X(N), Y(N), X1(N), X2(N), Y2(N)
Dim last As Integer
Dim I As Integer
Dim SS As Double
For I = 1 To N
X(I) = VELOCITY(I)
Y(I) = SSP(I)
Next I
'sort out equations based on x values
For I = 1 To N : X1(I) = X(I) : Next I

For I = 1 To N
Call MIN(X1, N, IND)
X2(I) = X(IND)
Y2(I) = Y(IND)
X1(IND) = 20000000000.0
Next I
For I = 1 To N
X(I) = X2(I)
Y(I) = Y2(I)
Next I
'remove repeated equations
kount = 1
X2(1) = X(1)
For I = 2 To N
If X(I) <> X(I - 1) Then
Kount = kount + 1
X2(kount) = X(I)
Y2(kount) = Y(I)
End If
Next I
'Search for SS corresponding to velocity Vs
Notav = 0
For I = 1 To Kount
If Vs = X2(I) Then
SS = Y2(I)
GoTo jmp
End If
If Vs < X2(I) Then
If I = 1 Then SS = Y2(1)
If I = Kount Then SS = Y2(Kount)
If I > 1 And I < Kount Then SS = 0.5 * (Y2(I) + Y2(I + 1))
GoTo jmp
End If
Next I
notav = 1
jmp: 'CONTINUE
last = I
If Notav = 1 Then
TextBox4.Text = "Velocity out of range, No solution found!!!!"
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox4.Text = "Corresponding SS% TO Vs = " + FormatNumber(Vs, 4) + "
Is SS% = " + FormatNumber(SS, 4) 'FIND THE INTEGRATION OF VDX BY TRAPEZOIDAL
RULE
sum = 0.5 * Y2(1) * X2(I)
For I = 1 To last - 1
'INTEGRATION OF VDX
sum += 0.5 * (X2(I) + (X2(I + 1)) * (Y2(I + 1) - Y2(I)))
Next I
sum /= 10000
TextBox4.Text += vbCrLf + "The integral part vdx = " + FormatNumber(sum,
4)
RAV = sum / (Vs / 1000)
'REMOVAL EFFICIENCY
Xr = 100 - SS + RAV
TextBox4.Text += vbCrLf + "Removal efficiency of the tank = " +
FormatNumber(Xr, 2) + " %"
End Sub
Sub MIN(ByRef X(), ByRef N, ByRef IND)
Dim XMIN = 10000000000.0
For I = 1 To N

If XMIN > X(I) Then

XMIN = X(I)
IND = I
End If
Next I
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click Me.Hide()
End Sub
End Class

(C) LISTING OF MODULE1 (CHAP4.2\MODULE1.VB)

Module Module1
Public depth(20), SS(20, 20), time(20), VELOCITY(50), ssr(50), SSP(50)
Public COUNT As Integer
Public Const pi = 3.142857
 End Module

4.4.5 THE IDEAL SEDIMENTATION BASIN

Settling is assumed to occur in exactly the same way as in a quiescent settling basin in an ideal horizontal
flow basin (Figure 4.5). Thus, for optimum performance, the tank ought to have the following
characteristics (Huisman 1977, Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Metcalf and Eddy 2013):

FIGURE 4.5 Schematic diagram of an ideal settling basin.

Flow within the settling zone is uniform.

All particles entering the sludge zone are removed, and they remain removed.
Particles are uniformly distributed in the flow as they enter the settling zone.
All particles entering the effluent zone leave the tank.
Concentration of particles at inlet, for each size, is the same at all points in the vertical plane
perpendicular to the direction of flow.

4.4.6 ELEMENTS THAT REDUCE THE EFFICIENCY IN THE PERFORMANCE

OF SEDIMENTATION BASINS
The sedimentation efficiency is affected by turbulence, bottom scour, nonuniform velocity distribution,
and short-circuiting.

4.4.6.1 Turbulence
With turbulent flow, transverse velocity components exist. This condition scatters the discrete particles
and reduces the efficiency of the tank. The horizontal flow occurs under laminar flow conditions when
Reynolds numbers (Re) are less than 5802000, depending upon the following: The construction of the
inlet zone
The kind and condition of the sludge removal equipment
The presence of columns, cross beams, and rough walls
The other obstacles that might interfere with the flow

Reynolds numbers signify the ratio between inertial forces and viscous forces. It can be shown that
Reynolds number may be expressed as shown in the following equation (see Figure 4.5):

(4.10)

where:
Re is the Reynolds number
rH is the hydraulic radius [= A/wp = B*h/(B + 2*h)], m A is the area perpendicular to horizontal flow,
m2
wp is the wetted perimeter, m
v is the kinematic viscosity (= /), m2/s
is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity, N*s/m2
is the density, kg/m3
vH is the velocity of horizontal water movement [= Q/(B*h)], m/s vs is the settling rate, displacement
velocity, loading rate, overflow rate(=Q/Bl), m/s Q is the flow rate, m3/s
B is the tank width, m
h is the tank depth, m
l is the length of tank, m

In order to decrease Re numbers, one of the following conditions must be considered:

Reduce the flow rate entering tank (less flow).

Increase the width of tank (wider tank).
Increase the tank depth (deeper tank).
Decrease the length of the tank (shorter tank).

Therefore, to prevent reduction in basin efficiency by turbulence and bottom scour, the tank must be short,
wide, and deep. Equation 4.11 can be used to evaluate Re numbers for various tank conditions as follows:

(4.11)

where vso is the design settling velocity.

4.4.6.2 Bottom Scour

Scouring of settled material starts at a specific velocity due to an increase in the displacement velocity.
The scouring velocity develops when the hydraulic shear, between the flowing water and the sludge
deposits, equals the mechanical friction of the deposits at the bottom of the tank.
The ratio between scour and settling velocities may be determined for laminar settling conditions as
presented in the following equation:

(4.12)
where:
vsco is the scour velocity, m/s
vs is the settling velocity, m/s
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
s is the density of the particle, kgm3
is the density of fluid, kgm3

For turbulent flow, Equation 4.13 holds:

(4.13)

The reduction in settling basin efficiency by scour does not create problems as far as the design settling
velocity is considered, as long as it is less than the scour velocity (i.e., vso < vsco). The ratio between the
horizontal water velocity and the settling velocity in a rectangular horizontal flow basin can be calculated
from the following equation:

(4.14)

Equation 4.15 gives the ratio between the length of the tank and its depth:

(4.15)

Resuspension of settled matter can be hindered by using baffles. Figure 4.6 illustrates a sketch of round-
the-end baffles.

FIGURE 4.6 Round-the-end baffles in a sedimentation tank.

4.4.6.3 Nonuniform Velocity Distribution and Short-Circuiting
The displacement velocity is not constant due to the frictional drag along the walls and floor of the basin,
which slows down the flow of the water. As such, the velocity is slowed near the walls and floor and has
a value larger than average in the center of the basin. Nonetheless, the variation in velocity over the depth
of the tank has little effect on the sedimentation efficiency.
Due to the variation in the velocities of the horizontal water movement, some of the particles at the
inflow reach the basin outlet in a shorter time than the theoretical detention period, whereas some other
particles take a much longer time period. This phenomenon is referred to as short-circuiting (Huisman
1977). A direct reduction in the sedimentation basin efficiency takes place due to stagnant areas or
eddying currents. This may be induced by an unequal flow distribution of the incoming water or by wind
action that produces surface currents. Methods for reducing short-circuiting include the following:
Proficient settling tank design
Equal inflow and outflow over the full width and depth of the basin Avoidance of tank inlets with
high-flow velocities
Good mixing of tank contents to prevent density currents.

Tank stability can be approached by increasing the ratio between inertia forces and gravity forces, that
is, Froude number. The Froude number, for a rectangular horizontal flow basin, can be expressed
mathematically as presented in the following equation:

(4.16)

where:
Fr is the Froude number, dimensionless
vH is the average displacement velocity, m/s
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
rH is the hydraulic radius, m
Q is the flow rate, m3/s
B is the breadth of the basin, m
h is the tank depth, m
vs is the settling velocity, m/s
l is the length of the tank, m

High Froude numbers can be achieved if one or all of the following conditions are considered:
Increasing the incoming flow to the tank
Reducing the width of the sedimentation tank (narrower tank)
Reducing the depth of tank (shallower basin)
Increasing the length of the basin (longer tank)

High Froude numbers are described but should not be so high as to endanger the basin efficiency by
turbulence or bottom scour. Froude numbers should satisfy the parameters in Equation 4.17. They are
empirical in nature and are based on experimental finding used in designing a settling tank (Huisman
1977).

(4.17)

Baffles guide and regulate the water flow; any structural material (e.g., wood) may be used for
construction of baffles, as the water pressures on both sides of the baffles are the same.

Example 4.3
1 Write a computer program that can be used to check the stability and effects of turbulence
(Froude and Reynolds numbers) in a settling basin for horizontal water movement, given the
flow rate (m3/s), tank dimensions, and temperature.
2. A suspension enters a horizontal sedimentation tank at a flow rate of 6 m3/min. The tank is 4
m wide, 10 m long, and 1.5 m deep. Compute, under ideal settling conditions, the values for
the Froude and the Reynolds numbers for the settling basin, given that the kinematic viscosity
of the water is 1.004 * 106 m2/s.
Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.3 (1), see the listing of Program 4.3.
a. Solution to Example 4.3 (2): Given: Q = 6/60 = 0.1 m3/s, B = 4 m, l = 10 m, h = 1.5 m,
2.
kinematic viscosity = 1.004 * 106 m2/s.
b.Determine the hydraulic radius as follows: TH = A/wp = B * h/[B + 2 * h] = 4 * 1.5/(4 + 2
* 1.5) = .857 m.
c.Find the displacement or horizontal tank velocity as follows: VH = Q/B*h = 0.1/4*1.5 =
0.017 m/s.
d.Determine Froudes number for horizontal water movement as follows: Fr = vH2/g * rH.
Fr = (0.017)2/(9.81 * 0.857) = 3.3 * 105. This value is > 105; thus, it is all right.
e.Find the Reynolds number for the horizontal water movement as follows: Re = vH * rH/v =
0.017 * 0.857/1.004 * 106 = 14,229, which is > 2000, which is not all right. To remedy
this situation and avoid erratic tank behavior, baffles should be introduced.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.3(CHAP4.3\FORM1.VB): STABILITY AND

EFFECTS OF TURBULENCE IN A SETTLING TANK

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.3: Turbulence
'Checks the stability and effects of turbulence
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Q, B, h, L, u As Double
'acceleration due to gravity
Const g = 9.81

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.3: Checks the
stability and effects of turbulence"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the flow rate Q (m3/s):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the dimensions of the tank:"
Label2.Text = "Width of tank B (m):"
Label3.Text = "Depth of tank h (m):"
Label4.Text = "Length of tank L (m):"
Label5.Text = "Kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s):"
Label7.Text = "Output:"
TextBox6.Multiline = True
TextBox6.Height = 50
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(TextBox1.Text)
B = Val(TextBox2.Text)
h = Val(TextBox3.Text)
L = Val(TextBox4.Text)
u = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Dim Rh, VH, Fr, Re As Double
'compute hydraulic radius
Rh = B * h / (B + 2 * h)
VH = Q / (B * h)
Fr = VH ^ 2 / (Rh * g) 'Froude number
Re = VH * Rh / u
TextBox6.Text = "Froude number =" + Fr.ToString
If Fr >= 0.00001 Then
TextBox6.Text += " O.K."
Else : TextBox6.Text += " NOT O.K., too low Froude number!"
End If
TextBox6.Text += vbCrLf + "Reynolds number =" + Re.ToString
If Re <= 2000 Then TextBox6.Text += " O.K., No baffles needed"
If Re > 2000 Then
TextBox6.Text += " NOT O.K., to avoid erratic tank behavior, use
baffles"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.4.7 DESIGN OF THE SETTLING ZONE

The following steps may be used in the design of the settling zone in a sedimentation basin: The required
surface area can be computed as follows:

(4.18)

where:
A is the surface area, m2
Q is the amount of water to be treated, m3/s
vso is the design surface loading to be applied, m/s
Depth of tank may be computed from the following relationship:
For circular tanks:

(4.19)

where h is the depth of the tank, m.

For rectangular tanks:

(4.20)

The ratio of length of the tank to its width can be calculated from the following empirical equation:

(4.21)

The flow rate per unit length (weir loading) must not be too high. This is to prevent disturbing the
settling of suspended matter near the end of the tank. Settling near the end of the tank occurs due to
updraft velocities created at the weir discharge. The allowable weir loading is given by the
following equation:

(4.22)

where:
 Q is the flow rate, m3s
B is the width of the tank, m
h is the depth of the tank, m
vso is the overflow rate, m/s

With vso = Q/B*l, this requirement is fulfilled in case the ratio of tank length to its depth falls
below a value of 5, as shown in the following equation:

(4.23)

where:
l is the length of the tank, m
h is the depth of the tank, m

4.4.8 SETTLING OF FLOCCULENT PARTICLES

The settling of a suspension containing particles with different velocities of subsidence results in the
smaller (lighter) particles being overtaken by the larger sized particles (heavier mass density). This
results in a number of collisions and eventually the formation of aggregates of particles.
The removal ratio for flocculent settling increases with a decrease in the overflow rate and an increase
in the basin depth. Factors affecting flocculent settling efficiency include overflow rate, detention time,
and tank depth. The effects of bottom scour and short-circuiting are similar to those for discrete particles.
Nonetheless, the effect of turbulence may be neglected due to dispersion. Dispersion prevents part of the
suspended matter from reaching the tank bottom, but it augments the aggregation of finely divided
suspended matter into larger flocs that have higher settling velocities. The net effect of turbulence on
flocculent settling is minor. Thus, for the design of the sedimentation basin, for a high Froude number and
stable flow conditions, the tank ought to be long, narrow, and shallow with the displacement velocity high
enough to prevent bottom scour.
Any slight increase in temperature (e.g., from solar heating) results in an increase in the settling
velocity of the particles (viscosity effects on settling velocity). However, an increase in temperature can
also produce convection currents, which tend to scour and resuspend settled material.

4.4.9 ANALYSIS OF FLOCCULENT SETTLING

The settling column apparatus shown in Figure 4.2 can be used for the determination of the settling
characteristics of a suspension of flocculent particles. The procedure for analysis of flocculent settling in
1the settling column is summarized as follows: See the procedure presented in Section 4.4.4 (steps 1, 2,
3, and 4).
. The percentage of SS that have settled past the sampling point is computed as the value of 100
(C/C0).
. The percentage of removal is to be plotted against the time and depth.
. Curves of equal percentages of removal (iso-concentration lines or iso-removal lines) are to
be developed.
. Overall removal is determined as follows:
 (4.24)

where:
hi is the sampling port depth i, m
ht is the height of the proposed tank, m
RT is the total removal, %

4.4.10 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4.4.10.1 Rectangular Tanks

Rectangular tanks are characterized by their rectangular shapes with horizontal flow. For practical
purposes, the following tank dimensions are considered appropriate. A maximum tank length of 100 m,
with an average length of 30 m, and a maximum depth of 5 m, with an average depth of 3 m (Water
Environment Federation 2009). Such tanks generally are used for primary sedimentation (Lin 2014). The
sludge hopper acts as a thickener due to accumulation of sludge in it. The bottom slope may be taken as
1% on average to facilitate sludge sliding into the hopper (Water Environment Federation 2009). In the
design of rectangular tanks, the following points should be considered (see Figure 4.7):

FIGURE 4.7 Rectangular sedimentation tank.

The volume of the tank is computed as follows:

(4.25)

where:
V is the volume of the tank, m3
Q is the design flow, m3/day
t is the detention time of tank, days (usually taken as 1.52 h for maximum flow)
 The minimum number of tanks is 2.
The length:width ratio may be taken as follows (Water Environment Federation 2009):

(4.26)

where:
l is the length of the tank, m
b is the width of the tank, m
The length:depth ratio may be taken as (Water Environment Federation 2009) follows:

(4.27)

where H is the useful clarification depth, m (not to exceed 90 m) (Lin 2014).

Daily sludge removal is determined as follows:

(4.28)

where:
Vh is the sludge volume, m3
Q is the maximum daily flow rate, m3/d
C0 is the initial concentration of SS influent to tank, kg/m3
Eff is the percentage of SS removal
m.c. is the moisture content of settled sludge, %
is the density of sludge, kg/m3

4.4.10.2 Circular Settling Tanks (Dorr Settling Tanks)

In tanks with circular shapes, the flow is horizontal. Circular tanks can be used for primary as well as
secondary sedimentation purposes. The maximum diameter for circular tanks is considered to be 50 m,
with an average diameter of 30 m, and the maximum water depth of 4 m, with an average water depth of
2.5 m (Water Environment Federation 2009). In the design of circular tanks, the following points merit
consideration (refer to Figure 4.8): The ratio of diameter to clarification depth may be found as follows
(Water Environment Federation 2009): 6 D/H 20 for circular tanks with diameters of 16 to 30 m.
16 D/H for circular tanks with diameters of 30 to 50 m.
20 D/H 25 for circular tanks serving wastewaters with large amounts of organic matter (high
settling velocities).
Ratio of diameter of circular deflector to diameter of tank may be taken as (Water Environment
Federation 2009):
 (4.29)

where:
b is the diameter of circular deflector (may be taken as b 0.15 * D), m (Lin 2014) D is the
diameter of the circular tank, m

Assuming a single weir in tank: surface loading * area = weir loading * length.

(4.30)

where:
D is the diameter of the tank, m
b is the diameter of the deflector, m
vs is the surface loading rate, m/day
qweir is the weir loading (overflow rate), m3/day/m length Taking

(4.31)

Then,

Tank depth may be determined as

(4.32)

where:
N is the number of settling tanks, dimensionless
A is the effective area of settlement, m2:

(4.33)

where Da is the actual diameter of tank, m.

Thus,

(4.34)
 Slope of settling tank bottom, , may be taken as = 6%8% (or 510o13).
Slope of sludge hopper, , may be taken as = 2:112 (60o13).
Detention time may be taken as 2 h at peak flow.
Volume of sludge hopper is to hold 1224 h of sludge production, and it may be determined as
follows:

(4.35)

FIGURE 4.8 Radial flow sedimentation tank.

where:
Vh is the volume of sludge hopper, m3
Q is the flow rate, m3/day
C0 is the concentration of solids entering sedimentation tank, kg/m3
Eff is the efficiency of solids removal in tank, dimensionless
a is the fraction of flow to be stored in hopper (as sludge)
Cc is the solids content of final sludge, kg/m3, which is equal to (1 m.c.)*1000, where m.c. is
the moisture content of sludge (dimensionless)
 Considering hopper as a truncated cone, then

(4.36)

where:
d is the diameter of hopper base (tank floor), m
h is the hopper imaginary depth (depth of total cone), m
d is the diameter of truncated cone (hopper floor), m
h is the depth of truncated cone, m

Taking a slope of sludge hopper as = 60o, then

(4.37)

As such:

(4.38)

The feed pipe is to be located 2030 cm below water level.

Example 4.4
1 Write a computer program for the hydraulic and structural design of a circular sedimentation
tank, given the relevant design data of rate of flow, Q (m3/s); loading rate, vs (m3/h/m2);
influent solids concentration, C0 (kg/m3); tank efficiency, Eff (%); sludge moisture content,
m.c. (%); sludge production that can be stored by the sludge hopper; weir loading (overflow
rate), qweir (m3/day/m weir length); retention time, t (s) at peak flow; and bottom radius
(truncated radius), d (m).
a. Design a circular sedimentation tank using the following information: Rate of flow, Q = 15
2.
m3/min.
b.Loading rate (settling velocity), vs = 1.4 m3/h/m2
c.Influent solids concentration, C0 = 250 mg/L
d.Tank efficiency, Eff = 55%
e.Sludge moisture content, m.c. = 96%
f.g.Size of sludge hopper sufficient to hold 12 h sludge production Weir loading (overflow
h.rate), qweir = 200 m3/day/m Retention time, t = 2 h at peak flow
i.Bottom radius (truncated radius), d = 0.5 m
Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.4 (1), see the listing of Program 4.4.
2. Solution to Example 4.4 (2):
a.Determine the diameter of tank using the following:
 b.Determine the required number of sedimentation tanks: Flow from each tank

. Flow rate to be treated = 15 m3/min = 15 * 60 * 24 = 21600 m3/day. Number of needed

tanks = given flow rate/flow rate from each tank = 21600/20746.4 2.
c.Find the actual diameter of tank: 2 * * 0.852 * Da2 * 1.4 * 24/4 = 15 * 60 * 24. Thus, Da
= 23.8 m.
d.Compute the useful depth of clarification zone:

. Check: D/H = 23.8/2.8 = 8.5 (acceptable

falls between 6 and 10).

e.Determine Cc = (1 m.c.)*1000 = (1 0.96) * 1000 = 40 kg/m3.
f.Find the volume of sludge hopper: Vh = (21600 m3/d*0.25 kg/m3 * 0.55)/[(24/12 h)*40
kg/m3] = 37.125 m3. Since, Vh = 0.227 (d3 d3) = 0.227*[d3 (0.5 * 2)3] = 37.125, then d
= 5.5 m.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.4 (CHAP4.4\FORM1.VB): DESIGN A

CIRCULAR SEDIMENTATION TANK

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.4: Tanks
'designs a circular sedimentation tank
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.142857
Dim Q, Vs, Co, Eff, mc, tr, Qweir, t, rdash As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.4: Designs a
circular sedimentation tank"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label1.Text = "Enter flow rate (m3/min):"
Label2.Text = "Enter loading rate (m3/hr/m2):"
Label3.Text = "Enter influent solids concentration (mg/L):"
Label4.Text = "Enter tank efficiency (%):"
Label5.Text = "Enter sludge moisture content (%):"
Label6.Text = "Enter period to maintain sludge in hopper (hr):"
Label7.Text = "Enter weir loading rate (m3/d/m):"
Label8.Text = "Enter retention time at peak flow (hr):"
Label9.Text = "Enter bottom radius (m):"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "

Label10.Text = "Number of tanks needed:"

Label11.Text = "Diameter of tank (m):"
Label12.Text = "Depth of clarification zone (m):"
Label13.Text = "Diameter of sludge hopper (m):"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Vs = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Co = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Eff = Val(TextBox4.Text)
mc = Val(TextBox5.Text)
tr = Val(TextBox6.Text)
Qweir = Val(TextBox7.Text)
t = Val(TextBox8.Text)
rdash = Val(TextBox9.Text)
Dim Cc, dh, Vh, D, Q1, N, A, H, rat As Double
Dim OK, t1 As String
Vs = Vs * 24 'convert to m/day
Q = Q * 60 * 24 'convert to m3/day
Co = Co / 1000 'convert to kg/m3
t = t / 24 'convert to days
D = 5.54 * Qweir / Vs 'diameter of tank
Q1 = pi / 4 * D ^ 2 * (1 - 0.15) ^ 2 * Vs 'flow from each tank
N = CInt(Q / Q1) 'number of tanks
Cycle:
D = (Q / (N * pi * 0.85 ^ 2 * Vs / 4)) ^ 0.5 'actual diameter
A = pi / 4 * (0.85 * D) ^ 2 'area of tank
H = Q * t / (N * A) 'clarification depth
'check D/H
rat = D / H
If rat > 6 And rat < 10 Then
OK = "T"
t1 = "D/H ratio = " + FormatNumber(rat, 2) + " is O.K."
Else
OK = "F"
N = N + 1
GoTo cycle
End If
'solids content in the final sludge
Cc = (1 - mc / 100) * 1000
'volume of sludge hopper Vh
Eff = Eff / 100 'efficiency ratio
Vh = Q * Co * Eff / (24 / tr * Cc)
dh = (Vh / 0.227 + (2 * rdash) ^ 3) ^ (1 / 3)
TextBox10.Text = FormatNumber(N, 0)
TextBox11.Text = FormatNumber(D, 2)
TextBox12.Text = FormatNumber(H, 2) + ": " + t1
TextBox13.Text = FormatNumber(dh, 2)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.5 FLOCCULATION AND COAGULATION

4.5.1 INTRODUCTION
In water and wastewater treatment, flocculation and coagulation processes are mainly used for the
removal of colloidal substance that causes color and turbidity. In relatively dilute solutions, some
particles do not behave as discrete particles but rather they coalesce and combine during settling. As
coalescence or flocculation occurs, the mass and settling velocity of the particle increase. The rate of
flocculation depends on the opportunity for contact between particles. The factors that influence this
process include surface loading, depth of settling tank, velocity gradients, and concentration and size of
particles.
To enhance the process of flocculation and coagulation, a small dose of a coagulant (e.g., aluminum or
ferric salts) is added to the raw water, after which flocs of coagulated colloidal matter are formed. This
enables separation of particles from the fluid by sedimentation and/or filtration. The needed coagulant
dose varies with the nature of the suspension. Flocculation occurs at the end of the coagulation phase. It
consists of the building up and increases in the flocs with or without the use of flocculation aids or other
chemical substances. The major factors that affect and influence the coagulation process include chemical
factors (such as the optimum pH; inorganic ions; character of turbidity; nature, type, and concentration of
the colloids involved; and type of coagulant) and physical parameters (such as temperature, mixing speed
and duration of mixing, and size of colloidal particles).

4.5.2 ELECTROKINETICS OF COAGULATION

Electrokinetics denotes the motion of ions, molecules, or particles along a gradient of an electrical
potential (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Ortega-Rivas 2011). Usually, colloidal or suspended particles
in water bear a negative electrical charge. This electrical charge induces a positive charge in the vicinity
of the neighboring liquid layer (electrical double layer). The electrical double layer provides a difference
in potential between the particle and the bulk of the solution. This difference in potential exists across the
electrical double layer and is referred to as the electrokinetic potential, zeta potential (ZP), or
electrophoretic mobility.
The ZP may be defined as the potential at the surface of a particle that separates the immobile part of
the double layer from the diffuse part. It is usually employed for rational control of coagulation. It also
signifies a measure of the electrokinetic charge that surrounds suspended particulate matter. For most
colloids, the electrokinetic potential is in the range of 3060 mV.
Removal of colloids requires reduction of the ZP. This is due to the fact that repulsive forces of the
electronegative colloid prevent the formation of a floc. The reduction of ZP is very effective in the
settlement of lyophobic colloids. Equation 4.39 may be used to determine the ZP (Rowe and Abdel-
Magid 1995, Ortega-Rivas 2011):

(4.39)
where:
ZP is the zeta potential
B is the thickness of the boundary layer
q + is the charge on the colloid
DI is the dielectric constant

Electrophoretic mobility (EM) refers to the rate of movement of a particle to an electrode under a given
electrical potential. For natural water, EM ranges between 2 * 104 and 4 * 104 m/s/V/cm. Generally, the
higher the ionic strength, the lower the ZP. The usual technique for measurement of electrophoretic
mobility involves a microscopic viewing of the particle motion under the influence of an electric field.
Electrophoretic mobility can be calculated by using the following equation (Ortega-Rivas 2011):

(4.40)

where:
EM is the electrophoretic mobility, m/s/V/cm
y is the distance covered in t s, m
A is the cross-sectional area, cm2
i is the current, A
RESs is the specific resistance of the suspension, *cm

In practice, ZP is assumed to be related to EM as presented in the following equation:

(4.41)

where:
ZP is the zeta potential
is the absolute viscosity, N*s/m2
EM is the electrophoretic mobility, m/s/V/cm
DI is the dielectric constant

Example 4.5
Write a short computer program that can be used to determine the ZP and electrophoretic mobility,
given viscosity, dielectric constant, cross-sectional area, current density, specific resistance of the
suspension, thickness of the boundary layer, and charge on the colloid. Use the relevant equation in
each case.
Solution
For solution to Example 4.5, see the listing of Program 4.5.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.5 (CHAP4.5\FORM1.VB):

ELECTROKINETICS OF COAGULATION

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.5: Coagulation
'computes the electrokinetics of coagulation
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.14152654
Dim u, Di, A, i, Rs, B, q As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.5: Computes the
electrokinetics of coagulation"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Viscosity coefficient (N*s/m2):"
Label2.Text = "dielectric constant:"
Label3.Text = "Cross sectional area (cm2):"
Label4.Text = "Current density (A):"
Label5.Text = "The specific resistance (*cm):"
Label6.Text = "Thickness of boundary layer:"
Label7.Text = "Charge on the colloid:"
groupbox1.text = " Output: "
Label8.Text = "Zeta potential:"
Label9.Text = "Electrophoretic mobility (/s/V/cm):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
u = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Di = Val(TextBox2.Text)
A = Val(TextBox3.Text)
i = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Rs = Val(TextBox5.Text)
B = Val(TextBox6.Text)
q = Val(TextBox7.Text)
Dim zp, EM As String
'zeta potential
zp = 4 * pi * B * q / Di
'EQUATION: EM = y*A/(t*i*Rs)
'electrophoretic mobility
EM = zp * Di / (4 * pi * u)
textbox8.text = zp.ToString
textbox9.text = EM.ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.5.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS

Parameters important for design of a coagulation system are

1 Flow rate
3. Flocculation time (residence time) in the range of 1530 min Power input per unit volume
2.
4. (usually from 0.5 to 1.5 kWh/m3) Mean velocity gradient: for quick circulation in the system, the
velocity gradient lies between 20 and 75 s1. Equation 4.42 shows the relationship between the
velocity gradient and the power:

(4.42)

where:
POWv is the power input per unit volume, W/m3
G is the velocity gradient, s1

When impellers are used, velocity gradient may be calculated from the following equation:

(4.43)

where:
G is the velocity gradient, s1
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
is the impeller rotation, number of rotations/min
TOR is the net torque input, dyne/cm
V is the volume, m3
is the dynamic viscosity, N*s/m2
5. The power (kW) requirement to be of values:

(4.44)

6. Depth:

(4.45)
 7. Surface area:

(4.46)

4.5.4 DESIGN OF FLOCCULATOR

The velocity gradients are brought about by rotating paddles in a flocculator; therefore, particles in a
rapidly moving stream can overtake and collide with others in a slowly moving stream. The power
needed for driving the paddle (Punmia 1979) through the fluid is given by the following equation:

(4.47)

where:
POW is the power needed for driving the paddle through the fluid, J/s
is the fluid density, kg/m3
CD is the drag coefficient
A is the paddle area, m2
v is the velocity of paddle relative to fluid, m/s

The velocity gradient initiated as a result of the input power is given by the following equation:

(4.48)

where:
G is the velocity gradient, s1
is the viscosity, N*s/m2
V is the tank volume, m3

The generally accepted design standard requires that G should be between 30 and 60 s1 (Pepper and
Gerba 2006). Time is also an important variable in flocculation. The term G*t often is used in the design
(t = hydraulic retention time in a flocculator). Typical G*t values range from 1 * 1014 to 1 * 105 (Pepper
and Gerba 2006).

Example 4.6
1 Write a computer program to determine the power needed for a flocculator system and the
area of the paddle required for effective flocculation, given temperature, coefficient of drag
for rectangular paddles, paddle tip velocity, velocity gradient, flocculator volume, and the
relative velocity of the paddle.
2. A treatment plant incorporates coagulation and sedimentation processes. The existing
flocculator has the following properties:

Value
Item
Fluid temperature (T) 20C
Coefficient of drag for rectangular paddles (CD) 1.8
Paddle tip velocity (vp ) 0.7 m/s
Velocity gradient (G) 70 s
Flocculator volume (V) 4000 m3

Using the aforementioned information, compute the following:

a.Power needed for the system
b.Area of the paddle required for effective flocculation (Hint: Use a relative velocity of the
paddle equal to 75% of that of the paddle tip velocity.) Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.6 (1), see the listing of Program 4.6.
a. Solution to Example 4.6 (2): Given: T = 20C, G = 70 s, V = 4000 m3, vp = 0.7 m/s, CD = 1.8.
2.
b.Find the viscosity and density from Table A.1 for a temperature of 20C as follows: viscosity
= 1.002 * 103 N*s/m2 and density = 998.2 kg/m3.
c.Determine the theoretical power requirements as follows: POW = * G2 * V.
d.Substitute the values given in the previous equation: POW = 1.002 * 103*(70)2 * 4000 =
19.6 kW.
e.Determine the velocity of the paddle: v = 0.75 * 0.7 = 0.525 m/s.
f.Find the required paddle area, A, as follows: A = 2*POW/CD * * v3 = (2 * 19.6 * 103)/[1.8 *
998.2 * (0.525)3] = 151 m2.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.6 (CHAP4.6\FORM1.VB): POWER NEEDED

FOR A FLOCCULATOR SYSTEM

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.6: Coagulation 2
'computes the power needed for a flocculator system
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.141592654
Dim Cd, vp, G, v, Rv As Double
Dim T As Integer
Dim mu, Rho As Double
Dim density(34), viscosity(34) As Double
Dim temp(34) As Integer
'*******************************************************************************
'Fill the tables with default values,
'taken from Appendix A1.
'*******************************************************************************
Private Sub fill_tables()
temp(0) = 5
temp(1) = 6
temp(2) = 7
temp(3) = 8
temp(4) = 9
temp(5) = 10
temp(6) = 11
temp(7) = 12
temp(8) = 13
temp(9) = 14
temp(10) = 15
temp(11) = 16
temp(12) = 17
temp(13) = 18
temp(14) = 19
temp(15) = 20
temp(16) = 21
temp(17) = 22
temp(18) = 23
temp(19) = 24
temp(20) = 25
temp(21) = 26
temp(22) = 27
temp(23) = 28
temp(24) = 29
temp(25) = 30
temp(26) = 31

temp(27) = 32
temp(28) = 33
temp(29) = 34
temp(30) = 35
temp(31) = 36
temp(32) = 37
temp(33) = 38
density(0) = 999.956
density(1) = 999.941
density(2) = 999.902
density(3) = 999.849
density(4) = 999.781
density(5) = 999.7
density(6) = 999.605
density(7) = 999.498
density(8) = 999.377
density(9) = 999.244
density(10) = 999.099
density(11) = 998.943
density(12) = 998.774
density(13) = 998.595
density(14) = 998.405
density(15) = 998.203
density(16) = 997.992
density(17) = 997.77
density(18) = 997.538
density(19) = 997.296
density(20) = 997.044
density(21) = 996.783
density(22) = 996.512
density(23) = 996.232
density(24) = 995.944
density(25) = 995.646
density(26) = 995.34
density(27) = 995.025
density(28) = 994.702
density(29) = 994.371
density(30) = 994.03
density(31) = 993.68
density(32) = 993.33
density(33) = 992.96
viscosity(0) = 1.5189
viscosity(1) = 1.4727
viscosity(2) = 1.4289
viscosity(3) = 1.3874
viscosity(4) = 1.3479
viscosity(5) = 1.3101
viscosity(6) = 1.274
viscosity(7) = 1.2396
viscosity(8) = 1.2069
viscosity(9) = 1.1757
viscosity(10) = 1.1457
viscosity(11) = 1.1168
viscosity(12) = 1.0889
viscosity(13) = 1.0618
viscosity(14) = 1.0357
viscosity(15) = 1.0105
viscosity(16) = 0.9863
viscosity(17) = 0.9629
viscosity(18) = 0.9403
viscosity(19) = 0.9186

viscosity(20) = 0.8976
viscosity(21) = 0.8774
viscosity(22) = 0.8581
viscosity(23) = 0.8395
viscosity(24) = 0.8214
viscosity(25) = 0.8039
viscosity(26) = 0.7871
viscosity(27) = 0.7708
viscosity(28) = 0.7551
viscosity(29) = 0.7399
viscosity(30) = 0.7251
viscosity(31) = 0.7109
viscosity(32) = 0.6971
viscosity(33) = 0.6839
End Sub
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.6: Computes the
power needed for a flocculator system"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Fluid temperature T (Centigrade):"
Label2.Text = "Drag coefficient Cd:"
Label3.Text = "Paddle tip velocity Vp (m/s):"
Label4.Text = "Velocity gradient G (s):"
Label5.Text = "Flocculator volume V (m3):"
Label6.Text = "Relative velocity of the paddle (%):"
Label7.Text = "Power needed for the system POW (W):"
Label8.Text = "Area of the paddle required:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
fill_tables()
End Sub
'*******************************************************************************
'Search the table of densities to find
'appropriate density according to the given temp.
'*******************************************************************************
Function find_rho(ByVal t As Integer) As Double
If t < 5 Or t > 38 Then Return 0
For i = 0 To 32
If temp(i) = t Then Return density(i)
If temp(i) > t And temp(i + 1) < t Then Return density(i)
Next
If temp(33) = t Then Return density(33)
'no matches found?
Return 0
End Function
'*******************************************************************************
'Search the table of viscosities to find
'appropriate viscosity according to the given temp.
'*******************************************************************************
Function find_mu(ByVal t As Integer) As Double
If t < 5 Or t > 38 Then Return 0
For i = 0 To 32
If temp(i) = t Then Return viscosity(i) / 1000
If temp(i) > t And temp(i + 1) < t Then Return viscosity(i) / 1000
Next
If temp(33) = t Then Return viscosity(33) / 1000

'no matches found?
Return 0
End Function
Sub calculateResults()
T = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Cd = Val(TextBox2.Text)
vp = Val(TextBox3.Text)
G = Val(TextBox4.Text)
v = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Rv = Val(TextBox6.Text) / 100
mu = find_mu(T)
Rho = find_rho(T)
If mu = 0 Or Rho = 0 Then
MsgBox("Please enter valid temp. between 5 and 38.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
Dim POW, vp1, A As Double
'power requirement
POW = mu * G ^ 2 * v
'velocity of the paddle
vp1 = Rv * vp
'required paddle area
A = 2 * POW / (Cd * Rho * vp1 ^ 3)
TextBox7.Text = POW.ToString
TextBox8.Text = A.ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.6 AERATION AND GAS TRANSFER

The process of gas transfer (aeration) signifies the intimate contact between the air and the water for a
limited period for the purpose of promoting gas transfer. The advantages of this artificially induced gas
process include the following (Mueller et al. 2002): Addition of oxygen to groundwater
Addition of oxygen to sewage to assist in biological reactions
Removal of carbon dioxide, CO2
Removal of hydrogen sulfide, H2S
Removal of methane, CH4
Reduction of taste and odor problems in water
Removal of volatile oils and similar odor- and taste-producing substances Removal of ammonia,
NH3

There are many types of aerators such as gravity aerators (e.g., weir aeration and cascades, inclined
plane, and vertical stacks of perforated pans or tower cascades), spray aerators, air diffusers (bubble
aeration), and mechanical aerators. The factors that influence the solubility of a gas in water include the
nature of the gas, the concentration of the respective gas in the gas phase (i.e., as related to partial
pressure of gas in gas phase), the temperature of the water (Cs decreases as T increases), and the level of
impurities contained in the water (Cs decreases with an increase in the impurities).
The higher the gas concentration in the gaseous phase, the greater the saturation concentration in the
liquid phase. The saturation concentration can be determined by using Henrys law as presented in the
following equation:

(4.49)

where:
Cs is the saturation concentration, g/m3
KD is the distribution coefficient
MW is the molecular weight of the gas
P is the partial pressure of the respective gas in the gas phase, Pa
R is the universal gas constant (8314.3 J/kg*mol)
T is the absolute temperature, K
kH is the Henrys constant, g/m3*Pa, g/J (=KD*MW/R*T) Solubilities also can be estimated by the
Bunsen absorption coefficient, as shown in Equation 4.50:

(4.50)
where:
Kb is the Bunsen absorption coefficient, g/J (=KDT0T) T0 is the standard temperature, C

During the process of gas transfer from the gas phase into water, the concentration in the gas phase is
decreased. This decrease is due to the absorption of the gas into the liquid phase (process of diffusion,
i.e., the tendency of any substance to spread uniformly throughout the space available to it). Some of the
theories describing the mechanism of gas transfer include film, penetration, surface renewal, and film
surface renewal.
In some gas transfer operations (e.g., cascades, weir aeration), the efficiency coefficient for the system
may be calculated as presented in the following equation (Mueller et al. 2002):

(4.51)

where:
Ce is the effluent concentration, g/m3
C0 is the influent concentration, g/m3
K is the efficiency coefficient of the system
Cs is the saturation concentration, g/m3

For a cascade aerator, Equation 4.52 can be used to calculate the gas saturation concentration in the liquid
phase:

(4.52)

where:
Cs is the saturation concentration, g/m3
CN is the effluent concentration from step N of the cascade aerator, g/m3
C0 is the influent concentration, g/m3
kN is the efficiency coefficient of the system
N is the number of steps of the cascade aerator

Example 4.7
1 Write a computer program that can be used to determine the efficiency coefficient for a one-
step cascade aerator. Also include in the program the procedure to calculate the
concentration of gases sorbed into an N-step cascade aerator.
2. Water at a temperature of 20C has an oxygen content of 15% saturation with zero chloride
concentration. A cascade aerator is to be used. The cascade aerator is composed of three
steps. Each step can raise the oxygen content of an anaerobic water to 40% saturation.
Estimate the oxygen concentration of the effluent from a three-step cascade aerator.
 Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the solution of the problem presented
3. in(2).
Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.7 (1), see the listing of Program 4.7.
a. Solution to Example 4.7 (2): Given: influent concentration C0 = 0.15 * Ce, T = 20C, C0 for
2.
each step = 0, Ce for each step = 0.4 * Cs, N = 3 steps.
b.Find the saturation concentration from Table A.2 corresponding to temperature of 20C as
follows: Cs = 9.2 mg/L.
c.Determine the initial concentration of water as follows: C0 = 0.15 * 9.2 = 1.38 mg/L.
d.Find the efficiency coefficient for each step as follows: K = (Ce C0)/(Cs C0) = (0.4(Cs
0)/ (Cs 0) = 0.4.
e.iFind the effluent oxygen concentration from each step of the three-step aerator as follows:
Ce1 = C0 + K*(Cs C0) = 1.38 + 0.4* (9.2 1.38) = 4.508 mg/L.
ii Ce2 = Ce1 + K*(Cs Ce1) = 4.508 + 0.4*(9.2 4.508) = 6.385 mg/L.
iii Ce3 = Ce2 + K*(Cs Ce2) = 6.385 + 0.4*(9.2 6.385) = 7.51 mg/L.
f.Otherwise (Cs CN)/(Cs C0) = (1 k=)N and (9.2 Ce3)/(9.2 1.38) = (1 0.4)3, which
yields Ce3 = 7.51 mg/L.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.7 (CHAP4.7\FORM1.VB): EFFICIENCY

COEFFICIENT OF A CASCADE AERATOR

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.7: Cascade
'Computes the efficiency coefficient
'of a cascade aerator
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Ce(20)
Const gammaw = 9.806 'KN/m3

Const G = 9.81 'Gravity constant

Dim N As Double
Dim T As Integer
Dim PCo, Cc, ps As Double
Dim Cs(31) As Double
'*******************************************************************************
'Fill the O2 saturation table with values
'from Appendix A2.
'*******************************************************************************
Sub fill_table()
Cs(0) = 14.6
Cs(1) = 14.2
Cs(2) = 13.8
Cs(3) = 13.5
Cs(4) = 13.1
Cs(5) = 12.8
Cs(6) = 12.5
Cs(7) = 12.2
Cs(8) = 11.9
Cs(9) = 11.6
Cs(10) = 11.3
Cs(11) = 11.1
Cs(12) = 10.8
Cs(13) = 10.6
Cs(14) = 10.4
Cs(15) = 10.2
Cs(16) = 10
Cs(17) = 9.7
Cs(18) = 9.5
Cs(19) = 9.4
Cs(20) = 9.2
Cs(21) = 9
Cs(22) = 8.8
Cs(23) = 8.7
Cs(24) = 8.5
Cs(25) = 8.4
Cs(26) = 8.2
Cs(27) = 8.1
Cs(28) = 7.9
Cs(29) = 7.8
Cs(30) = 7.6
End Sub
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.7: computes the
efficiency coefficient of a cascade aerator"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
label1.text = "Enter number of steps in the aerator:"
label2.text = "Enter the temperature (C):"
label3.text = "Enter influent concentration as percent saturation:"
label4.text = "Enter chloride concentration in water mg/L:"
label5.text = "Enter percentage of saturation caused by each step:"
groupbox1.text = " Output: "
textbox6.multiline = True
TextBox6.Height = 150
TextBox6.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
fill_table()
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
n = Val(textbox1.text)
T = Val(TextBox2.Text)
If T < 0 Or T > 30 Then
MsgBox("Enter Temperature between 0 and 30", vbOKOnly Or
vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
PCo = Val(textbox3.text)
Cc = Val(textbox4.text)
ps = Val(textbox5.text)
Dim Ce1, Cs_val, Co, K As Double
'get saturation concentration at temperature T
Cs_val = Cs(T)
textbox6.text = ""
If PCo > 1 Then PCo = PCo / 100 'convert percentage to ratio
If PS > 1 Then PS = PS / 100 'convert percentage to ratio
Co = 0
Ce1 = ps * Cs_val
K = (Ce1 - Co) / (Cs_val - Co) 'for each step
'compute effluent oxygen concentration for each step
Ce(0) = PCo * Cs_val 'initial concentration of water
For i = 1 To N
Ce(i) = Ce(i - 1) + K * (Cs_val - Ce(i - 1))
textbox6.text += "Effluent oxygen concentration for step" + i.ToString
+ " = " + Ce(i).ToString _
+ " mg/L" + vbCrLf
Next i
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.7 FILTRATION

4.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Filtration is a process used for separating suspended or colloidal impurities from a liquid by passing the
liquid through a porous medium (Davis and Cornwell 2006). Filtration objectives include the following
(Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995): Partial removal of SS and colloidal solids
Alteration of chemical properties of constituents
Reduction in the number of disease-causing agents
Reduction of color, tastes, and odor
Removal of iron and manganese

Effective filtration depends upon several mechanisms, which include mechanical sieving or straining,
precipitation, adsorption, chemical actions, and biological processes (Huisman 1977, IRC Rep. Intl.
Appraisal Meeting 1981, Van Dijk and Oomen 1982, Huisman et al 1986, Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995,
Logsdon 2008, Viessman et al 2008, Hammer and Hammer 2011, Metcalf and Eddy 2013, Pescod,
Abouzaid and Sundaresan).
The porous media preferred for filtration must be (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995)

Inexpensive.
Readily available in sufficient quantities.
An inert material.
Easily cleaned for reuse.
Able to withstand existing pressures.

Examples of suitable materials used as filter media include ordinary sand, anthracite coal, broken stones,
glass beads, plastic substances, concrete, diatomaceous earth, and so on.
In water treatment, sand filters are often used. Sand filters can be classified as single media, dual
media, or multimedia filters. Also, they can be classified according to their allowable loading rate, such
as slow or rapid sand filters. Another classification is based on water movement through the filter, such
as gravity or pressure filters.
Table 4.1 provides a general comparison between slow and rapid sand filters.

TABLE 4.1
Comparison of Rapid and Slow Sand Filters

Rapid Sand Filter

Parameter Slow Sand Filter
Reason for filtration Removal of SS and reduction of pathogens Reduction in finalizing treatment
Location in treatment work After coagulation or sedimentation Without or after coagulation, or after RSF
Efficiency Depends on raw water quality and design Depends on raw water quality and design
Raw water turbidity needed High Moderate (<15 NTU)
Design period 1015 years 1015 years
Life span Relatively long Relatively long
Filtration rate (m3 /m2 /h) 515 0.10.2
Total area (A t) Flow rate/filtration velocity Flow rate/filtration velocity
Area of each filter (A t/N 1), (A t/N 2) (A t/N 1), (A t/N 2)
Dimensions 20 1 = [2A t/(N + 1)]1 / 2
B = (N + 1)L/2N
Effective grain size (mm) 0.43 0.150.35
Uniformity coefficient >1.21.5 <35 (2.5)
Bed thickness (m) 0.63 0.81.2
Supernatant water level (m) 11.5 11.5
Minimum depth before resanding (m) Depends on treatment 0.5
1
Number of filters (minimum of two 12(Q)1/2 (Q in m3 /s) 15(Q)1/2 (Q in m3 /s)
filters)
Operation period 24 h/day (intermittent not recommended) 24 h/day (intermittent not recommended)
Interval between successive cleanings 1272 h 2060 days or more
Filter bed resistance 1.54 m
Method of cleaning Backwashing (water and/or air) Scraping top 0.52 cm layer
Sludge removal Manual, mechanical, and hydraulic Manual, mechanical, and hydraulic
Filter material Concrete, brick, plastics, and so on Concrete, brick, plastics, ans so on
Maintenance Continuous Continuous
Hazards Algal growth, change in water quality, and clogging Algal growth, change in water quality, and clogging
Control measures Head loss, flow rate, and turbidity Head loss, flow rate, and turbidity
Important quality parameters to be analyzed Turbidity and bacteriological quality Turbidity and bacteriological quality

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.
SS, suspended solids; RSF, rapid sand filter; NTU, neplometric turbidity unit; Q, flow.

Example 4.8
1. Write a computer program to find the required number of filters to be used, the filtration
area, and the required area for each filter, given the filtration rate and the amount of water to
a. be filtered when using Slow sand filters.
b.Rapid sand filters.
2. A sedimentation tank effluent is applied to rapid sand filters at a rate of 20 m3/min. The rate
a. of filtration is to be 200 m3/m2/day. Calculate the following: Required number of filters
b.Total filtration area
c.Unit area of each filter
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the results obtained in (2).
Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.8 (1), see the listing of Program 4.8.
 a. Solution to Example 4.8 (2): Given: Q = 20 m3/min, vf = 200 m/day.
2.
b.Find the required number of filters needed by using the empirical equation: N = 12 *
(Q)1/2 = 12 * (20/60)1/2 = 7 filters (take nine filters, two to serve as standby).
c.Determine the total filtration surface area as follows: A = Q/vf = 20 * 60 * 24/200 = 144
m2.
d.Compute the unit filter area for each filter as follows: An = A/(N 2) = 144/(9 2) = 20.6
m2.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.8 (CHAP4.8\FORM1.VB): NUMBER OF

FILTERS, FILTRATION AREA, AND FILTER AREAS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.8: Filters
'computes number of filters, filtration area, and filter areas
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Q, Vf As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.8: computes number
of filters, filtration area, and filter areas"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
label1.text = "Enter rate of flow in m3/min:"
label2.text = "Enter the rate of filtration in m3/m2/day:"
label3.text = "Select the type of the filter:"
radiobutton1.text = "Slow"
radiobutton2.text = "Rapid"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
textbox3.multiline = True
textbox3.height = 100
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(textbox1.text)
Vf = Val(textbox2.text)
Q = Q / 60 'm3/s
Dim N, Nadd, N1 As Integer
Dim A, An As Double
If radiobutton1.checked Then
N = Math.Ceiling(12 * (Q ^ 0.5))
Else
N = Math.Ceiling(15 * (Q ^ 0.5))
End If
'stand by filters
If N > 3 Then Nadd = 2 Else Nadd = 1
'adding standby filters
N1 = N + Nadd
'Q per day
Q = Q * 3600 * 24
'total filtration surface area
A = Q / Vf
'unit filter area for each filter
An = A / N
TextBox3.Text = "The number of filters needed: " + N.ToString
textbox3.text += " filters + " + Nadd.tostring + " standby = " +
N1.tostring
textbox3.text += vbCrLf + "Total filtration surface area (m2): " +
A.tostring
TextBox3.Text += vbCrLf + "Unit filter area for each filter (m2): " +
An.ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.7.2 FILTRATION THEORY

Filter clogging results in an increase in the head loss (see Figure 4.9). The CarmanKozeny equation can
be used to estimate the head loss for clean unisized sand:

(4.53)

where:
hL is the head loss through the filter, m
f is the friction factor, dimensionless, which is given as follows:

(4.54)

where:
l is the filter depth, m
e is the porosity of bed, dimensionless
vf is the filtration velocity, m/s
is the shape factor, dimensionless
d is the diameter of particle, m
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Re is the Reynolds number, dimensionless

Another equation that can be used to predict the head loss through a sand filter was developed by Rose
and is presented as follows:

(4.55)

where:
hL is the head loss in the filter, m
CD is the Newtons drag coefficient, which is given as follows:

(4.56)
 vf is the filtration velocity, m/s
l is the filter depth, m
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
d is the particle diameter, m
is the particle shape factor, dimensionless
e is the bed porosity, dimensionless

FIGURE 4.9 Schematic diagram of a sand filter.

Example 4.9
1 Write a computer program to compute the head loss by using the Rose or CarmanKozeny
equation. The given information includes the filtration velocity, water viscosity, filter depth,
average particle size, and specific gravity for sand, the particle shape factor, and the bed
porosity. The program needs to be designed so that the head loss can be determined for
various temperatures.
. A trifilter media (third layer on top) is used for filtering water at 20C. The properties of
the filter are as shown below:
Item Sand Layers Anthracite Layer
First Second Third
Depth (m) 0.6 0.6 0.4
Average particle size (mm) 0.5 1.0 1.4
Specific gravity 2.65 2.0 1.5
Particle shape factor 0.92 0.83 0.9
Porosity of bed (%) 50 45 45
Filtration rate (m3 /m2 /day) 200 200 200

Determine the head loss using both the CarmanKozeny and Rose equations. Find the percentage
error between the two methods.
. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the results determined in (2).
Solution

1 For solution to Example 4.9 (1), see the listing of Program 4.9.
a. Solution to Example 4.9 (2): Given: the properties of media, vf = 200/(24 * 60 * 60) = 2.32
2.
* 103 m/s, T = 20C, which gives from Table A.1 = 1.0087 * 103 and = 998.203 kg/m3.
 b.Rose equation
i For the first sand layer:
A Determine Reynolds number: Re = vf * d/v = 998.203 * 2.32 * 103 * 0.5 * 10
3/1.0087 * 103 = 1.148.

B Compute Newtons drag coefficient as follows: CD = (24/Re) + [3/(Re)1/2] + 0.34 =

(24/1.148) + [3/(1.148)1/2] + 0.34 = 24.05.
C Determine the head loss for the first layer as follows: hL = 1.067*CD*vf 2 *
1/g*d**e4. hL = [1.067 * 24.05* (2.32 * 103)2 * 0.6]/[9.81 * 0.5 * 103 * 0.92 *
(0.5)4] = 0.293 m.
ii For the second sand layer:
A Determine Reynolds number: Re = 998.203 * 2.32 * 103*1 * 103 = 2.3.
B Find Newtons drag coefficient as follows: CD = (24/2.3) + [3/(2.3)1/2] + 0.34 =
12.75.
C Estimate the head loss for the second layer as follows: hL = [1.067 * 12.75*(2.32 *
103)2 * 0.6]/[9.81 * 1*103 * 0.83 * (0.45)4] = 0.132 m.
iii For the third anthracite layer:
A Determine Reynolds number: Re = 998.203 * 2.32 * 103*1.4 * 103/1.0087 * 103 =
3.21.
B Find Newtons drag coefficient as follows: CD = (24/3.21) + [3/(3.21)1/2] + 0.34 =
9.49.
C Estimate the head loss for the third layer as follows: hL = [1.067 * 9.49*(2.32 * 10
3)2 * 0.4]/[9.81 * 1.4 * 103*0.9* (0.45)4] = 0.043 m.

iv Determine the total head loss = head loss through the first layer + head loss through the second
layer + head loss through anthracite layer = 0.293 + 0.132 + 0.043 = 0.468 m.
c CarmanKozeny equation
i For the first sand layer:
A Determine Reynolds number: Re = vf *d/ = 998.203 * 2.32 * 103*0.5 *
103/1.0087 * 103 = 1.148.
B Find the coefficient: f = [150(1 e)/Re] + 1.75. f = [150(1 0.5)/1.148] + 1.75 =
67.08.
C Determine the head loss for first layer as follows: hL = f*1*(1 e)* vf 2/*d*e3*g. hL
= 67.08 * 0.6* (1 0.5)*(2.32 * 103)2/[0.92 * 0.5 * 103*(0.5)3 * 9.81] = 0.192 m.
ii For the second sand layer:
A Determine Reynolds number: Re = 998.203 * 2.32 * 103*1 * 103/ 1.0087 * 103 =
2.3.
B Find the coefficient: f = (150(1 e)/Re) + 1.75. f = [150(1 0.45)/2.3] + 1.75 =
37.62.
C Estimate the head loss for the second layer as follows: hL = 37.62 * 0.6* (1 0.45)*
(2.32 * 103)2/[0.83 * 1*103*(0.45)3 * 9.81] = 0.09 m.
iii For the third anthracite layer:
A Determine Reynolds number: Re = 998.203 * 2.32 * 103*1.4 * 103/ 1.0087 * 103
= 3.21.
 B Find the coefficient: f = (150(1 e)/Re) + 1.75. f = [150(1 0.45)/3.21] + 1.75 =
27.45.
C Estimate the head loss for the third layer as follows: hL = 27.45 * 0.4* (1 0.45)*
(2.32 * 103)2/[0.9 * 1.4 * 103*(0.45)3 * 9.81] = 0.029 m.
iv Determine the total head loss = head loss through the first sand layer + head loss through the
second sand layer + head loss through anthracite layer = 0.192 + 0.09 + 0.029 = 0.311 m.
v Determine the percentage error: (0.468 0.311)*100/0.468 = 34%.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 4.9 (CHAP4.9\FORM1.VB): HEAD LOSS IN

FILTERS

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.9: HEAD
'Computes the Head loss in filters
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim temp(34), density(34), viscosity(34)
Dim layer As Integer
Dim total_hL1, total_hL2 As Double
Dim vf, frate As Double
Dim N, L(), d(), S(), phi(), e1(), H_Rose(), H_Carman(), T As Double
Dim is_calculated() As Boolean
'acceleration due to gravity
Const g = 9.81
'*******************************************************************************
'Fill the tables with default values,
'taken from Appendix A1.
'*******************************************************************************
Private Sub fill_tables()
temp(0) = 5
temp(1) = 6

temp(2) = 7
temp(3) = 8
temp(4) = 9
temp(5) = 10
temp(6) = 11
temp(7) = 12
temp(8) = 13
temp(9) = 14
temp(10) = 15
temp(11) = 16
temp(12) = 17
temp(13) = 18
temp(14) = 19
temp(15) = 20
temp(16) = 21
temp(17) = 22
temp(18) = 23
temp(19) = 24
temp(20) = 25
temp(21) = 26
temp(22) = 27
temp(23) = 28
temp(24) = 29
temp(25) = 30
temp(26) = 31
temp(27) = 32
temp(28) = 33
temp(29) = 34
temp(30) = 35
temp(31) = 36
temp(32) = 37
temp(33) = 38
density(0) = 999.956
density(1) = 999.941
density(2) = 999.902
density(3) = 999.849
density(4) = 999.781
density(5) = 999.7
density(6) = 999.605
density(7) = 999.498
density(8) = 999.377
density(9) = 999.244
density(10) = 999.099
density(11) = 998.943
density(12) = 998.774
density(13) = 998.595
density(14) = 998.405
density(15) = 998.203
density(16) = 997.992
density(17) = 997.77
density(18) = 997.538
density(19) = 997.296
density(20) = 997.044
density(21) = 996.783
density(22) = 996.512
density(23) = 996.232
density(24) = 995.944
density(25) = 995.646
density(26) = 995.34
density(27) = 995.025
density(28) = 994.702

density(29) = 994.371
density(30) = 994.03
density(31) = 993.68
density(32) = 993.33
density(33) = 992.96
viscosity(0) = 1.5188
viscosity(1) = 1.4726
viscosity(2) = 1.4288
viscosity(3) = 1.3872
viscosity(4) = 1.3476
viscosity(5) = 1.3097
viscosity(6) = 1.2735
viscosity(7) = 1.239
viscosity(8) = 1.2061
viscosity(9) = 1.1748
viscosity(10) = 1.1447
viscosity(11) = 1.1156
viscosity(12) = 1.0875
viscosity(13) = 1.0603
viscosity(14) = 1.034
viscosity(15) = 1.0087
viscosity(16) = 0.9843
viscosity(17) = 0.9608
viscosity(18) = 0.938
viscosity(19) = 0.9161
viscosity(20) = 0.8949
viscosity(21) = 0.8746
viscosity(22) = 0.8551
viscosity(23) = 0.8363
viscosity(24) = 0.8181
viscosity(25) = 0.8004
viscosity(26) = 0.7834
viscosity(27) = 0.767
viscosity(28) = 0.7511
viscosity(29) = 0.7357
viscosity(30) = 0.7208
viscosity(31) = 0.7064
viscosity(32) = 0.6925
viscosity(33) = 0.6791
End Sub
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.9: Computes the
Head loss in filters"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Number of layers in the filter:"
Label2.Text = "Temperature (Centigrade):"
Label3.Text = "Filter depth (m):"
Label4.Text = "Particle diameter (mm):"
Label5.Text = "Specific gravity:"
Label6.Text = "Particle shape factor (phi):"
Label7.Text = "Bed porosity e (%):"
Label8.Text = "Filtration rate (m3/m2/day):"
Label9.Text = "Head loss hL (m):"
Label10.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m):"
Label11.Text = "(1) Rose Equation:"
Label12.Text = "(2) Carman-Kozeny Equation:"
Label13.Text = "Head loss hL (m):"
Label14.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"

Button3.Text = "Prev. layer"

Button2.Text = "Next layer"
Button3.Enabled = False
Button2.Enabled = False
fill_tables()
total_hL1 = 0
total_hL2 = 0
N = 1 : layer = 1
GroupBox1.Text = "LAYER NO. " + layer.ToString
TextBox1.Text = N.ToString
ReDim H_Rose(N)
ReDim H_Carman(N)
ReDim L(N)
ReDim d(N)
ReDim S(N)
ReDim phi(N)
ReDim e1(N)
ReDim is_calculated(N)
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
'temp
T = Val(TextBox2.Text)
'filter depth
L(layer) = Val(TextBox3.Text)
'particle diameter
d(layer) = Val(TextBox4.Text)
'specific gravity
S(layer) = Val(TextBox5.Text)
'particle shape factor
phi(layer) = Val(TextBox6.Text)
'bed porosity
e1(layer) = Val(TextBox7.Text)
'filtration rate
frate = Val(TextBox8.Text)
vf = frate / (24 * 60 * 60)
Dim kr, Ro, Vs, Re, Cd As Double
'determine the density and the viscosity
kr = -1
For i = 0 To 32
If T = temp(i) Then
kr = i
GoTo found
End If
If T > temp(i) And T < temp(i + 1) Then
kr = i
GoTo found
End If
Next i
If T = temp(33) Then
kr = 33
Else
MsgBox("Please enter temp. between 5 and 38", vbOKOnly Or
vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
found:
Ro = density(kr)
Vs = viscosity(kr) / 1000
'****************************************************************************
'*** 1. Calculate using Rose Equation:
'****************************************************************************

Dim _e, _d As Double

If e1(layer) > 1 Then _e = e1(layer) / 100 Else _e = e1(layer)
'Convert to m
_d = d(layer) / 1000
'Reynolds number
Re = Ro * vf * _d / Vs
'Drag coefficient
Cd = (24 / Re) + (3 / (Re ^ 0.5)) + 0.34
'Compute head loss hL
H_Rose(layer) = 1.067 * Cd * (vf ^ 2) * L(layer) / (g * _d * phi(layer)
* (_e ^ 4))
'*********************************************************************************
'*** 2. Calculate using Carman-Kozeny Equation:
'****************************************************************************
Dim f As Double
f = ((150 * (1 - _e)) / Re) + 1.75
H_Carman(layer) = (f * L(layer) * (1 - _e) * (vf ^ 2)) / (phi(layer) *
_d * (_e ^ 3) * g)
total_hL1 = 0
total_hL2 = 0
For i = 1 To N
total_hL1 += H_Rose(i)
total_hL2 += H_Carman(i)
Next
Label9.Text = "Head loss hL (m): " + H_Rose(layer).ToString
Label10.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): " +
total_hL1.ToString
Label13.Text = "Head loss hL (m): " + H_Carman(layer).ToString
Label14.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): " +
total_hL2.ToString
is_calculated(layer) = True
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged If Val(TextBox1.Text) > 1 Then
If Val(TextBox1.Text) > N Then
Button2.Enabled = True
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
ReDim H_Rose(N)
ReDim H_Carman(N)
ReDim L(N)
ReDim d(N)
ReDim S(N)
ReDim phi(N)
ReDim e1(N)
ReDim is_calculated(N)
Else
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
End If
Else
Button2.Enabled = False
Button3.Enabled = False
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click If layer >= N Then

Button2.Enabled = False
Button3.Enabled = True
Else
layer += 1
GroupBox1.Text = "LAYER NO. " + layer.ToString
TextBox3.Text = L(layer).ToString
TextBox4.Text = d(layer).ToString
TextBox5.Text = S(layer).ToString
TextBox6.Text = phi(layer).ToString
TextBox7.Text = e1(layer).ToString
If is_calculated(layer) = True Then
Label9.Text = "Head loss hL (m): " + H_Rose(layer).ToString
Label10.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): " +
total_hL1.ToString
Label13.Text = "Head loss hL (m): " + H_Carman(layer).ToString
Label14.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): " +
total_hL2.ToString
Else
Label9.Text = "Head loss hL (m): "
Label10.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): "
Label13.Text = "Head loss hL (m): "
Label14.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): "
End If
Button3.Enabled = True
If layer >= N Then
Button2.Enabled = False
End If
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button3_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button3.Click If layer <= 1 Then
Button3.Enabled = False
Button2.Enabled = True
Else
layer -= 1
GroupBox1.Text = "LAYER NO. " + layer.ToString
TextBox3.Text = L(layer).ToString
TextBox4.Text = d(layer).ToString
TextBox5.Text = S(layer).ToString
TextBox6.Text = phi(layer).ToString
TextBox7.Text = e1(layer).ToString
If is_calculated(layer) = True Then
Label9.Text = "Head loss hL (m): " + H_Rose(layer).ToString
Label10.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): " +
total_hL1.ToString
Label13.Text = "Head loss hL (m): " + H_Carman(layer).ToString
Label14.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): " +
total_hL2.ToString
Else
Label9.Text = "Head loss hL (m): "
Label10.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): "
Label13.Text = "Head loss hL (m): "
Label14.Text = "Total head loss in the filter (m): "
End If
Button2.Enabled = True
If layer <= 1 Then
Button3.Enabled = False
End If
End If
End Sub
End Class
Example 4.10
1. Write a short computer program that can be used to estimate the filtration rate when given the
head loss, viscosity, specific gravity, particle shape factor, and other elements included in
the Rose and CarmanKozeny equations. Plan the computer program so that the suitability of
the filtration rate can be evaluated.
2. A single, unisized sand bed filter of depth 1.2 m and a porosity of 0.6 with uniform sand
grains of 0.8 mm is used to treat water at 22C. Find the range of the filtration rate (in
3. m/day) for a head loss of 0.12 m. (Use both the Rose and CarmanKozeny equations.) Use
computer programs developed in (1) to verify computations in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.10 (1), see the listing of Program 4.10.
2. Solution to Example 4.10 (2):

a. Given: l = 1.2 m, e = 0.6, d = 0.8 * 103 m, hf = 0.12 m, T = 22C. From Table A.1, = 0.9608
* 103, = 997.77.
i. Rose equation:

A. Find Reynolds number as follows: Re = 997.77*(v/60 * 60 * 24)* 0.8 * 103/ 0.9608 * 103 =
9.616 * 103v.
B. Find Newtons drag coefficient as follows: CD = (24/9.616 * 103/v) + [3/(9.616 * 103v)1/2] +
0.34 = 2495.8/v + 30.59/v1/2 + 0.34.
C. Use the head loss equation: hL = 0.12 = 1.067 * (2495.8/v + 30.59/v1/2 + 0.34)*(v/60 * 60 *
24)2 * 1.2)/(9.81* 0.8 * 103*1*(0.6)4).
D. Estimate the filtration velocity by trial and error, which yields v = 234 m/day.
ii. CarmanKozeny equation:

a. Reynolds number as determined before is Re = 9.616 * 103v.

b. Find the coefficient: f = [150(1 e)/Re] + 1.75.f = [150(1 0.6)/9.616 * 103v] + 1.75 =
6239.6/v + 1.75.
c. Estimate the filtration rate from the head loss equation as follows: hL = 0.12 = (6239.6/v +
1.75)*1.2*(1 0.6)*(v/60 * 60 * 24)2/[1 * 0.8 * 103*(0.6)3 * 9.81], which yields v = 450
m/day.
iii. Determine the percentage difference between the two methods = (450 234)*100/450 = 48%.
3. In the development of Program 4.10, the roots of the equation were determined using the
numerical method of NewtonRaphson. For a function such as f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + +
anxn, if an estimate of the root is chosen to be xr, an improved estimate can be obtained by
taking the derivate at x = xr. Accordingly, the improved estimate for the root can be obtained
as xr+1 = xr + f(xr)/[df(xr)/dx].
 Listing of Program 4.10 (Chap4.10\Form1.vb): Filtration Rate for a Given
Head Loss

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.10: FILTRATION
'Computes the filtration rate for a given head loss
'REQUIRES ZEROS OF A FUNCTION USES NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim density(34), viscosity(34)
Dim H1, L, d, phi, _e As Double
Dim temp(34), T As Integer
Const g = 9.81 'acceleration due to gravity
'*******************************************************************************
'Fill the tables with default values,
'taken from Appendix A1.
'*******************************************************************************
Private Sub fill_tables()
temp(0) = 5
temp(1) = 6
temp(2) = 7
temp(3) = 8
temp(4) = 9

temp(5) = 10
temp(6) = 11
temp(7) = 12
temp(8) = 13
temp(9) = 14
temp(10) = 15
temp(11) = 16
temp(12) = 17
temp(13) = 18
temp(14) = 19
temp(15) = 20
temp(16) = 21
temp(17) = 22
temp(18) = 23
temp(19) = 24
temp(20) = 25
temp(21) = 26
temp(22) = 27
temp(23) = 28
temp(24) = 29
temp(25) = 30
temp(26) = 31
temp(27) = 32
temp(28) = 33
temp(29) = 34
temp(30) = 35
temp(31) = 36
temp(32) = 37
temp(33) = 38
density(0) = 999.956
density(1) = 999.941
density(2) = 999.902
density(3) = 999.849
density(4) = 999.781
density(5) = 999.7
density(6) = 999.605
density(7) = 999.498
density(8) = 999.377
density(9) = 999.244
density(10) = 999.099
density(11) = 998.943
density(12) = 998.774
density(13) = 998.595
density(14) = 998.405
density(15) = 998.203
density(16) = 997.992
density(17) = 997.77
density(18) = 997.538
density(19) = 997.296
density(20) = 997.044
density(21) = 996.783
density(22) = 996.512
density(23) = 996.232
density(24) = 995.944
density(25) = 995.646
density(26) = 995.34
density(27) = 995.025
density(28) = 994.702
density(29) = 994.371
density(30) = 994.03
density(31) = 993.68

density(32) = 993.33
density(33) = 992.96
viscosity(0) = 1.5188
viscosity(1) = 1.4726
viscosity(2) = 1.4288
viscosity(3) = 1.3872
viscosity(4) = 1.3476
viscosity(5) = 1.3097
viscosity(6) = 1.2735
viscosity(7) = 1.239
viscosity(8) = 1.2061
viscosity(9) = 1.1748
viscosity(10) = 1.1447
viscosity(11) = 1.1156
viscosity(12) = 1.0875
viscosity(13) = 1.0603
viscosity(14) = 1.034
viscosity(15) = 1.0087
viscosity(16) = 0.9843
viscosity(17) = 0.9608
viscosity(18) = 0.938
viscosity(19) = 0.9161
viscosity(20) = 0.8949
viscosity(21) = 0.8746
viscosity(22) = 0.8551
viscosity(23) = 0.8363
viscosity(24) = 0.8181
viscosity(25) = 0.8004
viscosity(26) = 0.7834
viscosity(27) = 0.767
viscosity(28) = 0.7511
viscosity(29) = 0.7357
viscosity(30) = 0.7208
viscosity(31) = 0.7064
viscosity(32) = 0.6925
viscosity(33) = 0.6791
End Sub
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.10: Computes the
filtration rates in filters"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Head loss hL (m):"
label2.text = "Filter depth (m):"
label3.text = "Particle diameter (mm):"
label4.text = "Particle shape factor (phi):"
Label5.Text = "Bed porosity e (%):"
Label6.Text = "Temperature (between 5-38oC):"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
TextBox7.Multiline = True
TextBox7.Height = 150
TextBox7.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
fill_tables()
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
H1 = Val(textbox1.text)
L = Val(textbox2.text)

d = Val(textbox3.text)
phi = Val(textbox4.text)
_e = Val(TextBox5.Text)
T = Val(textbox6.text)
If T < 5 Or T > 38 Then
MsgBox("Please enter temperature between 5 and 38", vbOKOnly, "Error")
Exit Sub
End If
Dim kr, Ro, Vs, k, C11, C12, C13 As Double
Dim Vc, B, C1, C2, C3, C4, M2, M1, f, fprevious, Xprevious, Re As Double
Dim Xn, X, Epsilon, fdash, deltaX, V, difference As Double
'determine the density and the viscosity
For i = 0 To 33
If T = temp(i) Then kr = i
Next i
Ro = density(kr)
Vs = viscosity(kr) / 1000
If _e > 1 Then _e = _e / 100 'convert to ratio
d = d / 1000 'convert to meter units
'compute velocity
k = 60.0! * 60.0! * 24.0! 'conversion factor to /day
'set up Carman-Kozeny equation
C11 = 1.75
C12 = 12960000.0 * (1 - _e) * Vs / (Ro * d)
C13 = -H1 * g * d * phi * _e ^ 3 * k ^ 2 / ((1 - _e) * L)
Vc = (-c12 + (c12 ^ 2 - 4 * c13 * c11) ^ 0.5) / (2 * c11)
'set up Rose equation
B = Ro * d / (k * vs)
C1 = 0.34
C2 = 3 / B ^ 0.5
C3 = 24 / B
C4 = H1 * g * d * phi * _e ^ 4 * k ^ 2 / (1.067 * L)
M2 = (c4 / c1) ^ 0.25
M1 = M2 / 10
'zeroes of function search for solution interval
Dim status = 0
For X = M1 To M2 Step M1
f = C1 * X ^ 4 + C2 * X ^ 3 + C3 * X ^ 2 - C4
If X > M1 Then Call check(f, fprevious, X, M1, status)
If status > 0 Then GoTo jmp
fprevious = f
Xprevious = X
Re = Ro * X ^ 2 * d / Vs
Next X
jmp:
'Newton Raphson approximation of roots
Xn = X
Epsilon = 0.000001
cycle:
X = Xn
f = (C1 * X ^ 4) + (C2 * X ^ 3) + (C3 * X ^ 2) - C4
fdash = (4 * C1 * X ^ 3) + (3 * C2 * X ^ 2) + (2 * C3 * X)
V = X ^ 2
deltaX = f / fdash
Xn = Xn - deltaX 'improved estimate
If ABS(deltaX) > Epsilon Then GoTo cycle
TextBox7.Text = "Solution using Rose equation:" + vbCrLf
Call RESULTS(V, 6)

TextBox7.Text += "Solution using Carman-Kozeny equation:" + vbCrLf

Call RESULTS(Vc, 12)
difference = ABS(Vc - V) / Vc * 100
TextBox7.Text += "Difference between the two methods (%): " +
CInt(difference).tostring End Sub
Sub check(ByVal f, ByVal fprevious, ByVal X, ByVal m1, ByVal status)
If X > m1 Then
If Sign(f) <> Sign(fprevious) Then status = 1
End If
End Sub
Sub RESULTS(ByVal V, ByVal R)
'output the result of the analysis
TextBox7.Text += "The filtration velocity is (m/day): " + V.ToString +
vbCrLf 'select a suitable type of sand filter:
V = V / 24 'in m/hr
Dim tt = "Not suitable for slow nor for rapid sand filter"
If V >= 0.1 And V <= 0.2 Then tt = "SLOW SAND FILTER"
If V <= 5 And V <= 15 Then tt = "RAPID SAND FILTER"
TextBox7.Text += "Recommendation: " + tt + vbCrLf
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.7.3 CLOGGING OF THE FILTER BED

The quality of the effluent water from a filter can be evaluated by using the following equation:

(4.57)

where:
Ce is the concentration of contaminant in the effluent, mg/L
C0 is the concentration of contaminant at the filter inlet surface, mg/L
0 is the filtration coefficient, m1
l is the filter depth, m

The rate of deposition of particulate solids in the filter bed can be estimated from the following
equation (Huisman 1977, Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995):

(4.58)

where:
is the the rate of deposition
v is the filtration rate, m/s
0 is the filtration coefficient, m1
C0 is the concentration of solid particles at the filter inlet surface, mg/L
y is the depth of deposition of solids from the filter inlet surface, m t is the time taken for deposition of
solids within the filter bed, s

Example 4.11
1. Write a computer program that will estimate the concentration of a contaminant in the
effluent from a filter bed as well as the rate of deposition of the contaminant at various
depths throughout the filter. Given the concentration of contaminant at the filter inlet surface,
temperature, filtration coefficient, filter depth, filtration rate, and time taken for deposition of
solids within the filter bed. Plan the computer program so that the percentage reduction of
the contaminant by the filter is also determined.
2. Water at a temperature of 20C with a contaminant concentration of 200 mg/L is to be treated
by a filter bed of 1 m depth with a coefficient of filtration of 5 m1. Find the concentration of
the contaminant in the effluent if the filtration rate is 10 m3/m2/h.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the computations in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.11 (1), see the listing of Program 4.11.
a. Solution to Example 4.11 (2): Given: C0 = 200 mg/L, l = 1 m, = 5/m, vf = 10 m/h = 2.78 *
2.
103 m/s.
b. Find the effluent contaminant concentration using Equation 3.57: C0*e0L = 200*e5*l = 1.3
mg/L.

Listing of Program 4.11 (Chap4.11\Form1.vb): Concentration of Impurities of

Effluents of a Filter

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.11: Effluents
'computes the concentration of impurities of
'the effluents
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim Co, lamda, L, v As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.11: Computes the
concentration of impurities of effluents"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Concentration of impurities in the effluent (mg/L):"
Label2.Text = "Filtration coefficient (/m):"
Label3.Text = "Filter depth (m):"
Label4.Text = "Filtration rate (m/s):"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
TextBox5.Multiline = True
TextBox5.Height = 150
TextBox5.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Co = Val(TextBox1.Text)
lamda = Val(TextBox2.Text)
L = Val(TextBox3.Text)
v = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Dim y, Cx, delta, percent As Double
Cx = Co * EXP(-lamda * L)
TextBox5.Text = "Effluent concentration of impurities (mg/L): " +
Cx.ToString + vbCrLf percent = 100 * (Co - Cx) / Co
TextBox5.Text += "Percentage reduction of impurities (%): " +
percent.ToString + vbCrLf y = L / 2
Cx = Co * EXP(-lamda * y)
TextBox5.Text += "Concentration of impurities at half depth (mg/L): " +
Cx.ToString + vbCrLf delta = v * lamda * Co * EXP(-lamda * L)
TextBox5.Text += "Rate of deposition of impurities:" + delta.ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.7.4 BACKWASHING A RAPID SAND FILTER

Rapid filters are cleaned by backwashing. Backwashing refers to reversal of the direction of flow in
order to expand the bed at the end of a filter run. Expansion of the bed produces a situation in which the
accumulated contaminants are scoured off the sand particle surface. Filter bed expansion may be
estimated from the following empirical equation:

(4.59)

where:
le is the expanded bed depth, m
l is the bed depth, m
e is the porosity of bed, dimensionless
ee is the expanded bed porosity, dimensionless
v is the face velocity of the backwash water (rise rate), m/s
vs is the sand particles settling velocity, m/s

Example 4.12
1. Write a short computer program to find the filter bed expansion during backwashing, given
the rate of water backwashing, the sand particle shape factor, the sand bed porosity, the
settling velocity of the sand particles, and the depth of the filter.
2. A uniform sand filter bed of depth 0.6 m with a porosity of 0.4 is used for filtering water at a
filtration rate of 15 m3/m2/h with a measured settling velocity of sand particles of 0.05 m/s.
When backwashing is required, it is carried out at a rate of 20 m3/m2h. Determine the depth
of bed expansion.
3. Use computer program developed in (1) to verify computations in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.12 (1), see the listing of Program 4.12.
a. Solution to Example 4.12 (2): Given: l = 0.6 m, e = 0.4, v = 20 m/h, vs = 0.05 m/s = 180
2.
m/h.
b. Determine the depth of bed expansion as follows: le/l = (1 e)/[1 (v/vs)0.22]. le/0.6 = (1
0.4)/[1 (20/180)0.22]. This yields a value of le = 0.94 m.
 Listing of Program 4.12 (Chap4.12\Form1.vb): Depth of Bed Expansion

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.12: Backwashing
'Computes the depth of bed expansion
'*********************************************************************************
 Public Class Form1
Dim Lx, e, L, v, Vs As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.12: Computes the
depth of bed expansion"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
label1.text = "Enter porosity of bed:"
label2.text = "Enter depth of bed (m):"
label3.text = "Enter backwashing rate (m/min):"
label4.text = "Enter particle settling velocity (m/min):"
label5.text = "The expanded bed depth (m):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
e = Val(textbox1.text)
L = Val(textbox2.text)
v = Val(textbox3.text)
Vs = Val(TextBox4.Text)
'Convert from m/s to m/h
Vs *= 60 * 60
Lx = L * (1 - e) / (1 - (v / Vs) ^ 0.22)
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Lx, 2)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

4.8 METHODS OF DESALINATION

4.8.1 INTRODUCTION
Desalination or desalting is a term applied to removal of dissolved salts from waters with the objective
of producing water suitable for human consumption (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Smith and Scott
2002). Table 4.2 gives an estimate of the dissolved solids concentration of various types of water.

TABLE 4.2
Dissolved Solids Content for Different Waters
Type of Water Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)
Brackish water 1,50012,000
Seawater (Middle East) 50,000
Seawater (North Sea) 35,000

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.
 Desalination processes include the following:

1. Distillation: This process concerns the boiling of water and the consequent condensation of
vapor produced (examples are to be found in solar stills; multistage flash, multiple-effect
boiling, and vapor compression distillation).
2. Freezing: Freezing of a solution of saline water enables the separation of dissolved salts and the
production of pure water.
3. Membrane process: Reverse osmosis (RO) applies pressure to force water molecules to flow
through a semipermeable membrane while retaining dissolved substances in the solution.
Electrodialysis uses ion-selective membranes to separate dissolved salts under the action of an
electric current.

Figure 4.10 summarizes the various types of desalination techniques (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).

FIGURE 4.10. Summary of various desalination methods. TDS, total dissolved solids.

4.8.2 DISTILLATION
In distillation, saline water is boiled or evaporated to produce two separate streams: freshwater and
concentrate or a brine stream. The first stream has a low concentration of dissolved salts, whereas the
second stream contains the remaining dissolved salts. Vapors or steam is then condensed to supply pure
water. Benefits of the distillation process include the following (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Buros
2000): . Removal of harmful organisms from feed water (e.g., bacteria, viruses)
. Elimination of nonvolatile matter from feed water (e.g., dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide
and ammonia) In the distillation of water, at least two heat exchangers are needed for evaporating the
feed water and for aiding vapor in the condensation.
In a multiple-effect distillation unit, the feed water in the first phase is boiled under high pressure,
whereas the last phase operates at atmospheric pressure. Figure 4.11 outlines the pressure operation in a
multiple-effect distillation process. Heating tubes of the second stage aids the condensation of water
vapor emerging from the first phase. The energy released (by latent heat of condensation and by
temperature decrease) is employed by the liquid water in the second stage. Cooling water is used in the
last stage to finalize the condensation (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).

FIGURE 4.11. Pressure regulation with a multiple-effect distiller.

Heat unexchanged in any phase can be determined by using the following equation:

(4.60)

where:
HEi is the heat exchanged to effect number i, J
ui is the heat transfer coefficient for heat exchanger number i Ai is the area of heat exchanger number i, m2
Ti is the temperature difference between water in effect and steam entering heat exchanger, C

where:
T0 is the temperature of heating steam supplied to first phase, C
T1 is the boiling temperature in first phase, C

where T2 is the boiling temperature in second phase, and so on, C.

For similar areas of heat exchangers and similar transfer rates of heat in each phase, the relationship
between the heat generated in each phase and the temperature difference may be related as illustrated in
the following equations:

(4.61)

(4.62)

(4.63)

Example 4.13
1. Write a computer program that determines the temperature difference in each phase of a
multiphase still composed of N number of stills with a drop in both temperature (from T1 to
 Tn) and heat transfer coefficients (from u1 to un). Assume the stills have equal areas in the
heat exchanger.
2. A triple-phase still of equal areas in the heat exchanger is employed for water distillation.
Dry steam enters the first still at a temperature of 120C and leaves the triple-phase still at a
temperature of 40C with a drop in the pressure in the last phase. Heat transfer coefficients
for the three stills are in the ratio of 4:3:2, respectively. Find the temperature difference in
each phase in the triple distiller.
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 4.13 (1), see the listing of Program 4.13.
a. Solution to Example 4.13 (2): Given: u1:u2:u3 = 4:3:2, T1 = 120, T3 = 40.
2.
b. Find the temperature differences for the different phases of the still as follows: u1*T1 =
u2*T2 = u3*T3.
c. Determine the total temperature drop in the three phases: T1 + T2 + T3 = T = 120 40 =
80.
d. Let u1*T1 = u2*T2 = u3*T3 = a, then T1/T = (a/u1 + a/u2 + a/u3).
e. Multiply by u1/a, then T1/T = (1)/(1 + u1/u2 + u1/u3).
f. Find temperature differences as follows: T1/80 = (1)/[1 + (4/3) + (4/2)]. This yields T1 =
18.5C.
g. Similarly, T2/T = (1)/(u2/u1 + 1 + u2/u3), which gives T2 = 24.6C and T3/T = (1)/
(u3/u1 + u3/u2 + 1), which gives T3 = 36.9C.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution presented in (2).

Listing of Program 4.13 (Chap4.13\Form1.vb): Temperature Difference in

Multiphase Still

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.13: Desalination
'computes the temperature difference in
'multi-phase still
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim rat(), deltaT() As Double
Dim N As Integer = 1
Dim T1, T3, dT As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.13: Computes the
temperature difference in multi-phase still"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
label1.text = "Enter number of stills:"
textbox1.text = N.ToString
label2.text = "Enter " + N.ToString + " heat transfer coefficient
ratios:"
datagridview1.columns.clear()
datagridview1.rows.clear()
datagridview1.columns.add("col", "ratio")
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(N)
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
label3.text = "Enter initial temperature T1:"
Label4.Text = "Enter final temperature T" + N.ToString + ":"
datagridview2.columns.clear()
datagridview2.columns.add("col", "dT")
datagridview2.rows.clear()
DataGridView2.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label5.Text = "Temperature difference in the " + N.ToString + " stills
are as follows:"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
N = Val(textbox1.text)
t1 = Val(textbox2.text)
t3 = Val(textbox3.text)
ReDim rat(N)
ReDim deltaT(N)
For i = 1 To N
rat(i) = datagridview1.rows(i - 1).cells(0).value
Next
dT = T1 - T3
DataGridView2.Rows.Clear()
Dim X As Double
For i = 1 To N
X = 0
For j = 1 To N
X = X + rat(i) / rat(j)
Next j
deltaT(i) = dT / X
datagridview2.rows.add(deltaT(i))
Next i
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged If Val(TextBox1.Text) <= 0
Then Exit Sub
If N > Val(TextBox1.Text) Then
'remove some cells
For i = N To Val(TextBox1.Text) + 1 Step -1
DataGridView1.Rows.RemoveAt(i - 1)
Next
ElseIf N < Val(TextBox1.Text) Then
For i = 1 To Val(TextBox1.Text) - N
DataGridView1.Rows.Add()
Next
End If
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Label4.Text = "Enter final temperature T" + N.ToString + ":"
Label5.Text = "Temperature difference in the " + N.ToString + " stills
are as follows:"
End Sub
 End Class

4.8.3 OSMOSIS
Osmosis concerns the tendency of a solvent to diffuse through a membrane to a solute. The flow is
directed from the more diluted to the more concentrated solution. To prevent diffusion toward the more
concentrated solution, osmotic pressure is applied. Figure 4.12 illustrates the concepts of normal and RO
processes.

FIGURE 4.12. Osmosis process.

Osmotic pressure, a measure of the force that brings together the solvent molecules, depends upon the
number of particles of solute in solution (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995). The passage of the solvent
through a membrane produces a driving force, which may be estimated by the difference in vapor pressure
of the solvent on the membrane sides. The transfer of solvent through the membrane from the dilute to the
concentrated solution continues until hydrostatic pressure exceeds the driving force of the vapor pressure
differential (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Sawyer and McCarty 2002).
Equation 4.64 may be used to estimate the osmotic pressure at equilibrium for an incompressible
solvent:

(4.64)

where:
Posm is the osmotic pressure, Pa or atm
R is the universal gas constant (= 0.08206 L*atm/mol*K = 9.314 J/K*mol = 8314 J/kg*K), J/kg*K
T is the temperature, K
P0 is the vapor pressure of solvent in dilute solution, Pa or atm P is the vapor pressure of solvent in
concentrated solution, Pa or atm V is the volume per mole of solvent (= 0.018 L for water), m3 or L

Generally, the existence of a nonvolatile solute in a liquid decreases the vapor pressure of the solution.
Raoults law assumes that for dilute solutions, the reduction in vapor pressure of a solvent is directly
proportional to the concentration of particle in solution (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Sawyer and
McCarty 2002). Equation 4.65 signifies Raoults law for dilute solution relating osmotic pressure to
molar concentration of particles in the concentrated solution:

(4.65)

where:
Posm is the osmotic pressure, atm
C is the molar concentration of particles
R is the universal gas constant for all gases, L*atm/mol*K
T is the temperature, K

In the RO process, the dissolved solids are separated by a semipermeable membrane. In this case,
pressure in excess of the natural osmotic pressure is applied to the feed water (see Figure 4.13).

FIGURE 4.13. RO process.

The advantages of the RO process include the following (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, Buros 2000,
Cotruvo et al. 2010, American Water Works Association 2011, Riffat 2012): . Reduction of content of
total dissolved solids (up to 99%)
. Removal of biological and colloidal materials (up to 98%)
. Removal of harmful microorganisms (up to 100%)
. Removal of dissolved organic substances (up to 97%)
. Production of treated water suitable for human consumption

Example 4.14
 1. Write a short computer program to compute the osmotic pressure per unit volume for a salt
solution, given the temperature and the vapor pressure of solvent in dilute and concentrated
solutions.
2. A salt solution has a vapor pressure (concentrated solution) of 2.26 kPA and a temperature of
20C. Assume pure water (dilute solution in this case) has a vapor pressure of 2.34 kPa at
this temperature. Estimate the osmotic pressure per unit volume.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution presented in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.14 (1), see the listing of Program 4.14.
a. Solution to Example 4.14 (2): Given: T = 20C, P0 is the vapor pressure of solvent in dilute
2.
solution = 2.34 kPa (may be found from Appendix A1 corresponding to the given
temperature in case of the dilute solution being water). P is the vapor pressure of the solvent
in the concentrated solution = 2.26 kPa.
b. Determine the temperature as follows: T = 273.16 + 20 = 293.16 K.
c. Find the osmotic pressure as follows: (Posm = (R*T/V)*ln(P0/P). Posm = (8.314 J/K/mol*293.16
K)*ln(2.34/2.26) = 84.8 Pa/unit volume.

Listing of Program 4.14 (Chap4.14\Form1.vb): Osmotic Pressure Per Unit

Volume for Salt Solutions

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.14: Osmosis
'Computes the osmotic pressure per unit volume for
'salt solutions
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim T, Po, P, Posm As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.14: Computes the
osmotic pressure for salt solutions"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False

label1.text = "Enter temperature T (C):"

label2.text = "Enter vapor pressure of solvent in dilute solution
(kPa):"
label3.text = "Enter vapor pressure of solvent in concentrated solution
(kPa):"
label4.text = ""
button1.text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
T = Val(textbox1.text)
Po = Val(textbox2.text)
P = Val(textbox3.text)
T = T + 273.16 'Kelvin
Dim R = 8.314 'J/K/mol
Dim V = 1 'unit volume
Posm = (R * T / V) * Math.Log(Po / P)
label4.text = "Osmotic pressure (kPa/unit volume): " + Posm.ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 4.15
1. Write a computer program to find the difference in osmotic pressure across a semipermeable
membrane, given the concentrations (in molar, or mg/L) of cations and anions and the
prevailing temperature.
2. Analysis of a water sample at a temperature of 23C indicated the following concentration
of ions (in mg ion/L). Cations: Mg2+ = 0.5, Ca2+ = 0.8, Na+ = 0.3, K+ = 0.2. Anions: SO4
= 1.2, Cl = 0.1, HCO3 = 0.25, NO3 = 0.25. The water sample is to be treated by RO.
Determine the osmotic pressure across the semipermeable membrane.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.15 (1), see the listing of Program 4.15.
a. Solution to Example 4.15 (2): Determine the molar concentration of ions in the water sample
2.
as follows: molar ion concentration = concentration of ion (mg/L)/MW, where MW =
molecular weight. Thus (and similarly), Mg2+ = 0.5/24.3 = 0.0206; Ca2+ = 0.8/40 = 0.02;
Na+ = 0.3/23 = 0.013; K+ = 0.2/39 = 0.0051; SO4 = 1.2/96 = 0.0125; Cl = 0.1/35.5 =
0.0028; HCO3 = 0.25/61 = 0.0041; NO3 = 0.25/62 = 0.004.
b. Find the molar ion concentration of the sample of water as follows: C = 0.0206 + 0.02 + 0.013
+ 0.0051 + 0.0125 + 0.0028 + 0.0041 + 0.004 = 0.0821 M.
c. Determine the osmotic pressure as follows: Posm = C*R*T = 0.0821 * 0.082*(273.16 + 23) =
1.99 atm.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution presented in (2).

Listing of Program 4.15 (Chap4.15\Form1.vb): Difference in Osmotic

Pressure Across Membranes

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.15: Osmosis-2
'Computes difference in osmotic pressure
'across membranes
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim mw(8), conc(8)
Dim T, mol, Posm As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load '** symbols
Label4.Text = "Mg2+"
Label5.Text = "Ca2+"
Label6.Text = "Na+ "
Label7.Text = "K+ "
Label11.Text = "SO4-"
Label10.Text = "Cl-"
Label9.Text = "HCO3-"
Label8.Text = "NO3"
'** molecular weights
mw(1) = 24.3
mw(2) = 40
mw(3) = 23
mw(4) = 39
mw(5) = 96
mw(6) = 35.5
mw(7) = 61
mw(8) = 62
Me.Text = "Program 4.15: Computes difference in osmotic pressure across
membranes"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter temperature T (C):"
GroupBox1.Text = "Enter ion concentration in mg ion/L:"
Label2.Text = "CATIONS:"
Label3.Text = "ANIONS:"
Label12.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
mol = 0
T = Val(TextBox1.Text)
conc(1) = Val(TextBox2.Text)
conc(2) = Val(TextBox3.Text)
conc(3) = Val(TextBox4.Text)
conc(4) = Val(TextBox5.Text)
conc(5) = Val(TextBox9.Text)
conc(6) = Val(TextBox8.Text)
conc(7) = Val(TextBox7.Text)
conc(8) = Val(TextBox6.Text)
For I = 1 To 8
'molar ion concentration
mol = mol + conc(I) / mw(I)
Next
Dim R = 0.082
'osmotic pressure
Posm = mol * R * (T + 273.16)
Label12.Text = "Osmotic pressure: " + FormatNumber(Posm, 2) + " atm."
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

!4.8.4 ELECTRODIALYSIS
In electrodialysis, ions are transferred through an ion-selective membrane from one solution to another
under the action of a direct electrical potential (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995). Usually, the
electrodialysis device is an array of alternating anion- and cation-selective membranes across which an
electric potential is applied (see Figure 4.14) (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995, American Water Works
Association 2011).

FIGURE 4.14. Schematic representation of an electrodialysis process.

The efficiency of the system to transport counterions can be determined by using the following equation
(American Water Works Association 2011):

(4.66)

where:
i is the current density, A/cm2
Eff is the current efficiency for transport of counterions through the membrane, %
Eff is the current efficiency for transport of the same ions in solution in contact with the membrane, %
Far is the Faraday constant (=26.8 A*h)
Diff is the diffusion constant for electrolyte at the temperature of electrolysis C0 is the concentration of
electrolyte in the depletion compartment C is the concentration of electrolyte at the membranesolution
interface B is the thickness of diffusion layer at the interface

The maximum value of the current density can be determined by using the following equation
(American Water Works Association 2011):
 (4.67)

where imax is the maximum value of the current density, A/cm2.

Problems associated with the electrodialysis process include the following (Rowe and Abdel-Magid
1995): . High costs involved in treating seawater
. Expensive pretreatment
. Problems encountered with high-sulfate waters
. Limitation of process of removing only common mineral ions
. Required skilled maintenance and supervision

Example 4.16
1. Write a computer program to determine the maximum current density, given the total
dissolved solids, the current efficiency for transport of counterions through the membrane,
the current efficiency for transport of the same ions in solution in contact with the membrane,
the thickness of diffusion layer at the interface, the diffusion constant for electrolyte at the
temperature of electrolysis, and Faradays constant.
2. Brackish water with a dissolved solids concentration of 1800 mg/L is introduced to an
a. electrodialysis unit. The unit operates under the following conditions: Current efficiency for
transport of counter- ions through the membrane = 80%.
b. Current efficiency for transport of the same ions in solution in contact with the membrane =
58%.
c. Diffusion constant for electrolyte at the temperature of electrolysis = 1.4 * 105 cm2/s.
d. Thickness of diffusion layer at the interface = 0.5 mm.

Compute the maximum current density (take Faradays constant as 26.8 A*h).
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution presented in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.16 (1), see the listing of Program 4.16.
a. Solution to Example 4.16 (2): Given: C0 = 1800 mg/L, Eff = 58%, Eff = 80%, Diff = 1.4 *
2.
105 cm2/s, B = 0.5 mm = 5 * 102 cm, Far = 26.8 A*h.
b. Determine the maximum current density as follows: imax = 100*Far*Diff*C0/[B*(EffEff)] =
(100 * 26.8 * 3600 * 1.4 * 105*1800 * 106)/[5 * 102*(80 58)] = 0.22 A*g/cm2.

Listing for Program 4.16 (Chap4.16\Form1.Vb): Electrodialysis Maximum

Current Density

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.16: Electrodialysis
'computes maximum current density
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Co, eff1, eff2, Diff, B As Double
Dim imax As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.16: Computes
maximum current density"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter dissolved solids concentration (mg/L):"
Label2.Text = "Enter efficiency for transport of ions through the
membrane (%):"
Label3.Text = "Enter efficiency for transport of ions in the solution
(%):"
Label4.Text = "Enter diffusion constant for electrolyte (cm2/s):"
Label5.Text = "Enter thickness of diffusion layer at the interface
(cm):"
Label6.Text = ""
Label7.Text = "Decimal places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
button1.text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Co = Val(textbox1.text)
eff1 = Val(textbox2.text)
eff2 = Val(textbox3.text)
Diff = Val(textbox4.text)
B = Val(textbox5.text)
Dim Far, i As Double
Far = 26.8 * 3600 'Amp*hr
i = Far * Diff * Co * 0.000001 * 100 / (B * (eff1 - eff2))
i = Math.Abs(i)
imax = i
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
show_results()
End Sub

Private Sub show_results()

Label6.Text = "Maximum current density (Amp.gm/cm2): " +
FormatNumber(imax, NumericUpDown1.Value) End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
show_results()
End Sub
 End Class

4.9 DISINFECTION PROCESS

4.9.1 INTRODUCTION
Disinfection involves the killing of pathogenic organisms with the objective of preventing the spread of
water- and wastewater-borne disease. Disinfection methods can be classified as either physical or
chemical. The former methods include heat treatment, exposure to ultraviolet rays, and metal ions (e.g.,
silver, copper). The latter methods include the usage of oxidants such as chlorine gas, ozone, iodine, and
chlorinated compounds (e.g., chlorine dioxide), and potassium permanganate.
The preferred characteristics for an effective chemical disinfectant include the following (Committee
Report 1978, Dyer-Smith et al. 1983, El-Hassan and Abdel-Magid 1986, Sawyer and McCarty 2002,
Degremont 2007, Nemerow et al. 2009, Shammas et al. 2010): . Effective in killing pathogenic
microorganisms
. Ease of detection and measurement of its concentration in water
. Solubility in water in doses required for disinfection
. Absence of toxicity to humans and animals
. Ease of handling, transporting, and controlling it
. Capable of producing a residual
. Absence of a taste, odor, or color when used
. Available at a reasonable cost

The disinfection process is a function of type and concentration of microorganisms, type and
concentration of disinfectant, presence of oxidant-consuming compounds, temperature, dose of chemical,
contact time, and pH.

4.9.2 CHLORINATION
Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine to water with the purpose of killing pathogens. When
chlorine is added to water, part of it reacts to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is the more
effective disinfectant (available chlorine); another part forms hypochlorite ion (OCl); a third part reacts
with ammonia to form chloramines; a fourth part oxidizes inorganic matter (e.g., hydrogen sulfide, iron,
manganese); and a fifth part reacts with organic compounds to form trihalomethanes (THMs) and other
chlorinated organics. The benefits of using chlorine include effectiveness, reliability, and establishment of
a residual in the system (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
The rate of kill of organisms is a function of many interacting parameters, such as the concentration of
disinfectant, the ability and time needed to penetrate the bacterial cell wall, the distribution of disinfectant
and microorganisms, and the contact time between pathogens and disinfectant according to Chicks law.
Equation 4.68 is a mathematical expression for Chicks law, which is not valid for all disinfectants nor
for all microorganisms:
 (4.68)

where:
N is the number of viable microorganisms of one type at time t
N0 is the number of viable microorganisms of one type at time t = 0
t is the time, days
k is the constant, day1

Another relationship between disinfectant concentration and contact time is given in the following
equation:

(4.69)

where:
C is the concentration of chlorine, mg/L
t is the contact time or time required for a given percentage of microbial kill, min a and k are the
experimental constants that are valid for a particular system The Vant HoffArrhenius equation can be
used to relate the effects of temperature on the disinfection process (Peavey et al. 1985, Metcalf and Eddy
2013).

(4.70)

where:
t1 and t2 are the time required for the given kills, s E is the activation energy (see Table 4.3), cal T1 and
T2 are the temperatures corresponding to t1 and t2 respectively, K
R is the gas constant

TABLE 4.3
Activation Energies (E) for Aqueous Chlorine
pH E(cal)
7.0 8,200
8.5 6,400
9.8 12,000
10.7 15,000

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.

Problems associated with chlorination include the following:

. Safety considerations during handling, transportation, and storage of chemicals . Formation of

chlorinated organic compounds (THMs) that can be injurious to human health
Example 4.17
1. Using Chicks law, write a computer program to find the contact time required for a disinfectant
to achieve a percent kill for a microbial system that has a rate constant of k (to base e) or k (to
base 10).
2. Determine the contact time needed for a disinfectant to achieve a 99.99% kill for a pathogenic
microorganism that has a rate constant (to base 10) of 0.1 s1.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify computations of part (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.17 (1), see the listing of Program 4.17.
a. Solution to Example 4.17 (2): Given: the rate of kill = 99.99%, k = 0.1 s1.
2.
b. Find the contact time from Chicks law as follows: t = (1/k)*log(N/N0). t = (1/0.1)* log(100
99.99/100) = 40 s.

Listing of Program 4.17 (Chap4.17\Form1.vb): Chlorination Time of Kill

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.17: Chlorination
'computes the time needed by a disinfectant to
'achieve a certain kill
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim k, N1 As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.17: Computes the
time needed by a disinfectant"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the rate constant k (/s):"
Label2.Text = "Is it to base 10?"
Label3.Text = "Enter the percentage kill to achieve:"
radiobutton1.text = "Yes"
RadioButton2.Text = "No"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label4.Text = ""
Label4.AutoSize = False
Label4.Height = 40
Label4.Width = 290
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
k = Val(textbox1.text)

N1 = Val(textbox2.text)
Dim N2, lgn, t As Double
If N1 < 1 Then N1 = N1 * 100
N2 = (100 - N1) / 100
'logarithm base 10 of N2
lgn = Log10(N2)
'logarithm base e of N2
If RadioButton2.Checked Then lgn = Log(N2)
t = -(1 / k) * lgn
Label4.Text = "time needed to achieve this level of kill (seconds): " +
FormatNumber(t, 2) End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.10 CORROSION

4.10.1 INTRODUCTION
Water with corrosive characteristics can cause problems in distribution networks and residential
plumbing systems. Generally, problems encountered may be classified as follows (Eliassen and Shrindle
1958, Hoyt et al 1979, American Water Works Association 1980, Narayan 1983, American Water Works
Association 1984, American Water Works Association 2010): . Health problems: These problems
originate from dissolution of certain substances into water from transmission and distribution pipelines or
plumbing system.
. Economic problems: These problems result from reduced service life of materials due to
deterioration within transmission, distribution, and plumbing systems.
. Aesthetic problems: These problems are due to dissolution of certain metallic substances into the
water.

4.10.2 CORROSION POTENTIAL INDICATORS

The main corrosion potential indicators include Langelier index (LI), Ryznar index (RI), and
aggressiveness index (AI) (Eliassen and Shrindle 1958, Hoyt et al 1979, American Water Works
Association 1980, American Water Works Association 1984, American Water Works Association 2010).
These indicators are briefly outlined in Sections 4.10.2.1 through 4.10.2.3.

4.10.2.1 Langelier Index

The LI illustrates the tendency for deposition (noncorrosiveness) or dissolution of calcium carbonate
scale in pipe. It is defined as the difference between pH of the water and its saturated pH (when water is
in equilibrium with calcium carbonate) (Smith and Scott 2002). Equations 4.71 through 4.73 present
mathematical expressions for determining LI:

(4.71)

where:
LI is the Langelier index
pHa is the actual (measured) pH of the water
pHs is the saturation pH

(4.72)
 where:
pK2 pKs is the dissolution constant estimates based on the temperature and total dissolved solids or ionic strength pCa2+ is the negative
logarithm of the calcium ion concentration (Ca2+ in mol/L) pAlk is the negative logarithm of the total alkalinity (alkalinity in equivalents of
CaCO3/L) S is the salinity correction term:

(4.73)

where is the ionic strength.

Positive LI values indicate a supersaturated condition that will deposit calcium carbonate on the pipe.
Negative LI values indicate an undersaturated condition that will dissolve calcium carbonate and will not
deposit a protective film of the salt on pipe to stop corrosion (Smith and Scott 2002).

4.10.2.2 Ryznar Index

The RI provides an indication of the rate of scale formation or the tendency of the water to be aggressive.
Equations 4.74 and 4.75 can be used to determine the RI:

(4.74)

where:
RI is the Ryznar index
pHs is the saturation pH
pHa is the actual (measured) pH

The relationship between the RI and the LI is presented in the following equation:

(4.75)

where:
RI < 6, calcium carbonate scale deposition increases proportionately.
RI > 6, corrosion increases.
RI > 10, conditions are extremely aggressive.

4.10.2.3 Aggressiveness Index

The AI defines water quality that can be transported through asbestoscement pipes without adverse
effects. The relationship between the AI, pH, total alkalinity, and calcium hardness is presented in the
following equation:

(4.76)
where:
AI is the aggressiveness index
pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
Alk is the total alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3
HCa is the calcium hardness, mg/L CaCO3

Table 4.4 gives a classification of water according to the value of the AI.

TABLE 4.4
Aggressiveness Index
Value Description
<10 Highly aggressive
1011.9 Moderately aggressive
>12 Nonaggressive

Listing of Program 4.18 (Chap4.18\Form1.vb): Corrosion Potential Indicators

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.18: Corrosion
'determines whether a sample is corrosive or precipitative
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim H, ALK, HCa, pHa, pHs As Double
Dim compute As Char 'whether or not to compute Langelier & Ryznar indices
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 4.18: Determines
whether a sample is corrosive or precipitative"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Height = 256 'hide the lower part of the form
label1.text = "Enter the hydrogen ion concentration (mol/L):"
label2.text = "Enter the total alkalinity (mg/K CaCO3):"
label3.text = "Enter the calcium hardness (mg/L CaCO3):"
label4.text = ""
Label4.AutoSize = False
Label4.Height = 40
Label4.Width = 297
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Button2.Text = "Compute Langelier & Ryznar indices >>"
Button3.Text = "Calculate indices"
compute = "N"
Label5.Text = "Enter measured pH of water:"
Label6.Text = "Enter saturation pH:"
Label7.AutoSize = False
Label7.Height = 40

Label7.Width = 297
Label7.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
H = Val(textbox1.text)
ALK = Val(textbox2.text)
HCa = Val(textbox3.text)
Dim pH, AI As Double
Dim type As String
pH = -Log10(H)
AI = pH + Log10(ALK * HCa)
Select Case AI
Case Is < 10
type = "highly aggressive"
Case Is > 12
type = "Non aggressive"
Case Else
type = "moderately aggressive"
End Select
Label4.Text = "Aggressiveness Index: " + AI.ToString + vbCrLf + type
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click If compute = "N" Then
compute = "Y"
Me.Height = 426
Button2.Text = "Hide <<"
Else
compute = "N"
Me.Height = 256
Button2.Text = "Compute Langelier & Ryznar indices >>"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button3_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button3.Click pHa = Val(TextBox4.Text)
pHs = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Dim LI, RI As Double
LI = pHa - pHs
RI = 2 * pHs - pHa
Label7.Text = "Langelier Index = " + LI.ToString
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "Ryznar Index = " + RI.ToString
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Example 4.18
Write a computer program to determine whether a water sample is corrosive or scale forming, using the different indexes (LI, RI, AI).
Data given include the parameters involved in the computations of each of the relative indexes.
Analysis of a water sample revealed the following: calcium hardness = 125 mg/L as CaCO3, alkalinity = 195 mg/L as CaCO3, hydrogen
ion concentration of 2.6 * 107 mol/L. Using the AI, determine whether this water is aggressive to asbestoscement pipes.
Use the computer program involved in (1) to verify computations conducted in (2).

SOLUTION
For solution to Example 4.18 (1), see the listing of Program 4.18.
Solution to Example 4.18 (2):
Given: HCa = 125, Alk = 195, [H+] = 2.6 * 107 mol/L.
Determine the pH as follows: pH = log[H+] = log2.6 * 107 = 6.57.
Find the AI as follows: AI = pH + log10(Alk)*(HCa) = 6.75 + log(195 * 125) = 10.96. Thus, AI = 10.96 < 11.9. This value shows that
the water is moderately aggressive to asbestoscement pipes (Table 4.4).

4.10.3 RATE OF CORROSION

Corrosion may be defined as an attack on the surface of a metal or other solid (Smith and Scott 2002).
Figures 4.15 and 4.16 give a general classification for the corrosion processes. The rate of metal removal
due to corrosion can be calculated by using the following equation (Narayan 1983):

FIGURE 4.15. Types of corrosion.

FIGURE 4.16. Classification of corrosion.

(4.77)

where:
Rmr is the rate of corrosion, m/s
K is the constant
wt is the weight loss, kg
A is the area of specimen, m2
t is the time of exposure, s
is the density, kg/m3

Example 4.19
1. Write a short computer program that determines the rate of corrosion of a metallic surface,
given the weight loss of material, wt (kg)or electrochemical equivalent, Ee (mg/C);
current, I (A); the area of specimen, A (m2); time of exposure, t(s); and the density of
material, (kg/m3).
2. In an electrochemical cell, the rate of corrosion of a 0.5 cm radius zinc anode is found to be
1.2 * 106 mm/s for an electric current of 90 mA. Determine the depth to which the anode is
immersed in the electrolyte to produce the aforementioned corrosion rate. For zinc, the
 electrochemical equivalent = 0.3387 mg/C, the density = 7000 kg/m3, and K = 1.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 4.19 (1), see the listing of Program 4.19.
1. Solution to Example 4.19 (2): Given: r = 0.5 cm, Rmr = 1.2 * 106 mm/s, I = 90 mA, Ee =
2.
0.3387 mg/C, = 7000 kg/m3.
2. Use the corrosion rate equation (4.77) to find the corroded area as follows: A = Ee*I*K/Rmr
* = (0.3387 * 103 g/C*90 * 103 A)/(1.2 * 107*7 g/cm3) = 36.29 cm2. Area exposed to
corrosion = d2/4 + dh, where d is the diameter of anode and h is the depth of immersion.
3. Find the depth of immersion to produce given corrosion rate as follows: h = (A *r2)/ 2 =
(36.29 *0.52)/2**0.5 = 11.3 cm.

Listing of Program 4.19 (Chap4.19\Form1.vb): Rate of Corrosion of a

Metallic Surface

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 4.19: corrosion
'Determines the rate of corrosion of a metallic surface
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const PI = 3.14159
Dim Rmr, wt, A, t, k As Double
Dim I, Ee, rho, r, h As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load RadioButton1.Text = "Determine rate of
corrosion"
RadioButton2.Text = "Determine the depth of immersion for a given rate"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Me.Text = "Program 4.19: Determines the rate of corrosion of a metallic
surface"

Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label7.Text = ""
TextBox6.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton1.Checked Then
Label1.Text = "Constant, k:"
Label2.Text = "Weight loss, wt (kg):"
Label3.Text = "Area of specimen, A (m2):"
Label4.Text = "Time of exposure, t (s):"
Label5.Text = "Density of material, Rho (kg/m3):"
Label6.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
Else
Label1.Text = "Radius of specimen, r (cm):"
Label2.Text = "Rate of corrosion, Rmr (mm/s):"
Label3.Text = "The electric current, I (mA):"
Label4.Text = "The electrochemical equivalent, Ee (mg/C):"
Label5.Text = "Density of material, Rho (kg/m3):"
Label6.Text = "Constant, k:"
Label6.Visible = True
TextBox6.Visible = True
End If
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
k = Val(TextBox1.Text)
wt = Val(TextBox2.Text)
A = Val(TextBox3.Text)
t = Val(TextBox4.Text)
rho = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Rmr = k * wt / (A * t * rho)
Label7.Text = "Rate of corrosion: " + FormatNumber(Rmr, 2) + " m/s"
Else
r = Val(TextBox1.Text)
'Convert from mm/s to cm/s
Rmr = Val(TextBox2.Text) / 10
'Convert from mA to A
I = Val(TextBox3.Text) / 1000
'Convert from mg/C to g/C
Ee = Val(TextBox4.Text) / 1000
'Convert from kg/m3 to g/cm3
rho = Val(TextBox5.Text) / 1000
k = Val(TextBox6.Text)
A = (Ee * I * k) / (Rmr * rho) 'corroded area
h = (A - (PI * (r ^ 2))) / (2 * PI * r) 'depth of immersion
Label7.Text = "Depth of immersion: " + FormatNumber(h, 2) + " cm"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

4.11 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN COMPUTER MODELING APPLICATIONS

FOR WATER TREATMENT

4.11.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS

1. What are the various ways in which water treatment can be classified?
2. Discuss the objectives of water treatment.
3. What are the functions of screens at water treatment works?
4. Why should a water suspension have a minimum velocity in order to pass through a screen
opening?
5. Define the following terms: sedimentation, flotation, and plain sedimentation.
6. Outline the objective of the sedimentation process.
7. Why are square and circular settling tanks preferred in water treatment?
8. Discuss the types of settling and outline their main differences.
9. Give examples for each type of settling outlined in Problem 8.
10. Name the factors that affect class I settling.
11. For what purposes are cumulative frequency distribution curves drawn?
12. What are the factors that influence the efficiency of sedimentation basins?
13. Explain the kinetics of the filtration process.
14. Define the terms: aeration, aerator, and saturation concentration.
15. What are the advantages of aeration in water and wastewater treatment?
16. Give some examples of aerators.
17. Outline the factors that affect the solubility of a gas in a liquid.
18. Differentiate between coagulation and flocculation.
19. Indicate how to enhance the process of coagulation and filtration.
20. Define the following terms: electrophoretic mobility, zeta potential, and velocity gradient. State
the values for each.
21. What are the parameters that govern the design of a flocculator?
22. Define filtration and indicate its objectives in water treatment plants.
23. Differentiate between slow sand filters and rapid sand filters.
24. What are the characteristics of a good filter medium?
25. Why is a rapid filter backwashed?
26. What are the main practical desalination methods? Indicate the advantages and disadvantages of
each method.
27. Define the following terms: osmosis, desalination, distillation, and electrodialysis.
28. What is the purpose of disinfection?
29. What are the desirable properties of an effective disinfectant?
30. Give examples for physical and chemical disinfectants.
 31. Present the reactions that can occur if water is chlorinated.
32. What are the problems associated with corrosive waters?
33. Differentiate between a corrosive and a scale-forming water suspension.
34. What are the factors that govern the rate of corrosion of metallic substances.
35. Give a general classification scheme for the type of corrosion expected in a sewerage collection
system.

4.11.2 SPECIFIC MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1. Write a short computer program to compute the diameter, D (m), and the depth of a circular
sedimentation tank, h (m), given the influent rate of flow, Q (m3/s); tanks overflow rate, vs
(m3/m2/s); and detention time of tank, t (s). Verify your computations for the data given: Q = 38
m3/h, vs = 5 m3/m2/d, t = 2 h.
2. Write a short computer program to compute the diameter, d (m), of spherical particles allowed
to settle in an ideal sedimentation tank, given the settling velocity of particles, vs (m3/m2/s); the
specific weight of settling particles, s.g.; and the temperature of mixture during the settling
process. Assume Stokes law is valid. Design the program so that a check can be made as to the
Reynolds number. Verify your computations for the data given here: vs = 0.03 m/min, s.g. = 2.6,
and T = 20C.
3. Write a short computer program to evaluate the drag force, F (N), acting on a moving spherical
particle with a small Reynolds number and its terminal settling velocity, given that F =
6*r**v, where is the dynamic viscosity (N*s/m2), v is the settling velocity of the sphere
(m/s), and r is the radius (m).
4. Develop a computer program that can determine the concentration of the SS in the effluent, the
Froude and Reynolds numbers for horizontal water movement, the percentage of SS in the
effluent having a settling velocity smaller than a certain given value, and the detention time of
the water in the tank. The information given includes the temperature of the settling suspension,
T (C); the population number, POP; the average per-capita domestic water consumption, Q
(L/day); SS content of influent, C0 (mg/L); tank dimensions (i.e., width, B; length l; and depth, h
[m]); and settling column test results, which showed a straight-line relationship for the
cumulative frequency distribution of the settling velocities of the particles with characteristics
b. of the following: x1 percentage of the particles having a settling velocity larger than v1 (mm/s) x2
a.
percentage of the particles having a settling velocity smaller than v2 (mm/s) Verify your program
using the following data: T = 22C; POP = 71,280; Q = 400 L/day; C0 = 125 mg/L. The settling
c. column test results in the following: Ten percent of the particles having a settling velocity larger
e. than 0.7 mm/s Ten percent of the particles having a settling velocity smaller than 0.2 mm/s B =
d.
10 m, l = 60 m, and i = 1.5 m.
5. Write a computer program to estimate the average grain diameter (mm) needed for a sand filter
bed consisting of unisized grains of a porosity, e (%). The bed depth is l (m) operating at a
temperature of T (C) with a filtration velocity of vf (m3/m2/day) at a maximum bed head loss of
hf (m). Assume that the head loss has been determined by the Rose equation. Design the program
so that the suitability of the grain diameter is evaluated. Verify your program by using the
 following data: l = 1 m, e = 50%, vf = 0.2 m3/m2/h, hf = 0.24 m, and v = 1.0105 * 106 m2/s.
6. Write a computer program to find the porosity of a filter bed after being backwashed with a
filter bed expansion of x (%). Take the filter bed thickness to be l (m), bed porosity of e (%),
and a grain size diameter of i (mm). Check the validity of your program for the following data: l
= 120 cm, e = 40%, d = 0.95 mm, and x = 25%.
7. Write a computer program to design a slow sand filter intended to treat a flow of Q (m3/s), using
the relationships found in Table 4.1. Use the following data to verify your program: Q = 1000
m3/day, vf = 8 m/day.
8. Write a program that provides for the determination of the amount of a disinfectant (in kg/day)
needed for disinfecting a water flow of Q (m3/s) to obtain x mg/L residual, given chlorine
contained in the compound as y percent. Use your program to find the amount of chlorine
compound needed under the following conditions: Q = 150 m3/h, x = 0.3 mg/L, y = 65%.
9. The following laboratory data were obtained from a settling column test. The initial solids
concentration equals 550 mg/L. Estimate the overall removal efficiency and concentration of
effluent of a settling basin with a depth of 2 m and a detention time of 2 h.

Settling Data
Time (min) Removal (Initial Solids Concentration 550 mg/L) (%)
Depth (m)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
10 20 11 9 8
20 32 22 17 15
30 36 31 26 23
40 46 34 31 30
50 59 38 34 33
60 64 46 38 35
70 70 55 45 34
90 81 66 60 53
110 89 76 89 63
120 91 80 73 69

REFERENCES
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American Water Works Association. 1984. Determining integral corrosion potential in water supply system. J. Am Water Works Assoc.,
76(8):83.
American Water Works Association. 2011. Desalination of Seawater (M61): AWWA Manual of Water Supply. Denver, CO: American
Water Works Association.
American Water Works Association and Edzwald, J. 2010. Water Quality & Treatment: A Handbook on Drinking Water (Water Resources
and Environmental Engineering Series), 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Buros, O. K. 2000. The ABCs of Desalting. Topsfield, MA: International Desalination Association.
Committee Report. 1978. Disinfection. Am. Water Works Assoc. 70(4): 219.
Cotruvo, J., Voutchkov, N., Fawell, J., Payment, P., Cunliffe, D., and Lattemann, S. 2010. Desalination Technology: Health and
Environmental Impacts. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Davis, M. and Cornwell, D. 2006. Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.
Degremont. 2007. Water Treatment Handbook, 7th ed. Paris, France: Lavoisier.
Dyer-Smith, P., Brown, Beveri and Co. 1983. Water disinfection status and trends. J. Water Sewage Treat. 2(4):13.
El-Hassan, B. M. and Abdel-Magid, I. M. 1986. Environment and Industry: Treatment of Industrial Wastes. Khartoum, Sudan: Institute of
Environmental Studies, Khartoum University.
Eliassen, R. R. T. and Shrindle, W. B. D. 1958. Experimental performance of miracle water condition. J. Am Water Works Assoc. 50:1371.
Hammer, M. J. Sr. and Hammer, M. J. Jr. 2011. Water and Wastewater Technology, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hoyt, B. P. et al. 1979. Evaluating home plumbing corrosion problems. J. Am Water Works Assoc. 71(12):720.
Huisman, L. 1977. Sedimentation and Flotation: Sedimentation and FlotationMechanical FiltrationSlow Sand FiltrationRapid
Sand Filtration. Herdruk, NL: Delft University of Technology.
Huisman, L., Sundaresan, B. B., Netto, J. M. D., Lanoix, J. N., and Hofkes, E. H. 1986. Small Community Water Supplies. New York: IRC.
IRC Rep. Intl. Appraisal Meeting, Nagpur, India, September 1519, 1980. 1981. Slow Sand Filtration for Community Water Supply in
Developing Countries, BS 16. The Hague, the Netherlands: IRC.
Lin, S. D. 2014. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Logsdon, G. 2008. Water Filtration Practice: Including Slow Sand Filters and Precoat Filtration. Denver, CO: American Water Works
Association.
Mueller, J. A., Boyle, W. C., and Popel, H. J. 2002. Aeration: Principles and Practice, Vol. 11 (Water Quality Management Library). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Narayan, R. M. 1983. An Introduction to Metallic Corrosion and Its Prevention. New Delhi, India: Oxford.
Nemerow, N. L., Agardy, F. J., and Salvato, J. A. 2009. Environmental Engineering, 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Peavey, H. S., Rowe, D. R., and Tchobanoglous, G. 1985. Environmental Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pepper, I. L. and Gerba, C. P. 2006. Environmental and Pollution Science, 2nd ed. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Academic Press.
Pescod, M. B., Abouzaid, H., and Sundaresan, B. B. 1986. Slow Sand Filtration: A Low Cost Treatment for Water Supplies in Developing
countries. Published for the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe by the Water Research Center, UK, in collaboration
with the IRC, the Netherlands.
Punmia, B. C. 1979. Environmental Engineering Water Supply, Vol 1. New Delhi, India: Standard Book House.
Riffat, R. 2012. Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment and Engineering. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M. 1995. Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
Sawyer, C. N. and McCarty, P. L. 2002. Chemistry for Environmental Engineering and Science, 5th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Shammas, N. K., Fair, G. M., Geyer, J. C., and Okun D. A. 2010. Water and Wastewater Engineering: Water Supply and Wastewater, 3rd
ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Smith, P. G. and Scott, J. S. 2002. Dictionary of Water and Waste Management. London: IWA.
Steel, E. W. and McGhee, T. J. 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Van Dijk, J. C. and Oomen, J. H. C. M. 1982. Slow Sand Filtration for Community Water Supply in Developing CountriesA Design
and Construction Manual. Technical Paper No. 11. The Hague, the Netherlands: IRC.
Viessman, W., Hammer, M. J., Perez, E. M., and Chadik, P. A. 2008. Water Supply and Pollution Control, 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Wang, K. L. and Hung, Y. T. 2009. Handbook of Advanced Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment (Advances in Industrial and
Hazardous Wastes Treatment). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Water Environment Federation. 2009. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants MOP 8, 5th ed. (Wef Manual of Practice 8: Asce
Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, No. 76). McGraw-Hill Education.
 5 Computer Modeling Applications for Wastewater Collection System and
Treatment Technology and Disposal

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The collection and disposal of wastewater from its sources (domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural, etc.) are of paramount importance to safeguarding public health and hygiene. Sewage ought to
be collected and conveyed as soon as possible from the point of production to a treatment facility or an
approved final disposal location with a minimum of cost. This chapter presents information dealing with
the terminology used in the wastewater collection field, such as the classification of sewers (sanitary,
combined, and storm), and the advantages and disadvantages of each of these systems. The methods used
to estimate the design or peak wastewater flows including extraneous water entering the sewers due to
infiltration and inflow are included. The rational method to estimate peak flows from storm water runoff
is covered, and a computer program to estimate the flow and the required storm sewer size is presented.
Also discussed are the fundamentals of sewer design considering the following items: uniform flow,
incompressible flow, Bernoullis equation, application of the momentum equation, continuity equation,
and determination of the hydraulic radius. The most frequently used equations, formulas, and models used
in the design of sewers are documented. Dry sewerage collection system and nano-bioreactor wastewater
technology are not discussed. The reader is advised to consult relevant sources.
This information lays the foundation for the development of computer programs for each of these
models. The computer programs can then be used to make rapid and repeated calculations for design and
evaluation of the various elements involved in sanitary sewer design. Equations to calculate the self-
cleaning velocities in sewers are presented, and a computer program is included that can be used for the
same purpose. A summary of the information needed and the steps involved in the design, layout,
construction, and installation of sanitary sewers are documented. The basic information needed includes
topographical, geological, aerial, and developmental maps. The next step in the process is the sizing and
required gradients for the sewers as well as the location for manholes. Other important elements in the
design of sanitary sewers are included here.
Equations that can be applied in the evaluation of sulfide buildup in sewers flowing both full and
partially full are presented, and a computer program is incorporated for rapid and easy determinations for
the various variables involved. The last section deals with the design, operation, and construction of
waste disposal systems for rural areas. Septic tanks are the most often used systems in this situation;
however, they are also the avenue of last resort. A computer program for septic tank sizing and layout that
incorporates the structural design of septic tanks is displayed. A brief discussion of Imhoff tanks
concludes this chapter.
Wastewater may be described as A combination of the liquid or water-carried wastes removed from
residences (domestic), institutions, commercial, and industrial establishments together with such
groundwater, surface water, and storm water as may be present (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Metcalf
and Eddy 2013). Wastewater is a complex heterogeneous solution that can pollute or contaminate our
environment, namely, water, air, food, and soil. Such conditions demand appropriate collection, proper
treatment, and final disposal of wastewater in order to safeguard the environment and protect human
health and welfare (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995). The first section deals with the environmental
problems associated with the discharge of inadequately treated wastewater. The sources of wastewater,
as well as the evaluation and selection of the wastewater design flow rates (minimum, maximum, average,
and peak), are presented. Computer programs are developed to calculate these various flow rates. A
discussion of the relationship between BOD5 and the population equivalent (PE) is accompanied by a
computer program that correlates these two factors.
The next section gives the reasons for treating wastewater and the classification and selection of
treatment processes (physical, chemical, and biological). The basic principles involved in the design of
grit chambers and a computer program that can be used for this purpose are provided. The most
commonly used biological processes such as activated sludge (and its many modifications), trickling
filters (high and low rates), and waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are presented. In all cases, computer
programs to aid in the evaluation and design of each system are formulated. The operation and design of
systems that can be used to render sludge suitable for disposal or use are considered. A computer
program for the design of anaerobic digesters is presented here. Also discussed is the specific resistance
test used to evaluate the dewatering characteristics of a sludge, which is accompanied by a computer
program for determination of both specific resistance and the compressibility coefficient for sludge. The
design and scaling up of centrifugal sludge dewatering units are considered, and computer programs that
can be used for this purpose are developed. The last section is devoted to the ultimate disposal of treated
wastewater, including dilution (which, of course, is no solution to pollution) and discharge to surface
water such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries. Computer programs that can be used to evaluate the
effects of wastewater discharges in each of these situations are included.
The problems associated with inadequately treated wastewater discharges include the following
(Barnes et al. 1981; Peavy et al. 1988; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Wang and Hung 2005; Abdel-
Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015; Metcalf and Eddy 2013): Transmission of diseases (disease-causing
agents such as bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and helminthes) and other public health long-term
physiological effects (such as newly created organic substances) Accumulation of highly persistent
detergents, pesticides, and other toxic substances Generation of odors (e.g., hydrogen sulfide,
ammonia, mercaptans, and other trace gases containing sulfurs, hydrogen, and nitrogen) Pollution of
bathing sites with oil, grease, and other undesirable debris Establishment of eutrophic conditions
(enrichment of water by plant nutrients, etc.) Production of objectionable and dangerous levels of
solids in wastewater along the banks of rivers and streams, which leads to degradation of water quality
both for groundwater and surface water Destruction of fish and wildlife
Contamination of water supplies
Aesthetic objections

5.2 SEWERS AND SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

A sewer is a pipe or conduit, generally closed but normally not flowing full, for conveying sewage. The
functions of a sewer include the following: Collection of wastewater from its sources
Transportation of wastewater to treatment works and points of final disposal Protection of public
health and welfare, especially in areas of concentrated population and/or development
1. Socioeconomic factors of the system affect the selection of one of the following sewer systems:
Separate sanitary sewer: This system is used for collection and conveyance of wastes from
domestic, commercial, and industrial establishments. In this system, surface waters or runoffs are
disposed of in a storm sewer system, whereas domestic sewage, commercial, and industrial wastes
are carried in another set of sewers.
 Pseudoseparate (partially separate) system: It is a combination of the separate and combined
2. systems. One system receives the sewage and a part of the storm water (the runoff from the roofs
of the buildings, which have a sanitary connection to the system); the other system takes care of
the remaining storm water.
3. Combined sewer system: In this system, the same sewer serves to carry domestic, commercial,
and industrial wastes, as well as surface and storm water flow.

Here the terms sewage and wastewater are often used interchangeably. In some cases, however, the term
sewage indicates that human body wastes are present. The term wastewater is more inclusive and
indicates not only the presence of discharges from individual homes but also commercial, institutional,
and industrial discharges.

5.2.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SEWER SYSTEMS

Sections 5.2.1.1 through 5.2.1.3 outline the main advantages and disadvantages of sewer systems: 5.2.1.1
Separate System
Advantages of the separate sewer system include the following:

System is economical, because it is smaller in size.

There is a lower risk of stream pollution, as storm overflows are excluded.
Quantity of sewage to be treated is smaller.
Pumping of sewage (when needed) is less costly than in the combined sewer system.

Disadvantages of the separate sewer system include the following:

System requires flushing (expensive) because it is difficult to assure a self-cleansing velocity in a

sewer (unless laid on a steep gradient or slope).
Double house-plumbing (two sewers in a street) leads to obstruction of traffic during maintenance
and repairs.
Maintenance costs of the two systems may be greater than those for one.

5.2.1.2 Combined System

Advantages of the combined sewer system include the following:

Rain water keeps sewage fresh, making it easier and more economical to treat.
Sewage is diluted.
Water provides automatic flushing.
Cleaning is easier because sewers are bigger in size.
House plumbing is economical.

Disadvantages of the combined system include the following:

With much higher flows, a larger and more expensive wastewater treatment facility is needed.
Operational problems occur when the capacity of the treatment facility is exceeded (lowered
efficiency).
 Grit, sand, and other debris interfere with operation of the treatment facility.
With increased flows during storms, the sewer lines can be surcharged. Sewer lines normally are not
designed to handle flows under pressure.
Washout of solids in the secondary treatment system can wipe out the efficiency of the treatment plant
and result in pollution of the receiving rivers or streams.
Oil, grease, rubber tire debris, and toxic trace metals can be present in the runoff from roads and
streets.

5.2.1.3 Other Considerations

Misuse of a sanitary sewer system may create problems, such as explosions and creation of fire hazards,
clogging (e.g., grease, bed load, and other debris), physical damage (e.g., discharge of corrosive or
abrasive wastes), overloading (e.g., improper connections), pollution of waterways, and interference
with treatment (e.g., peak flows, unbiodegradable wastes). Investigations carried out during sewer design
include the following (Bizier 2007): topographical surveys (e.g., maps, photographs), surface and
subsurface investigations (e.g., runoff coefficient, permeability, depth of water table, infiltration), existing
sewerage system (e.g., shortcomings, difficulties, percent loaded), water supply (e.g., water consumption,
percentage returned to sewer), public services (e.g., layout of distribution networks, electricity,
telephone, and gas), existing structures and their elevations, development plan of the area, industries,
population (e.g., maxima, minima, average and distribution of rainfall, river flow, sea level, current
prevailing wind, temperature, and evaporation), history of the town, political information (e.g.,
ordinances and laws affecting sewer connections regulations, rates, and sewerage authority), financial
information, and miscellaneous (e.g., tourism, reuse of effluent for irrigation). Figure 5.1 shows the
various phases in a sanitary sewer project.

FIGURE 5.1 Phases of projects of a sanitary sewer.

5.2.2 FLOW RATES OF SANITARY WASTEWATER
The rate of flow of wastewater varies through the day. Relatively steady flow from industrial and
commercial sources occurs mostly during the day. The design should be based on flows estimated at some
future time (design period), usually taken to be between 25 and 50 years (Metcalf and Eddy 2013).
When estimating the design sewage flows for a sewer, allowance must be made for extraneous water
entering the sewer as infiltration and inflow. Infiltration is water other than wastewater that enters the
sewerage system through cracked pipes, defective joints, and cracks in the walls of manholes. Inflow is
also water other than wastewater entering the sewerage system from sources such as roof basement, yard,
and foundation drains; from springs and swampy areas and perforated manhole covers; through cross
connections between storm and sanitary sewers, cooling towers, street wash water, and surface runoff.
Velocities and hydraulic forces should not exceed maximum allowable flow rates as dictated by the
sewer material. A minimum velocity ought to be maintained in the sewer to prevent settling of grit and
suspended solids (SS) and accumulations of grease and slime on sewer walls. For most sanitary sewers,
flows occur under the action of gravitational forces. Sanitary sewers should be designed for peak flow
rates and for areas with a saturated density of people. Estimations of flow rates may be based on
maximum water use (assume average sewage flow = average water consumption rates) anticipated
through population density or conducted in accordance with the number of structures or extent of the area
served. The peak wastewater flow may be estimated from the following equation:

(5.1)

where:
Qp is the peak flow, m3/s
Qa is the average flow, m3/s

5.2.3 STORM WATER

The primary source of storm water flow is precipitation. Factors that may affect the production of storm
water include intensity and duration of storms; distance traveled by water before reaching sewers;
topography and slope of drainage area; or shape and size of drainage area. The rational method (Lloyd-
Davies method) may be employed to estimate the rate of runoff. The method is valid for suburban areas up
to 15 km2 (Bizier 2007; Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015). The mathematical presentation of this
method is provided in the following equation:

(5.2)

where:
Q is the peak flow rate at point, m3/s
A is the drainage area upstream of point, km2
I is the mean rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration (the time required for the
entire tributary area to contribute runoff from heavy rainfall to the flow at the point, i.e., flow time from
the most remote part of the area to the point), mm/h c is the coefficient of runoff, dimensionless (0 < c < 1,
see Table 5.1) TABLE 5.1
Typical Values of c for the Rational Method
Area C
City and commercial 0.700.95
Industrial 0.500.80
Light areas 0.600.90
Heavy areas
Residential 0.300.50
Single family 0.400.60
Multiunits, detached 0.600.75
Multiunits, attached 0.250.40
Suburban
Parks and undeveloped land 0.100.30
Pavement 0.700.95
Asphaltic 0.800.95
Concrete 0.700.85
Brick
Playgrounds 0.200.35
Lawns 0.050.35
Watertight roofs 0.700.95
Woodland areas 0.010.20

Source: Abdel-Magid, I. M., and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M., Problem Solving in Environmental Engineering, CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform, 2015; Davis, M. L., and Cornwell, D. A., Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 4th ed, McGraw-Hill
Science/Engineering/Math, 2006; Hammer, M. J. Sr., and Hammer, M. J. Jr., Water and Wastewater Technology, 7th ed, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2011; Viessman, W., and Lewis, G. L., Introduction to Hydrology, 5th ed, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 2002; Viessman, W. Jr., et al. Water Supply and Pollution Control, 8th ed, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ, 2008; Nathanson, J. A., Basic Environmental Technology: Water Supply, Waste Management & Pollution Control, 5th ed,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2007.

In storm sewers, greater velocities are required than in sanitary sewers because of the heavy sand and
grit, which are washed into them. The minimum allowable velocity is 0.75 m/s, and 0.9 m/s is desirable.
Because of abrasive character of the solids, excessively high velocities should be avoided, 2.4 m/s being
considered the desirable upper limit (McGhee and Steel 1991).

Example 5.1
1. Write a computer program to estimate the diameter of a sewer for a suburb of any area, A
(km2); given the peak flow rate at point, Q (m3/s); the drainage area upstream of point, A
(km2); the mean rainfall intensity, I (mm/h); and the coefficient of runoff, c (as presented in
Table 5.1).
2. A circular storm sewer is required to serve an area of 900 ha; the average ground slope is 1
in 500. Determine the size of the sewer at point of discharge knowing that the runoff
coefficient is 0.4, the time of concentration is 1000 s, and n = 0.013. Take I = 750/(t+10).
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to support manual computations conducted in
(2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.1 (1), see the listing of Program 5.1.
a Solution to Example 5.2 (2): Given: A = 900 ha = km2, j = 1/500 = 0.002, c = 0.4, t = 1000 s
2.
= 1000/60 = 16.7 min.
b Find the rainfall intensity as follows: I = 750/(16.7 + 10) = 28.1 mm/h.
c Find Q as 0.278 * c * I * A = 0.278 * 0.4 * 28.1 * 9 = 28.1 m3/s = 1687.3 m3/min.
 The diameter of the sewer and flow rate through it may be determined from a nomograph
d corresponding to the specified slope (Fair et al. 1966; Peavy et al. 1988; McGhee and Steel
1991; Jonathan et al. 2003; Bizier 2007; Mays 2010; Hicks 2014; Alderdiri et al. 2015;
Alderdiri and Abdel-Magid 2015). Alternatively, the following procedure can be used: v =
(1/n)(D/4)2/3*j1/2, and with Q = (/4)*D2*v, it gives: D = (45/3*Q*n/*j1/2)3/8 = (45/3*28.1 *
0.013/ * 0.0021/2)3/8 = 3.4 (take 3.5) m, which gives a discharge of Q = (/4) * (3.4)2 *
(3.4/4)2/3 * (0.002)1/2/0.013 = 28 m3/s.

Listing of Program 5.1 (Chap5.1\Form1.vb): Wastewater Collection

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.1: Water Collection
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.1415962#
Const g = 9.81
Dim A, n, c, j, t As Double
Dim I, Q, D As Double
Dim c_table() As Double =

{
0.95, 0.8, 0.9, 0.5, 0.6, 0.75, 0.4, 0.3,
0.95, 0.95, 0.85, 0.35, 0.35, 0.95, 0.2
}
'*********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 5.1: Water Collection"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Drainage area, A (Km2):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the value of n:"
Label3.Text = "Type of area for runoff coefficient, c:"
Label4.Text = "Average ground slope, j:"
Label5.Text = "Time of concentration, t (sec):"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
Label6.Text = "The required diameter of sewer D (m):"
Label7.Text = "This delivers a discharge of Q (m3/s):"
Label8.Text = "Decimal Places:"
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("City and commercial")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Industrial: Light area")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Industrial: Heavy area")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Residential: Single family")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Residential: Detached multi units")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Residential: Attached multi units")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Residential: Suburban")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Parks and undeveloped land")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Pavement: Asphaltic")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Pavement: Concrete")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Pavement: Brick")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Playgrounds")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Lawns")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Watertight roofs")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Woodland areas")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
End Sub
Function get_c(ByVal index As Integer) As Double
If index < 0 Or index > 14 Then Return 0
Return c_table(index)
End Function
Sub calculateResults()
A = Val(TextBox1.Text)
n = Val(TextBox2.Text)
j = Val(TextBox3.Text)
t = Val(TextBox4.Text)
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please select type of area from list.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub

End If
c = get_c(ComboBox1.SelectedIndex)
t = t / 60 'convert to minutes
I = 750 / (t + 10) 'rainfall intensity
Q = 0.278 * c * I * A
D = (4 ^ (5 / 3) * Q * n / (pi * j ^ 0.5)) ^ (3 / 8)
Q = pi / 4 * D ^ 2 * (D / 4) ^ (2 / 3) * j ^ 0.5 / n
showResults()
End Sub
Sub showResults()
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(D, NumericUpDown1.Value)
TextBox6.Text = FormatNumber(Q, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
'*********************************************************************************
'Code in TextChanged member of the TextBox will be executed
'when the user changes the text.
'The following code will recalculate the results and show them when ever
'the user changes the input.
'*********************************************************************************
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox3_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox3.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox4_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox4.TextChanged calculateResults()
End Sub
'*********************************************************************************
'Whenever a different number of decimals is selected, re-show the results.
'*********************************************************************************
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.2.4 HYDRAULICS OF SEWERS

In the design of sanitary sewers, the following assumptions are made:

One-dimensional flow conditions (velocity of flow is uniform across each section of flow)
Incompressible flow (fluid motion with negligible changes in density), where pressure flow totally
fills a closed conduit, except for the possible occurrence of water hammer in pressure conduits
Steady-state flow (flow conditions at any point in fluid do not change with time) with constant rate
of flow; actually flow is quasi-steady (varies significantly from hour to hour) Valid continuity
principle (Q = A*v)
Valid Bernoulli equation: Total energy (at a point in a flowing fluid) per unit mass = (potential
energy + pressure energy + kinetic energy), or

(5.3)

where:
H is the total energy (total head, energy head), m
Z is the elevation of point on a streamline above horizontal datum, m
P is the pressure at point, Pa
is the fluid specific weight, N/m3
v is the average velocity for all streamlines, m/s

Momentum principle is applied as presented in the following equation:

(5.4)

where:
F is the sum of all forces acting on fluid contained between two cross sections (pressure, weight,
constraints-friction), N
v is the average velocity, m/s
is the density
Hydraulic radius is given by

(5.5)
 where:
rH is the hydraulic radius (= D/4 for circular closed conduits), m A is the area, m2
Wp is the wetted perimeter of flow cross sections, m

5.2.5 FLOW FRICTION FORMULAE

The most frequently used flow equations are briefly outlined as follows (Fair et al. 1966; Peavy et al.
1988; McGhee and Steel 1991; Peirce et al. 1997; Jonathan et al. 2003; Davis and Cornwell 2006; Bizier
2007; Mays 2010; Hammer and Hammer 2011; Hicks 2014; Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015;
Abdel-Magid et al. 2015): DarcyWeisbach equation for pipe flow

(5.6)

where:
hf is the friction head, m
f is the friction factor
v is the velocity of flow, m/s
L is the length of conduit, m
g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2
D is the diameter of circular conduit, m

Chezy equation

(5.7)

where:
cf is the friction coefficient, or coefficient of DeChezy, m1/2/s rH is the hydraulic radius, m
j is the slope of invert or bed, m/m

Mannings formula
Metric units:

(5.8)

English units:

(5.9)

where n is the Mannings coefficient.

KutterMannings formula
 (5.10)

where:
v is the mean velocity of flow, m/s
j is the slope of energy grade line, dimensionless
n is the Kutter coefficient of roughness, which is equal to the Mannings coefficient for types of pipe
commonly used in sewer construction HazenWilliams formula
Metric units:

(5.11)

English units:

(5.12)

where c is the coefficient that depends on the roughness of conduit, 100 < c < 140.
PrandtlColebrook formula

(5.13)

where:
v is the kinematic viscosity, m2/s
D is the diameter of sewer, mm
K is the factor, usually taken as 0.025 mm
v is the velocity of flow, m/s
j is the slope, m/km

Strickler formula (Mannings)

(5.14)

where c is the factor (= 100).

Scimemi formula (Hazen)

(5.15)
 where c = factor (= 61.5).
The flow velocity should not exceed a maximum value to avoid excessive erosion and dissipation of
energy at the point of discharge. Recommended limits are as follows: For clean water, velocities up to
12 m/s are recommended.
For sanitary sewers, velocities up to 3 m/s are recommended (possibly up to 5 m/s).
For storm sewers, velocities up to 5 m/s are allowed (possibly up to 10 m/s).

A minimum velocity should be maintained to avoid accumulation of deposits and their biodegradation
(to avoid production of hydrogen sulfide, which promotes crown corrosion).

Example 5.2
1. Write a computer program that would allow the computation of velocity (m/s) of flow in a
pipe using one of the following formulae, given the relevant data for each: DarcyWeisbach
equation, Chezy equation, Mannings formula, Kutter formula, HazenWilliams formula,
PrandtlColebrook formula, Strickler formula, or Scimemi formula.
2. Using Mannings equation, find the velocity of flow and sewer capacity for a concrete sewer
of diameter 1.52 m laid at a slope of 0.0008, when sewer is flowing full. (Take Mannings
friction coefficient equal to 0.013.) Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.2 (1), see the listing of Program 5.2.
a. Solution to Example 5.2 (2): Given: D = 1.52 m, j = 0.008.
2.
b. Determine the hydraulic radius as follows: rH = (D2/4)/(D) = D/4 = 1.52/4 = 0.38 m.
c. Find the average velocity of flow in the pipe as follows: v = rH2/3 * j1/2/n = 0.382/3 *
0.00081/2/0.013 = 1.14 m/s.
d. Determine the capacity of the sewer as follows: Q = v * A = 1.14 * ( * 1.522)/4 = 2.07 m3/s.

Listing of Program 5.2 (Chap5.2\Form1.vb): Velocity of Flow in Pipes

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.2: Friction Flow in Pipes
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.1415962#
Const g = 9.81
Dim D, hf, L, f, v, n, j, Cf, rH, c, fact As Double
Dim vis, k, z As Double
'*********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'*********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.2: Friction Flow
in Pipes"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("Darcy-Weisbach equation")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Chezy equation")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Mannings equation")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Kutter-Mannings formula")

ListBox1.Items.Add("Hazen-Williams formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Prandtl-Colebrook formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Strickler formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Scimemi formula (Hazen)")
ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 'Select the first option
Label1.Text = "To compute the velocity of flow using:"
Label2.Text = "Enter the diameter of pipe (m):"
GroupBox1.Text = "Use Metric Units:"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
RadioButton1.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton2.Text = "No"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
GroupBox2.Text = " Output: "
Label6.Text = "The velocity, v (m/s):"
Label7.Text = "Sewer Capacity, A (m3/s):"
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged If
ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Darcy-Weisbach equation
Label3.Text = "Enter the head loss, hf (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter length of pipe, L (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter friction factor, f:"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
Case 1
'Chezy equation
Label3.Text = "Enter Chezy coefficient Cf:"
Label4.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = False
Case 2
'Mannings equation
Label3.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
Label4.Text = "Enter Mannings coefficient n:"
GroupBox1.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = False
Case 3
'Kutter Mannings formula
Label3.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
Label4.Text = "Enter Kutter's coefficient, n:"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = True

Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = False
Case 4
'Hazen-Williams formula
Label3.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
Label4.Text = "Enter Hazen-William coefficient, c:"
GroupBox1.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = False
Case 5
'Prandtl-Colebrook formula
Label3.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
Label4.Text = "Enter kinematic viscosity, v (m2/s):"
Label5.Text = "Enter factor k:"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
Case 6
'Strickler formula
Label3.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
Case 7
'Scimemi formula (Hazen)
Label3.Text = "Enter slope of the pipe, j:"
GroupBox1.Visible = False
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
End Select
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex < 0 Then Exit Sub
D = Val(TextBox1.Text)
rH = D / 4
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Darcy-Weisbach equation
hf = Val(TextBox2.Text)

L = Val(TextBox3.Text)
f = Val(TextBox4.Text)
v = (hf * D * 2 * g / (L * f)) ^ 0.5
Case 1
'Chezy equation
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Cf = Val(TextBox3.Text)
v = Cf * ((rH * j) ^ 0.5)
Case 2
'Mannings equation
n = Val(TextBox2.Text)
j = Val(TextBox3.Text)
'Using metric units?
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
fact = 1
Else
fact = 1.49
End If
v = fact * rH ^ (2 / 3) * (j ^ 0.5) / n
Case 3
'Kutter Mannings formula
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
n = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Dim v1 As Double = (23 + (0.00155 / j) + (1 / n))
Dim v2 As Double = 1 + (((23 + (0.00155 / j)) * n) / Sqrt(rH))
Dim v3 As Double = Sqrt(rH * j)
v = (v1 / v2) * v3
Case 4
'Hazen-Williams formula
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
c = Val(TextBox3.Text)
'Using metric units?
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
fact = 0.85
Else
fact = 1.32
End If
v = fact * c * (rH ^ 0.63) * (j ^ 0.54)
Case 5
'Prandtl-Colebrook formula
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
vis = Val(TextBox3.Text)
k = Val(TextBox4.Text)
z = (2 * g * D * j) ^ 0.5
v = -2 * log10((2.51 * vis / (D * z)) + (k / (3.71 * D))) * z
Case 6
'Strickler formula
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
c = 100
v = c * (rH ^ (2 / 3)) * (j ^ 0.5)
Case 7
'Scimemi formula (Hazen)
j = Val(TextBox2.Text)
c = 61.5
v = c * (D ^ 0.68) * (j ^ 0.56)
End Select
TextBox5.Text = v.ToString
Dim A As Double = pi * (D ^ 2) / 4
Dim Q As Double = v * A
TextBox6.Text = Q.ToString
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.2.6 DESIGN COMPUTATIONS

Design computations include conduit capacity, self-cleansing velocities, maximum or minimum slopes,
significant water-surface elevations, and changes in conduit size.

5.2.6.1 Capacity of Flow Estimates

1. For pipes flowing full, the size and slope may be determined by using the aforementioned pipe
flow equations.
2. For partially full pipes, the hydraulic element chart (see Appendix A4) gives, Q/Qf, A/Af, rH/rHf,
n/nf, and D/Df ; otherwise, the following equation may be used (see Figure 5.2):

FIGURE 5.2 Cross section of a sewer.

(5.16)

where:
D is the diameter of the sewer
d is the depth of the flow
is the angle subtended between the two radii formed at the ends of chord of partial depth From Figure
1.5.2, the following equations can be developed: For a pipe flowing full:
Area: Af = D2/4
Wetted perimeter: (wp)f = D
Hydraulic radius:

(5.17)

Velocity of flow:
 (5.18)

where j is the slope.

Flow:

(5.19)

2. For a pipe flowing partially full:

Area:

(5.20)

Wetted perimeter:

(5.21)

Hydraulic radius:

Velocity of flow:

(5.22)

Flow:

The hydraulic elements can be specified or formulated by the following equations:

(5.23)
 (5.24)

(5.25)

(5.26)

(5.27)

Table 5.2 can be developed from the above Equations 5.20 through 5.27.

TABLE 5.2
Design Computations for Partial Pipe Flow
 Example 5.3

1. Write a computer program to determine the velocity, the gradient (slope), and the rate of
flow for a sewer flowing partially full at depth, d (m), given the sewer diameter, D (m), and
the velocity of the sewer when flowing full, vf (m/s).
2. A sewer of diameter 150 mm is to flow at a depth of 40% on a grade that enables self-
cleaning, similar to that at full depth at a velocity of 0.85 m/s. Find the needed grades,
associated velocities, and flow rates at full depth and at 40% depth. Take Mannings
coefficient of friction to be equal to 0.013.
Solution
 1. For solution to Example 5.3 (1), see the listing of Program 5.3.
2. Solution to Example 5.3 (2):

a. Given: D = 0.15 m, d = 0.4 * D, vf = 0.85 m/s, n = 0.013.

b. Find the slope as follows: j = (vf * n/rH2/3)2 = [0.85 * 0.13/(0.15/4)2/3]2 = 9.7 * 103.
c. Compute Qf as * D2 * vf /4 = ( * 0.152/4) * 0.85 = 0.015 m3/s.
d. Find the central angle as follows:

e Find the ratio of areas at partial and full flow as follows:

f Determine Ap as ( * 0.152/4)(0.37 = 6.5 * 103 m2 or

g Determine the hydraulic radius as follows:

Thus, velocity

Listing of Program 5.3 (Chap5.3\Form1.vb): Capacity of Flow Estimates

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.3: Capacity of flow estimates
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const g = 9.81
Dim D, dD, vf, n, rH, j, Q, z As Double
Dim phi, Ap, vp As Double
Dim ApAf As Double
'********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.Text = "Program 5.3: Capacity of flow estimates"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label1.Text = "Enter the diameter of sewer, D (m):"

Label2.Text = "Enter velocity of full flow, vf (m/s):"

Label3.Text = "Enter depth of flow in the pipe, d/D (%):"
Label4.Text = "Enter Manning's coefficient, n:"
GroupBox1.Text = "Results:"
Label5.Text = "Ratio of areas at partial and full flow:"
Label6.Text = "The central angle, phi (degrees):"
Label7.Text = "The full flow, Qf (m3/s):"
Label8.Text = "The slope:"
Label9.Text = "The velocity of flow (m/s):"
Label11.Text = "Area of partial flow Ap (m2):"
Label10.Text = "The hydraulic radius (m):"
Label12.Text = "Decimal points:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
D = Val(TextBox1.Text)
vf = Val(TextBox2.Text)
dD = Val(TextBox3.Text)
n = Val(TextBox4.Text)
If dD > 1 Then dD /= 100
rH = D / 4 'hydraulic radius
j = (vf * n / rH ^ (2 / 3)) ^ 2 'the slope
Q = pi * D ^ 2 / 4 * vf 'the flow
phi = 2 * Acos(1 - (2 * dD))
z = (phi * 360) / (2 * PI)
ApAf = (z / 360) - (Sin(phi) / (2 * PI))
Ap = PI * (D ^ 2) / 4
Ap *= ApAf
rH = (D / 4) * (1 - (360 * Sin(phi) / (2 * PI * z)))
vp = (rH ^ (2 / 3)) * (j ^ 0.5) / n
End Sub
Sub showResults()
'Show results in the respective textboxes
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(ApAf, decimals)
TextBox6.Text = FormatNumber(z, decimals)
TextBox7.Text = FormatNumber(Q, decimals)
TextBox8.Text = FormatNumber(j, decimals)
TextBox9.Text = FormatNumber(vp, decimals)
TextBox11.Text = FormatNumber(Ap, decimals)
TextBox10.Text = FormatNumber(rH, decimals)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.2.6.2 Self-Cleansing Velocities

Self-cleansing velocity is referred to as that velocity sufficient to prevent deposition of suspended matter.
The velocity needed to carry sediment in a pipe flowing full is given by the following equation:

(5.28)

where:
vsc is the self-cleansing velocity, m/s
rH is the hydraulic radius, m
b is the dimensionless constant (sediment-scouring characteristics, see Table 5.3) s.g. is the specific
gravity, dimensionless
d is the diameter of sediment grain, m
n is the roughness factor (Manning and Kutter factor), m1/6
f is the friction (DarcyWeisbach) factor, dimensionless (usually 0.020.03) (McGhee and Steel 1991)
TABLE 5.3
Values of b
Value of b Significance
0.04 To start motion of clean granular particles
0.8 For adequate self-cleansing of cohesive material

Source: McGhee, T. J., and Steel, E. W., Water Supply and Sewerage, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill College, 1991.

A minimum velocity is often accepted as the design criterion. As such, the recommended velocities of
Table 5.4 may be adopted. Generally, it is desirable to have a minimum velocity of 0.91 m/s or more
whenever possible. As such, 0.6 m/s < minimum design velocity < 3.5 m/s at peak flow.

TABLE 5.4
Recommended Minimum Velocities
Sewer (vsc)min (m/s)
Sanitary <0.61
Storm <0.75

5.2.7 SUMMARY OF SEWER SYSTEM DESIGN

1. The first information needed to design and lay out a sanitary sewer system is a topographical
map (contour map), not only for the immediate area under consideration but also for the
surrounding area (Health Education Services 1990; McGhee And Steel 1991; Bizier 2007).
With this information regarding the various drainage basins, it is then possible to evaluate the
 number and location for the lift stations. A geological map indicating the soil type and rock
formations is also necessary. Aerial photographs are very helpful if available.
2. Details as to the zoning in the design and layout area are required, indicating which areas are
industrial, commercial, and residential. Essential information such as lot sizes, population
density, and street layouts must be provided.
3. With the information indicated in (1) and (2), the size and gradient of the sewers can be
determined. The sewer must be on an adequate slope to prevent deposition of solids (a slope of
2% for house connections, with a minimum slope of 1% being used). Sanitary sewers with
diameters of 375 mm (15) are designed to flow half full; large sewers are designed to flow
three quarters full.
4 The sanitary sewers must be installed deep enough to receive flows from the tributary areas.
Sufficient depth must be provided to prevent freezing in cold climates. In most cases, a minimum
depth from the ground surface to the crown of the pipe should not be less than 1.5 m. The
sanitary sewer also should be at least 1 m below the first-floor elevation of any adjacent
dwellings.
5 Manhole locations are at

a. Junctions of sanitary sewers.

b. Changes in gradient or gradient or alignment (except in curved alignments).
c. Locations that provide easy access to the sewer for preventive maintenance and emergency service.

A minimum diameter for a manhole is 1.22 m. A straight sewer is to be used between manholes. Large
accessible sewers may be curved, and manholes may be placed at 100200 m intervals. The spacing for
manholes is in the range of 90150 and 150300 m for large diameter sewers.
6 Sanitary sewers should not be installed in the same trench as water mains in order to protect
public health (Health Education Services 1990).
7 No sewers line should pass under a building.
8 Sewer lines should be installed down the center line of the lanes rather than the centerline of the
streets. In this way, one lane is always available to keep traffic moving. In wide streets, sewers
can be laid outside the curb between the curb and the sidewalk.
9 Coordination between utilities responsible for power poles, gas meters, telephone junction
boxes television wires, and so on is necessary to plan for construction and layout of the sewer
lines. This planning can help avoid conflicts and problems that may arise among the various
organizations involved.
10 Planting of trees and shrubs and construction of fences or retaining walls that interfere with
access to the sewer lines should be controlled or prohibited.
11 Integrity of a sewer line (leakage) is tested for by a low-pressure air test. Water testing
generally has been replaced by low-pressure air testing (Health Education Services 1990).
12 Combined sewers should now be prohibited in order to prevent present and future wastewater
treatment problems (see Section 5.2.1 for disadvantages).

5.2.8 CORROSION IN SANITARY SEWERS

Corrosion in a sanitary sewer is caused by the production of hydrogen sulfide, H2S. Some of the problems
encountered with H2S are as follows (Bizier 2007): Generating odors
 Creating health risk to maintenance workers
Developing corrosion on unprotected sewer pipes made of concrete materials or metals Interfering
with treatment processes (it affects activated sludge and increases disinfectant demand, and public
complaint may arise due to generation of odor issuing from influent structure) H2S toxicity (numerous
workers are killed each year by entering manholes without the proper precautions) Generation of
sulfides in sanitary sewers depends on wastewater temperature, dilution rate, hydraulic flow
conditions, and agitation of deposited waste solids. When insufficient dissolved oxygen is present in
the wastewater, anaerobic bacteria produce sulfides. Generation of sulfide is encountered on the
interior walls of sanitary sewers. Sulfide in municipal wastewater may exist, in part, as insoluble
sulfides of various metals; however, the concentration of metal sulfide is generally low (Bizier
2007). The major part of sulfides is normally retained in solution as a mixture (referred to as
dissolved sulfide) of hydrogen sulfide and ionic HS.

5.2.8.1 Sulfide Buildup Estimates

An indicator of the potential of sulfide buildup in relatively small gravity sewers (not over 600 mm or 24
in diameter) can be estimated by using the following equation (Bizier 2007):

(5.29)

where:
f is the defined function (see Table 5.5)
BODe is the effective biochemical oxygen demand, mg/L
wp is the wetted perimeter, ft
j is the hydraulic slope, dimensionless
Q is the discharge volume, ft3/s
B is the surface width, ft

TABLE 5.5
Sulfide Condition for Different Values of f
f Value Sulfide Condition
f < 5,000 Sulfide rarely generated
5,000 to 10,000 Marginal condition of sulfide generation
> 10,000 Sulfide generation common

Source: From Joint Task Force of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Water Pollution Control Federation, Gravity Sanitary
Sewer Design and Construction, ACSE Manuals and Reports on Engineering, Practice Number 60, ASCE WPCF, New York,
1982. Reprinted by permission of the publisher, ASCE.

Example 5.4
1. Write a computer program to estimate the likelihood of sulfide buildup in a sewer, given the
pipe diameter of sanitary sewer, D (mm); the flow rate, Q (m3/s); the slope, j (m/m); the
wetter perimeter, wp (ft); the surface width of flow, B (ft); and the effective biochemical
 oxygen demand, BODe (mg/L). Let the program indicate the level of sulfide generation based
on Table 5.5.
2. A sanitary sewer of pipe diameter 600 mm (24) carries a flow = 2.2 m3/min at a slope =
0.0015. Taking wetted perimeter = 0.82 m and surface width of flow = 1 m, give an
indicator of the likelihood of sulfide buildup in the sewer, knowing that the effective
biochemical oxygen demand = 295 mg/L.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.4 (1), see the listing of Program 5.4.
a. Solution to Example 5.4 (2): Given: d = 600 m, Q = 2.2 m3/min = 2.2 * 35.3147/60 = 1.295
2.
cfs, j = 0.0015, wp = 0.82 m = 0.82 * 3.2808 = 2.69 ft, width = B = 1 m = 1 * 3.2808 =
3.2808 ft, BOD = 295mg/L.
b. Determine the indicator of sulfide buildup as: f = BODe * wp/(j1/2 * Q0.33 * B) = 295 *
2.69/[(0.0015)1/2 * 1.2950.33 * 3.2808] = 5734.6.
c. By comparing this value with values outlined in Table 5.5, it can be concluded that the value
5735 indicates a marginal condition for sulfide generation.

Listing of Program 5.4 (Chap5.4\Form1.vb): Sulfide Build Up Indicator

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.4: Sulfide Build Up Indicator
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const g = 9.81
Dim D, Q, S, Wp, B, BOD, Z As Double
'********************************************************************************
'Code in Form_Load sub will be executed when the form is loading,
'i.e., first thing after program loads into the memory
'********************************************************************************
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.4: Sulfide Build
up Indicator"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the diameter of the sewer, D (m):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the flow rate in the sewer, Q (m3/s):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the slope of the pipe, S:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the wetter perimeter, Wp (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the surface width of flow, b (m):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the effective biochemical demand, BOD (mg/L):"
GroupBox1.Text = " Output: "
Label7.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
D = Val(textbox1.text)
Q = Val(textbox2.text)
S = Val(textbox3.text)
Wp = Val(textbox4.text)
B = Val(textbox5.text)
BOD = Val(textbox6.text)
D = D * 0.3048 'convert to ft
Q = Q / (0.3048 ^ 3) / 60 'convert to cfs
Wp = Wp / 0.3048 'convert to ft
B = B / 0.3048 'convert to ft
Z = BOD * Wp / (S ^ 0.5 * Q ^ 0.33 * B)
Dim R As String
If Z < 5000 Then
R = "Sulfide rarely generated"
ElseIf Z <= 10000 Then
R = "Marginal condition of sulfide generation"
Else
R = "Sulfide generation common"
End If
Label7.Text = "Sulfide buildup indicator Z = " + FormatNumber(Z, 2)
Label7.Text += vbCrLf
Label7.Text += R
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.2.8.2 Filled Pipe Conditions

Equation 5.30 may be used to estimate the level of sulfide buildup in completely filled sewer pipes (force
mains) (Bizier 2007):

(5.30)

where:
dSu /dt is the increase in sulfide concentration, mg/L*h
a is the coefficient (= 0.3 mm/h) (Bizier 2007)
Di is the internal diameter of sewer pipe, mm

(5.31)

where:
BOD is the climate BOD, mg/L
T is the temperature, C
is the temperature coefficient (may be taken as equal to 1.07) (Bizier 2007)

5.2.8.3 Partially Filled Pipe Conditions

Equation 5.32 may be used to estimate the sulfide buildup in gravity flow in a partially filled sanitary
sewer:

(5.32)

where:
dSu /dt is the rate of change of total sulfide concentration, mg/L*h a is the effective sulfide flux
coefficient (a = 0.4 * 103 m/h for DO < 0.5 mg/L; a = 0 when DO is high) m/h (Bizier 2007) rH is the
hydraulic radius of stream, m
b is the empirical coefficient, sulfide loss coefficient (= 0.64 [conservative] 0.96 [less conservative
value]) (Bizier 2007) Su is the total sulfide concentration, mg/L
 j is the energy gradient of stream
v is the velocity of flow, m/s
Dm is the mean hydraulic depth, ft

Equation 5.32 should not be used for systems when DO > 0.5 mg/L or for sanitary sewers with an
effective slope > 0.6% (Bizier 2007). Sulfide concentrations approach a limiting value (Sulim), when
Equation 5.32 approaches zero (Bizier 2007). This can be represented by Equation 5.33, taking the value
of 0.96 for the sulfide loss coefficient, b (Bizier 2007).

(5.33)

Sulfide generation in a long reach of sewer line with uniform slope and flow can be determined from
the following equation (Bizier 2007):

(5.34)

where:
Su1 is the sulfide concentration at upstream location, mg/L
Su2 is the sulfide concentration at downstream location, mg/L
t is the time of flow from upstream location to downstream location, h

5.3 WASTEWATER DISPOSAL FOR RURAL INHABITANTS

Small communities in rural areas often need inexpensive, robust, compact sewage treatment works that
require little maintenance and can be installed and operated with unskilled labor. Examples of these units
include septic tanks, Imhoff tanks, ventilated-improved pit (VIP) latrines, and so on. The most widely
used system is the septic tank. Following is information that can be used in the design, construction, and
operation of septic tanks.

5.3.1 SEPTIC TANKS

5.3.1.1 Introduction
A septic tank is an underground (covered) box (Fair et al. 1966; Mara 1980; Peirce et al. 1997; Jonathan
Ricketts et al. 2003; Nemerow et al. 2009; Metcalf and Eddy 2013; Hicks 2014; Abdel-Magid and
Abdel-Magid 2015). The tank receives wastewater and treats it in a horizontal flow pattern. It removes
solids and promotes partial deposition. Functions taking place in a septic tank include settling of solids,
flotation of grease, anaerobic decomposition of solids, and storage of sludge. The retention of large solids
and grease is essential to avoid plugging final disposal localities, such as absorption fields. The liquor
within the tank has a considerable detention time to maximize solid deposition. For large installations
serving multiple families or institutions, a shorter detention time may be adhered to.
Figures 5.3 and 5.4 illustrate the zones that are found in a septic tank:

FIGURE 5.3 Regions in a septic tank.

FIGURE 5.4 A schematic diagram of a septic tank: (a) elevation; (b) side view; (c) plan.

The scum layer zone, which forms a crust on surface of tank

The liquor layer zone, where there is solids deposition and diffusion of solubilized material from the
third layer The settling and digestion-of-solids zone

The materials that usually are used in the construction of a septic tank include concrete, perforated
reinforced concrete, concrete blocks, steel, brick, stone masonry, and fiberglass. The septic tank may be
of a rectangular or circular (prefabricated concrete pipes) shape.

5.3.1.2 Designing Septic Tanks

In designing a septic tank, the following points must be considered:

Selection of the location of the tank (U.S. Agency for International Development (a) 1982) To be
located downhill
To be located at least 15 m from the nearest water supply system (including neighbors) To be located
at least 3 m from the nearest building
Rain or surface water not to flow over or stand on the tank
Vehicles not to drive over the tank
Determination of tank capacity and dimensions
Determination of necessary labor, materials, and tools.
Maintenance of the septic tank
Sludge removed every 25 years (under normal loading conditions)
Sludge discharged to a nearby wastewater treatment plant for treatment or pumped into the soil
(avoiding groundwater pollution) Use of strong bactericidal cleansers by householders or use of
unnecessary amounts of detergents discouraged With good maintenance, a tank can last for 20 years
Tank inspected at least once a year to determine if it needs cleaning; tank needs to be cleaned if the
depth of sludge exceeds one-third of liquid depth or when the bottom of the scum layer is within 75
mm of the bottom of the outlet pipe T fitting (U.S. Agency for International Development (a) 1982)
Removing crust (black-colored digesting sludge) to be avoided when desludging the tank General
information that can be helpful in designing a septic tank is as follows:

1. Tank should receive all sewage from the building to be served (this includes excreta and wash
water and excludes rainwater, surface water, or subsurface drainage). Determine the amount of
sewage entering the tank during each 24 h period = Q.
2. Determine the desired retention time t.

a. A minimum value of t of 1 day is taken (a smaller tank implies less initial cost).
b. A maximum value of t of 3 days is taken (a large tank signifies high initial cost and smaller cleaning
intervals, and it treats more sewage, and thus increases the life of subsurface absorption system).
3. Determine the capacity of tank V = Q*t. Otherwise, tank capacity may be determined from
Equations 5.35 through 5.37.

a. Volume of septic tank:

(5.35)

where:
V is the minimum volume of septic tank, L
P is the number of people served
b. Where garbage grinders are used, Equation 5.36 can be used to determine the needed capacity:

(5.36)
c. When septic tank is used for serving schools and intermittent uses, its volume can be determined
from the following equation:

(5.37)

4 Determine the tank dimensions as follows:

a. Tank length:width ratio = 3:1 to 2:1.

(5.38)

where:
L is the internal length of tank, m
B is the internal width of tank, m (width of tank not to be less than 1 m)
b. Find the inside and outside tank dimensions. Recommended liquid depth in tank = 1.2 m (usually
varies from 1.1 to 1.8 m). For a tank serving up to 50 people, use an outlet liquid depth of 1.2 m;
when it serves up to 150 people, use a liquid depth of 1.5 m; and when it serves a larger number of
people, use a liquid depth of 1.8.
c. Inlet and outlet pipes should be fitted with open T sewer pipe fittings.
d. The bottom of an inlet pipe 300 mm should be below the top of the tank.
e. The bottom of an outlet pipe 75 mm should be below the bottom of the inlet (375 mm below the top
of the tank).
f. Downward T connection of inlet should be 20% of outlet liquid depth, whereas that of the outlet
should be 40% of liquid depth.
5. The tank floor can be sloped toward the inlet at a slope of 10%.
6. When two compartments are considered, one compartment (near inlet) can be twice the capacity
of the second compartment. This yields a first compartment length as determined from the
following equation:

(5.39)

where:
Lc is the internal length of first compartment, m
L is the internal length of tank, m
7. Walls must be watertight (25-mm-thick inside coating of cement plaster is applied, usually two
coats of 12 mm each are applied) (U.S. Agency for International Development (a) 1982).
8. The floor of tank should be of reinforced concrete (usually 100150 mm thick) and should rest
9. on a bed of gravel or sand 75 mm thick (U.S. Agency for International Development (a) 1982)
Top should be watertight (usually reinforced concrete is used). Generally, all or most of the
sections can be removed to clean tank, and one or two sections over outlet can be removed to
inspect the tank.
10.Inlet and outlet pipes should be fitted with open T sewer pipe fittings.
 11. A proper plan view (top, side, and/or end views) of the tank is needed.

5.3.1.3 Septic Tank Effluents

The effluent from a septic tank is offensive and potentially dangerous (BOD5, 120270 mg/L; SSmean, 44
69 mg/L). Usually, the effluent is discharged to subsurface tile field (leaching field, drain field),
absorption and evapotranspiration mounds (beds of imported porous soil covered with a top soil that is
planted with vegetation to appear as a part of the landscape), seepage pits, or intermittent sand filters. The
ability of the ground to absorb the effluent ought to be determined. Percolation tests, used to measure the
1.suitability of ground for the fields, are conducted as follows (Peirce et al. 1997): A hold about 100
mm (4) in diameter is dug as deep as the proposed tile field trench.
2. The hole sides are scratched, and all loose soil is removed.
3. A 500-mm (2) fine gravel or coarse sand is placed in the bottom of pit.
4. The hole is filled with water to a depth of 300 mm and allowed to stand overnight (at least 4 h).
5. Next day, pit is filled with water to about 150 mm (6) above gravel, and the drop in water
level in 30 min is measured.
6. The percolation rate is calculated as mm/min (t).
7. Tables are used to determine the required trench area, or it can be computed according to the
following equation:

(5.40)

where:
Q is the flow that can be applied per unit area, L/m2*day
t25 is the time required for the water surface to fall 25 mm = 25/subsidence rate, min
Example 5.5

1. Write a computer program to design a septic tank for any number of people. Design the program
so that the necessary structural design of the tank is included.
2. Design a septic tank to serve a family dwelling of 20 people.
3. Use the above data with the program developed in (1) in order to produce the full design of the
tank.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.5 (1), see the listing of Program 5.5.
2. Solution to Example 5.5 (2):

a. Given: P = 20.
b. Determine the tank volume: V = 180 * P + 2000 = 180 * 20 + 2000 = 5600 L.
c. Take an outlet liquid depth d = 1.2 m.
d. Take a length:width ratio of 2.5, that is, L/B = 2.5, and determine the plan area as follows:

V/d = 5600 * 103/1.2 = 4.67 m2 = L * B = 2.5 * B,2 which yields a width B = 1.36 m; therefore, L =
2.5 * B = 3.4 m.
e. Determine the liquid depth at inlet (D) from relationship of slope: slope = (D d)/L; thus, D =
length * floor slope + outlet depth = 0.1 * 3.4 1.2 = 1.54 m.
f. Determine the total depth of tank as follows: total depth = liquid depth at inlet + distance of bottom
of inlet pipe from liquid surface + distance between inlet and tank cover = 1.54 + 0.075 + 0.3 =
1.92 m.
g Find the distance of the bottom of the T sewer inlet pipe from the top of the tank as 0.3 + 0.075 +
20% of liquid depth = 0.3 + 0.075 + 0.2 * 1.2 = 0.62 m.
h Find the distance of the bottom of the T sewer outlet pipe from the top of the tank as 0.3 + 0.75 +
40% of liquid depth = 0.3 + 0.075 + 0.4 * 1.2 = 0.86 m.
i When considering a two-compartment tank, the length of the first compartment can be determined as
follows: Lc = 2 * L/3 = 2 * 3.4/3 = 2.27 m.
3. As an example, the following data can be taken to run the program: number of people = 20, no
garbage grinder wastes, not a public place, grade of concrete = 30, yield stress for steel = 250
N/mm2. Severe exposure is assumed, as is a modulus of subgrade soil 0.
The results of the program are as follows:

a. Vertical wall thickness = 200 mm; steel in all directions will be 1040 mm2 everywhere.
b. Base slab thickness = 200 mm; steel in both directions will be 1300 mm2.
c. Cover slab thickness = 150 mm; steel in both directions will be 780 mm2.

Listing of Program 5.5 (a) Listing of Form1 code (Chap5.5\Form1.vb): Design

of Septic Tanks

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.5: Design of Septic Tanks
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const pi = 3.1415962#
Const g = 9.81
Dim P, fcu, fy, V As Double
Dim d0, rat, Ly, Lx, S, di, dt, dti, dt0, Lc As Double
Dim tw, tb, tc, H, D, Alpha, cv As Double
Dim Ast1, Ast2, Ast3, Ast4, Ast5, Ast6, Ast7, Ast8 As Double
Dim B, qx, qy As Double 'used in GetCoverPlateMoments()
'The following variables are used in Designsection()
Dim k, Z, TN, Ast As Double
Dim stress, Ra, d1, Vc As Double
Dim Mmax, dr, Ec, Es, Asm, r, x, fs, fsa, fact As Double
'The following variables are used in GetBasePlateMoments()
Dim E, mu, udl, w, wxx, wyy As Double
Dim y, m1, n1, c, cx, cy, cd As Double
'The following variables are used in GetWallsMoments()
Dim NDIVX, NDIVY, NX, NY, DX, DY, NDOF As Double

Dim RIGIDITY, pload, MM As Double

Dim L3, L4, F, A As Double
Dim K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6, K7, K8, K9, K10, K11, K12, K13, K14, K15, K16 As
Double
Dim r1, r2, r3, mmt As Double
Dim f1 As Form2 'used in GetCover()
Dim f2 As Form3 'used in calculateResults() to display the results
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.5: Design of
Septic Tanks"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the number of people to be served:"
Label2.Text = "Will garbage grinder wastes be used?"
Label3.Text = "Is the tank in a school/public utility?"
Label4.Text = "Enter the grade of concrete N/mm2:"
Label5.Text = "Enter the yield stress of steel N/mm2:"
Label6.Text = "Select a sides ratio (L/B) between 2 and 3:"
RadioButton1.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton2.Text = "No"
RadioButton3.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton4.Text = "No"
RadioButton2.Checked = True
RadioButton4.Checked = True
Button2.Text = "Calculate dimensions"
GroupBox1.Text = " OVERALL DIMENSIONS: "
Label7.Text = "Length of tank (m):"
Label8.Text = "Width of tank (m):"
Label9.Text = "Depth at inlet (m):"
Label10.Text = "Depth at outlet (m):"
Label11.Text = "Depth of T-sewer inlet pipe from top (m):"
Label12.Text = "Depth of T-sewer outlet pipe from top (m):"
Label13.Text = "Length of the second compartment (m):"
Label14.Text = "If the dimensions are acceptable, click on Design button"
Button1.Text = "&Design"
Button1.Enabled = False
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
fcu = Val(TextBox2.Text)
fy = Val(TextBox3.Text)
V = 180 * P + 2000 'volume of tank in liters
If RadioButton1.Checked Then V = 250 * P + 2000
If RadioButton3.Checked Then V = 90 * P + 2000
V = V / 1000 'convert to m3
'Compute liquid depth at outlet (m)
If P <= 50 Then d0 = 1.2
If P > 50 And P <= 150 Then d0 = 1.5
If P > 150 Then d0 = 1.8
'Compute depth at inlet (m) pipe
rat = Val(TextBox4.Text)
If rat < 2 Or rat > 3 Then
MsgBox("Please select a sides ratio (L/B) between 2 and 3.", vbOKOnly,
"Error")
Exit Sub
End If
Ly = (V / (d0 * rat)) ^ 0.5 'width of tank
Lx = Ly * rat 'length of tank
'Compute liquid depth at inlet di
S = 0.1 'slope of base
di = d0 + S * Lx 'liquid depth at inlet pipe
dt = di + 0.075 + 0.3 'total depth of tank at inlet

dti = 0.375 + 0.2 * d0 'depth from top of tank to bottom of t-sewer at

inlet
dt0 = 0.375 + 0.4 * d0 'depth from top of tank to bottom of t-sewer at
inlet
Lc = 2 * Lx / 3 'length of the second compartment
'Output results of overall dimensioning
TextBox5.Text = (CInt(Lx * 100) / 100).ToString
TextBox6.Text = (CInt(Ly * 100) / 100).ToString
TextBox7.Text = (CInt(di * 100) / 100).ToString
TextBox8.Text = (CInt(d0 * 100) / 100).ToString
TextBox9.Text = (CInt(dti * 100) / 100).ToString
TextBox10.Text = (CInt(dt0 * 100) / 100).ToString
TextBox11.Text = (CInt(Lc * 100) / 100).ToString
Button1.Enabled = True
End Sub
Sub Designsection(ByVal t, ByVal cv, ByVal Mh, ByVal Mv, ByVal n, ByVal V,
ByVal fcu, ByVal fy, ByVal Astx, ByVal Astv)
'*********************************************************************************
'Structural design of a section
'*******************************************************************************
Dim br = 1000 '1m width
D = t - cv - 10 'effective depth, assuming 20mm bars
Dim ft = 1.3 'tensile strength of concrete for crack control
Dim rcrit = ft / fy 'critical steel percentage for crack control
Dim fst = 0.87 * fy 'design steel stress
Dim Astmin = rcrit * br * t 'minimum area of steel for grade 250 steel
RECYCLE:
'X-direction steel
Dim MaxMu = 0.156 * fcu * br * D ^ 2 / 10 ^ 6 'in KNm
Do While Mh > MaxMu
D = D + 25
t = t + 25
MaxMu = 0.156 * fcu * br * D ^ 2 / 10 ^ 6
Loop
k = Mh * 10 ^ 6 / (fcu * br * D ^ 2)
Z = D * (0.5 + (0.25 - k / 0.9) ^ 0.5)
If Z > 0.94 * D Then Z = 0.94 * D
TN = ABS(n)
Ast = TN * 10 ^ 3 / fst
Ast2 = ABS((Mh * 10 ^ 6 - TN * 10 ^ 3 * (D - t / 2)) / (fst * Z))
Astx = Ast + Ast2
If Astx < Astmin Then Astx = Astmin
'Y-direction steel
Do While Mv > MaxMu
D = D + 25
t = t + 25
MaxMu = 0.156 * fcu * br * D ^ 2 / 10 ^ 6
Loop
k = Mv * 10 ^ 6 / (fcu * br * D ^ 2)
Z = D * (0.5 + (0.25 - k / 0.9) ^ 0.5)
If Z > 0.94 * D Then Z = 0.94 * D
'for base slab, there is tension in this direction as well
If n < 0 Then TN = ABS(n) Else TN = 0.0!
Ast = TN * 10 ^ 3 / fst
Ast2 = ABS((Mv * 10 ^ 6 - TN * 10 ^ 3 * (D - t / 2)) / (fst * Z))
Astv = Ast + Ast2
If Astv < Astmin Then Astv = Astmin
'check for shear stress
Ast = MAX2(Astx, Astv)
stress = V * 10 ^ 3 / (br * D)

Ra = 100 * Ast / (br * D)

d1 = D
If d1 > 400 Then d1 = 400
Vc = 0.79 * Ra ^ (1 / 3) * (400 / d1) ^ 0.25 / 1.25
If fcu > 25 Then Vc = Vc * (fcu / 25) ^ (1 / 3)
If stress > Vc Then
D = D * stress / Vc * 1.1
t = D + cv + 10
GoTo RECYCLE
End If
'check for cracking at serviceability limit state
n = n / 1.5 'service ring tension
Mmax = Mh
Asm = Ast
dr = 1
If Mmax < Mv Then
Mmax = Mv
Asm = Astv
dr = 2
End If
Mmax = Mmax / 1.5 'service maximum moment
Ec = 5500 * fcu ^ 0.5 'Youngs modulus of concrete N/mm2
Ec = 0.5 * Ec 'Service Youngs modulus of concrete
Es = 2 * 10 ^ 5 'Youngs modulus for steel
Alpha = Es / Ec 'modular ratio
r = Alpha * Asm / (br * D) 'steel ratio
x = D * r * ((1 + 2 / r) ^ 0.5 - 1)
Z = D - x / 3 'lever arm
fs = Mmax / (Asm * Z) 'service stress in steel
fsa = 0.58 * fy 'allowable service stress
If fs > fsa Then
'cracking is excessive, so increase area of steel
Fact = fs / fsa
If dr = 1 Then Ast = Ast * fact Else Astv = Astv * fact
End If
End Sub
Sub GetCover(ByRef fcu, ByRef cv)
'*******************************************************************************
'Determine the cover for a septic tank
'*******************************************************************************
Try
f1.ShowDialog()
Catch ex As Exception
f1 = New Form2
f1.ShowDialog()
End Try
Select Case f1.choice
Case 0
If fcu <= 30 Then : cv = 25
ElseIf fcu >= 35 Then : cv = 20
End If
Case 1
If fcu <= 35 Then : cv = 35
ElseIf fcu = 40 Then : cv = 30
ElseIf fcu = 45 Then : cv = 25
ElseIf fcu = 50 Then : cv = 20
End If

Case 2
If fcu <= 40 Then : cv = 40
ElseIf fcu = 45 Then : cv = 30
ElseIf fcu = 50 Then : cv = 25
End If
Case 3
If fcu <= 40 Then : cv = 50
ElseIf fcu = 45 Then : cv = 40
ElseIf fcu = 50 Then : cv = 30
End If
Case 4
If fcu <= 45 Then : cv = 60
ElseIf fcu = 50 Then : cv = 50
End If
End Select
End Sub
Sub GetBasePlateMoments(ByRef t, ByRef Lx, ByRef Ly, ByRef H, ByRef fcu,
ByRef Mx, ByRef Myy)
'*********************************************************************************
'Routine: PLATES ON ELASTIC FOUNDATIONS.
'Originally written by Dr. A. W. Hago, Muscat, April 1995
'Updated by Dr. M. I. Abdel-Magid, Muscat, 2013
'*******************************************************************************
Dim kmodulus = Val(InputBox("Enter the modulus of subgrade soil (KN/m2) (0
if unknown):", _
"STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TANK BASE SLAB", "0"))
If kmodulus = 0 Then kmodulus = 39000 'assumed clay soil
E = 5500000.0! * (fcu) ^ 0.5 'Youngs modulus of concrete, KN/m2
mu = 0.16 'Poissons ratio for concrete
udl = 10 * H 'Uniform Pressure on the base slab
D = E * t ^ 3 / (12 * (1 - mu ^ 2))
x = 0.5 * Lx : y = 0.5 * Ly 'coordinates of center point
w = 0.0!
wxx = 0.0!
wyy = 0.0!
m1 = 15
n1 = 15
For m = 1 To m1 Step 2
For n = 1 To n1 Step 2
c = 16 * udl / (m * n * pi ^ 2)
cx = Sin(m * pi * x / Lx)
cy = Sin(n * pi * y / Ly)
cd = pi ^ 4 * D * ((m / Lx) ^ 2 + (n / Ly) ^ 2) ^ 2 + kmodulus
w = w + c * cx * cy / cd
wxx = wxx - c * (m * pi / Lx) ^ 2 * cx * cy / cd
wyy = wyy - c * (n * pi / Ly) ^ 2 * cx * cy / cd
Next n
Next m
Mx = -D * (wxx + mu * wyy)
Myy = -D * (wyy + mu * wxx)
End Sub
Sub GetCoverPlateMoments(ByVal Lx, ByVal Ly, ByVal udl, ByVal Mx, ByVal Myy)
'*******************************************************************************
'Routine to compute moments in a simple supported slab
'using the deflection method (Dr. Marcus)
'*******************************************************************************

Alpha = Ly / Lx 'sides ratio

B = Alpha ^ 4
qx = udl * B / (1 + B) 'load carried by x strips
qy = udl / (1 + B) 'load carried by y strips
Mx = qx * Lx ^ 2 / 8
Myy = qy * Ly ^ 2 / 8
End Sub
Sub GetWallsMoments(ByRef Lx, ByRef Ly, ByRef H, ByRef fcu, ByRef MAXMX,
ByRef MAXMY, ByRef MAXSX, ByRef MAXSY, ByRef MAXTN)
'*********************************************************************************
'routine to compute the moments on the walls of a tank, using the
'finite difference method. The side walls are assumed as
'FIXED ON THREE SIDES, SIMPLY SUPPORTED ON THE FOURTH TOP SIDE,
'under linearly varying Hydrostatic Pressure of a liquid.
'*******************************************************************************
NDIVX = 4 'four divisions of one half for symmetry
NDIVY = 4 'for divisions on full height
NX = NDIVX
NY = NDIVY - 1
DX = 0.5 * Lx / NDIVX 'consider half wall for symmetry
DY = Ly / NDIVY
NDOF = NX * NY 'total number of degrees of freedom
udl = 10.0! * Ly 'maximum liquid pressure in KN/m2
mu = 0.16 'Poissons ratio for concrete
E = 5500000.0! * fcu ^ 0.5 'Youngs modulus for concrete, KN/m2
RIGIDITY = E * H ^ 3 / (12 * (1 - mu ^ 2)) 'flexural rigidity
pload = udl / RIGIDITY
MM = NDOF + 1
Dim S(NDOF, MM), w(NDOF), Mx(NDOF), Myy(NDOF), MXV(NY), MYH(NX),
AXIAL(NDIVY) As Double
Dim Q(NDOF) As Double
L3 = DY ^ 3
L4 = DX ^ 4
Z = (DX / DY) ^ 2
A = (6 + 6 * Z ^ 2 + 8 * Z) / L4
B = -4 * (1 + Z) / L4
c = -4 * Z * (1 + Z) / L4
D = 2 * Z / L4
E = Z ^ 2 / L4
F = 1 / L4
For I = 1 To NDOF
For J = 1 To NDOF + 1
S(I, J) = 0.0!
Next J
Next I
'CONNECTIVITY
k = 0
For I = 1 To NX
For J = 1 To NY
K13 = 0 : K14 = 0 : K15 = 0 : K16 = 0
k = k + 1
K1 = k - NY
K2 = k + NY
K3 = k - 1
K4 = k + 1
K5 = k + NY + 1
K6 = k - NY + 1

K7 = k - NY - 1
K8 = k + NY - 1
K9 = k - 2 * NY
K10 = k + 2 * NY
K11 = k - 2
K12 = k + 2
'SPECIAL CASES
If I = 1 Then
K1 = 0
K6 = 0
K7 = 0
K9 = k
End If
If I = 2 Then K9 = 0
If I = NX Then
K2 = k - NY
K5 = K2 + 1
K8 = K2 - 1
K10 = k - 2 * NY
End If
If I = NX - 1 Then K10 = k
If J = I Then
K7 = 0
K3 = 0
K8 = 0
K11 = k
End If
If J = 2 Then K11 = 0
If J = NY - 1 Then
K4 = 0
K5 = 0
K6 = 0
K12 = k
End If
S(k, k) = S(k, k) + A
If K1 > 0 Then S(k, K1) = S(k, K1) + B
If K2 > 0 Then S(k, K2) = S(k, K2) + B
If K3 > 0 Then S(k, K3) = S(k, K3) + c
If K4 > 0 Then S(k, K4) = S(k, K4) + c
If K5 > 0 Then S(k, K5) = S(k, K5) + D
If K6 > 0 Then S(k, K6) = S(k, K6) + D
If K7 > 0 Then S(k, K7) = S(k, K7) + D
If K8 > 0 Then S(k, K8) = S(k, K8) + D
If K9 > 0 Then S(k, K9) = S(k, K9) + F
If K10 > 0 Then S(k, K10) = S(k, K10) + F
If K11 > 0 Then S(k, K11) = S(k, K11) + E
If K12 > 0 Then
If J = NY - 1 Then S(k, K12) = S(k, K12) - E
If J < NY - 1 Then S(k, K12) = S(k, K12) + E
End If
'LOAD VECTOR
Q(k) = pload * (1 - J / NDIVY) 'HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Next J
Next I
Call SOLVE(S, Q, w, NDOF)
'COMPUTE MOMENT Mx ON INTERIOR POINTS
For I = 1 To NDOF
For J = 1 To NDOF
S(I, J) = 0.0!
Next J
Next I

r1 = 2 * RIGIDITY * (1 / DX ^ 2 + mu / DY ^ 2)
r2 = -RIGIDITY / DX ^ 2
r3 = -mu * RIGIDITY / DY ^ 2
k = 0
For I = 1 To NX
For J = 1 To NY
k = k + 1
K1 = k - NY
K2 = k + NY
K3 = k - 1
K4 = k + 1
'SPECIAL CASES
If I = 1 Then K1 = 0
If I = NX Then K2 = k - NY
If J = 1 Then K3 = 0
If J = NY - 1 Then K4 = 0
S(k, k) = S(k, k) + r1
If K1 > 0 Then S(k, K1) = S(k, K1) + r2
If K2 > 0 Then S(k, K2) = S(k, K2) + r2
If K3 > 0 Then S(k, K3) = S(k, K3) + r3
If K4 > 0 Then S(k, K4) = S(k, K4) + r3
Next J
Next I
For I = 1 To NDOF
mmt = 0.0!
For J = 1 To NDOF
mmt = mmt + S(I, J) * w(J)
Next J
Mx(I) = mmt
Next I
'COMPUTE SUPPORT MOMENT MXV OF THE VERTICAL SIDE Ly
For I = 1 To NY
MXV(I) = -2 * RIGIDITY * w(I) / DX ^ 2
Next I
'COMPUTE MOMENT My ON INTERIOR POINTS
For I = 1 To NDOF
For J = 1 To NDOF
S(I, J) = 0.0!
Next J
Next I
r1 = 2 * RIGIDITY * (1 / DY ^ 2 + mu / DX ^ 2)
r2 = -mu * RIGIDITY / DX ^ 2
r3 = -RIGIDITY / DY ^ 2
k = 0
For I = 1 To NX
For J = 1 To NY
k = k + 1
K1 = k - NY
K2 = k + NY
K3 = k - 1
K4 = k + 1
'SPECIAL CASES
If I = 1 Then K1 = 0
If I = NX Then K2 = k - NY
If J = 1 Then K3 = 0
If J = NY - 1 Then K4 = 0
S(k, k) = S(k, k) + r1
If K1 > 0 Then S(k, K1) = S(k, K1) + r2
If K2 > 0 Then S(k, K2) = S(k, K2) + r2

If K3 > 0 Then S(k, K3) = S(k, K3) + r3

If K4 > 0 Then S(k, K4) = S(k, K4) + r3
Next J
Next I
For I = 1 To NDOF
mmt = 0.0!
For J = 1 To NDOF
mmt = mmt + S(I, J) * w(J)
Next J
Myy(I) = mmt
Next I
'COMPUTE SUPPORT MOMENT MYH ON HORIZONTAL SIDE Lx
For I = 1 To NX
k = (I - 1) * NY + 1
MYH(I) = -2 * RIGIDITY * w(k) / DY ^ 2
Next I
'COMPUTE AXIAL TENSION
For I = 1 To NDIVY
AXIAL(I) = 10 * Ly * (1 - I / NDIVY) * Lx / 2.0!
Next I
'GET MAXIMUM VALUES
MAXMX = MAX(Mx, NDOF) 'MAXIMUM +VE x MOMENT
MAXMY = MAX(Myy, NDOF) 'MAXIMUM +VE y MOMENT
MAXSX = MAX(MXV, NY) 'MAIMUM VE x MOMENT
MAXSY = MAX(MYH, NX) 'MAXIMUM VE y MOMENT
MAXTN = MAX(AXIAL, NDIVY) 'MAXIMUM TENSION
End Sub
Function MAX(ByVal A() As Double, ByVal n As Integer)
'*******************************************************************************
'Function to determine the maximum value in an array
'*******************************************************************************
Dim x = 0
For I = 1 To n
A(I) = Abs(A(I))
If x < A(I) Then x = A(I)
Next I
MAX = x
End Function
Function MAX2(ByVal x, ByVal y)
'*******************************************************************************
'This function returns with the maximum of two numbers
'*******************************************************************************
Dim Z = Abs(x)
If x > y Then Z = x Else Z = y
MAX2 = Z
Sub SOLVE(ByVal GSTIF(,) As Double, ByVal GCON() As Double, ByVal HEAD() As
Double, ByVal n As Integer)
'*********************************************************************************
'SOLVING EQUATIONS BY GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
'*******************************************************************************
Dim O(n), S(n), x(n)
Dim PIVOT, DUMMY, BIG, FACTOR, SUM As Double

'********** ORDERING THE EQUATIONS

For I = 1 To n
O(I) = I
S(I) = Abs(GSTIF(I, 1))
For J = 2 To n
If Abs(GSTIF(I, J)) > S(I) Then
S(I) = Abs(GSTIF(I, J))
Else
End If
Next J
Next I
'ELIMINATION *********
For K = 1 To n - 1
PIVOT = K
BIG = Abs(GSTIF(O(K), K) / S(O(K)))
For II = K + 1 To n
DUMMY = Abs(GSTIF(O(II), K) / S(O(II)))
If DUMMY > BIG Then
BIG = DUMMY
PIVOT = II
Else
End If
Next II
DUMMY = O(PIVOT)
O(PIVOT) = O(K)
O(K) = DUMMY
For I = K + 1 To n
FACTOR = GSTIF(O(I), K) / GSTIF(O(K), K)
For J = K + 1 To n
GSTIF(O(I), J) = GSTIF(O(I), J) - FACTOR * GSTIF(O(K), J)
Next J
GCON(O(I)) = GCON(O(I)) - FACTOR * GCON(O(K))
Next I
Next K
'********* BACK SUBSTITUTION ***********
x(n) = GCON(O(n)) / GSTIF(O(n), n)
HEAD(n) = x(n)
For I = n - 1 To 1 Step -1
SUM = 0
For J = I + 1 To n
SUM = SUM + GSTIF(O(I), J) * x(J)
Next J
x(I) = (GCON(O(I)) - SUM) / GSTIF(O(I), I)
HEAD(I) = x(I)
Next I
End Sub
Function fN(ByVal n As Double) As String
'formats a number into 6 decimal places, e.g. ##.######
'returns the result as a string
Return FormatNumber(n, 6).ToString
End Function
Sub designTank()
Dim Mx, Myy, Mxb, Myb, Mxc, Myc, V1, V2 As Double
Dim M11, M12, M13, M14, TN1 As Double
Dim M21, M22, M23, M24, TN2 As Double
'Structural design of the tank walls
'Assure thickness as follows:
tw = 200 'Thickness of walls in mm
tb = 200 'thickness of base slab in mm

tc = 150 'thickness of cover slab in mm

H = dt 'total depth of tank in mm
Call GetCover(fcu, cv) 'determine cover to steel
'Design the walls
Call GetWallsMoments(Lx, H, tw, fcu, M11, M12, M13, M14, TN1)
Call GetWallsMoments(Lx, H, tw, fcu, M21, M22, M23, M24, TN2)
'Midspan section
Mx = MAX2(M11, M21)
Myy = MAX2(M12, M22)
TN = MAX2(TN1, TN2)
Call Designsection(tw, cv, Mx, Myy, TN, TN, fcu, fy, Ast1, Ast2)
'Section at the joint of the walls
Mx = MAX2(M13, M23)
Myy = MAX2(M14, M24)
TN = MAX2(TN1, TN2)
Call Designsection(tw, cv, Mx, Myy, TN, TN, fcu, fy, Ast3, Ast4)
'Design the bottom base slab
Call GetBasePlateMoments(tb, Lx, Ly, H, fcu, Mxb, Myb)
TN = -10 * dt 'tension in the base slab made ve for identification only
Call Designsection(tb, cv, Mxb, Myb, TN, 0, fcu, fy, Ast5, Ast6)
'Design the cover slab
udl = 1.6 * 1.5 + 1.4 * 24 * tc / 1000 'Ultimate design load in KN/m2
Call GetCoverPlateMoments(Lx, Ly, udl, Mxc, Myc)
V1 = udl * Lx / 2 'shear on short support
V2 = udl * Ly / 2 'shear on long support
V = MAX2(V1, V2)
Call Designsection(tc, cv, Mxc, Myc, 0, V, fcu, fy, Ast7, Ast8)
'Output results of the structural design
Dim res As String 'the output string
res = "Structural Design of Septic Tanks:"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Walls Forces: "
res += fN(M11) + " " + fN(M12) + " " + fN(M13) + " " + fN(M14) + " " +
fN(TN1)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Walls Forces: "
res += fN(M21) + " " + fN(M22) + " " + fN(M23) + " " + fN(M24) + " " +
fN(TN2)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Bottom slab: "
res += fN(Mxb) + " " + fN(Myb)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Cover slab: "
res += fN(Mxc) + " " + fN(Myc)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Vertical walls:"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Thickness of walls: " + CInt(tw).ToString + " mm"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Vertical steel: " + CInt(Ast1).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Horizontal steel:" + CInt(Ast2).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Horizontal steel at support: " + CInt(Ast3).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Vertical steel at support: " + CInt(Ast3).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Base slab:"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Thickness of base: " + CInt(tb).ToString + " mm"

res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)

res += "Long direction steel: " + CInt(Ast5).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Short direction steel: " + CInt(Ast6).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Cover slab:"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Thickness of cover slab: " + CInt(tc).ToString + " mm"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Long direction steel: " + CInt(Ast7).ToString + " mm2/m"
res += Chr(13) + Chr(10)
res += "Short direction steel: " + CInt(Ast8).ToString + " mm2/m"
Try
f2.showText = res
f2.ShowDialog()
Catch ex As Exception
f2 = New Form3
f2.showText = res
f2.ShowDialog()
End Try
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click designTank()
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class
(B) LISTING OF FORM2 CODE (CHAP5.5\FORM2.VB):
Public Class Form2
Public choice As Integer
Private Sub Form2_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "THE EXPOSURE CONDITION"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedDialog
Label1.Text = "Select exposure condition:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("Mild")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Moderate")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Severe")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Very severe")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Extreme")
ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
Button1.Text = "&OK"
Button2.Text = "&Cancel"
Me.CancelButton = Button2
Me.AcceptButton = Button1
End Sub

Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged choice =
ListBox1.SelectedIndex
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click choice = ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Me.Hide()
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click choice = -1
Me.Hide()
End Sub
End Class
(C) LISTING OF FORM3 CODE (CHAP5.5\FORM3.VB):
Public Class Form3
Private txt As String
Public Property showText
Get
showText = txt
End Get
Set(ByVal value)
txt = value
TextBox1.Text = value
Button1.Select()
End Set
End Property
Private Sub Form3_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load TextBox1.Multiline = True
TextBox1.Height = 259
TextBox1.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedDialog
Button1.Text = "&OK"
Me.CancelButton = Button1
Me.AcceptButton = Button1
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Me.Hide()

End Sub

 End Class

5.3.2 IMHOFF TANKS

An Imhoff tank is a form of a septic tank. It is a two-storey tank that performs the same functions of
sedimentation and anaerobic digestion of sludge. The two processes are achieved in separate
compartments. The incoming wastewater flows through the upper compartment, allowing solids to settle
to the bottom of the chamber, which is in the shape of a hopper. At the bottom of the hopper, the solids
pass through a baffled outlet into the lower chamber in which anaerobic digestion takes place. Because
there is no intimate contact between sewage and the digesting sludge, a better effluent is obtained. Gases
from the sludge compartment are directed away from the falling solids so as not to hinder their descent
(Smith and Scott 2002). Although Imhoff tanks function better than septic tanks (especially in warm
climates), they are more elaborate and more costly to operate.
The advantages of the Imhoff tank are as follows:

It yields good results without skilled attention.

It has minimum problems with sludge disposal.

The disadvantages of the Imhoff tank are as follows:

Greater depth means greater costs.

It is unsuitable when high acidic conditions prevail.
It has no adequate control over its operation.
Insufficient area of vents causes the gas to lift the fluffy scum, a condition known as foaming.

For the design of an Imhoff tank, the following points must be considered:

Detention time should be 12 h.

The length-to-width ratio should be between 2:1 and 4:1.
Depth should be kept shallow, 1012 m.
Vent area for gas release and accumulation of scum should be 20%30% of the total Imhoff tank
surface area.

5.4 SOURCES AND EVALUATION OF WASTEWATER FLOW RATES

Sources of generation of wastewater are as follows:

Domestic wastewaterdischarges from residences, commercial, institutional, and related units

Industrial wastewaterdischarges from factories and industrial establishments Storm water
water that result from rainfall runoff
Infiltration/inflowextraneous water that enters the sewer from the ground via different routes and
storm water that is discharged from sources such as roof leaders, foundation drains, and storm
sewers (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995) The domestic wastewater rate of flow is normally estimated
 by finding the dry weather flow, DWF, which is defined as the total average discharge of sanitary
sewage and is the normal flow in a sewer during the dry weather (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
DWF also may be described as the average daily flow in the sewer after several days during which
rainfall has not exceeded 2.5 mm in the previous 24 h (Lin and Lee 2007). The DWF for a certain
locality can be determined from the following equation:

(5.41)

where:
DWF is the dry weather flow, L/day
P is the number of people served by the sewer, dimensionless
Q is the average water consumption, L/c * day
Ir is the average infiltration into the sewer, L/day (also estimated as L/day/km length of sewer for
different ages of the sewer). Usually, Ir varies between 0% and 30% of DWF (Rowe and Abdel-Magid
1995; Lin and Lee 2007) Tw is the average trade waste discharge, L/day
Ev is the rate of evaporation

The DWF can also be estimated from the data of water consumption as presented in the following
equation:

(5.42)

where:
DWF is the dry weather flow, m3/s
is the percentage of water entering the sewerage system (usually ranging from 80% to 90% of water
consumption) Q is the water consumption, m3/cs
P is the population served, dimensionless

Maximum wastewater flow may be determined by using the following equation (Mullick 1987):

(5.43)

where:
Qmax is the maximum daily wastewater flow, m3/day
a is the factor (= 24)
DWF is the dry weather flow, m3/s

Equation 5.44 gives an estimate of the minimum wastewater flow (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995;
American Water Works Association and American Society of Civil Engineers 2012):

(5.44)

where:
 Qmin is the minimum wastewater flow, m3/day
b is the constant (with b = 30%50% for small communities, and b = 66%80% for large
communities that are greater than 100,000 persons) Qa is the average wastewater flow, m3/day

Equation 5.45 gives the relationship between the maximum wastewater flows and the average flows
called peaking factor (Mullick 1987):

(5.45)

where pf is the peaking factor, given by the following equation:

(5.46)

where P is the number of people served in thousands, dimensionless

Equation 5.46 is valid for a population size of 200 up to 1000.

Example 5.6
1. Write a computer program to determine the DWF for a sanitary sewer that is required to
serve an area with a population number of P, for an average daily sewage flow of Q
(m3/day). Take the daily infiltration in the area to be I (m3/km * length of sewer) and total
length of sewer as l (km).
2. An area with a population of 12,000 is to be served by a sanitary sewer. The average
wastewater flow is 15 m3/h per capita. The daily infiltration in the area is judged to be 55
m3/km length of sewer. For a total sewer length of 7 km, compute the DWF.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.6 (1), see the listing for Program 5.6.
a. Solution to Example 5.6 (2): Given: P = 12,000; Q = 15 m3/h * c, Ir = 55 m3/length of sewer,
2.
length of sewer = 7 km.
b. Use equation of DWF as DWF = (P * Q) + Ir + Tw Ev.
c. Find the average dry weather infiltration into the sewer as follows: Ir = 55 (m3) * 7 (km of
sewer length) = 385 m3/day.
d. Assume both average trade waste discharge, Tw, and evaporation rate, Ev, to be negligible, and
find the DWF as follows: DWF = 12000 * 15/24 + 385 = 7885 m3/day.

Listing of Program 5.6 (Chap5.6\Form1.vb): Dry Weather Flow, DWF

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.6: Determination of the Dry Weather Flow
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Const Pi = 3.1415962#
Const G = 9.81
Dim POP, Q, I, L As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.6: Determination
of the Dry Weather Flow"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the number of people to be served:"
Label2.Text = "Enter the average daily sewage flow Q (m3/h/c):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the daily infiltration rate I (m3/km):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the length of the sewer L (km):"
BUTTON1.TEXT = "&Calculate"
label5.text = ""
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
POP = Val(textbox1.text)
Q = Val(textbox2.text)
I = Val(textbox3.text)
L = Val(textbox4.text)
Dim Ir, Tw, Ev, DWF As Double
Ir = I * L
Tw = 0
Ev = 0
DWF = POP * Q / 24 + Ir + Tw - Ev
Label5.Text = "The dry weather flow DWF = " + FormatNumber(DWF, 2) + "
m3/d"
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 5.7

1. Write a computer program to determine the average, maximum, minimum, and peak
wastewater flows, given population number and annual average water consumption
(L/capita/d). Assume DWF amounting to any percentage, a, of water consumption and
minimum flow equal to any percentage, b, of average flow.
2. Determine the different per capita wastewater flows (i.e., maximum daily, average daily, and
minimum daily flow) for a population of 900 using the following data: annual average water
consumption = 275 L/c/day; DWF = 90% of water consumption; and minimum flow = 50%
of average flow.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution acquired in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.7 (1), see the listing of Program 5.7.
2. Solution to Example 5.7 (2):

a. Given: P = 900, Q = 275 L/c/day, DWF = 0.9 * consumption, Qmin = 0.5 * Qa.
b. Determine the average annual daily DWF, or wastewater flow as 0.9 * water consumption = 0.9
* 275 = 247.5 L/c.
c. Compute the peaking factor as follows: pf = 5/P0.167 = 5/0.90.167 = 5.09.
d. Find the maximum daily flow or the maximum 24 h flow = pf * Qa = 5.09 * 247.5 = 1259.5
L/c/day.
Assuming a working time activity of 16 h, the design average daily flow will be as 1259.5 * 24/16
= 1889.7 L/c/day.
e. Determine the minimum daily flow as follows: Qmin = 0.5 * Qa = 0.5 * 247.5 = 123.75 L/c/day.

Listing of Program 5.7 (Chap5.7\Form1.vb): Different Per Capita

Wastewater Flows

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.7: Determination of Different Per Capita Wastewater Flows
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim POP, DWF, Q, Qamp As Double
Dim Pf, Qmax, Qd, Qmin As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.7: Per Capita
Wastewater Flows"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the number of people to be served:"
Label2.Text = "Enter the annual average water consumption L/c.d:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the dry weather flow DWF as percentage of Q:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the minimum flow as a percentage of Q:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label5.Text = ""
Label5.AutoSize = False
Label5.Width = 352
Label5.Height = 52
Label6.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
POP = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox2.Text)
DWF = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Qamp = Val(TextBox4.Text)
If DWF > 1 Then DWF /= 100
If Qamp > 1 Then Qamp /= 100
DWF = DWF * Q
'peak factor

Pf = 5 / (POP / 1000) ^ 0.167

'maximum daily flow
Qmax = Pf * DWF
'design average daily flow
Qd = Qmax * 24 / 16
'minimum daily flow
Qmin = Qamp * DWF
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
Label5.Text = "Average annual daily DWF (L/c): " + FormatNumber(DWF,
decimals)
Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "Maximum daily flow (L/c.d): " + FormatNumber(Qmax,
decimals)
Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "Minimum daily flow (L/c.d): " + FormatNumber(Qmin,
decimals)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.5 CONCEPT OF PE
PE of sewage or wastewater refers to a certain quality parameterfor example, BOD or SSas a per
capita contribution, compared to some quality parameter of the per capita contribution of a standard
sewage. Domestic sewage is adopted as the standard. Thus, the PE of any sewage is the number of
persons to the standard sewage. The relationship between PE and BOD5 is presented in the following
equation (Smith and Scott 2002; Lin and Lee 2007):

(5.47)

where:
PE is the population equivalent
BOD5 is the 5-day BOD of wastewater, mg/L
Q is the wastewater flow rate, m3/s

BODs is the BOD of standard sewage (= 60 g of BOD5 produced by an average person per day in the
United Kingdom and 80 g of BOD5 produced by an average person in the United States per day).
The main benefits of the PE concept include the following:

Estimation of the strength of industrial sewage for the purposes of waste treatment Measurement of
changes of wastewater treatment for various industries Assessment of charges for factories and
industrial firms

Example 5.8
1. Write a short computer program to find the PE of an industrial establishment that produces
wastewater of Q (m3/day). The wastewater has a 5-day BOD of L (mg/L).
2. The daily wastewater production from a certain industry amounts to 6 * 106 L with a 5-day
BOD of 370 mg/L. Determine the PE for this industry.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.8 (1), see the listing of Program 5.8.
a. Solution to Example 5.8 (2): Given: wastewater flow, Q = 6 * 106 L/day, BOD = 370 mg/L.
2.
b. Assume the average person exerts a 5-day BOD load of 0.06 kg/day.
c. Determine the PE as follows: PE = BOD5 of waste * flow rate/BOD of standard sewage = (370
* 103 g/L * 6 * 106 L/d)/(0.06 * 103 g/d) = 37,000.
 Listing of Program 5.8 (Chap5.8\Form1.vb): Population Equivalent of
Industrial Establishments

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.8: Population Equivalent of Industrial establishments
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim Q, BOD5 As Double
Dim Ex, PE As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.8: Population
Equivalent of Industrial establishments"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Daily wastewater production, Q (L/d):"
Label2.Text = "The 5-day BOD (mg/L):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label3.Text = ""
Label4.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(TextBox1.Text)
bod5 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
'assumed per capita 5-d BOD load in kg/d
Ex = 0.06
'convert to mg/L
BOD5 = BOD5 / 1000
'population equivalent
PE = BOD5 * Q / (Ex * 10 ^ 3)
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label3.Text = "Population equivalent PE: " + FormatNumber(PE,
NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.6 REASONS FOR TREATING WASTEWATER

The main reasons for treatment of wastewater include the following:

Stabilization of organic pollutants

Reduction of the number of disease-causing agents found in sewage
Prevention of pollutants from entering water sources
Reduction of odors and other nuisances resulting from sewage
Water reclamation and reuse
By-product recovery and use

5.7 WASTEWATER TREATMENT UNIT OPERATIONS AND PROCESSES

Wastewater treatment units can be classified simply into the following:

1. In situ treatment works are small treatment plants (package plants) that handle the disposal of
wastewater emerging from individual households or small rural communities.
2. Large treatment works are centrally located wastewater plants that treat the wastewater
discharges from large metropolitan areas.

Table 5.6 gives a quick review of the most essential unit operations and processes used in water and
wastewater treatment plants.

TABLE 5.6
Water and Wastewater Treatment Units
Water
Treatment
Bars, mesh, or strainer to remove large solids
Screening
Flocculation Mechanical mixing to favor agglomeration of solid particles
Addition of chemicals to coagulate SS
Coagulation
Sedimentation Settling out of flocculated substances
Filtering out remaining suspended matter
Sand filtration
Disinfection Addition of disinfectant to kill harmful disease-causing agents
Sludge treatment Thickening by brevity and then disposal
Other Water softening, pH adjustment, and fluoridation
Preliminary
Treatment
As above
Screening Removing grit and inorganic matter (e.g., sand) but not organic matter
Grit removal Diverting sewage in excess of treatment plant capacity to storm water-holding tanks
Storm overflow
Primary
Treatment

Settling of SS (only 40%60% removed), no chemicals added

Primary sedimentation
Secondary
Treatment

Anaerobic oxidation of Biodegrading organic matter through the action of microorganisms in a biological treatment unit such as activated
organic matter sludge or trickling filter plant Settling out of sludge containing microorganisms to produce a treated effluent
Secondary sedimentation
Tertiary Treatment (Effluent
polishing, advanced
treatment)
Polishing of effluent by operations such as sand filters and microstrainers
Finalizing treatment
Sludge
Treatment
Decomposing thickened sludge in the absence of oxygen
Anaerobic digestion
Gravity thickening Thickening of primary and secondary sludge
Removing water from sewage sludges by methods such as centrifuges and pressure or vacuum filters Drying
Mechanical dewatering
Drying beds sewage sludge in open atmosphere
Sludge Disposal

Composted to be used as
a soil conditioner
(digested only)
Dumped at sea (undigested)
Incinerated (normally
undigested but thickened)
Landfilled (preferably
digested and dewatered or
dried)

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.

5.8 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT: GRIT REMOVAL

Grit is composed of sand, gravel, cinders, ashes, metal fragments, glass, inert inorganic solids, pebbles,
eggshells, bone chips, seeds, coffee and tea grounds, earth from vegetable washing, large organic
particles such as food wastes, or other heavy solid material with specific gravities greater than those of
the organic putrescent solids found in wastewater.
Problems in treating wastewater containing grit are as follows:

Grit is an abrasive material.

It will produce wear and tear on pumps and other treatment works.
It absorbs oil and grease on its surface (it becomes sticky and solidifies) in pipes, sumps,
sedimentation tanks, or other areas of low hydraulic shear.
It can occupy a valuable volume of the sludge digester.

Grit chambers serve the following functions:

Protecting the moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and development of any abnormal
wear and tear Reducing the formation of heavy deposits inside pipelines, channels, and conduits
Reducing the frequency of digester cleaning
Facilitating the operation of treatment units

The quantity of grit in wastewater differs according to the status of the sewerage system, the quantity of
storm water present, and the ratio of industrial to other sources of wastewater. Separation of grit particles
in grit removal chambers relies on the difference in the specific gravity between the organic and inorganic
solids. All particles are assumed to settle with a terminal velocity in agreement with Newtons law of
motion as presented in the following Equation (Steel and McGhee 1991):

(5.48)

where:
v is the terminal settling velocity, m/s
g is the gravitation acceleration, m/s2
 s is the mass density of particle, kg/m3
is the mass density of fluid, kg/m3
d is the diameter of particle, m
s.g. is the specific gravity of settling particle, dimensionless
CD is the drag coefficient (dimensionless)

(5.49)

where Re is the Reynolds number, dimensionless.

Particles within the grit chamber are scoured at a horizontal scouring velocity given by the following
equation (Steel and McGhee 1991):

(5.50)

where:
vsco is the horizontal velocity of flow (scour velocity), m/s
s.g. is the specific gravity of the particle, dimensionless
f is the DarcyWeisbach friction factor, dimensionless (usually, f = 0.020.003) (Steel and McGhee
1991) a is a constant, dimensionless (usually a = 0.040.06) (Steel and McGhee 1991) Generally, a grit
removal system possesses the following properties:

A long constant-velocity channel

A length-to-depth ratio of 10 (i.e., l/h = 10). In practice (owing to turbulence at inlet and outlet),
values of l/h up to 25 are employed A width-to-depth ratio of 2, that is, B/h = 2
The width of the channel at any point above the invert has a settling velocity of 30 cm/s (to avoid
removal of organic particles) and is given by the following equation (Abdel-Magid 1986; Lin and
Lee 2007):

(5.51)

where:
B is the width of the channel, m
Qmax is the maximum flow rate, m3/s
dmax is the maximum depth of flow, m

Velocity control within the grit chamber may be made by a flow control device such as a standing wave
flume, vertical throat, and proportional flow weir. For standing wave flumes, the flow rate is presented
by the following equation (Abdel-Magid 1986; Lin and Lee 2007):

(5.52)
 where:
Q is the flow rate, m3/s
d is the depth of flow, m
y is the throat width, m

The throat width may be computed as given in the following equation:

(5.53)

where B is the width of channel at any point above invert, m.

Table 5.7 presents typical design parameters of grit chambers.

TABLE 5.7
Grit Chamber Typical Design Parameters
Parameter Value
Detention time (s) 60
Horizontal design velocity (cm/s) 30
Equivalent diameter of grit removed (mm) 0.2
Specific gravity of particles captured 2.65
Length of chamber (m) >18dmax

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2013; Peavy, Rowe, and Tchobanoglous, 1985; Abdel-Magid,
I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan,
1986; Peirce, J. J. et al. Environmental Pollution and Control, 4th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1997.

Example 5.9
1. Write a computer program for designing a grit chamber that consists of N mechanically
cleaned channels. Each channel of the chamber is required to carry a maximum flow of Qmax
(m3/s) with a maximum depth of dmax (m).
2. Design a grit chamber that consists of four mechanically cleaned channels. Each channel
carries a maximum flow of 725 L/s with a maximum depth of 0.6 m (use l = 18 * dmax).
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify the manual solution in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 5.9 (1), see the listing of Program 5.9.
a. Solution to Example 5.9 (2): Given: Qmax = 725 L/s, dmax = 0.6 m, N = 4.
2.
b. Determine the width of the channel as follows: B = 4.92 * Qmax/dmax = 4.92 * 0.725/0.6 = 5.95
m.
c. Width of each channel = total width/number of channels = B/N = 5.95/4 = 1.5 m.
d. Find the throat width of the standing wave flume in channels that maintain the velocity as
 follows: y = (2/3) * B = (2/3) * 1.5 = 0.99 m.
e. Determine the length of the channel as follows: l = 18 * dmax = 19 * 0.99 = 17.8 m.

Listing of Program 5.9 (Chap5.9\Form1.vb): Designing a Grit Chamber

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.9: Designing a Grit Chamber
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim N, Q, dmax As Double
Dim B, W, Y, L As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.9: Grit Chamber
Design"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Number of mechanically cleaned channels, N:"
Label2.Text = "Flow per channel, Q (m3/s):"
Label3.Text = "Required maximum depth of flow, dmax (m):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label4.Text = ""

Label4.AutoSize = False
Label4.Width = 352
Label4.Height = 52
Label5.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox2.Text) / 1000
dmax = Val(TextBox3.Text)
'width of channel
B = 4.92 * Q / dmax
'width of each channel
W = B / N
'throat width
Y = 2 / 3 * W
'length of channel
L = 18 * Y
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
Label4.Text = "Width of each channel (m): " + FormatNumber(W, decimals)
Label4.Text += vbCrLf + "Throat width (m): " + FormatNumber(Y, decimals)
Label4.Text += vbCrLf + "Length of channel (m): " + FormatNumber(L,
decimals)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.9 SECONDARY TREATMENT (AEROBIC AND BIOLOGICAL)

5.9.1 INTRODUCTION
Secondary wastewater treatment serves the following functions:

Stabilization of organic matter

Coagulation and removal of nonsettleable colloidal solids
Reduction of organic matter usually found in sewage sludge
Reduction of growth nutrients in sewage, such as nitrogen and phosphorus Secondary treatment
facilities can be broadly classified as:

Attached growth processes: In these processes, microorganisms are fixed or attached to a solid
surface or media. Organic matter is brought in contact with the mircoorganisms by various
mechanisms (Berger 1987).
Suspended growth processes: In these processes, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and protozoa) and
small organisms (rotifers and nematode worms) are free to move within the reactor and utilize the
organic material for energy, growth, and reproduction.

5.9.2 SUSPENDED GROWTH SYSTEMS (AEROBIC SUSPENDED GROWTH

PROCESS): ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
Activated sludge is a form of a suspended growth system. This process is an aerobic, continuous (or
semicontinuous, fill-and-draw) method used for biological wastewater treatment. It includes
carbonaceous oxidation and nitrification (see Figure 5.5). The activated sludge process utilizes all or part

of the following:

FIGURE 5.5 Activated sludge process. MLSS, mixed liquor SS; F/M, food-to-microorganism ratio.

Dissolved and colloidal biodegradable organic substances

Unsettled suspended matter
 Mineral nutrients (e.g., phosphorus and nitrogen compounds)
Volatile organic materials
Other materials which can be sorbed on, or entrapped by, the activated sludge floc Oxygen is
provided to the activated sludge to

Supply needed oxygen for microbial oxidation and synthesis reactions (Vernick and Walker 1981).
Properly mix the contents of the aeration reactor.
Maintain microorganisms in suspension.

The activated sludge floc adsorbs suspended and colloidal solids on its surface and, to some extent,
soluble organic substances found in wastewater. Microbial activity transforms part of the available
organic matter into a reserve food, thus rapidly reducing the BOD. Growth and multiplication of the
aerobic microorganisms in the tank form an active biomass termed activated sludge. The activated sludge
and wastewater in the aeration unit is called a mixed liquor (American Water Works Association and
American Society of Civil Engineers 2012). The rate of removal of organic constituents depends upon the
remaining BOD and the concentration of the activated sludge. The mixed culture of microbial species
usually found in an activated sludge system includes viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and other organisms,
singly or jointly grouped. Generally, the microbes are contained in a fabric of organic debris, dead cells,
or other waste products. Factors that influence operation of the process include sensitivity of organisms to
nutrients, the wastewater composition, and other conditions (e.g., inorganic salt content, turbulence, pH,
temperature, presence of other competing microorganisms, etc.).

5.9.3 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS KINETICS

Kinetics of the activated sludge may be represented by the Monod equation for evaluation of the rate of
limiting substrate biological growth. The equation relates the growth rate of organisms to the growth-
limiting substrate concentration, as shown in the following equation:

(5.54)

(5.55)

where:
DR is the dilution rate
Ru is the recycling ratio, dimensionless
(s)max is the maximum growth rate of microorganisms, per day
Ks is the half-velocity constant (substrate concentration expressed in mg/L at half of the maximum
growth rate) s* is the growth-limiting substrate concentration in solution, mg/L

When the substrate concentration is low, compared to the half-velocity constant, Equation 5.54 may be
simplified into a first-order equation, as presented in the following equation:
 (5.56)

where:
s is the growth rate of microorganisms
(s)max is the maximum growth rate of microorganisms
Ks is the half-velocity constant
K is the constant

(5.57)

Example 5.10
1. Write a computer program to determine the growth rate of microorganisms (per day) using
Monod equation, given the incorporated variables.
2. A fully mixed continuous activated culture with partial feedback of cells is adopted for
wastewater treatment. The recycling ratio of the process is 2. Values of the half-velocity
constant and maximum growth rate of microorganisms are 1.5 mg/L and 1/h, respectively.
Evaluate the concentration of the growth-limiting substrate in the system for a dilution rate of
0.75/h.
3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify solution obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 5.10 (1), see the listing of Program 5.10.
a. Solution to Example 5.10 (2): Given: Ru = 2, DR = 0.75, Ks = 1.5, max = 1.
2.
b. Find s as DR/Ru = 0.75/2 = 0.375.
c. Find the concentration of growth-limiting substrate from the Monod equation as follows: 0.375
= 1 * s*/(1.5 + s*): therefore, s* = 0.9 mg/L.
3. Use the computer program written in (1) to verify computations attained in (2).

Listing of Program 5.10 (Chap5.10\Form1.vb): Determination of Growth

Rate of Microorganisms

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.10: Determination of Growth Rate of Microorganisms
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim DR, Ru, Kx, Umax As Double
Dim Ux, S As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.10: Growth Rate of
Microorganisms"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the dilution rate, DR (/h):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the recycling ratio, Ru:"
Label3.Text = "Enter half-velocity constant, Kx (mg/L):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the maximum growth rate, Umax (/h):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
DR = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Ru = Val(TextBox2.Text)
kx = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Umax = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Ux = DR / Ru
S = Ux * Kx / (Umax - Ux)
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label5.Text = "The growth limiting substrate conc. (mg/L): " +
FormatNumber(S, NumericUpDown1.Value) End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

The main factors affecting the activated sludge process include volume and sludge loading, sludge age,
sludge volume index (SVI), sludge density index (SDI), wastewater aeration time, wastewater flow and
quality, mixed liquor SS, dissolved oxygen in reactor, conditions of mixing and turbulence, wastewater
temperature, and wastewater solids content (Fair et al. 1966; Mara 1980; Vernick and Walker 1981;
James 1984; Peavy et al. 1985; Abdel-Magid 1986; Negulescu 1986; Berger 1987; Steel and McGhee
1991; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Peirce et al. 1997; Jonathan Ricketts et al. 2003; Jerry and
Nathanson 2007; Nemerow et al. 2009; Hammer and Hammer 2011; Abdel-Magid 2012; Howe et al.
2012; Metcalf and Eddy 2013).

5.9.4.1 Volume and Sludge Loadings

The volume and sludge loadings are given by the ratio of food to microorganisms, or F/M (also referred
to as sludge-loading rate, SLR, or substrate loading). The following equation defines the F/M ratio:

(5.58)

where:
F/M is the food-to-microorganism ratio, per day
Li is the influent BOD concentration, mg/L
Q is the wastewater flow, m3/s
MLVSS is the mixed liquor volatile suspended solids concentration, mg/L
V is the tank volume, m3
t is the tank retention time, d

Operation of an activated sludge unit at a high F/M ratio results in an incomplete metabolism of organic
matter, inadequate BOD removal, and a lowering of the settling rate. On the contrary, operation of the
process at a low F/M ratio increases the efficiency of organic matter removal, improves settleability of
the activated sludge, and augments BOD removal. The volumetric organic loading, VOL rate, is defined
by the following equation:
 (5.59)

where:
VOL is the volumetric organic loading rate
SLR is the sludge-loading rate, d

Table 5.8 outlines suitable values for sludge-loading rate for particular treatment systems.

TABLE 5.8
SLR for Certain Treatment Units
Unit Reasonable Value of SLR (day1 )
Conventional plants 0.30.35
Extended aeration 0.050.2
Step aeration 0.20.5

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2013; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater
Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1986; Peirce, J. J. et al. Environmental
Pollution and Control, 4th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford 1997.
SLR, sludge-loading rate.

5.9.4.2 Sludge Age, Mean Cell Residence Time, Solids Retention Time, or Cell Age
Sludge age is defined as the total sludge in the biological treatment process divided by the daily waste

sludge. This is presented as follows:

(5.60)

where:
SA is the sludge age, days
V is the volume of aeration tank, m3
MLVSS is the concentration of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids, mg/L
Qw is the waste sludge flow, m3/day
SS is the suspended solids in waste sludge, mg/L

The sludge age also is related to the reciprocal of the net microorganisms specific growth rate, as
depicted in the following equation:

(5.61)

where:
 SA is the sludge age, days
a is the cell yield coefficient, mg cell per mg substrate
F/M is the food-to-microorganisms ratio, day1
Eff is the efficiency of BOD removal
k is the microorganisms endogenous decay coefficient, day1

For a completely mixed process operating under steady-state conditions, the sludge age usually is
calculated by the relationship presented in the following equation:

(5.62)

where:
SA is the sludge age, days
V is the volume of aeration tank, m3
Qw is the waste sludge flow, m3/day
SSR is the suspended solids in recycle line, mg/L
Q is the influent volumetric flow rate, m3/s
SS is the suspended solids in aeration tank, mg/L
SSe is the suspended solids in final effluent, mg/L

Table 5.9 gives the value of the mean cell residence time for the various modifications of the activated
sludge process.

TABLE 5.9
Mean Cell Residence Time for Various Modifications of the Activated Sludge Process
Process (SA) (days)
Contact stabilization 515
Conventional activated sludge 515
Extended aeration 2030
High-rate aeration 510
Modified aeration 0.20.5
Step aeration 515

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2013; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater
Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan,1986.
SA, sludge age.
Example 5.11
1. Write a computer program to determine the detention time (h), the volumetric organic
loading rate (kg BOD/m3/day), and the sludge-loading ratio (kg BOD per kg MLVSS per
day), given the flow rate (m3/day), BOD of incoming waste (mg/L), the number of aeration
tanks (activated sludge units), and their dimensions (m). Design the program to determine the
sludge age for the activated sludge system, given the daily sludge wasted (kg/day).
2. Settling sewage flowing at a daily rate of 5150 m3 is introduced to an activated sludge plant.
The sewage has a 5-day BOD of 245 mg/L. The aeration unit is composed of two aeration
tanks each of dimensions: 3 m depth, 8 width, 40 m length, with an MLVSS concentration of
2100 mg/L.

a. Determine the aeration unit detention time.

b. Find the volumetric organic loading rate.
c. Compute the sludge-loading ratio of the aeration unit.
3. Determine the sludge age for the activated sludge system mentioned in (2), given that the
daily sludge wasted was 495 kg.
4. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations of (2) and (3).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.11 (1), see the listing of Program 5.11.
2. Solution to Example 5.11 (2):

a. Given: Q = 5150 m3/d, L1 = 245 mg/L, V for each tank = 3 * 8*40, MLVSS = 2100, number of
tanks = 2.
b. Determine the volume of the aeration unit = volume of each tank * number of tanks = 3 * 8 * 40
* 2 = 1920 m3.
c. Find the detention time: t = V/Q = 1920/5150 = 0.37 d = 8.9 h.
d. Compute the volumetric organic loading rate as follows: VOL = Q * Li/V = (5150 m3/day * 245
* 103 kg/m3)/1920 = 0.66 kg BOD/m3/day.
e. Determine the sludge-loading ratio, SLR, as follows: F/M = SLR = Li * Q/MLVSS * V = (245 *
103 kg/m3 * 5150 m3/day)/(2100 * 103 kg/m3 * 1920 m3) = 0.31 kg BOD/kg MLVSS/day.
3. Solution to Example 6.6 (3):

a. Given: Q = 5150 m3/day, Li = 245 mg/L, V for the plant = 1920 m3, MLVSS = 2100 mg/L, Qw *
SS = 495 kg/day.
b. Compute the SA as follows: SA = V * MLVSS/Qw * SS = 1920 * 2100 * 103/495 = 8.1 days.

Listing of Program 5.11 (Chap5.11\Form1.vb): Activated Sludge Process

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.11: Activated Sludge Processes
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim Q, N, Li, MLVSS As Double
Dim L(), D(), W() As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.11: Activated
Sludge Processes"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the flow rate, Q (m3/d):"
label2.text = "Enter the number of aeration tanks:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LCol", "Length (m)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("WCol", "Width (m)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("DCol", "Depth (m)")
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
label3.text = "Enter the 5-day BOD (mg/L):"
label4.text = "Enter the MLVSS concentration (mg/L):"
Button1.Text = "&calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(textbox1.text)
N = Val(textbox2.text)
li = Val(TextBox3.Text)
mlvss = Val(TextBox4.Text)
For i = 1 To N
L(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("LCol").Value)
D(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("DCol").Value)
W(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("WCol").Value)
Next
Dim V, t, VOL, SLR As Double
'determine total volume of units
V = 0.0!
For I = 1 To N
V = V + L(I) * W(I) * D(I)
Next I
'CONVERT TO KG/L
Li = Li / 1000
MLVSS = MLVSS / 1000
'DETENTION TIME IN HOURS
t = V / Q * 24
'VOLUMETRIC ORGANIC LOADING RATE
VOL = Q * Li / V
'SLUDGE LOADING RATIO
SLR = Li * Q / (MLVSS * V)
Dim s As String
s = "The detention time = " + FormatNumber(t, 2) + " h" + vbCrLf
s += "The volumetric organic loading rate = " + FormatNumber(VOL, 2) + " kg
BOD/m3/d" + vbCrLf
s += "The sludge loading ratio = " + FormatNumber(SLR, 2) + " Kg BOD/Kg
MLVSS/d"
MsgBox(s, vbOKOnly, "Program 6.6: Activated Sludge Processes")
Dim r = MsgBox("Do you want to compute the sludge age?", vbYesNo, "Prompt")


If r = vbYes Then
Dim DSL = InputBox("Enter the daily sludge wasted (kg):", "Enter DSL",
"0")
Dim SA = V * MLVSS / DSL
MsgBox("The sludge age for this daily sludge = " + FormatNumber(SA, 2) +
" days", vbOKOnly)
End If
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox2_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox2.TextChanged If N <> Val(TextBox2.Text)
Then
If Val(TextBox2.Text) <= 0 Then Exit Sub
N = Val(TextBox2.Text)
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(CInt(N))
ReDim L(N), D(N), W(N)
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.9.4.3 Effects of SVI (Mohlman Sludge Volume Index)

The SVI estimates the settleability of the activated sludge, and it monitors the performance and operation
of the aeration unit. It is also defined as the volume in milliliters occupied by 1 g of activated sludge
mixed liquor solids, dry weight, after settling for 30 min in a 1 L graduated cylinder. Equation 5.63
expresses mathematically the concept of the SVI:

(5.63)

where:
SVI is the sludge volume index, mL/g
Vs is the settled volume of sludge in a 1000 mL graduated cylinder in 30 min (mL/L or %) MLVSS is the mixed liquor volatile suspended solids,
mg/L

Table 5.10 gives SVI values relating to the activated sludge.

TABLE 5.10
Activated Sludge Settleability according to SVI
Value (mL/g) Criteria
<40 Excellent settling properties
4075 Good settling properties
76120 Fair settling properties
121200 Poor settling properties
>200 Bulking sludge

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2013; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater
Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1986; Ganczarczyk, J. J., Activated Sludge
Process: Theory and Practices, Pollution Engineering and Technology Series No. 23, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1983.
SVI, sludge volume index.

5.9.4.4 SDI or Donaldson Index

SDI is the reciprocal of the SVI multiplied by 100 as given by the following equation:

(5.64)

where:
SDI is the sludge density index, g/mL
SVI is the sludge volume index, mL/g
 SDI varies from around 2 for a good sludge to about 0.3 for a poor sludge, that is, 0.3 < SDI < 2.

Example 5.12
Write a computer program to compute the SVI (mL/g) and the SDI (g/mL) of wastewater in a step aeration plant, given the concentration
of the mixed liquor suspended solids as MLSS (mg/L) and the volume of sludge settled after 30 min in a 1 L graduated cylinder, Vs
(mL).
In a step aeration plant, the concentration of the MLSS was 2400 mg/L. A sample of the wastewater was withdrawn for a SVI test. The
volume of sludge settled after 0.5 min in a 1 L graduated cylinder was found to be 285 mL. Compute the SVI of the wastewater and
the SDI.
Use the computer program of section (1) to verify the results obtained by manually solving (2).

Solution
For solution to Example 5.12 (1), see the listing of Program 5.12.
Solution to Example 5.12 (2):
Given: Vs = 285 mL, MLVSS = 2400 mg/L.
Compute the sludge volume index of the sample as follows: SVI = Vs * 1000/MLVSS = 285 * 1000/2400 = 119 mL/g.
From Table 5.10, it can be concluded that this SVI value signifies fair settling properties.
Determine the SDI as follows: SDI = 100/SVI = 100/119 = 0.84.
Table 5.11 gives the general design criteria of the conventional activated sludge process.

TABLE 5.11
Design Criteria for Conventional Activated Sludge
Item Value
MLSS (mg/L) 15003000
Volumetric organic loading (g BOD per m3 per day) 500700
Aeration detention time (h) (based on average daily flow) 48
F/M ratio (g BOD per g MLSS per d) 0.10.6
Sludge retention time (d) 515
Sludge age (days) 34
Recycling ratio 0.250.5
Sludge yield index (kg solids per kg BOD removed) 0.70.9
BOS5 removal (%) 8595
Optimum pH for aerobic bacterial growth 6.57.5
Depth of aeration tanks (m) 3

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2013; Barnes, D. et al. Water and Wastewater Engineering
Systems, Pitman Publishing, Marshfield, MA, 1981; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering, National
Research Council, Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1986; Ganczarczyk, J. J., Activated Sludge Process: Theory and
Practices, Pollution Engineering and Technology Series No. 23, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1983; Vernick, A. S., and Walker, F. C.,
Handbook of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Pollution Engineering and Technology Series No. 19, Marcel Dekker, New York,
1981.
MLSS, mixed liquor suspended solids; BOD, biological oxygen demand; F/M, food-to-microorganism ratio.

Listing of Program 5.12 (Chap5.12\Form1.vb): Sludge Volume Index

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.12: Sludge Volume Index
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim MLVSS, Vx As Double
Dim SVI, SDI As Double
Dim Comment = ""
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.12: Sludge Volume
Index"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "The MLVSS (mg/L):"
Label2.Text = "Volume of sludge settling in 1/2 h, Vs (mL):"
Button1.Text = "&calculate"
Label3.Text = ""
Label4.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
MLVSS = Val(textbox1.text)
Vx = Val(textbox2.text)
SVI = Vx * 1000 / MLVSS
SDI = 100 / SVI
If SVI <= 40 Then Comment = "Excellent settling properties"
If SVI > 40 And SVI <= 75 Then Comment = "Good settling properties"
If SVI > 75 And SVI <= 120 Then Comment = "Fair settling properties"
If SVI > 120 And SVI <= 200 Then Comment = "Poor settling properties"
If SVI > 200 Then Comment = "Bulking sludge"
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label3.Text = "The sludge volume index = " + FormatNumber(SVI,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " " + Comment Label3.Text += vbCrLf + "The sludge
density index = " + FormatNumber(SDI, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.10 ATTACHED GROWTH TREATMENT PROCESSES: TRICKLING FILTER

5.10.1 INTRODUCTION
An attached growth culture is used to treat wastewater that comes in contact with microorganisms
attached to surfaces of the media of the reactors. The trickling filtration process is a form of an attached
growth system. In this process, settled wastewater is brought in contact with microorganisms attached to
the filter bed media (see Figure 5.6). Wastewater is sprayed over a fixed media composed of a bed often
packed with rocks or plastic structures. Thus, biological slimes develop and coat the filter surface area.
These slimes provide a film consisting of heterotrophic organisms, facultative bacteria, protozoa, fungi,
algae, rotifers, sludge worms, insect larvae, and snails. As the wastewater trickles over the media,
microbes in the slime layer extract organic and inorganic matter from the liquid film. Suspended and
colloidal particles are retained on the surfaces to be further converted to soluble products. Aerobic
reactions are sustained by oxygen from the gas phase in the pores of the media through the liquid film to
the slime layer. The digested waste products diffuse outward with the water flow or air currents through
the voids in the filter medium. With time, the biological film increases in thickness. This increase in film
thickness is accompanied by a lowering of the content of oxygen and food. This condition eventually leads
to anaerobic and endogenous metabolism at the slime-media interface, with increased detachment of
organisms from the media. The shearing action of the flowing wastewater across the file then detaches
and washes away the slime from the media. This process is referred to as filter sloughing off. Sloughing
off develops because the microorganisms grow and multiply, and the slime layer gets thicker until it is
washed from the media by the incoming wastewater.

FIGURE 5.6 Schematic diagram of a trickling filter process.

Trickling filters are classified based on the hydraulic loading rate (shear velocities) and organic
loading rate (metabolism in slime layer). As such, trickling filters are grouped into low-rate and high-rate
filters (see Figure 5.7). Low-rate filters are rather simple, having low hydraulic loading rates, and do not
incorporate the recycling of wastewater effluent. A constant hydraulic loading is maintained in low-rate
filters by a dosing siphon or by a suction level-controlled pump. However, high-rate filters have a high
hydraulic loading maintained by recirculating part of the effluent from the filter or part of the final
effluent.

FIGURE 5.7 (a) High- and (b) low-rate trickling filters.

5.10.2 RECIRCULATION TO THE TRICKLING FILTER

Recirculation of a portion of the treated effluent to the trickling filter is performed to

Increase biological solids in the system.

Provide continuous seeding with recirculated sloughed-off solids.
Maintain uniform hydraulic load through filter.
Attain continuous rotation of the distribution arm.
Establish uniform organic load.
Dilute influent for production of better quality effluent.
Decrease thickness of biological slime layer.
Improve removal efficiency of pollutants.

The recirculation ratio (Ru) lies between a value of 50% and 1000% of the raw wastewater flow.
Usually, the recirculation ratio is between 50% and 300% (Steel and McGhee 1991).

5.10.3 EFFICIENCY OF A TRICKLING FILTER (BOD REMOVAL

EFFICIENCY)
Computations of efficiency of a trickling filter are generally based on mathematical models and empirical
1.formulae, which are described as follows: Mathematical models: Mathematical models usually assume
the existence of uniform biological layer and even distribution of load within the trickling filter bed
media. From an operational viewpoint, mathematical models are impractical for design purposes.
2. Empirical formulae: Empirical formulae are based on operational data collected from existing
 treatment plants. The collected data were analyzed to produce a design procedure.

Some of the most important formulae used in the design of trickling filters include the National
Research Council (NRC), Velz, Rankin, and Rumpf formulae.

5.10.3.1 NRC Formula

The NRC formula is based on wastewater treatment plants in U.S. military installations. Assumptions
incorporated in the formula are as follows: Oxygen is the rate-limiting factor with a soluble BOD in
excess of 40 mg/L.
Wastewater is not extremely dilute.
The trickling filter is followed by a final settling tank or a secondary clarifier.
Trickling filters treat settled domestic wastewater at a temperature of 20C (temperatures different
from this value have to be corrected for).
The NRC formula includes the effect of secondary clarifiers.
The maximum practical rate of recirculation predicted through the formula is 800%.

Equation 5.65 presents the NRC formula for a first-stage trickling filter:

(5.65)

where:
Eff1 is the efficiency of the first-stage trickling filter, %
Li is the influent BOD, mg/L
Le is the effluent BOD from the first stage, mg/L
W1 is the BOD load of the first-stage filter, kg/day

(5.66)

where:
Q is the flow of wastewater, m3/day
V1 is the volume of first-stage filter media, m3
F1 is the first-stage recirculation factor

(5.67)

(5.68)
 Equation 5.69 gives the NRC equation for a second-stage trickling filter:

(5.69)

where:
Eff2 is the efficiency of the second-stage trickling filter, %
W2 is the BOD load of the second-stage filter = Q*Li = BODload, kg/day V2 is the volume of the second-
stage filter, m3
F2 is the second-stage recirculation factor
Li2 is the influent BOD to the second-stage filter, mg/L
Le2 is the effluent BOD of the second-stage filter, mg/L

5.10.3.2 Velz Formula

The Velz formula is valid for BOD removals of 90%. The formula can be expressed as indicated in the
following equation:

(5.70)

where:
Li is the influent BOD, mg/L
Le is the effluent BOD, mg/L
k is the experimental coefficient
= 0.49 for high-rate filters
= 0.57 for low-rate filters
h is the filter depth, m
Ru is the recirculated flow/wastewater flow

5.10.3.3 Rankin Formula

The Rankin formula (Equation 5.71) may be used for design of a single-stage filter:
 (5.71)

where:
Le is the BOD of the settled filter effluent, mg/L
Li is the BOD of the settled sewage, mg/L
Ru is the recirculation ratio

The Rankin formula applies to all plants treating sewage that have presedimentation, high-rate
filtration, and final settling tanks. This applies when the BOD does not exceed the value of 0.7 kg/m3/day
and where recirculation, if applied, maintains a dosing rate between 93 and 244 * 103/ha/day (OConnor
and Dobbins 1956).

5.10.3.4 Rumpf Formula

The Rumpf equation can be used to evaluate a trickling filters efficiency, as presented in the following
equation:

(5.72)

where:
E is the trickling filter efficiency, %
W is the organic loading of the trickling filter, g BOD per day
V is the volume of the filter media, m3

5.10.3.5 Eckenfelder Equation

Eckenfelder equation is depicted as follows:

(5.73)

where:
Li is the influent BOD including return flow, mg/L
Le is the nonsettled BOD of flow to filter, mg/L
h is the filter depth, m
Q is the influent flow, mL/day
As is the area, ha

5.10.3.6 Galler and Gotaas Equation

An equation has been developed to design filter based on multiple regression analysis for data adopted
from existing stations taking in to consideration return flow, hydraulic load, filter depth, and wastewater
temperature as represented in the following equation:

(5.74)

where:
Le is the nonsettling BOD for effluent from filter, mg/L
K is the constant

(5.75)

Qi is the inflow, mL/day

Li is the influent BOD to filter, mg/L
Qr is the recirculation or return flow, mL/day
r is the ratio of recirculation (maximum value is 4:1)
h is the filter depth, m
(d/2) is the radius of filter, m
T is the wastewater temperature, C

5.10.4 OVERALL TREATMENT PLANT EFFICIENCY

Many factors affect the operation and performance of a trickling filter, including organic loading,
hydraulic flow rate, wastewater characteristics, rate of diffusability of food and air to the biological
slime layer, temperature, and so on. The overall treatment plant efficiency of a system comprising a two-
stage filter can be determined by using the following equation (Viessman et al. 2008; Hammer and
Hammer 2011):

(5.76)

where:
Effover is the overall treatment plant efficiency, %
Effsed is the percentage of BOD removed in primary settling (usually is equal to 35%)
Eff1 is the BOD efficiency of the first-stage filter and intermediate clarifier corrected for the operating
temperature, %
Eff2 is the BOD efficiency of the second-stage filter and final clarifier corrected for the operating
temperature, %

Temperature correction can be carried out as shown by the following equation:

 (5.77)

where:
EffT is the efficiency at temperature, T%
Eff20 is the efficiency at a temperature of 20C, %
T is the temperature, C
Tc is the temperature correction factor, usually taken as equal to 1.035

Example 5.13
1. Write a computer program to compute the trickling filter efficiency using different formulae
(NRC, Velz, Rumpf, and Rankin), given the population number, the rate of population
growth, the clarifier efficiency, the rate of wastewater flow to plant (m3/s), 5-day BOD
(mg/L), the recirculation ratio, and the filter diameter (m). Design the program so that the
trickling filters determine the volume, area, diameter, or depth, and efficiency can be
estimated at any temperature.
2. A treatment work includes primary sedimentation and trickling filtration to treat wastewater
of 8,500 inhabitants. The sedimentation unit has an efficiency of 35%. The wastewater flows
at a rate of 325 L/c/day with a 5-day BOD of 310 mg/L. The trickling filter has the following
characteristics: removal efficiency = 82%, recirculation ratio = 3:1, and filter depth = 2.5 m.
Determine the trickling filter diameter using the NRC formula.
3. Use the computer program of (1) to confirm computations in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.13 (1), see the listing of Program 5.13.
2. Solution to Example 5.13 (2):

a. Given: POP = 8500, efficiency of sedimentation = 35%, q = 325 L/c/day, Li = 310 mg/L,
efficiency of filter = 82%, Ru = 3/l, h = 2.5 m.
b. Find the recirculation factor as follows: F = (1 + Ru)/(1 + 0.1*Ru)2 = (1 + 3)/(1 + 0.1 * 3)2 =
2.37.
c. Find the wastewater flow: Q = q * POP = 325 * 103 * 8500 = 2762.5 m3/day.
d. Find the BOD concentration emerging from the primary sedimentation and entering the trickling
filter as follows: Li = BODi * (1 Effclarifier) = 310 * (1 0.35) = 201.5 mg/L.
e. Determine the influent BOD load to the filter as follows: W = Q * Li = 2762.5 * 201.5 * 103 =
556.6 kg/day.
f. Find the volume of the filter using the NRC efficiency equation as follows: Eff = 100/[1 +
0.44(W/V * F)0.5] = 82 = 100/[1 + 0.44(556.6/V * 2.37)0.5]. This yields V = 944 m3.
g. Compute the surface area as follows: A = V/h = 944/2.5 = 377.6 m2.
h. Find the diameter of the filter as follows: D = (4 * A/)0.5 = (4 * 377.6/)0.5 = 22 m.

Listing of Program 5.13 (Chap5.13\Form1.vb): Trickling Filter Efficiency

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.13: Calculation of Trickling Filter Efficiency
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim Li, Le, Q, Qr, Ru, V, Eff, W, F1 As Double
Dim K, h, A, POP, rate, BOD5, Qc, Effr As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.13: Trickling
Filter Efficiency"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "To compute Trickling Filter Efficiency using:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("National Research Council formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Velz formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Rankin formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Rumpf formula")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Design a filter using NRC formula")
ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
RadioButton1.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton2.Text = "No"
RadioButton2.Checked = True
Label11.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'National Research Council formula
Label2.Text = "Enter the influent BOD, Li (mg/L):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the effluent BOD, Le (mg/L) (0 if unknown):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the wastewater flow, Q (m3/day):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the recirculation ratio, Ru:"
Label6.Text = "Enter the volume of filter, V (m3):"
RadioButton1.Visible = False
RadioButton2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
TextBox6.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
TextBox8.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False

Case 1
'Velz formula
Label2.Text = "Enter the influent BOD, Li (mg/L):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the recirculated flow, Ru (m3/day):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the filter depth, h (m):"
Label7.Text = "Is it a high-rate filter?"
Label7.Visible = True
RadioButton1.Visible = True
RadioButton2.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
TextBox8.Visible = False
Case 2
'Rankin formula
Label2.Text = "Enter the influent BOD, Li (mg/L):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the recirculated flow, Ru (m3/day):"
RadioButton1.Visible = False
RadioButton2.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
TextBox8.Visible = False
Case 3
'Rumpf formula
Label2.Text = "Enter the organic load of filter, W (g BOD/day):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the volume of the filter, V (m3):"
RadioButton1.Visible = False
RadioButton2.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = False
Label9.Visible = False
Label10.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
TextBox6.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
TextBox8.Visible = False


Case 4
Label2.Text = "Enter the population number:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the rate of population growth, 0 if unknown:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the 5-day BOD, mg/L:"
Label5.Text = "Enter the recirculation ratio Ru:"
Label6.Text = "Enter the flow rate of wastewater, Q (m3/c/day):"
Label8.Text = "Enter the efficiency of sedimentation (%):"
Label9.Text = "Enter the removal efficiency (%):"
Label10.Text = "Enter the filter depth, h (m):"
RadioButton1.Visible = False
RadioButton2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
TextBox6.Visible = True
TextBox7.Visible = True
TextBox8.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = False
Label8.Visible = True
Label9.Visible = True
Label10.Visible = True
End Select
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
'National Research Council formula
Case 0
Li = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Le = Val(TextBox2.Text)
If Le = 0 Then
Q = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Ru = Val(TextBox4.Text)
V = Val(TextBox5.Text)
W = Q * Li
F1 = (1 + Ru) / ((1 + 0.1 * Ru) ^ 2)
Eff = 100 / (1 + 0.44 * (W / (V * F1)) ^ 0.5)
Else
Eff = 100 * (Li - Le) / Li
End If
Case 1
'Velz formula
Li = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Ru = Val(TextBox2.Text)
'is it a high rate filter?
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
K = 0.49
Else : K = 0.57
End If
h = Val(TextBox3.Text)
A = (1 + Ru) * Exp(K * h)
Le = Li / (A - Ru)
Eff = 100 * (Li - Le) / Li
Case 2
'Rankin formula
Li = Val(TextBox1.Text)

Ru = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Le = Li / (3 + (2 * Ru))
Eff = 100 * (Li - Le) / Li
Case 3
'Rumpf formula
W = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Eff = 93 - (0.017 * W / V)
Case 4
POP = Val(TextBox1.Text)
rate = Val(TextBox2.Text)
BOD5 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Ru = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Qc = Val(TextBox5.Text) / 1000
Eff = Val(TextBox6.Text)
Effr = Val(TextBox7.Text)
h = Val(TextBox8.Text)
If Eff < 1 Then Eff = Eff * 100
If Effr < 1 Then Effr = Effr * 100
'recirculation factor
Dim F = (1 + Ru) / (1 + 0.1 * Ru) ^ 2
'wastewater flow
Q = Qc * POP
'BOD concentration entering trickling filter
Li = BOD5 * (1 - (Eff / 100))
'influent BOD load to the filter
W = Q * Li / 1000
'volume of filter by NCR formula
V = W / (F * ((100 / Effr - 1) / 0.44) ^ 2)
'surface area
A = V / h
'diameter of filter
Dim D = (4 * A / PI) ^ 0.5
Label11.Text = "The diameter of the filter (m) = " + FormatNumber(D, 2)
End Select
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex <> 4 Then
Label11.Text = "Efficiency = " + FormatNumber(Eff, 2) + " %"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.10.5 TRICKLING FILTER CLARIFIER

Final or secondary clarifiers are required subsequent to trickling filtration in order to collect the
relatively large particles of the sloughed off biological slime solids or humus. In the design of secondary
clarifiers, the following parameters need to be considered (Steel and McGhee 1991): Neither thickening
nor hindered settling is assumed to develop in the secondary clarifier.
Settling design criteria are based upon the particle size and density.
Surface overflow rate (vs) lies between 25 and 33 m/day at average flow rates, not to exceed the
value of 50 m/day at peak flow rates.
Weir loading rates are in the range of 120370 m3/day/m of the weir length at peak flow rate.

Table 5.12 shows the typical design information for trickling filter.

TABLE 5.12
Typical Design Information for Trickling Filter
Parameter Low-Rate Filter High-Rate Filter Roughing Filter
Organic loading 0.070.32 0.321.0 0.86.0
(kg/m3 /day)
Hydraulic loading 14 1040 30200
(m3 /m2 /day)
Depth (m) 1.53(2) 12(2) 4.512
Recirculation ratio 0 0.53 Varies
Filter media Crushed stone, gravel, slag, synthetic material, Crushed stone slag, gravel, rock, Synthetic materials, red wood, and
and so on and so on so on
Power requirement 24 610 1020
(kW/1000 m3 )
Sloughing Intermittent Continuous Continuous
Dosing intervals Not greater than 5 min (generally intermittent) Not greater than 15 s (Continuous) Continuous
Filter flies Many Few, larvae are washed away

5.11 COMBINED SUSPENDED AND ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEMS WSP,

LAGOON, OR OXIDATION POND

5.11.1 INTRODUCTION
WSPs are shallow earthen basins with a controlled shape or a natural depression that receives
wastewater and retains it so that biological processes can proceed at acceptable levels. They can be
classified according to the type of biological activity taking place, such as anaerobic, facultative, or
aerobic.
Anaerobic WSPs are deep ponds devoid of oxygen except for a relatively thin surface layer. This type
of pond receives wastewater with a high organic load or wastewater with a high level of solids (i.e., not
presettled in a settling unit operation such as a septic tank). The objectives of an anaerobic WSP include
settling of solids, partial treatment of wastewater, and discharge of the effluent to a facultative pond. The
main biological action here is achieved by anaerobic organisms. Usually, anaerobic ponds are used in
series with facultative (or aerobicanaerobic) ponds to provide complete treatment.
In facultative WSPs, aerobic conditions prevail in the upper surface mainly by using oxygen produced
by algal organisms and to a lesser extent oxygen from the atmosphere. Anaerobic conditions develop at
the bottom of the pond due to stagnant conditions. The depth of the aerobic and anaerobic zones is a
function of mixing conditions, wind action, sunlight penetration, and the hours of daylight. Algae and
bacteria are responsible for biodegradation of organic matter in the aerobic layers of the pond. Bacteria
use oxygen for oxidation of waste organics to synthesize new cells and produce stable end products (such
as carbon dioxide, nitrates, and phosphates). These inorganic compounds are used by algae, in the
presence of sunlight, to yield new cells with end products such as oxygen. The oxygen produced is then
used by the bacteria. This mutual benefit between bacteria and algae is termed symbiotic relationship.
The biological solids in the aerobic zone, together with heavy solids, settle to the anaerobic zone in the
pond. These solids provide the needed food for the benthic anaerobic organisms. Solids in the anaerobic
zone are then converted to organic acids and gases yet to be released in a soluble form to organisms in the
aerobic zone of the pond. A facultative pond receives wastewater from a sewer system or from an
anaerobic pond. Effluent is then retained for some days, and the treated wastewater is discharged to a
polishing pond. Figure 5.8 illustrates a schematic diagram of a facultative WSP.

FIGURE 5.8 Schematic diagram of a facultative WSP.

Tertiary (maturation) WSPs receive treated wastewater from facultative ponds and retain it for a
period of time to improve its quality under aerobic conditions.
The effluent from a maturation pond can be used for landscape or crop irrigation. Maturation ponds can
be used to grow fish and aquatic birds. Aerobic ponds are used primarily for the treatment of soluble
organic wastes and effluents from wastewater treatment plants.
WSP can be operated in series or in parallel or can function on an individual basis. In the series
arrangement of ponds, the wastewater or effluent is introduced from one pond to the next. Each pond in
series discharges an effluent of a better quality than the one preceding it. Thus, this arrangement helps in
treating unsettled raw sewage and improves the quality of the final effluent. In a parallel arrangement,
ponds are placed adjacent to each other. The ponds simultaneously receive effluent from the same source
and concurrently discharge the treated sewage to the same outlet or discharge point. The quality of the
discharge effluent from parallel ponds is comparable. The advantage of such an arrangement is that during
maintenance and repair programs, one pond can remain in operation.
An individual WSP system of ponds can be used, but a series of ponds are preferred. The series system
of ponds can be selected for different reasons, such as obtaining higher treatment level, growing fish, or
cleaning ponds without shutting off the collecting sewer system.

5.11.2 WSP DESIGN

The design of a WSP is based on such various interrelated parameters as follows:

1. Site selection: Gravity flow is practical in order to minimize pumping. Pumping of wastewater
will increase the cost, use energy, and also require added operational and maintenance efforts.
2. Soil: The soil needs to be fairly impermeable, not sandy or gravely (to avoid seepage and
groundwater contamination), and must be easy to excavate. Adequate soil provides material for
constructing the embankments.
3. Drainage: Good drainage is required to provide for the discharge of the treated wastewater
from the pond.
4. Size: The size provided for a WSP must be large enough to accommodate the anticipated flows.
5. Layout: Ponds must be located at an appropriate distance from the neighboring houses and
dwellings. The distance between the pond site and the nearest dwelling must be in excess of 200
m. The greater the distance between the ponds and the community, the better the situation.
6. Wind direction: Ponds must be located in a downwind direction from a community to avoid
airborne pollution problems.

In the design of WSP, the following parameters can be used:

5.11.2.1 General
The expected daily flow of wastewater into the WSP is reported as Q, L/day.
The average annual water temperature in the WSP is reported as T, C.
The organic loading rate of the wastewater effluent is given as OL, g/L.
The minimum required area of WSP can then be calculated from the relationship given in the
following equation:

(5.78)

where:
A is the minimum required area of WSP, m2
OL is the organic loading rate of the effluent, g/L
Q is the daily flow of sewage into the WAP, L/day

(5.79)

T is the average annual water temperature, C

 For a rectangular WSP, the dimensional relationship of the following equation can be used:

(5.80)

where:
l is the length of the pond, m
B is the width of the pond, m
The depth of a WSP usually lies between 1 and 3 m, depending on the type and volume of
wastewater, climatic conditions, and WSP classification.

5.11.2.2 Completely Mixed Conditions

Assuming complete mixing conditions without solid recycling (i.e., a facultative pond), the
relationship of the mass balance between the BOD entering and that leaving a WSP is given by the
following equation:

(5.81)

where:
Q is the wastewater flow rate to the pond, m3/s
Li is the influent BOD, mg/L
Le is the effluent BOD, mg/L
V is the volume, m3
kp is the removal rate constant for WSP, day1
The mathematical relationship for a single WSP may be derived upon rearrangement of Equation
6.41, as presented in the following equation:

(5.82)

where:
Le is the effluent BOD, mg/L
Li is the influent BOD, mg/L
Kp is the removal rate constant for WSP, day1
V is the volume, m3
Q is the wastewater flow rate to the pond, m3/s
t is the detention time, days
For more than one WSP arranged in series, the effluent of one pond becomes influent to the next.
Thus, a substrate balance written across a series of N ponds yields the following equation:
 (5.83)

where:
Le is the effluent BOD, mg/L
Li is the influent BOD, mg/L
t is the retention time, days
kp is the removal rate constant for WSP, day1
N is the number of ponds

The variation of the removal rate constant with the temperature can be calculated by the following
equation:

(5.84)

where:
(kp)T is the removal rate constant for WSP at temperature T, day1
(kp)20 is the removal rate constant for WSP at a temperature of 20C, day1. (It relates to degradability
of waste organics, temperature, and completeness of aeration mixing. It ranges between 0.3 and 1 per day
to base e and at 20C.) (Hammer and Hammer 2011) Tc is the temperature constant (a function of
biodegradability, ranging from 1.03 to 1.12, usually taken equal to 1.035) n is the number of WSP
The value of the detention time can be found from the relationship shown in the following equation:

(5.85)

where:
V is the volume of the pond, m3
Q is the rate of wastewater flow, m3/s
The depth of the WSP may be assumed, and the surface area may be determined from the following
equation:

(5.86)

where:
A is the area of WSP, m2
h is the depth of WSP, m

Example 5.14
 1. Write a computer program for the design of a WSP given the 5-day BOD of wastewater
(mg/L), the flow rate (m3/s), the lowest temperature (C), the removal rate constant for the
pond (d1), at any temperature (C), the temperature correction factor, the effluent 5-day
BOD from the pond (mg/L), and the depth of pond (m).
2. Wastewater with a 5-day BOD of 200 mg/L and flowing at a rate of 1.6 m3/min is to be
a. treated in a WSP. Determine the surface area of the pond, given the following data: Lowest
temperature = 23C
b. Removal rate constant for the pond = 0.25/day at 20C, temperature correction factor = 1.05
c. Effluent 5-day BOD from the pond = 25 mg/L
d. Depth of pond = 1.4 m
3. Use the program established in (1) to verify computations obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.14 (1), see the listing of Program 5.14.
2. Solution to Example 5.14 (2):

a. Given: Q = 1.6 m3/min, Li = 200 mg/L, Le = 25 mg/L, (kp)20 = 0.25/day, h = 1.4 m, Tmin = 23C,
Tc = 1.05.
b. Find the removal rate constant for the pond at the lowest temperature of 25C as follows: (kp)25
= (kp)20(1.05)(T20) = 0.25(1.05)(2320) = 0.29/day.
c. Find the detention time of the pond as follows: Le/Li = 1/(1 + kp * t). Use equation to find
detention time: 25/200 = 1/(1 + 0.29 * t). This yields detention time of t = 24.1875 day.
d. Compute the volume of the WSP as follows: V = t * Q = 24.1875 * 1.6 * 60 * 24 = 55727.9 m3.
e. Determine the surface area of the pond as follows: A = V/h = 55727.9/1.4 = 39805 m2.

Listing of Program 5.14 (Chap5.14\Form1.vb): Design of a Waste

Stabilization Pond

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.14: Design of a Waste Stabilization Pond
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim Q, Li, Tmin, Kp, Tc, Lo, h As Double
Dim A As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.14: Design of a
Waste Stabilization Pond"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
label1.text = "Enter the flow rate, Q (m3/min):"
label2.text = "Enter the 5-day BOD (mg/L):"
label3.text = "Enter the lowest temperature, T (degree C):"
label4.text = "Enter the removal rate constant for the pond (/day):"
label5.text = "Enter the temperature correction factor:"
label6.text = "Enter the effluent 5-day BOD, (mg/L):"
label7.text = "Enter the depth of the pond, d (m):"
button1.text = "&Calculate"
Label8.Text = ""
Label9.Text = "Decimal places:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateresults()
Q = Val(textbox1.text)
Li = Val(textbox2.text)
Tmin = Val(textbox3.text)
Kp = Val(textbox4.text)
Tc = Val(textbox5.text)
Lo = Val(textbox6.text)
h = Val(textbox7.text)
Dim Kpt, dt, V As Double
'removal rate constant at T
Kpt = Kp * Tc ^ (Tmin - 20)
'detention time
dt = (Li / Lo - 1) / Kpt
'volume of stabilization pond

V = dt * Q * 60 * 24
'surface area of the pond
A = V / h
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label8.Text = "The required surface area of the pond (m2) = " +
FormatNumber(A, NumericUpDown1.Value) End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateresults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.11.2.3 Maturation WSP

A maturation WSP is a polishing pond that enables the production of an effluent with improved
bacteriological quality. The following points provide a summary of the most important relationships in
connection with maturation ponds: The rate of die-off of fecal organisms in a single maturation pond can
be estimated by using the following equation:

(5.87)

where:
Ne is the effluent bacterial number, the number of bacteria per 100 mL
Ni is the influent bacterial number, the number of bacteria per 100 mL
k is the bacterial die-off rate, day1
t is the retention time, days

The rate of die-off of fecal organisms in a multicelled maturation WSP can be estimated by the
following equation:

(5.88)

where N is the number of WSPs in series.

WSPs can be round, square, or rectangular in shape.

The detention time of the maturation pond may be determined from the relationship between
volume and flow as presented in the following equation:

(5.89)

or

For which the area, A, can be calculated.

Example 5.15
 1. Write a computer program to find the retention time and volume of a pond required to reduce
the bacterial number by any percentage (a) with a bacterial die-off rate of k (per day), given
the rate of wastewater flow to the pond as Q (m3/day).
2. A polishing pond reduces the bacterial number by 99% with a bacterial die-off rate of
0.5/day. Wastewater is introduced to the pond at the rate of 20 m3/day. Find the necessary
retention time and the volume of the pond.
3. Use the program established in (1) to verify computations obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.15 (1), see the listing of Program 5.15.
2. Solution to Example 5.15 (2):

a. Given: k is the 0.5/day, Ne/Ni = (10099)/100 = 0.01, Q = 20 m3/day.

b. Find the detention time of the pond as follows: Ne/Ni = 1/(1 + k * t) = 0.01 = 1/(1 + 0.5 * t).
This yields t = 198 days.
c. Determine the volume of the pond as follows: V = t * Q = 198 * 20 = 3960 m3.
Table 5.13 gives the typical design information for WSPs.

TABLE 5.13
Design Information for WSPs
Anaerobic Facultative Aerobic
Influent Sewage with high organic load Sewage from a sewerage system or anaerobic Sewage from facultative ponds
and high degree of solids pond
Treatment Partial
Disposal of To facultative pond Maturation pond Agricultural irrigation, fish farming, and
effluent aquatic birds
Depth (m) 24 11.5 1
Detention time 820 20180 510
(days)
Main biological Organisms that do not require Anaerobic and aerobic Aerobic organisms
action DO for feeding and
reproduction
Operation Parallel or series connection At least three ponds in series, parallel useful for One or more, series or parallel
large ponds
Color Grayish black Green or brownish green Green
Frequency of 212 820 Probably never
sludge removal
(years)
Optimum 30 20 20
temperature (C)
Oxygen 0.71.4 times removed BOD
requirement
pH 6.87.2 6.59.0 6.58.0
Chemicals needed Nutrients when there is a Nutrients when there is a deficiency; no other
deficiency; no other chemicals chemicals
Expected Odors, large land requirements, Odors when loading is high, groundwater Reduction in problems associated with
problems groundwater pollution pollution, reduction in biological activity in cold biological activity under cold weather
climates conditions

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2013; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater
Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1986; Vernick, A. S., and Walker, F. C.,
Handbook of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Pollution Engineering and Technology Series No. 19, Marcel Dekker, New York,
 1981.

Listing of Program 5.15 (Chap5.15\Form1.vb): Retention Time and Volume

of a Pond

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.15: Retention Time and Volume of a Pond
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Const G = 9.81
Dim Q, k, kil, rat, t, V As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.15: Retention Time
and Volume of a Pond"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label4.AutoSize = False
Label4.Height = 52
Label4.Width = 372
Label4.Text = ""
Label1.Text = "Enter flow rate, Q (m3/day):"
Label2.Text = "Enter bacterial die away rate, k (/day):"
Label3.Text = "Enter bacterial number reduction (%):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label5.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Q = Val(TextBox1.Text)
k = Val(TextBox2.Text)
kil = Val(TextBox3.Text)
If kil < 1 Then kil *= 100
rat = (100 - kil) / 100
'detention time
t = (1 / rat - 1) / k
'volume of pond
V = t * Q
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label4.Text = "The detention time of the pond (days): " + FormatNumber(t,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + vbCrLf Label4.Text += "The volume of the pond (m3): "
+ FormatNumber(V, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.12 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

5.12.1 SLUDGE DIGESTION

Sludge digestion is the controlled decomposition of organic matter present in sludges. It facilitates
volume reduction, conversion of solids to inert compounds, and removal of pathogenic microorganisms.
The digestion process may be aerobic or anaerobic.
The aerobic process used to treat waste-activated humus or primary sludges, or a mixture thereof, in an
open tank can be regarded as a modification of the activated sludge process (Vernick and Walker 1981;
Smith and Scott 2002). The dominating reaction in aerobic digestion is endogenous respiration. The main
advantages of aerobic digestion include reduction in odor and biodegradable material, improvement of
the dewatering process, and reduction in the level of pathogenic microorganisms.
Anaerobic digestion is a fermentation process of sewage sludge in which facultative and anaerobic
bacteria break down organic matter primarily into the gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. The
process is carried down by acidic bacteria and methanogenic bacteria, respectively (Vernick and Walker
1981; Smith and Scott 2002). The anaerobic sludge digestion process is affected by many interrelated
factors such as pH, temperature, nutrients present, toxic substances, volatile acids, ammonia, type and
characteristics of decomposed materials, shock loads, and mixing conditions (Rowe and Abdel-Magid
1995). Acid formers convert solids to soluble organic acids and alcohols. Formation of acids results in a
decrease in pH of the system and may end the action of acid formers. These species are then replaced by
anaerobic bacteria (methane formers), which function within a narrow pH range of from 6.5 to 7.5.
Methane formers convert the formed acids and alcohols to carbon dioxide and methane gas with traces of
other gases such as hydrogen sulfide (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
The volumetric gas production, or specific yield, from an anaerobic sludge digester can be determined
from the relationship presented in the following equation (Gunnerson and Stuckey 1986):

(5.90)

where:
Vg is the volumetric gas production rate, or the specific yield, m3 gas per m3 digester per day Yt is the
ultimate gas yield, m3 gas per kg VS added
VS is the concentration of influent volatile solids, kg/m3
Kn is the kinetic coefficient, dimensionless
t is the hydraulic detention time, day
smax is the maximum specific growth rate of microorganisms, day1

Table 5.14 gives the general design information for a conventional anaerobic digester.
TABLE 5.14
Design Information for a Conventional Anaerobic Digester
Parameter Value
Volatile solids loading (kg/m3 /day) 0.32
Volatile solids destruction (%) 4050
Gas production (m3 gas per kg VS) 0.21.5
Influent sludge solids (kg/m3 /day) 25
Total solids decomposition (%) 3040
pH 6.57.4
Alkalinity concentration (mg/L) 20003500
Solids retention time (days) 3090
Digester capacity, m3 /capita 0.10.17
Gas composition (%)
Methane 6570
Carbon dioxide 3235
Hydrogen sulfide Trace
Temperature (C) 3055

Source: Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995; Lin, S., and Lee, C., Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007;
Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University Press,
Khartoum, Sudan, 1986; Gunnerson, C. G., and Stuckey, D. C., Integrated Resources Recovery: Anaerobic Digestion Principles
and Practice for Biogas Systems, Technical Paper Number 49, World Bank, Washington, DC, 1986.

Example 5.16
1. Develop a computer program to find the volumetric gas production rate in an anaerobic
digester, given the specific yield (m3 gas per m3 digester per day), the ultimate gas yield (m3
gas per kg VS added), the concentration of influent volatile solids (kg/m3), the kinetic
coefficient, the hydraulic detention time (d), and the maximum specific growth rate of
microorganisms (day1).
2. Compute the volumetric gas production rate from a beef waste, given that the influent
volatile solids concentration to the digester amounts to 180 kg/m3 for a hydraulic retention
time of 15 days. The maximum specific growth rate of microorganisms is 0.15/day at a
temperature of 20C. Take the ultimate methane yield equal to 0.3 m3 methane per kg VS
added, the kinetic coefficient equal to 1.5, and the digester volume equal to 6 m3.
3. Use the computer program of (1) to verify computations obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 5.16 (1), see the listing of Program 5.16.
2. Solution to Example 5.16 (2):

a. Given: Yt = 0.3, VS = 180, kn = 1.5, t = 15, smax = 0.15.

b. Determine the volumetric gas production rate from the beef manure as follows: Vg = (Yt* VS *
{1[kn/(t * smax1 + kn)]})/t = (0.3 * 180 * {1[1.5/(15 * 0.15 + 1.5)]}/15 = 1.64 m3 methane
gas per m3 digester volume per day.
c. Determine the daily amount of gas production as 1.64 * 6 = 9.84 m3.
 Listing of Program 5.16 (Chap5.16\Form1.vb): Volumetric Gas Production
Rate in Digesters

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.16: Volumetric Gas Production Rate in Digesters
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Yt, VS, Uxmax, t, Kn, Vd, Vx, Px As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.16: Volumetric Gas
Production Rate in Digesters"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label7.AutoSize = False
Label7.Height = 52
Label7.Width = 372
Label7.Text = ""
Label1.Text = "Enter the specific yield, Yt (m3 gas/kg VS):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the influent volatile solids concentration, VS
(kg/m3):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the max specific growth rate of microorganisms
(/day):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the retention time, t (days):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the kinetic coefficient, Kn:"
Label6.Text = "Enter the volume of the digester (m3):"

Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label8.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Yt = Val(TextBox1.Text)
VS = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Uxmax = Val(TextBox3.Text)
t = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Kn = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Vd = Val(TextBox6.Text)
Vx = Yt * VS * (1 - (Kn / (t * Uxmax - 1 + Kn))) / t
Px = Vx * Vd
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label7.Text = "The volumetric gas production rate (m3/m3/day): " +
FormatNumber(Vx, NumericUpDown1.Value) + vbCrLf Label7.Text += "The daily
amount of gas production (m3): " + FormatNumber(Px, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.12.2 SLUDGE DEWATERING

5.12.2.1 Introduction
Sludge dewatering is a physical unit operation utilized in rendering the moisture content of sludge with the
following objectives: Reduction of sludge volume
Promotion of the sludge-handling process
Retardation of biological decomposition
Increase the sludge calorific value by removal of excess moisture
Removal of sludge odors
Reduction of leachate production at sanitary landfills
Safe use of sludge for landscape fertilizer or as a farmland fertilizer

The methods used for sludge dewatering include land disposal (drying beds, injection, ridge and
furrow, spray irrigation, lagooning), vacuum filters, pressure filters, centrifuges, composting, elutration,
and compaction. These methods are of a physical rather than chemical nature.
In the drying bed operation, sludge is spread in an open area to assist in the moisture reduction through
evaporation or drainage according to prevailing climatic conditions, soil topography, hydrology of the
area, meteorological factors, type and properties of sludge, nature and size of solid particles, bed
dimensions especially the depth, shape of drying surface as related to air flow, land value, and
management (Vernick and Walker 1981; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Viessman et al. 2008; U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency 2012). Collected filtrate is usually returned to the treatment plant, and
the sludge is removed from the drying bed after it has drained and dried sufficiently to be stable (Smith
and Scott 2002).
Vacuum filtration is a continuous operation carried out at pressures ~70% of the atmospheric pressure
(Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995). Chemical conditioning is used before vacuum filtration to agglomerate
small particles. This method is used in larger facilities where space is limited, or when incineration is
necessary for maximum volume reduction (Vernick and Walker 1981). The factors that affect the vacuum
filter yield include the type and properties of sludge, the type, and the concentration of the conditioner and
conditioning procedure, the type and condition of the filter cloth, and the operational parameters of the
filter (Vernick and Walker 1981; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
Pressure filtration is a batch process that dewaters a conditioned sludge. Application of pressure
drains the liquor and retains the sludge cake. Factors influencing operation include the pressure applied,
the type and life of filter, the sludge properties, and the conditioning and collection and final disposal of
the cake.
Centrifugation (solid bowl, disc, basket type) uses centrifugal and Stokes frictional forces to increase
the settling rate of sludge solids. The method is used in large facilities where space is limited or when
incineration is required (Vernick and Walker 1981). Factors of importance include solids content, particle
size and shape, electrostatic factors, viscosity effect, differential density between solid particles and
liquid, disposal of centrate, availability of power, properties of sludge, rotational speed, hydraulic
loading rate, depth of liquid pool in bowl, and use of polyelectrolyte to improve performance (Vernick
and Walker 1981; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Metcalf and Eddy 2013).
In sludge composting, the sludge is mixed with a bulking material (e.g., wood chips, leaves, garbage,
rags, paper, cardboard, etc.) to form an aerated, porous pile. Decomposition is achieved by aerobic and
thermophilic bacteria. The method may be used to convert digested and undigested sludge cake (Vernick
and Walker 1981). Factors affecting the process include weather conditions, properties of sludge, and the
aeration rate.
In elutriation, the sludge is washed with treated effluent to yield a porous sludge. During mixing of
elutriant and sludge, substances such as carbonates and phosphates are removed from the sludge, together
with products of decomposition and nonsettleable fine solids (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency 2012).
In general, the main factors that affect dewatering practice include the nature and content of the fine
particles, sludge solids content, particle size and charge, shearing strength, protein content, pH, moisture
content, anaerobic digestion, and the type and concentration of the filter aids and conditioners used.

5.12.2.2 Filtration of Sludge

Filtration may be defined as the separation of a solid from a suspension of a liquid. It retains the solid on
a screen or membrane and allows the filtrate to drain off. The methods used for determining how well
sludge dewaters include the cracking time test, the capillary suction time (CST) test, the filter leaf test,
and the specific resistance test.
The cracking time is the time necessary for a formed cake to crack. The CST is the time required by
water from a sludge to travel a given distance along a filter paper (Smith and Scott 2002). The shorter the
CST, the higher the dewaterability of the sludge. Long CST values indicate problems in the filtration of
the sludge analyzed (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995). The filter leaf test stimulates the principle of
operation of a vacuum filter, whereby the filter yield is estimated based on the drying cycle period of the
sludge (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Peirce, Vesilind and Weiner 1997). Coackley (Coackley 1955;
Coackley 1965) advocated the use of the specific resistance concept whereby the ease of dewatering is
given by the Carman and Coackley (Carman 1938; Newitt et al. 1949; Coackley 1953; Coackley and
Allos 1962; Coackley 1965; Coackley 1967; Coackley 1975; Sanin et al. 2010) equation for constant
pressure, as presented in the following equation:

(5.91)

where:
t is the time of filtration, s
V is the volume of filtrate, m3
is the viscosity of filtrate, N*s/m2
rs is the specific resistance of sludge cake, m/kg
C is the solids content, kg/m3
P is the pressure applied, N/m2
A is the area of filtration, m2
 Rm is the resistance of filter medium, m1

Equation 6.48 may be put in the form of the following equation:

(5.92)

where:

(5.93)

(5.94)

Plotting t/V versus V yields a straight line of gradient b, and rs is found as indicated in the following
equation:

(5.95)

where:
rs is the specific resistance of sludge cake, m/kg
b is the slope of the straight line of t/V versus V, s/m6
P is the pressure applied, N/m2
A is the area of filtration, m2
is the viscosity of filtrate, N*s/m2
C is the solids content, kg/m3

The specific resistance to filtration may be defined as follows: The resistance to filtrate flow caused
by a cake of unit weight of dry solids per unit filter area (Abdel-Magid 1982). Table 5.15 gives a
general outline of the values of the specific resistance and gives an estimation of the degree of the sewage
sludge dewaterability.

TABLE 5.15
Sludge Characteristics as Related to Specific Resistance
Specific Resistance Value Sludge Characteristics (m/kg)
1011 1012 Easily filtered sludge
1014 1015 Poorly filtered sludge

Sources: Rowe, D.R. and Abdel-Magid, I.M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca
Raton, FL, 1995; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum
University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1986; Fair, G. M. et al. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 40,1051, 1966.

The value of rs for most wastewater sludges changes with pressure as indicated in the following
equation:

(5.96)

where:
rs is the specific resistance to filtration at applied pressure P, m/kg
rs is a constant
a is the coefficient of compressibility (varies between 0 and 1)

Equation 5.96 can be arranged in a straight line relationship form as presented in the following
equation:

(5.97)

The compressibility coefficient is taken to be the slope, a, of the straight line obtained by plotting
log(rs) versus log(P). The greater the value of a, the more compressible is the sludge. Figure 5.9 shows a
sketch of the apparatus used in determining the specific resistance of sludge to filtration.

FIGURE 5.9 Specific resistance apparatus.

Example 5.17
1. Write a computer program to compute the specific resistance of a sample of a sludge, given
the variation of a collected volume of filtrate V (mL) with t (s), the vacuum applied P
(N/m2), the filtrate viscosity (N*s/m2), the solids concentration C (kg/m3), and the area of
filtration A (m2). Design the computer program to show whether the sludge under
consideration is amenable to dewatering by vacuum filtration.
2. The following data were obtained in an experiment in order to determine its specific
resistance to filtration:
Volume of Filtrate Collected (mL) Time Taken to Collect Volume (min)
6.8 1
9.5 2
11.6 3
13.4 4
14.9 5

a. Find the specific resistance of the sludge, given the vacuum pressure used = 60 kPa, the
dynamic viscosity of filtrate = 1.139 * 103 N*s/m2, the volume of sample used in filtration =
 50 mL, the solids concentration = 0.084 g/mL, and the diameter of filter paper used in the
experiment = 7 cm.
b. Is this sludge amenable to dewatering by vacuum filtration? State your reasons.
3. Use the computer program of (1) to verify computations obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 5.17 (1), see the listing of Program 5.17.
2. Solution to Example 5.17 (2):

a. Given: the variation of volume of filtrate collected with time of filtration, P = 60 * 103 N/m2,
= 1.139 * 103 N * s/m2, C = 0.084 g/mL, D = 7 cm.
b. Find the ratio of time to filtrate volume, t/V, as follows:
Time (s)
60 120 180 240 300
Time/volume of filtrate collected (s/m2 ) 8.82 12.63 15.52 17.91 20.13
Volume of filtrate collected (mL) 6.8 9.5 11.6 13.4 14.9

c. Draw the straight line of the plot of t/V versus V, and determine the slope of the straight line as
follows: b = 1.387 * 1012 s/m6.
d. Find the area of filtration as follows: A = (0.07)2/4 = 38.48 * 104 m2.
e. Find the sludge solids concentration as follows: C = 0.084 * 103/106 = 84 kg/m3.
f. Compute the sludge specific resistance as follows: rs = 2 * b * P * A2/ * C = (2 * 1.387 * 1012
* 60 * 103* (38.48 * 104)2)/(1.139 * 103* 84) = 2.58 * 1013 m/kg.
g. Because the specific resistance of this sludge exceeds the value of 1 * 1012 m/kg (with rs = 2.58
* 1013 m/kg), it will not filter well in a vacuum filter.

Listing of Program 5.17 (Chap5.17\Form1.vb): Specific Resistance of Sludge

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.17: Specific Resistance of Sludge
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim Rx, P, mu, c, d, N As Double
Dim t(), v(), tov() As Double
Dim assess As String
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.17: Specific
Resistance of Sludge"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the vacuum applied, P (N/m2):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the filtrate viscosity, mu (Ns/m2):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the solids concentration, C (g/mL):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the diameter of the filter paper used, d (m):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the number of measurements of volume and time:"
Label6.Text = "Enter the data collected for volume versus time:"
Label7.Text = ""
Label7.AutoSize = False
Label7.Width = 215
Label7.Height = 45
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("VCol", "Volume of filtrate (mL)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("TCol", "Time (minutes)")
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Label8.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
mu = Val(TextBox2.Text)
c = Val(TextBox3.Text)
d = Val(TextBox4.Text)
N = Val(TextBox5.Text)
If N <= 0 Then Exit Sub
If DataGridView1.ColumnCount < 3 Then
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("TVCol", "t/V")
DataGridView1.Columns("TVCol").ReadOnly = True
End If
ReDim t(N), v(N), tov(N)
Dim b, A, X1, Y1, sum1, sum2 As Double
Y1 = 0.0!

X1 = 0.0!
For i = 1 To N
v(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("VCol").Value)
t(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("TCol").Value)
t(i) = t(i) * 60 'convert to seconds
tov(i) = t(i) / v(i)
DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("TVCol").Value = FormatNumber(tov(i), 2)
Y1 = Y1 + tov(i)
X1 = X1 + v(i)
Next i
'compute averages for regression analysis
Y1 = Y1 / N 'average t/v
X1 = X1 / N 'average v
Sum1 = 0.0!
Sum2 = 0.0!
For i = 1 To N
Sum1 = sum1 + (tov(i) - Y1) * (v(i) - X1)
Sum2 = sum2 + (v(i) - X1) ^ 2
Next i
b = sum1 / sum2 'the slope of the line
b *= (10 ^ 12)
A = Pi / 4 * d ^ 2 'area of filtration
c = c * 10 ^ 3 'convert to kg/m3
Rx = 2 * b * P * (A ^ 2) / (mu * c) 'specific resistance
assess = "case not covered by Table 5.15"
If Rx < (10 ^ 12) Then assess = "Easily filtered sludge"
If Rx > (10 ^ 12) Then assess = "Poorly filtered sludge"
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label7.Text = "The specific resistance of the sludge (m/kg): " +
FormatNumber(Rx, NumericUpDown1.Value) Label7.Text += vbCrLf + assess
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox5_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox5.TextChanged If N <> Val(TextBox5.Text)
Then
If Val(TextBox5.Text) <= 0 Then Exit Sub
N = Val(TextBox5.Text)
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(CInt(N))
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 5.18
1. Write a computer program to determine the compressibility of a sludge sample for a set of
specific resistance values and corresponding pressures.
2. For a sample of sewage sludge, the following specific resistance values were obtained for
the corresponding applied vacuum pressures:
Pressure Applied (kPa) Specific Resistance, r *10 13 (m/kg)
293.04 57.85
586.075 104.45
1172.15 186.54
1758.225 256.84
2344.3 331.89

Determine the compressibility coefficient of the sludge.

3. Use program developed in (1) to verify solution obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution to example 5.18 (1), see the listing of Program 5.18.
2. Solution to Example 5.18 (2):

a. Given: the specific resistance values corresponding to the applied pressures.

b. Determine log(P) and log(r) as presented in the following table:
Pressure Applied (kPa) Specific Resistance, r *10 13 m/kg log(P) log(r)
293.04 57.85 5.466927 14.7623
586.075 104.45 5.767953 15.01891
1172.15 186.54 6.068983 15.27077
1758.225 256.84 6.245074 15.40966
2344.3 331.89 6.370013 15.52099

c. Plot log(r) as a function of log(P). Find the slope of the drawn line to correspond to the
compressibility coefficient of the sample as s = 0.84.
3. Use program developed in (1) to verify solution obtained in (2).

Listing of Program 5.18 (Chap5.18\Form1.vb): Compressibility of Sludges

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.18: Compressibility of Sludges
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim N, X1, Y1, P, R, b As Double
Dim logP(), logR() As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.18:
Compressibility of Sludges"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the number of measurements of data of volume and
time:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("PCol", "Pressure (kPa)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("RCol", "S.R. (/10^13) m/kg")
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
Label2.Text = ""
button1.text = "&Calculate"
Label3.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If N <= 0 Then Exit Sub
ReDim logP(N), logR(N)
Y1 = 0.0!

X1 = 0.0!
If DataGridView1.ColumnCount < 4 Then
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LPCol", "Log(P)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LRCol", "Log(r)")
DataGridView1.Columns("LPCol").ReadOnly = True
DataGridView1.Columns("LRCol").ReadOnly = True
End If
For i = 1 To N
P = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("PCol").Value)
R = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("RCol").Value)
R *= Math.Pow(10, 13)
P *= 1000
logR(i) = Log10(R)
logP(i) = Log10(P)
DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("LPCol").Value = FormatNumber(logP(i), 2)
DataGridView1.Rows(i - 1).Cells("LRCol").Value = FormatNumber(logR(i), 2)
Y1 = Y1 + logR(i)
X1 = X1 + logP(i)
Next i
Dim sum1, sum2 As Double
'compute averages for regression analysis
Y1 = Y1 / N 'average t/v
X1 = X1 / N 'average v
Sum1 = 0.0!
Sum2 = 0.0!
For i = 1 To N
sum1 = sum1 + (logR(i) - Y1) * (logP(i) - X1)
sum2 = sum2 + (logP(i) - X1) ^ 2
Next i
b = sum1 / sum2 'the slope of the line
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label2.Text = "The compressibility coefficient of the sample = " +
FormatNumber(b, NumericUpDown1.Value) End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub TextBox1_TextChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles TextBox1.TextChanged If N <> Val(TextBox1.Text)
Then
If Val(TextBox1.Text) <= 0 Then Exit Sub
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(CInt(Val(TextBox1.Text)))
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
End If
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
 End Sub
End Class

5.12.2.3 Centrifugation
In centrifugation, settling and rejection of solids are the parameters that are considered in the modeling
and scale-up between two geometrically similar centrifuges. Settling of particles is estimated by the
sigma equation, whereas rejection of solids is measured by the beta equation (Rowe and Abdel-Magid
1995; Peirce et al. 1997).
The sigma equation is illustrated in Equation 5.98 for two centrifuges having the same settling
characteristics within the bowl (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Peirce et al. 1997):

(5.98)

where:
Q1 is the liquid flow rate into the first centrifuge, m3/s
1 is a parameter related to the properties of the first centrifuge
Q2 is the liquid flow rate into the second centrifuge, m3/s
2 is a parameter related to the properties of the second centrifuge

The sigma value for a solid bowl centrifuge can be calculated by using the following equation:

(5.99)

where:
is a parameter related to the properties of the centrifuge (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Peirce et al.
1997) vr is the rotational velocity of the bowl, rad/s
V is the liquid volume in the pool, m3
g is the local gravitational acceleration, m/s2
r1 is the radius from the centerline to the surface of the sludge, m
r2 is the radius from the centerline to inside the bowl wall, m

Solids movement in a centrifugation system may be estimated by the beta equation (Rowe and Abdel-
Magid 1995; Peirce et al. 1997):

(5.100)
where:
W1 is the solids loading rate for the first centrifuge, kg/h
1 is the beta function for the first centrifuge
W2 is the solids loading rate for the second centrifuge, kg/h
2 is the beta function for the second centrifuge

The beta function may be computed by using the following equation:

(5.101)

where:
is the beta function for a centrifuge
vw is the difference in the rotational velocity between the bowl and the conveyor, rad/s
dp is the distance between blades, or the scroll pitch, m
n is the number of leads
Z is the depth of sludge in the bowl,m
D is the bowl diameter, m

Example 5.19
1. Develop a computer program to find the flow rate at which a solid bowl centrifuge will
perform similarly as an old one that is to be replaced in order to increase sludge production.
Data given include the solids concentration (%); the rate of flow of sludge to the old
centrifuge that needs dewatering (m3/d); and the characteristics of both centrifuges, in terms
of bowl length (cm), bowl diameter (cm), bowl speed (rpm), bowl depth (cm), scroll pitch
(cm), number of leads, and conveyor velocity (rpm). Assume that the new centrifuge is
scaled up geometrically similar to larger.
2. The method of centrifugation is used to dewater a sludge of 3.5% solids content. The sludge
enters the solid bowl centrifuge at an hourly rate of 0.5 m3. Due to an increase in quantity of
sludge requiring dewatering, the centrifuge is scaled up to another geometrically similar and
larger one. The properties of the two centrifuges are tabulated as follows. Determine the
flow rate at which the second centrifuge will operate similarly to the first one.
Characteristic First Centrifuge Second Centrifuge
Bowl length (cm) 24 60
Bowl diameter (cm) 20 40
Bowl speed (rpm) 4500 4000
Bowl depth (cm) 3 5
Scroll pitch (cm) 5 10
Number of leads 1 1
Conveyor velocity (rpm) 4450 3950

3. Use the computer program developed in (1) to verify computations obtained in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 5.19 (1), see the listing of Program 5.19.
2. Solution to example 5.19 (2):

a. Given: C = 3.5%, Q = 0.5 m3/h = 12 m3/day, properties of the two centrifuges.

b. Construct the following table using the given data:
Parameter First Centrifuge Second Centrifuge
l (cm) 24 60
D (cm) 20 40
r2 (cm) 20/2 = 10 40/2 = 20
vr (rad/s) (2/60) * 4500 = 471 (2/60) * 4000 = 419
Z (cm) 3 5.0
r1 = r2 Z (cm) 10 3 = 7 20 5 = 15
dp (cm) 5 10
n (dimensionless) 1 1
V w (rad/s) 4500 4450 = 50 4000 3950 = 50

c. Estimate the settling of each centrifuge by using the sigma equation as follows:
.
i Find the volume as follows: V = 2([r1 + r2]/2) * (r2 r1) * 1.
ii Compute the sigma as follows: = [(vr)2 * V]/[g * ln (r2/r1)].
Parameter First Centrifuge Second Centrifuge
V (cm3 ) 3,847 33,000
vr (rad/s) 471 419
ln(r2 /r1 ) ln(10/7) = 0.35667 ln(20/15) = 0.28768
g (cm2 /s) 981 981
2,443,409 20,533,306
Q (m3 /day) 12 ?

iii Compute the liquid flow rate into the second centrifuge as follows: Q2 = (Q1/1) * 2 =
(12/2443409) * 20533306 = 101 m3/day. With respect to settling of solids, the second centrifuge
will achieve equal dewaterability when the flow rate is 101 m3/day.
d. Estimate the movement of solids out of centrifuge by finding the beta equation as follows: W1/1
= W2/2.
i Determine the solids loading rate for the two centrifuges as follows: W = flow rate (m3/d) * solids
ii concentration * density. (Assume density of water = 1000 kg/m3.) Determine the beta value for each
centrifuge as follows: = vw* dp* n * * Z * D.
Parameter First Centrifuge Second Centrifuge
W (kg/d) 420 ?
V w (rad/s) 50 50
dp (cm) 5 10
n (dimensionless) 1 1
Z (cm) 3.0 5.0
D (cm) 20 40
B 47,124 314,159

e. Estimate the solids movement of the second centrifuge as follows: W2 = (W1/1) * 2 =

 (420/47,124) * 314,159 = 2800 kg/day. This is equivalent to a value of 2800/(0.035 * 1000) =
80 m3/day (assuming the same solids concentration of 3.5% and the same density).
f. In summary, and to have similar dewaterability to the first centrifuge, the following conditions
i must apply to the second centrifuge: Sigma equation advocates the settling properties for the
second centrifuge when the liquid flow rate attains a value of 101 m3/day.
ii Beta equation reveals the movement of solids out of the second centrifuge when the solids loading
rate attains a value of 80 m3/d.
iii Because the scale-up procedure indicates that the lower value governs the centrifuge capacity, in
this case, the solids loading rate governs. As such, the new centrifuge is not to be operated at a
solids loading rate exceeding 80 m3/day.

Listing of Program 5.19 (Chap5.19\Form1.vb): Sludge Dewatering by

Centrifugation

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.19: Centrifugation
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim C, Q As Double
Const G = 9.81
Dim L1, L2, D1, D2, vs1, vs2, z1, z2, dp1, dp2, n1, n2, Vw1, Vw2 As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.19:
Centrifugation"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the solids concentration (%):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the flow rate of sludge to be dewatered Q (m3/h):"
label3.text = "Enter the characteristics of the two centrifuges:"

Label4.AutoSize = False
Label4.Height = 68
Label4.Width = 390
Label4.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CCol", "Characteristic")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("FCol", "First centrifuge")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("SCol", "Second centrifuge")
DataGridView1.Rows.Add(7)
DataGridView1.AllowUserToAddRows = False
DataGridView1.Columns("CCol").ReadOnly = True
DataGridView1.Rows(0).Cells("CCol").Value = "Bowl Length, cm"
DataGridView1.Rows(1).Cells("CCol").Value = "Diameter, cm"
DataGridView1.Rows(2).Cells("CCol").Value = "Speed, rpm"
DataGridView1.Rows(3).Cells("CCol").Value = "Depth, cm"
DataGridView1.Rows(4).Cells("CCol").Value = "Scroll pitch, cm"
DataGridView1.Rows(5).Cells("CCol").Value = "Number of leads"
DataGridView1.Rows(6).Cells("CCol").Value = "Conveyor velocity, rpm"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
C = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox2.Text)
L1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(0).Cells("Fcol").Value)
L2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(0).Cells("Scol").Value)
D1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(1).Cells("Fcol").Value)
D2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(1).Cells("Scol").Value)
vs1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(2).Cells("Fcol").Value)
vs2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(2).Cells("Scol").Value)
z1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(3).Cells("Fcol").Value)
z2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(3).Cells("Scol").Value)
dp1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(4).Cells("Fcol").Value)
dp2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(4).Cells("Scol").Value)
n1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(5).Cells("Fcol").Value)
n2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(5).Cells("Scol").Value)
Vw1 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(6).Cells("Fcol").Value)
Vw2 = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(6).Cells("Scol").Value)
Dim R11, R12, R21, R22 As Double
Dim V1, V2, Vr1, Vr2, sig1, sig2 As Double
Dim Q1, Q2, Ro, b1, b2, C1, W1, W2 As Double
R11 = D1 / 2 : r12 = r11 - z1
R21 = D2 / 2 : r22 = r21 - z2
V1 = volume(r12, r11, L1)
V2 = volume(r22, r21, L2)
Vr1 = 2 * Pi / 60 * vs1
Vr2 = 2 * Pi / 60 * vs2
Sig1 = sigma(vr1, v1, r12, r11)
Sig2 = sigma(vr2, v2, r22, r21)
Q1 = Q * 24 'flow in first centrifuge, m3/d
Q2 = Q1 * sig2 / sig1 'flow in second centrifuge
Ro = 1000 'density of water (assumed), kg/m3
Vw1 = vs1 - Vw1
Vw2 = vs2 - Vw2
B1 = beta(Vw1, dp1, n1, z1, D1) 'beta for first centrifuge
B2 = beta(Vw2, dp2, n2, z2, D2) 'beta for second centrifuge
C1 = C / 100 'concentration of solids in first centrifuge
W1 = Q1 * C1 * Ro 'solids loading rate in first centrifuge
W2 = W1 / b1 * b2 'solids loading rate in second centrifuge
Dim s As String
s = "Results:" + vbCrLf

+= "The flow rate in the second centrifuge = " + FormatNumber(Q2, 2) + "

m3/d" + vbCrLf
s += "The solids movement in second centrifuge = " + FormatNumber(W2, 2) +
" kg/d," + vbCrLf
s += "equivalent to " + FormatNumber(W2 / ((C / 100) * 1000), 2) + " m3/d."
Label4.Text = s
End Sub
Function BETA(ByVal Vw, ByVal dp, ByVal n, ByVal z, ByVal D)
BETA = Vw * dp * n * Pi * z * D
End Function
Function SIGMA(ByVal Vr, ByVal V, ByVal R1, ByVal R2)
SIGMA = Vr ^ 2 * V / (G * LOG(R2 / R1))
End Function
Function VOLUME(ByVal R1, ByVal R2, ByVal L)
VOLUME = 2 * Pi * ((R1 + R2) / 2) * (R2 - R1) * L
End Function
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click alculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.13 WASTEWATER DISPOSAL

5.13.1 DILUTION
Discharges of small quantities of relatively dilute sludges and treated effluents find their way into water
courses. Such wastewater discharges can affect the water quality in rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, and
oceans. To predict the effects imposed by these discharges on water courses, mathematical models have
been formulated. Factors affecting natural purification processes include the rate of flow and
characteristics of body of water, reoxygenation processes, water use downstream from the disposal point,
and the quantity of the wastewater discharge (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995).
In Figure 5.10, application of the principle of mass balance between two points, upstream and
downstream of the discharge point, gives an estimate of the degree of dilution in the river as presented in

the following equation (dilution law):

FIGURE 5.10 Wastewater disposal into a stream (dilution).

(5.102)

where:
Cw is the concentration of pollutant in effluent from wastewater treatment works, mg/L
Qw is the wastewater flow rate to adjacent river, m3/s
Cr is the concentration of same pollutant in river upstream of the discharge point, mg/L
Qr is the river flow rate, m3/s
Cm is the concentration of the pollutant in mixture of river water and wastewater discharge, or
concentration of pollutant in the river downstream of point of discharge, mg/L
Qm is the rate of flow of mixture of river water and wastewater discharge or the rate of flow of river
downstream of point of discharge, m3/s

Example 5.20
 1. Write a short computer program to determine the concentration of a pollutant in the mixture of
effluent and river, Cm (mg/L), given the concentration, Cw (mg/L); the rate of flow, Qw (m3/s), of
pollutant introduced to the river from the treatment facility; the river flow, Qr (m3/s); and the
amount of pollutant initially found in it, Cr (mg/L).
2. A sewage treatment work discharges its wastewater at the rate of 8 m3/s with a pollutant
concentration of 15 mg/L to a receiving stream. The concentration of a particular pollutant
upstream of the sewage treatment plant is 2 mg/L, and the river flows at a rate of 720 m3/min.
Find the pollutant concentration downstream from the sewage treatment plant.
3. Use the program indicated in (1) to verify computations of (2).

SOLUTION
1. For the solution to Example 5.20 (1), see the listing of Program 5.20.
2. Solution to example 5.20 (2):

a. Given: Qw = 8 m3/s, Cw = 15 mg/L, Cr = 2 mg/L, Qr = 720 m3/min = 12 m3/s.

b. Compute the pollutant concentration of the mixture downstream of the treatment plant as follows:
Cm*Qm = Cw * Qw + Cst * Qst.
c. Find the discharge of the mixture of river water flow and the treatment plant effluent as follows: Qm
= Qw + Qst = 8 + 12 = 20 m3/s.
d. Find the concentration of the pollutant of mixture as follows: Cm = (15 * 8 + 2 * 12)/20 = 7.2 mg/L.

Listing of Program 5.20 (Chap5.20\Form1.vb): Concentration of Pollutants in

Rivers

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.20: Concentration of Pollutants in Rivers
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim Qw, Qr, Cw, Cr As Double
Dim Qm, Cm As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.20: Concentration
of Pollutants in Rivers"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the wastewater flow rate, Qw (m3/s):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the river flow, Qr (m3/s):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the effluent pollutant concentration, Cw (mg/L):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the concentration of pollutants in river, Cr (mg/L):"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = "Decimal places:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Qw = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Qr = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Cw = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Cr = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Qm = Qw + Qr
Cm = (Cw * Qw + Cr * Qr) / Qm
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label5.Text = "The concentration of pollutants in the river = " +
FormatNumber(Cm, NumericUpDown1.Value) + " mg/L"
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.13.2 DISPOSAL INTO NATURAL WATERS

5.13.2.1 Introduction
Natural bodies of waters may be used for discharge of treated wastewater when discharge regulations and
standards are met. The reduction of pollutant concentrations exceeding permit discharge regulations may
be achieved by adoption of appropriate treatment unit operations and processes. Table 5.16 gives general
classification patterns for rivers in terms of biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, and dissolved
oxygen.

TABLE 5.16
River Classification Patterns
Classification Scheme BOD5 20 (mg/L) SS (mg/L) DO, as a Percentage of Saturation Value
Very clean 1 4
Clean 2 10 90
Fairly clean 3 15 7590
Doubtful 5 21 5075
Poor 7.5 30 <50
Bad 10 35
Very bad 20 40

Source: Abdel-Magid 2012; Rowe, D.R. and Abdel-Magid, I.M., Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1995; Peirce, J. J. et al. Environmental Pollution and Control, 4th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, 1997; Abdel-Magid, I. M., Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering, National Research Council, Khartoum University
Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1986. With permission.
The adverse effects of improperly treated wastewater discharges to rivers or water courses include the
following (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995): Prevention of usage of waster course for beneficial
purposes
Deterioration in quality of a water course
Endangering aquatic life
Generation of odors, tastes, and nuisances
Introduction of public epidemiological health hazards in the form of classical diseases or chronic
chemical poisoning Delaying the mechanisms of self-purification in a water course

5.13.2.2 Oxygen Renewal and Depletion in Rivers

The main sources of oxygen renewal or reoxygenation in a river are reaeration from the atmosphere and
photosynthesis of aquatic plants and algae (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Metcalf and Eddy 2013).
Atmospheric reaeration may be evaluated by using the following equation:

(5.103)
 where:
rr is the rate of reaeration
Cs is the dissolved oxygen saturation concentration, mg/L
C is the dissolved oxygen concentration, mg/L
K is the reaeration constant, day1 (to base e)

k can be estimated from Equation 5.104 (OConnor and Dobbins 1956; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995;
Metcalf and Eddy 2013) or chosen from tables such as Table 5.17: TABLE 5.17
Reaeration Constants
Water Body Range of k at 20C (to base e)
Small ponds and back waters 0.10.23
Sluggish streams and large lakes 0.230.35
Large streams of low velocity 0.350.46
Large streams of normal velocity 0.460.69
Swift streams 0.691.15
Rapids and waterfalls >1.15

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Tchobanoglous, G., Stensel, H. D., Tsuchihashi R., and Burton, F., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Resource Recovery, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, New York, 2013; Rowe, D.R. and Abdel-Magid, I.M.,
Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.

(5.104)

where:
v is the mean river velocity, m/s
h is the average depth of flow, m
DiffT is the molecular diffusion coefficient for oxygen, m2/d

(5.105)

where:
DiffT is the molecular diffusion coefficient for oxygen at a temperature of TC, m2/day Diffc is the
molecular diffusion coefficient for oxygen at temperature of 20C, m2/day; this may be taken to be equal
to 1.76 * 104
Tc is the temperature correction coefficient that may be taken to be equal to 1.037
T is the temperature, C

For temperature other than 20C, k can be determined by using the following equation:

(5.106)

where:
(k)T is the reaeration constant at a temperature of TC
 (k)20 is the reaeration constant at a temperature of 20C

Oxygen depletion (deoxygenation) in a river is due primarily to microbial metabolic activities and
benthic deposits (Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995; Metcalf and Eddy 2013). Deoxygenation by microbial
decomposition of organic matter may be estimated as shown in the following equation:

(5.107)

where:
rD is the rate of deoxygenation
k is the first-order reaction rate constant, day1
Lo is the ultimate BOD at point of discharge, mg/L
t is the time, days

The effect of organic solids and sediments accumulated in the benthic layer may be estimated by the
Fair et al. empirical equation (Fair et al. 1948; Rowe and Abdel-Magid 1995):

(5.108)

where:
Lm is the maximum daily benthal oxygen demand, g/m2
L0 is the BOD520 of benthal deposit, g/kg volatile matter
Tc is the temperature correction factor
VS is the daily rate of volatile solids deposition, kg/m2
t is the time during which settling takes place, day

5.13.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Rivers

Equation 5.109 gives the simple river oxygenation model of Streeter and Phelps (Rowe and Abdel-Magid
1995; Metcalf and Eddy 2013):

(5.109)

where:
DOt is the oxygen deficit at time t, mg/L
k is the first-order reaction rate constant, day1
Lo is the ultimate BOD at point of discharge, mg/L
k is the reaeration constant, day1
t is the time of travel in river from point of discharge, days
DOo is the initial oxygen deficit at point of waste discharge, at time t = 0
 The limitations of the model are as follows (Peavy et al. 1985; Steel and McGhee 1991; Rowe and
Abdel-Magid 1995; Masters and Ela 2007; Viessman et al. 2008; Abdel-Magid 2012; Metcalf and Eddy
2013): It ignores the effects of oxygen production by algae.
It omits oxygen depletion by benthic deposits.
It assumes one pollution source or a point source.
It neglects factors influencing organic load apart from BOD.
It assumes steady-state conditions along each river reach.

In spite of these limitations, the model provides reasonable estimation and is used extensively.
The point of lowest dissolved oxygen concentration is an important point in the sag curve. This point
represents the maximum impact on the dissolved oxygen deficit due to organic waste disposal. The
critical oxygen deficit may be estimated as indicated in the following equation:

(5.110)

where:
DOc is the critical oxygen deficit, mg/L
k is the first-order reaction rate constant, day1
Lo is the ultimate carbonaceous BOD at point of discharge, mg/L
tc is the critical time required to reach the critical distance

The critical time can be found from d(DO)/dt = 0, as found in the following equation:

(5.111)

where:
tc is the critical time, days
k is the reaeration constant, day1
k is the first-order reaction rate constant, day1
DOo is the initial oxygen deficit at the point of waste discharge, at time t = 0
Lo is the ultimate BOD at point of discharge, mg/L

The critical distance may be found from the following equation:

(5.112)

where:
xc is the critical distance, m
tc is the critical time, days
v is the velocity of flow in the river, m/day
Example 5.21
1. Develop a computer program to find the temperature, DO, and 5-day BOD of a mixture of
river water and wastewater; the initial dissolved oxygen deficit of the river just below
wastewater treatment plant outfall; the distance downstream to critical DO; and the minimum
DO in the river below the wastewater treatment work, given the daily production of
wastewater (m3/s), the treatment plant effluent BOD (mg/L), the temperature of the
wastewater (C), dissolved oxygen in effluent of plant as the percentage of saturation
concentration (%), river flow (m3/s), the velocity of flow in river (m/s), the temperature of
river water before wastewater addition to river (C), dissolved oxygen content in river as
the percentage of saturation concentration (%), river BOD (mg/L), the first-order reaction
constant k (day1), the reaeration constant k (day1), and the temperature correction for k
and k.
2. A river flows at a rate of 12,600 m3/h with a 5-day BOD of 1 mg/L, and it is saturated with
oxygen. Wastewater effluent is discharged to the river at the rate of 12 m3/min with a 5-day
BOD of 200 mg/L. The wastewater is 10% saturated with dissolved oxygen. The velocity of
the river is 3 km/h. Assume the temperatures to be constant at 20C, and k = 0.1, k =
0.4/day. Compute for the mixture: the dissolved oxygen concentration, the 5-day BOD, the
initial deficit in the river, the minimum dissolved oxygen content, and its location
downstream from the wastewater treatment plant.
Solution

1. For the solution to Example 5.21 (1), see the listing of Program 5.21.
2. Solution to Example 5.21 (2):

a. Given: Qr = 12600/60 * 60 = 3.5 m3/s, BODr = 1 mg/L, DOr = Cs, Qw = 12/60 = 0.2 m3/s,
BODw = 200 mg/L, DOw = 0.1 * Cs.
b. Find the saturation value of oxygen, Cs, from Appendix A2 as equal to 9.2 for a temperature T
of 20C and DOw = 0.1 * 9.2 = 0.92 mg/L.
c. Determine the BOD of the mixture of river water and wastewater effluent by using the dilution
law as follows: BODm = (Cr * Qr + Cw * Qw)/Qm = (1 * 3.5 + 200 * 0.2)/(3.5 + 0.2) = 11.76
mg/L.
d. Determine the dissolved oxygen content of the mixture: DOm = (9.2 * 3.5 + 0.2 * 9.2)/(3.5 +
0.2) = 8.7524 mg/L.
e. Determine the ultimate BOD of the mixture: Lo = BODm/(1 ek*5); Lom = 11.76/(2 e0.1 * 5) =
29.88 mg/L.
f. Compute the initial dissolved oxygen concentration as follows: DOo = Cs DOm = 9.2 8.7524
= 0.4476 mg/L.
g. Find critical time: tc = [1/(k k)]*ln[(k/k)(1 {(DOmLom)*[(k k)/k]})] = 4.468 days.
h. Determine the critical oxygen as follows: DOc = (k * Lo * ek * tc)/k; DOc = (0.1/0.4) * 29.88
* e0.1 * 4.468 = 4.39 mg/L.
i. Determine the position downstream where DOc occurs: Xc = v * tc = 3* (24 h) * 4.468 d =
 321.7 km.

Listing of Program 5.21 (Chap5.21\Form1.vb): DO and BOD of River

Wastewater Mixtures

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.21: DO & BOD of River-Wastewater Mixtures
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim Cs(31) As Double
Dim v, Qw, PDOw, BODw, Qr, Tr, PDOr, BODr, kd, kdd, ckd, ckdd As Double
Dim Tw As Integer
Sub loadCsTable()
Cs(0) = 14.6
Cs(1) = 14.2
Cs(2) = 13.8
Cs(3) = 13.5
Cs(4) = 13.1
Cs(5) = 12.8
Cs(6) = 12.5
Cs(7) = 12.2
Cs(8) = 11.9
Cs(9) = 11.6
Cs(10) = 11.3
Cs(11) = 11.1
Cs(12) = 10.8
Cs(13) = 10.6
Cs(14) = 10.4
Cs(15) = 10.2
Cs(16) = 10.0
Cs(17) = 9.7

Cs(18) = 9.5
Cs(19) = 9.4
Cs(20) = 9.2
Cs(21) = 9.0
Cs(22) = 8.8
Cs(23) = 8.7
Cs(24) = 8.5
Cs(25) = 8.4
Cs(26) = 8.2
Cs(27) = 8.1
Cs(28) = 7.9
Cs(29) = 7.8
Cs(30) = 7.6
End Sub
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load 'data from Table A2
loadCsTable()
Me.Text = "Program 5.21: DO & BOD of River-Wastewater Mixtures"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the daily production of wastewater, Qw (m3/s):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the temperature of wastewater, Tw (C):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the percentage of saturation dissolved oxygen in
waste, %:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the 20 C 5-day BOD of the waste, BOD205w (mg/L):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the river flow, Qr (m3/s):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the temperature of the river before the waste, Tr:"
Label7.Text = "Enter the percentage of saturation dissolved oxygen in
river, %:"
Label8.Text = "Enter the 20 C 5-day BOD of the river, BOD205r(mg/L):"
Label9.Text = "Enter the velocity of the river, v(km/h):"
Label10.Text = "Enter the first order reaction constant (at 20C), k /day:"
Label11.Text = "Enter the reaeration constant (at 20C), k /day:"
Label12.Text = "Enter the temperature correction of k:"
Label13.Text = "Enter the temperature correction for k:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
TextBox14.Multiline = True
TextBox14.Height = 135
TextBox14.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Qw = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Tw = Val(TextBox2.Text)
PDOw = Val(TextBox3.Text)
BODw = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Qr = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Tr = Val(TextBox6.Text)
PDOr = Val(TextBox7.Text)
BODr = Val(TextBox8.Text)
V = Val(TextBox9.Text)
kd = Val(TextBox10.Text)
kdd = Val(TextBox11.Text)
ckd = Val(TextBox12.Text)
ckdd = Val(TextBox13.Text)
If PDOw < 1 Then PDOw = PDOw * 100
If PDOr < 1 Then PDOr = PDOr * 100
Dim Csw, DOw, Csr, DOr, BOD5m, LOm, Csm, DOi, Kd20, Tc, Xc, Dc, DOc As
Double
Dim BOD5, BOD205c, Qm, Tm, DOm As Double
'DO concentration in wastewater at Tw
Csw = GetCs(Tw)

'DO of wastewater at Tw
DOw = PDOw / 100 * Csw
'DO concentration in river at Tr
Csr = GetCs(Tr)
'DO of river at Tr
DOr = PDOr / 100 * Csr
'Mixture flow
Qm = Qw + Qr
'mixture temp.
Tm = (Qw * Tw + Qr * Tr) / Qm
'mixture DO
DOm = (Qw * DOw + Qr * DOr) / Qm
'mixture BOD5
BOD5m = (Qw * BODw + Qr * BODr) / Qm
'mixture Lo
LOm = BOD5m / (1 - Exp(-kd * 5))
'DO concentration in mixture at Tm
Csm = GetCs(Tm)
'initial oxygen deficit in mixture
DOi = Csm - DOm
'store value of kd at 20C
Kd20 = kd
'corrected kd at temperature of mixture
kd = kd * ckd ^ (Tm - 20)
'corrected kdd at temperature of mixture
kdd = kdd * ckdd ^ (Tm - 20)
'determine critical time tc
Tc = 1 / (kdd - kd) * Log(kdd / kd * (1 - DOi / LOm * (kdd - kd) / kd))
'convert to km/d
v = v * 24
'position downstream where critical conditions exist
Xc = v * Tc
Dc = kd / kdd * LOm * Exp(-kd * Tc)
'DO at xc
DOc = Csm - Dc
'BOD5 at xc at temp. Tm
BOD5 = LOm * Exp(-kd * Tc)
'BOD5 at xc at temp. 20C
BOD205c = BOD5 * (1 - Exp(-Kd20 * 5))
Dim s As String
s = "RESULTS:" + vbCrLf
s += "temperature of the mixture = " + FormatNumber(Tm, 2) + " C" + vbCrLf
s += "Dissolved oxygen of the mixture = " + FormatNumber(DOm, 2) + " mg/L"
+ vbCrLf
s += "5-day BOD of the mixture = " + FormatNumber(BOD5m, 2) + " mg/L" +
vbCrLf
s += "Initial DO deficit in river = " + FormatNumber(DOi, 2) + " mg/L" +
vbCrLf
s += "Critical time tc for minimum DO = " + FormatNumber(Tc, 2) + " day" +
vbCrLf
s += "Position where minimum DO occurs, xc = " + FormatNumber(Xc, 2) + "
km" + vbCrLf
s += "Minimum DO in the river (critical) = " + FormatNumber(DOc, 2) + "
mg/L" + vbCrLf
s += "5-day BOD at xc at 20C = " + FormatNumber(BOD205c, 2) + " mg/L"
TextBox14.Text = s
End Sub
Function GetCs(ByVal T) As Double
If T < 0 Or T > 30 Then Return 0.0
Return Cs(T)
End Function

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.13.3 DISPOSAL INTO LAKES

Treated wastewater can find its way into lakes and reservoirs, especially in inland locations where
nearby streams are not present. Lakes and reservoirs are often subject to a significant mixing due to wind-
induced currents (Metcalf and Eddy 2013). The theoretical model for analysis assumes complete mixing
conditions (for small lakes and reservoirs), constant flow rates, and biodegradation of the pollutant
follows the first-order reaction (rc = K * C). Figure 5.11 is a schematic of a lake system receiving a
contaminant. The material mass balance for this lake is given by Equation 5.113, which estimates the

concentration of pollutant in the lake1:

FIGURE 5.11 Disposal into a lake. V, lake volume; C, concentration of pollutant.

(5.113)

where:
C is the pollutant concentration in the lake and in effluent, kg/m3

(5.114)

where:
Qr is the river flow rate into lake, m3/s
Cr is the concentration of pollutant in river, kg/m3
Qw is the wastewater flow rate into lake, m3/s
Cw is the concentration of pollutant in wastewater, kg/m3

(5.115)
where:
t is the detention time = V/Q
k is the first-order decay constant (base e), day1
V is the lake volume
C0 is the concentration in the lake at time t = 0

The equilibrium concentration can be found by letting t equal , as presented in the following equation:

(5.116)

where Ce is the equilibrium waste concentration in the lake.

Example 5.22
1. Write a computer program to find the equilibrium concentration of a radioactive pollutant
discharged into a small lake with average dimensions (m) L, B, d for length, breadth, depth,
respectively, given the concentration of pollutant entering the lake Cp (mg/L), half-life of
pollutant t1/2, at a flow rate of qp (m3/s). Assume that wind currents enable complete mixing
of the lake contents.
2. Use the program developed in (1) to determine the equilibrium concentration of a
radioactive substance of a 12 h half-life, discharged at a rate of 0.05 m3/s with a
concentration of 4 mg/L to a small lake of average dimensions 60 * 25 * 2 m for length,
width, and depth, respectively.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 5.22 (1), see the listing of Program 5.22.
2. Solution to Example 5.22 (2):

a. Given: t1/2 = 12/24 = 0.5 d, Qr = 0 (no river flow out of lake), qw = 0.05 m3/s, Cw = 4, L = 60
m, B = 25 m, d = 2 m.
b. Determine W as follows: W = Qr* Cr + qw* Cw = 0 + 0.05 * 4 = 0.2 g/s = 17280 g/day.
c. Determine the detention time: t = V/Q = L * B * d/(qr + qw) = 60 * 25 * 2/0.05 * 60 * 60 * 24 =
0.694 day.
d. Find the first-order decay rate as follows: Lt = Lo* ekt, and when t = 0.5 day, L1/2 = 1/2Lo or k
= ln(1/2) = 0.693/day.
e. Determine the factor as follows: = 1/to + k = (1/0.694) + 0.693 = 2.133/day.
f. Find the equilibrium concentration as follows: Ce = W/V = 17,280/(2.133 * 60 * 25 * 2) = 2.7
mg/L.

Listing of Program 5.22 (Chap5.22\Form1.vb): Concentration of Pollutants in

 Lakes

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.22: Equilibrium concentration of pollutants in lakes
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim Ceq As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.22: Equilibrium
concentration of pollutants in lakes"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the length of the lake, L (m):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the breadth of the lake, B (m):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the depth of the lake, d (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the concentration of pollutants entering, Cw (mg/L):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the half-life of pollutants, tw (h):"
Label6.Text = "Enter the flow rate of pollutants, Qw (m3/s):"
Label7.Text = ""
Label8.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim L, B, d, tw, Qw, Cw, Qr, Q, Cr, W, V, t, k, beta As Double
L = Val(TextBox1.Text)
B = Val(TextBox2.Text)
d = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Cw = Val(TextBox4.Text)
tw = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Qw = Val(TextBox6.Text)
'convert to days
tw = tw / 24
'convert to m3/d
Qw = Qw * 3600 * 24
'no flow out of the lake
Qr = 0
Cr = 0
W = Qr * Cr + Qw * Cw
'volume
V = L * B * d
Q = Qr + Qw
'detention time
t = V / Q
k = -Log(tw)
beta = (1 / t) + k
Ceq = W / (beta * V)
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label7.Text = "The equilibrium concentration (mg/L): " + FormatNumber(Ceq,
NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.13.4 DISPOSAL IN ESTUARIES

An estuary signifies the zone where a river meets the sea. Tidal action is assumed to result in a significant
lateral mixing in reaches of the river adjacent to the estuary and increases the amount of mixing and
dispersion of waste disposed along the length of channel. For continuous discharge of waste to an estuary,
the concentration may be determined as presented in the following equation (Metcalf and Eddy 2013):

(5.117)

where:
C is the concentration of waste discharged at time t
Co is the initial concentration in estuary

(5.118)

(5.119)

where:
E is the coefficient of eddy diffusion or turbulent mixing, m2/s
v is the velocity of flow in river (= Q/A), m/s
A is the cross-sectional area, m2
k is the first-order decay constant, day1
W is the pollutant load as determined by Equation 5.114

The positive root for J refers to the upstream (x) direction, and the negative root refers to the
downstream (+x) direction.

Example 5.23
Write a computer program that enables determination of the concentration of a pollutant at any time t
after its disposal to a neighboring estuary, given the relevant parameters.
Solution
See the listing of Program 5.23.
 Listing of Program 5.23 (Chap5.23\Form1.vb): Waste Concentration in
Estuaries

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 5.23: Waste concentration in estuaries
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim A, Q, k, E, W, x, C As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 5.23: Waste
concentration in estuaries"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Enter the cross-sectional area of the river, A (m2):"
Label2.Text = "Enter the flow rate in river, Q (m3/s):"
Label3.Text = "Enter the decay constant, k:"
Label4.Text = "Enter the coefficient of turbulent mixing, E (m2/s):"
Label5.Text = "Enter the pollutant load, W:"

Label6.Text = "Enter the distance where concentration is required, x (m):"

Label7.Text = ""
Label8.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
A = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Q = Val(TextBox2.Text)
k = Val(TextBox3.Text)
E = Val(TextBox4.Text)
W = Val(TextBox5.Text)
x = Val(TextBox6.Text)
Dim v, J, Co As Double
v = Q / A
If x < 0 Then
J = (v / (2 * E)) * (1 + (1 + 4 * k * E / (v ^ 2)) ^ 0.5)
Else
J = (v / (2 * E)) * (1 - (1 + 4 * k * E / (v ^ 2)) ^ 0.5)
End If
Co = W / (Q * (1 + 4 * k * E / (v ^ 2)) ^ 0.5)
C = Co * Exp(J * x)
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label7.Text = "The concentration of wastes: " + FormatNumber(C,
NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

5.14 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN WASTEWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM,

WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY, AND DISPOSAL

5.14.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS

1. What are the various sources of wastewater?
2. Outline the problems associated with sewer systems.
3. Define the following terms: sewer, sewerage system, and storm sewer.
4. What are the functions of sewers?
5. Indicate the classes of sewer systems. Point out the advantages and disadvantages of each
system. Which system would you recommend in your community? State your reasons.
6. What is the difference between the terms sewage and wastewater?
7. Briefly discuss the investigations that need to be carried out during sewer design.
8. Why do industrial and commercial rates of flow of wastewater experience diurnal variations?
9. Indicate the factors influencing design of sewers.
10. What are the benefits of maintaining a minimum flow rate in a sewer?
11. Outline the factors affecting the volume of storm water that must be controlled.
12. Point out the limitations of the rational method.
13. Why is there a need to have greater velocities in storm sewers compared to sanitary sewers?
14. Briefly explain the assumptions used in the design of sanitary sewers.
15. Define the following terms: one-dimensional flow, uniform flow, incompressible flow, steady
flow, quasi-steady flow, continuity equation, Bernoullis equation, momentum principle,
hydraulic radius, laminar flow, and self-cleaning velocity.
16. What are the serious effects of generation of sulfides in sewer operations?
17. Indicate the factors that govern the generation of sulfide in a sanitary sewer.
18. Show how to avoid and control sulfide buildup in a sanitary sewer.
19. Write briefly about the methods of wastewater disposal in rural areas.
20. Define the following terms: septic tank, septage, Imhoff tank, Imhoff cone, and VIP latrine.
21. Outline the differences between a septic tank and an Imhoff tank.
22. Discuss the following statement: The effluent of a septic tank is offensive and potentially
dangerous.
23. What are the factors that affect the design of percolation fields?
24. State which system gives a better effluent, a septic tank or an Imhoff tank? Why? State your
reasons.
25. Discuss the factors that affect the structural design of a reinforced concrete septic tank.
26. What are the pros and cons of using an Imhoff tank?
27. Define the following terms: wastewater, dry weather flow, population equivalent, and grit.
28. What are some of the problems associated with improper disposal of wastewater?
 29. Outline the main sources of wastewater.
30. What are the reasons for the treatment of wastewaters?
31. Differentiate between wastewater treatment unit operations and processes. Give examples of
each.
32. What are the problems associated with grit?
33. What are the reasons for installing secondary treatment units in a sewage treatment facility?
34. Differentiate between fixed-growth and suspended growth systems. Give examples for each.
35. Define the following terms: activated sludge, food-to-microorganisms ratio, volumetric loading
rate, hydraulic loading rate, cell age, sludge volume index, and SDI.
36. What are the factors that affect the activated sludge process?
37. Briefly describe the trickling filter process.
38. What are the merits of recirculating a portion of a treated effluent to a trickling filter unit?
39. Indicate how to estimate the efficiency of the performance of a trickling filter unit.
40. Indicate the assumptions made in the NRC formula for estimating efficiency of a trickling filter.
41. Define the following terms: waste stabilization pond and symbiotic relationship.
42. Differentiate between anaerobic, aerobic, facultative, and maturation waste stabilization ponds.
Indicate the factors affecting design and operation of each.
43. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic digestion. Indicate the factors affecting each.
44. Outline the major methods that can be used to dewater sewage sludges. Indicate the factors that
govern the design and operation of each system. What demerits are to be expected in each
system?
45. Outline the major methods that can be used to dewater sewage sludges. Indicate the factors that
govern the design and operation of each system. What demerits are to be expected in each
system?
46. What are the major factors that influence filterability of sewage sludges?
47. Define the following terms: sludge filtration, specific resistance to filtration, compressibility of
sludge, and sigma equation.
48. What methods can be used to determine the filterability of a sludge sample? What are the
limitations of each method?
49. What are the factors that affect the natural purification processes in a water course?
50. What are the limitations of the dilution law?
51. Show how to differentiate between a clean and a polluted river.
52. What are the effects of untreated wastewater discharges on surface water?
53. What are the main sources for reoxygenation of a river?
54. What are the limitations of the StreeterPhelps model?

5.14.2 SPECIFIC MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1. Using the equations mentioned in this chapter, write a computer program to find the limiting total
sulfide, amount, and dissolved sulfide concentration that can develop in a sanitary sewer. Data
given: the diameter of pipe (ft), the length of sanitary sewer (ft), the flow rate (cfs), the relative
depth of flow, slope, Mannings coefficient, wastewater characteristics, BOD (mg/L), climatic
temperature (C), pH, insoluble sulfide (mg/L), total sulfide (mg/L), and hydraulic
characteristicssurface width of flow (ft), wetted perimeter (ft), exposed perimeter (ft),
 velocity of flow (fps), and mean hydraulic depth (ft).
2. Write a computer program to design a two-component septic tank. The volume of the tank can be
computed from the following equation: V = 180 * POP + 2000, where V is volume of tank in
liters and POP is the number of people to be served by the unit.
3. Write a computer program to design a suitable percolation field for a septic tank serving a
certain number of people.
4. Determine the size of a septic tank and the percolation field for a mobile home park, which has
187 residents. Percolation tests indicate an average percolation rate of 6 mm/min.
5. Expand the computer program of Example 5.5 to enable plotting the plan, side view, and
elevation of the septic tank.
6. a. Write a short computer program to determine the solids content for an activated sludge plant,
given tank aeration volume, V (L/c), MLVSS (mg/L), and sludge wasting rate, Qw (kg/c/day).
b. Using this program, computer the solids content of the plant, given V = 48 L/c, MLVSS =
2400 mg/L, and Qw = 30 g/c/day.
7. a. Write a computer program that can be used to estimate the NRC efficiency of a two-stage
trickling filter unit, given the wastewater flow rate to the plant being Q (m3/s); filter depth, h
(m); influent BOD5, Li (mg/L); recirculation to the first filter, Ru1; recirculation to the second
filter, Ru2; volume of the first filter, V1 (m3); and volume of the second filter, V2 (m3).
b. Use this program to determine the efficiency of a two-stage trickling filter, given the
following data: Q = 3 m3/min, h = 2 m, Li = 215 mg/L, Ru1 = 150% of Q, Ru2 = 125% of Q,
V1 = 250 m3, and V2 = 250 m3. Use the NRC formula to compute the effluent BOD5 of the
two-stage trickling filter unit.
8. a. Write a computer program to design a trickling filter to treat a wastewater flow of Q (m3/s)
with an average BOD of Li (mg/L). The treatment works are assumed to have one single-stage,
high-rate trickling filter with a BOD loading, BOD1 (kg/m3*s), and depth, h (m). The 5-day
BOD20 removal ratio in the primary sedimentation tank and trickling filter is Es and Ef ,
respectively.
b. Use this program to design a trickling filter, given the following data: Q = 1600 m3/day Li =
230 mg/L, h = 2 m, BOD1 = 330 kg/m3/day, Es = 35%, and Ef = 62%.
9. a. Use the NRC equation to write a short computer program to calculate the influent
concentration of BOD of a wastewater, Y, in mg/L, introduced to a trickling filter, given the filter
diameter, D (m); the depth, h (m); the wastewater effluent, Q (m3/s); recirculated flow of Qr
(m3/s); and the final effluent BOD5, Le (mg/L).
b. Use this program to determine Y, given D = 10 m, h = 2.5 m, Q = 0.02 m3/s, Qr = 1.6 m3/min,
and Le = 25 mg/L.
10.a. Write a computer program to compare the dewaterability of two sludges, A and B, which have
the same coefficient of compressibility s. The value of the specific resistance of sludge A at a
pressure of P1 (Pa) is given as rA m/kg. The specific resistance of sludge B is reported as rB
(s2/g) at a pressure of P2 (Pa).
b. Use this program to compare the dewaterability of the two sludges A and B, given s = 0.75,
rA = 2.3 * 1014 m/kg, P1 = 60 kPa, rB = 3.7 * 108 s2/g, P2 = 0.2 MPa.
 11. Expand the computer program of Example 5.21 so that the dissolved oxygen sag curve can be
plotted for a river receiving the treated waste discharges indicated in this example.
12.a. Develop a computer program to determine the effluent 5-day BOD of a treated wastewater Y
(mg/L). The river flows at a rate of qr (m3/h) with a 5-day BOD of BODr (mg/L) and is x%
saturated with oxygen. The wastewater effluent is discharged to the river at a rate of Qw (m3/s)
with a 5-day BOD of Y (mg/L), and it is z% saturated with dissolved oxygen. The critical
oxygen deficit amounts to DOc (mg/L). Temperatures are Tr and Tw degrees Celsius for the river
water and wastewater effluent, respectively.
b. Use the program developed in 12a to determine the value of Y and the dissolved oxygen
deficit after 3 days for the following data: Qr = 1800 m3/h, BODr = 1 mg/L, x = 100%, Qw =
2 m3/min, z = 10%, DOc = 2.5 mg/L, Tr = Tw = 20C, k = 0.1/d, and k = 0.4/day.

REFERENCES
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Abdel-Magid, I. M. 1986. Selected Problems in Wastewater Engineering. Khartoum, Sudan: National Research Council, Khartoum
University Press.
Abdel-Magid, I. M., and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M. 2015. Problem Solving in Environmental Engineering. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace
Independent Publishing Platform, Second version, improved, updated and revised.
Abdel-Magid, I. M., Alderdiri, A. M., and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M. 2015. Wastewater (Arabic Edition), 2nd ed. North Charleston, SC:
CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
American Water Works Association and American Society of Civil Engineers. 2012. Water Treatment Plant Design, 5th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill Professional.
Barnes, D., Bliss, P. J., Gould, B. W., and Vallentine, H. R. 1981. Water and Wastewater Engineering Systems. Marshfield, MA: Pitman
Publishing.
Berger, B. B. (Ed.). 1987. Control of Organic Substances in Water and Wastewater. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publishing.
Bizier, P. 2007. Gravity Sanitary Sewer Design and Construction (ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 60), 2nd ed.
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Carman, P. C. 1938. Fundamental principles of industrial filtration. Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 16:168188.
Coackley, P. 1953. The dewatering treatment. PhD thesis, London University.
Coackley, P. 1955. Research on sewage sludge carried out in the Civil Engineering Department of the University College London. J. Proc.
Instit. Sewage Purification 1:5972.
Coackley, P. 1965. The theory and practice of sludge dewatering. J. Instit. Public Health Eng. 64(1):34.
Coackley, P. 1967. Sludge dewatering treatment. Proc. Biochem. 2(3):17.
Coackley, P. 1975. Development in Our Knowledge of Sludge Dewatering Behavior. 8th Public Health Engineering Conference held in the
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Loughborough University of Technology, 5.
Coackley, P., and Allos, R. 1962. The drying characteristics of some sewage sludges. J. Proc. Inst. Sewage Purification 6:557.
Davis, M. L., and Cornwell, D. A. 2006. Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill
Science/Engineering/Math.
Fair, G. M., Geyer, J. C., and Okun, D. A. 1966. Water and Wastewater Engineering, Vols I and II. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Fair, G. M., Morris, F. C., Chang, S. L., Weil, I., and Burden, R. A. 1948. The behavior of chlorine as a water disinfectant. J. Am. Water
Works Assoc. 40:1051.
Ganczarczyk, J. J. 1983. Activated Sludge Process: Theory and Practices. Pollution Engineering and Technology Series No. 23. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
Gunnerson, C. G., and Stuckey, D. C. 1986. Integrated Resources Recovery: Anaerobic Digestion Principles and Practice for Biogas
Systems. Technical Paper Number 49. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Hammer, M. J. Sr., and Hammer, M. J. Jr. 2011. Water and Wastewater Technology, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Health Education Services. 1990. Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities: Policies for the Design, Review, and Approval of
Plans and Specifications for Wastewater Collection and Treatment Facilities. Report of the Wastewater Committee of the Great
Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environmental Managers, Albany.
Hicks, T. 2014. Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Howe, K. J., Hand, D. W., Crittenden, J. C., and Trussell, R. R. 2012. Principles of Water Treatment, 1st ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons.
James, A. 1984. An Introduction to Water Quality Modeling. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Jerry, A., and Nathanson, P.E. 2007. Basic Environmental Technology: Water Supply, Waste Management & Pollution Control, 5th ed.
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Jonathan Ricketts, J., Loftin, M., and Frederick, M. 2003. Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill
Professional.
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Mara, D. 1980. Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Mays, L. W. 2010. Water Resources Engineering, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
McGhee, T. J., and Steel, E. W. 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill College.
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 6 Computer Modeling Applications for Municipal Solid Waste Classification,
Quantities, Properties, Collection, Processing, Material Separation, and Cost
Estimates

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Municipal solid waste (MSW) could be defined as a heterogeneous collection of residential throwaways
from a certain community, as well as the more homogeneous accumulations of commercial, agricultural,
industrial, and mineral wastes. Otherwise it may be defined as materials that do not represent major
outputs of market product and serve no productive or consumptive purpose to its producer, which justifies
its disposal. Generally, a solid waste represents those things that are unwanted, useless, of no added
value, and not needed by someone (Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015a; Worrell and Vesilind 2012).
The sources of solid waste, garbage, and sweeping vary, and they include agricultural, building and
construction, commercial and offices, demolition, domestic from homes, educational institutional
hospitals, housing, industrial, mining, open markets, restaurants, shops, and so on. Table 6.1 gives
examples of the main sources and types of production units of solid waste and garbage. Variation in solid
waste generation depends on many intervening factors such as location, season, climate and
meteorological parameters, socioeconomic conditions and behavior, population and demographical
aspects, and market for waste materials.
Equation 6.1 illustrates a rough estimate for the amount of MSW or refuse generated from a certain
community:

(6.1)

or

(6.2)

where C&D is the construction and demolition.

Refuse can be defined in terms of as-generated and as-collected solid waste. The refuse generated
includes all of the wastes produced by a household. Often some part of the refuse, especially organic
matter and yard waste, is composted on premises. The fraction of refuse that is generated but not collected
is called diverted refuse. The as-generated refuse is always larger than the as-collected refuse, and the
difference is the diverted refuse:

(6.3)
Example 6.1
1. Given annually generated fractions of a MSW from a certain community, write a short
computer program that calculates the percentage of diversion of the solid waste produced.
2. A certain community generates annually the quantities of MSW presented in the following
table:

Fraction of Waste Produced Tons per Year

Commercial waste 60
C&D debris 120
Leaves and miscellaneous 50
Mixed house waste 200
Recyclables 40

Generated recyclables are collected separately and processed at a materials recovery

facility (MRF). Both mixed household and commercial wastes are dumped at the
municipality landfill, as do the leaves and miscellaneous solid wastes. The C&D wastes are
used to fill a large ravine located in the area. Calculate the percentage of diversion.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.1 (1), see the listing of Program 6.1.
2. Given: MSW annual quantities in tons.

TABLE 6.1
Sources and Types of Production Units of Solid Waste
Type of Solid Waste Production Units Source of
Waste
Spoiled food wastes, agricultural waste, Field, raw crops, and different farm types from planting farms, harvesting of Agricultural
rubbish, hazardous materials fields, livestock farms producing dairy, butter and cheese, meat, slaughterhouses,
fruit orchards vineyards squares, laboratories, experimental fields, feedlots, and
so on.
Food waste, rubbish, ashes, demolition and Many of the items as generated by household waste that may arise from design Commercial
construction waste, special waste, health facilities, hotels, maintenance workshops and warehouses, markets, offices
hazardous waste and office buildings, stores, shops, printing institutions, rest houses, restaurants,
hotels and motels, auto repair shops, medical facilities, and so on
Pathological and infectious, remains of Radioactive materials, chemical, biomaterial, hospitals and medical waste, Hazardous
experimental animals, corpses, remnants of household hazardous waste, and so on waste
drugs, poisons and chemicals, and
containers, and so on
Food waste, rubbish, ashes, demolition and Refuse from construction, demolition and ruins of buildings, light and heavy Industrial
construction wastes, special waste, manufacturing fabrications, oil refineries, chemical plants, power plants, sources
hazardous waste, bricks, concrete, dust, of metals production and processing, mining, logging, and so on
stones, mortar, outputs of refrigeration and
air conditioning, plumbing, electricity,
water, phone and networks connections,
and so on
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers and departments Institutional
wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
 hazardous wastes.
Damaged computers, peripherals and Industrial domains, hardware units of information revolution, technology updates Other waste
software, CD plastic, DVDs, and so on products
Food waste, rubbish, garbage, ashes, special Single and multifamily dwellings, houses, low medium, and high-rise apartments, Residential
waste villas, and so on having mixed household and residential waste, garbage, food or
waste, and recyclables (such as newspapers, aluminum cans, steel cans, milk domestic
cartons, plastic soft drink bottles, corrugated cardboard, and other material MSW
collected by the community) from
residential
homes,
community
Special waste, rubbish Sweeping (thrown on the side of road from users), damaged cars placed on both Square and
sides of road, cleanliness of streets, alleys, parks, playgrounds, beaches, bathing open areas
and recreational areas, squares, highways, gardens litter, and waste from Street
community trash cans produced by individuals, municipal containers, debris and refuse
rubble, dead animals (small animalssuch as pets like cats, dogs, rabbits, and
turtlesand big animalssuch as horses, sheep, donkeys, and cattle
Treatment plant wastes, principally Water and wastewater treatment processes, solid waste treatment, purification Treatment
composed of residuals, sludge, and so on plants, industrial wastewater treatment processes, and air pollution and control plant sites
plants
Bulky refuse items, large household Bicycles, furniture, old and used cars, damaged vehicles, refrigerators and gas and White waste
applications such as refrigerators, stoves, electric stoves, rugs, and so on
air conditioners, washing machines, and so
on
Tree branches, leaves, seeds and so on Originating with individual households and animal waste Yard (or
green)
waste

Source: From Blackman, W. C. 2001. Basic Hazardous Waste Management, 3rd ed. CRC Press; de Bertoldi, M., (Ed.). 1996.
Science of Composting. Springer; CEHA. 1995. Solid waste management in some countries of the Eastern Mediterranean
region. CEHA Document No., Special studies, ss-4. Amman, Jordan: WHO, Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, Regional
Centre for Environmental Health Activities; Ojovan, M. I., (Ed.). 2011. Handbook of Advanced Radioactive Waste
Conditioning Technologies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing; Walsh, P. and OLeary, P. 1986. Implementing Municipal
Solid Waste to Energy Systems. University of WisconsinExtension for Great Lakes Regional Biogas Energy Program;
Worrell, W. A. and Vesilind, P. A. 2012. Solid Waste Engineering. CL-Engineering Pub.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.1 (CHAP6.1\FORM1.VB): DIVERSION OF

SOLID WASTE

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 6.1: Calculates percentage of diversion of solid waste.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 6.1: Calculates
percentage of diversion of solid waste."
Me.FormBorderStyle = BorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
RadioButton1.Text = "Calculate MSW (municipal solid waste):"
RadioButton2.Text = "Calculate as fraction of refuse (mixed household and
commercial waste):"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Label1.Text = "Recyclables (ton per year):"
Label2.Text = "Construction and demolition debris (ton per year):"
Label3.Text = "Leaves and miscellaneous (ton per year):"
Label4.Text = "Mixed house waste (ton per year):"
Label5.Text = "Commercial waste (ton per year):"
Label6.Text = "Recyclables (ton per year):"
Label8.Text = "Mixed house waste (ton per year):"
Label9.Text = "Commercial waste (ton per year):"
Label7.Text = "The formula is:" + vbCrLf
Label7.Text += "MSW, municipal solid waste = (refuse) + construction and
demolition waste "
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + " + leaves + bulky items"
Label10.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged changeDisplay()
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged changeDisplay()
End Sub
'******************************************************************************
'Enables/disables the textboxes and their
'labels according to which radiobutton is selected.
'******************************************************************************
Sub changeDisplay()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
Label1.Enabled = True
Label2.Enabled = True
Label3.Enabled = True
Label4.Enabled = True
Label5.Enabled = True
Label6.Enabled = False
Label8.Enabled = False
Label9.Enabled = False
TextBox1.Enabled = True
TextBox2.Enabled = True
TextBox3.Enabled = True
TextBox4.Enabled = True
TextBox5.Enabled = True
TextBox6.Enabled = False
TextBox7.Enabled = False
TextBox8.Enabled = False
Else
Label1.Enabled = False
Label2.Enabled = False
Label3.Enabled = False
Label4.Enabled = False
Label5.Enabled = False
Label6.Enabled = True
Label8.Enabled = True
Label9.Enabled = True
TextBox1.Enabled = False
TextBox2.Enabled = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
TextBox4.Enabled = False
TextBox5.Enabled = False
TextBox6.Enabled = True
TextBox7.Enabled = True
TextBox8.Enabled = True
End If
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim tot, rec, CD, leaves, mixed, comm, div As Double
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
'calculate MSW
rec = Val(TextBox1.Text)
CD = Val(TextBox2.Text)
leaves = Val(TextBox3.Text)
mixed = Val(TextBox4.Text)
comm = Val(TextBox5.Text)
tot = rec + CD + leaves + mixed + comm
div = (rec + CD + leaves) / tot * 100
Label10.Text = "Diversion = (" + rec.ToString + "+" + CD.ToString + "+" +
_
leaves.ToString + ")/" + tot.ToString + "*100 = " + Format(div,
"##.#").ToString + "%"
Else
'calculate fraction of refuse
rec = Val(TextBox6.Text)
mixed = Val(TextBox7.Text)
comm = Val(TextBox8.Text)
tot = mixed + comm
div = rec / tot * 100
Label10.Text = "Diversion = " + rec.ToString + "/(" + mixed.ToString + "+"
+ _
comm.ToString + ")" + "*100 = " + Format(div, "##.#").ToString + "%"
End If
End Sub
 End Class

a. If the calculation is on basis of MSW, the total waste generated is (200 + 40 + 60 + 120 + 50)
= 470 tons per year. If everything not going to the landfill is counted as having been diverted,
the diversion is calculated as
b. If the diversion is calculated as that fraction of the refuse (mixed household and commercial
waste) that has been kept out of the landfill by the recycling program, the diversion is

Properties and characteristics of MSW have a significant impact and govern the design of solid waste
collection systems, treatment and disposal plants, operation and maintenance schedules, and management
and performance of units and facilities. Notable MSW properties constitute physical, chemical, and
biological aspects. Physical and material properties of solid waste affect the design of storage equipment
and waste collection, separation, transfer, transpiration, and treatment. Physical properties may include
grain size and distribution, material components, use of solid waste material fractions, degree of purity,
contents of solid waste, moisture content, grain size calorific value, weight, density, and mechanical
properties. Chemical properties may include chemical composition and content, chemical properties and
characteristics, toxicity, and so on. Biological properties may refer to biodegradability, degree of
decomposition, nutrients content, and so on.
Properties of MSW of significance and interest include the following:

1. Physical properties:
b. Composition by identifiable items (steel cans, office paper, etc.) Weight
a.
c. Density
d. Moisture content
e. Particle size and grain size distribution
f. Heat and calorific values
g. Angle of stability
h. Mechanical properties to evaluate alternative processes and options for energy recovery by
2. focusing on pressure stress, stressstrain curve for some materials, and modulus of elasticity
Chemical properties:
b. Chemical composition: carbon, hydrogen, and concentration of metals Proximate analysis
a.
c. Fusing point of ash
d. Ultimate analysis (major elements)
e. Compositional analysis
f. Calorimetry
g. Energy content
h. Volatile solids lost upon ignition
i. pH value
 j. Toxic elements
k. Nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus)

3. Biological properties (biodegradability) Benefits of MSW properties may be summarized as

follows: Knowledge of hazardous and harmful substances that may be present for appropriate
sorting and ultimate disposal Estimation of combustible materials for incineration and energy
recovery Evaluation of recyclables for augmentation of recycling plans Quantifying tons of
special (hazardous) waste materials generated for controlled disposal or sanitary landfilling
Assessment of useful organic materials for production of gas from a landfill for some beneficial
use 6.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTE

6.2.1 MOISTURE CONTENT

The moisture content becomes important when the refuse is processed into fuel or when it is fired
directly. Moisture content influences many MSW properties of importance. The extent of this effect
depends on the material. When the moisture level exceeds 50%, the high organic fraction can undergo
spontaneous combustion if the material is allowed to stand undisturbed (Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid
2015b; Worrell and Vesilind 2012).
Moisture content, on a wet basis, is found as presented in the following equation:

(6.4)

where:
M is the moisture content (on a wet basis), %
Ww is the initial (wet) weight of sample
Wd is the final (dry) weight of the sample

Moisture content may be evaluated on a dry weight basis as shown in the following equation:

(6.5)

where:
Md is the moisture content (on a dry basis), %

Table 6.2 gives the moisture content of uncompacted refuse components TABLE 6.2
Moisture Content of Uncompacted Refuse Components
Component Moisture Content
Range Typical
Residential
Aluminum cans 24 3
Cardboard 48 5

Ferrous metals 26 3
Fines (dirt, etc.) 612 8
Food waste 5080 70
Garden trimmings 3080 60
Glass 14 2
Grass 4080 60
Leather 812 10
Leaves 2040 30
Nonferrous metal 24 2
Paper 410 6
Plastics 14 2
Rubber 14 2
Steel cans 24 3
Textiles 615 10
Wood 1540 20
Yard waste 3080 60
Commercial

Construction (mixed) 215 8

Dirt, ashes, bricks, and so on 612 8
Food waste 5080 70
Mixed organics 1060 25
Mixed 1025 15
Municipal waste 1540
Wooden shipping crates and plant scales 1030 30

Source: From de Bertoldi, M., (Ed.). 1996. Science of Composting. Springer; CEHA. 1995. Solid waste management in some countries of
the Eastern Mediterranean region. CEHA Document No., Special studies, ss-4. Amman, Jordan: WHO, Eastern Mediterranean
Regional Office, Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities; Ojovan, M. I., (Ed.). 2011. Handbook of Advanced
Radioactive Waste Conditioning Technologies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing; Walsh, P. and OLeary, P. 1986. Implementing
Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Systems. University of WisconsinExtension for Great Lakes Regional Biogas Energy
Program; Worrell, W. A. and Vesilind, P. A. 2012. Solid Waste Engineering. CL-Engineering Pub.

Example 6.2
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating moisture concentration of a certain
solid waste using the typical values.
2. A residential waste has the components presented in the table. Estimate its moisture
concentration using the typical values.
Food 30%
Garden trimmings 10%
Leather 10%
Paper 40%
Steel cans 10%

3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution
Assume a wet sample weighing 100 lb. Set up the tabulation:
Component % Moisture from Table Dry Weight (based on 100 lb.)
Food 30 70 9
Garden trimmings 10 60 4
Leather 10 10 9
Paper 40 6 37.5
Steel cans 10 3 9.7
Total 100 69.2

The moisture content (on a wet basis) would then be (100 69.2)/100 = 31%.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.2 (CHAP6.2\FORM1.VB): MOISTURE

CONCENTRATION OF SOLID WASTE
'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.2: Moisture concentration of solid waste
'using the typical values.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim comp(27) As String
Dim moist(27) As Integer
Dim moistC As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.2: Moisture
concentration of solid waste"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Select component:"
Label2.Text = "Percentage:"
Label3.Text = "Moisture (from Table):"
Label4.Text = "Dry weight (based on 100lb.):"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = "Decimal places:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
'DATA FROM TABLE 6.2
comp(0) = "Residential"
comp(1) = " Aluminum cans"
comp(2) = " Cardboard"
comp(3) = " Fines (dirt, etc.)"
comp(4) = " Food waste"
comp(5) = " Glass"
comp(6) = " Grass"
comp(7) = " Leather"
comp(8) = " Nonferrous metal"
comp(9) = " Leaves"
comp(10) = " Paper"
comp(11) = " Plastics"
comp(12) = " Ferrous metals"
comp(13) = " Rubber"
comp(14) = " Steel cans"
comp(15) = " Textiles"
comp(16) = " Wood"
comp(17) = " Yard waste"
comp(18) = " Garden trimmings"
comp(19) = " Commercial"
comp(20) = " Food waste"
comp(21) = " Mixed organics"
comp(22) = " Mixed"
comp(23) = " Wooden shipping crates and plant scales"
comp(24) = " Construction (mixed)"
comp(25) = " Dirt, ashes, bricks, etc."
comp(26) = " Municipal waste"
comp(27) = "Select component"
'MOISTURE CONTENT FROM TABLE 6.2
moist(0) = 0
moist(1) = 3
moist(2) = 5
moist(3) = 8


moist(4) = 70
moist(5) = 2
moist(6) = 60
moist(7) = 10
moist(8) = 2
moist(9) = 30
moist(10) = 6
moist(11) = 2
moist(12) = 3
moist(13) = 2
moist(14) = 3
moist(15) = 10
moist(16) = 20
moist(17) = 60
moist(18) = 60
moist(19) = 0
moist(20) = 70
moist(21) = 25
moist(22) = 15
moist(23) = 30
moist(24) = 8
moist(25) = 8
moist(26) = 0
'ADD THE ITEMS INTO THE COMBOBOXES
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox2.Items.Clear()
ComboBox3.Items.Clear()
ComboBox4.Items.Clear()
ComboBox5.Items.Clear()
ComboBox6.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox2.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox3.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox4.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox5.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox6.Items.AddRange(comp)
'DISABLE THE TEXTBOXES
TextBox2.Enabled = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
TextBox4.Enabled = False
TextBox5.Enabled = False
TextBox7.Enabled = False
TextBox8.Enabled = False
TextBox10.Enabled = False
TextBox11.Enabled = False
TextBox13.Enabled = False
TextBox14.Enabled = False
TextBox16.Enabled = False
TextBox17.Enabled = False
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim i, M, Ww, Wd As Double
Dim totalWW, totalWd As Double
totalWd = 0
totalWW = 0
'Calculate the dry weights of the components
i = ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox1.Text)
M = Val(TextBox2.Text)

Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
TextBox3.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox2.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox6.Text)
M = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
TextBox4.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox3.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox9.Text)
M = Val(TextBox8.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
TextBox7.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox4.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox12.Text)
M = Val(TextBox11.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
TextBox10.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox5.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox15.Text)
M = Val(TextBox14.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
TextBox13.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox6.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox18.Text)
M = Val(TextBox17.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
TextBox16.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
moistC = ((totalWW - totalWd) / totalWW) * 100
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label5.Text = "The moisture content (wet basis) = " + FormatNumber(moistC,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + "%"
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged 'enter
the moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the 'moisture' field
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 27 Then 'These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox2.Text = ""
Else

TextBox2.Text = moist(ComboBox1.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox2_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox2.SelectedIndexChanged 'enter
the moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the 'moisture' field
If ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 27 Then 'These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox5.Text = ""
Else
TextBox5.Text = moist(ComboBox2.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox3_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox3.SelectedIndexChanged 'enter
the moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the 'moisture' field
If ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 27 Then 'These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox8.Text = ""
Else
TextBox8.Text = moist(ComboBox3.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox4_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox4.SelectedIndexChanged 'enter
the moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the 'moisture' field
If ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 27 Then 'These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox11.Text = ""
Else
TextBox11.Text = moist(ComboBox4.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox5_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox5.SelectedIndexChanged 'enter
the moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the 'moisture' field
If ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 27 Then 'These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox14.Text = ""
Else
TextBox14.Text = moist(ComboBox5.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox6_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox6.SelectedIndexChanged 'enter
the moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the 'moisture' field
If ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 27 Then

'These are items not to be selected by the user, so clear the textbox
and exit sub TextBox17.Text = ""
Else
TextBox17.Text = moist(ComboBox6.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.2.2 PARTICLE SIZE

Particle size of solid waste is of paramount importance to the recovery of materials especially with
mechanical means (trammel* screens and magnetic separators). This is besides its significant role in
treatment, reuse, and recycling operations. Particle size of solid waste has its effect on physicomechanical
characteristics of particles such as compressibility, flowability, packing, and porosity (Abdel-Magid
2012). Particle size distribution may be accurately expressed in a graphical format. Nonetheless, several
mathematical expressions are used for its exemplification. In water engineering, the particle size of a sand
filter is usually expressed using the uniformity coefficient concept, defined as presented in the following
equation:

(6.6)

where:
UC is the uniformity coefficient
D60 is the particle (sieve) size where 60% of the particles are smaller than that size D10 is the particle
(sieve) size where 10% of the particles are smaller than that size Correlation between the quantity of a
particulate material and its particle size may be determined via GatesGaudinSchuhmann function as
shown in Equation 6.7. A distribution following this equation gives a straight line in a logarithmic plot
(Masato Nakamura, Castaldi and Themelis 2005):

(6.7)

where:
D is the cumulative passing weight, %
d is the particle size
do is the maximum particle size
k is the dimensionless exponent

RosinRammlerSperlingBennett (RRSB) function likewise describes cumulative weight fraction

passing a certain sieve size as presented in Equation 6.8. RRSB function is particularly appropriate for
materials that do not have a defined upper size limit (Masato Nakamura, Castaldi and Themelis 2005):

(6.8)

where:
 D is the cumulative passing weight fraction
d is the particle size
d and n are the characteristics of the material studied and must be determined by analyzing the data
obtained. This can conveniently be done by data regression after appropriate manipulation or using
especially constructed charts, from which the two parameters could be read off after plotting size data
obtained by sieving or other means (Masato Nakamura, Castaldi and Themelis 2005).

6.2.3 PERMEABILITY OF COMPACTED WASTE

Permeability is an important parameter in the treatment of solid waste as in the design of leachate
collection and recirculation system. Hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes governs the movement
of fluids, liquids, and gases in a solid waste facility such as a sanitary landfill. It permits the passage of
fluid through its interconnected pore spaces (von Blottnitz, Pehlken and Pretz 2002). Coefficient of
permeability may be determined as depicted in the following equation:

(6.9)

where:
K is the coefficient of permeability
Cd is the constant or shape factor, dimensionless
is the specific weight of water
is the dynamic viscosity of water
k is the intrinsic permeability (or specific permeability) = Cd2 (Typical values for the intrinsic
permeability for compacted solid waste in a landfill are in the range between ~1011 and 1012 m2 in the
vertical direction and ~1010 m2 in the horizontal direction).

6.2.4 APPARENT DENSITY

Apparent density may be used in estimating the amount of solid waste in some cases. Likewise, the
property is used to assess requirements of a sanitary landfill cover material. The apparent density of solid
waste and garbage varies greatly with exerted pressure, degree of compaction, level of economic
development, concentration of produced waste products, geographic location, and season of the year and
solid waste storage time.
Overall bulk density for a mixture of materials in a container may be estimated by knowing the bulk
density of each substance, separately. For a mixture of two materials (A) and (B), the bulk density of the
mixture can be estimated as shown in the following equation:

(6.10)

where:
c = A+B is the bulk density of the mixture of material (A) and material (B) A is the bulk density of
material (A)
 B is the bulk density of material (B)
VA is the volume of material (A)
VB is the volume of material (B)

Bulk density of the mixture of materials can also be estimated by the mass of materials from the
following equation:

(6.11)

where M is the mass of the material (pounds or tons in the American Standard System or kilograms or
tons in the SI system).*

6.2.5 ANGLE OF REPOSE

The angle of repose is (see Figure 6.1) the angle to the horizontal to which the material will stack without
sliding or slumping. Sand, for example, depending on its moisture content, has an angle of repose of ~35.
Due to variable density, moisture, and particle size, the angle of repose of shredded refuse can vary from
45 to >90 (Walsh and OLeary 1986).

FIGURE 6.1 Angle of repose.

6.2.6 SIZE OF REDUCTION IN VOLUME (REDUCTION VOLUME)

In design and operation when packaging or compacting solid waste in a landfill, it is of value computing
size of reduction in volume as outlined in the following equation:

(6.12)

where:
F is the volume of reduction (remaining ratios of original size as a result of compaction) V0 is the
original size (initial)
Vc is the volume after compaction

Relationship of reduction volume to apparent density can be found from the following equation:
 (6.13)

where:
o is the original apparent density
c is the apparent density after compaction

Example 6.3
1. Write a short computer program that enables estimating the percent age of volume reduction
achieved during compaction of the waste.
2. Assume that a certain solid waste has the components and bulk densities depicted in the
following table:
Table of Solid Waste Components and Bulk Densities
Component Percentage (by Weight) Apparent Density before Compaction (g/cm3 )
Aluminum 10 0.04
Glass 5 0.30
Various papers 15 0.06
Food waste 70 0.4

a. For a compaction of landfill of 700 kg/m3, find the percentage of volume reduction achieved
upon compacting this solid waste.
b. Determine the total apparent density before compaction by removing various paper components.
Estimate the percentage of volume reduction achieved.
c. Comment on your results.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).

Hint: Use the following equations for estimating bulk density and percentage of volume reduction of
a mixture of solid waste, respectively.

Solution

1. The overall bulk density prior to compaction is

 a. The volume reduction achieved during compaction is

b. So the required landfill volume is ~31% of the volume required without compaction. If the
mixed paper is removed, the uncompacted density would be as follows:

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.3 (CHAP6.3\FORM1.VB): VOLUME

REDUCTION OF COMPACTED SOLID WASTE

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.3: Estimates percent volume reduction achieved
'during compaction of the waste
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim comp() As String
Dim perc(), dens() As Double
Dim rho, rhoc, F As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Me.Text = "Program 6.3: Volume reduction"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Program 6.3: Estimates percent volume reduction achieved "
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "during compaction of the waste"
Label2.Text = "Enter each component's name, percentage, and bulk density:"
Label3.Text = "Enter the compaction in the landfill (kg/cm3):"
Label4.Text = ""
Label5.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CCol", "Component")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("PCol", "% (by weight)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("DCol", "Bulk density (gm/cm3)")
DataGridView1.AutoResizeColumns()
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
If DataGridView1.RowCount <= 1 Then
MsgBox("Enter at least one component!", vbOKOnly, "Error")
Exit Sub
End If
Dim count As Integer = DataGridView1.RowCount - 1
Dim nom, denom As Double
ReDim comp(count), perc(count), dens(count)
For i = 0 To count - 1
comp(i) = DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("CCol").Value
perc(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("PCol").Value)
dens(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("DCol").Value)
Next
nom = 0
denom = 0
For i = 0 To count - 1
nom += perc(i)
denom += perc(i) / dens(i)
Next
rho = nom / denom
rhoc = Val(TextBox1.Text) / 1000
F = rho / rhoc
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Dim decimals = NumericUpDown1.Value
If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
Label4.Text = "The overall bulk density prior to compaction:"
Label4.Text += FormatNumber(rho, decimals) + (" gm/cm3")
Label4.Text += vbCrLf + "The volume reduction achieved during compaction:
"
Label4.Text += FormatNumber(F, decimals)
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged (ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.2.7 MATERIAL ABRASIVENESS

MSW and refuse consist of different types of abrasive particles and grains such as sand, glass, metals,
and rocks. Removal of this abrasive material is often necessary before some operations (such as
pneumatic conveying) can become practical (Walsh and OLeary 1986).

6.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTE

Chemical properties of solid waste are of value in economics of material or energy recovery. Chemical
components of solid waste have a significant variability and change due to the heterogeneity of solid
waste, geographical location, and temporal changes. Typically, solid wastes represent a combination of
semimoist combustible and noncombustible materials. When using solid waste as a fuel, its chemical
properties of significance include the fusing point of ash, proximate analysis, ultimate analysis (major
elements), and energy content.

6.3.1 FUSION POINT OF ASH (ASH FUSIBILITY)

The fusion point of ash may be defined as the temperature at which the ash resulting from the burning of
waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration. Typical fusion temperatures for the
formation of clinker from solid waste range from 1100C to 1200C.

6.3.2 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

Proximate analyses are to determine percentage (fraction) of volatile organics and fixed carbon in solid
waste and garbage (fuel).

6.3.3 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

Ultimate analysis uses the chemical makeup of the fuel to approximate its heat value, and it depends on
elemental composition.

6.3.4 VOLATILE SOLIDS

Volatile solids can be estimated upon ignition at a temperature of 550C for 4 h and then cooling in a
dryer. Loss in weight represents volatile organics, which includes disintegrating organic material and
nondecomposable material as reflected in the following equations:

(6.14)
 (6.15)

where:
VO is the volatile organics
D is the disintegrating organic material
ND is the nondecomposable material

6.3.5 HEAT VALUE OF REFUSE

Heat value of refuse is of paramount importance in resource recovery. Heat value is expressed as British
thermal unit per pound, Btu*/lb, of refuse, or kJ/kg in the SI system of units. Heat value of refuse and other
heterogeneous materials may be measured with a calorimeter. A calorimeter is a device in which a
sample is combusted, and the temperature rise is recorded. Knowing the mass of the sample and the heat
generated by the combustion, the Btu/lb is calculated.
The most popular method using ultimate analysis is the DuLong equation, which originally was
developed for estimating the heat value of coal.
Energy values of solid waste and garbage can be estimated by using DuLong formula as shown in the
following equation:

(6.16)

where:
C is carbon, %
H is hydrogen, %
O is oxygen, %
S is sulfur, %

The DuLong formula is cumbersome to use in practice, and it does not give acceptable estimates of heat
value for materials other than coal. Total energy content may be determined using the modified DuLong
formula as presented in the following equation:

(6.17)

where:
Btu/lb is the total energy
C is carbon, % by weight
H2 is hydrogen, % by weight
O2 is oxygen, % by weight
S is sulfur, % by weight
N is nitrogen, % by weight

Table 6.3 is an illustration of ideal data for final analysis of components of a combustible MSW.
TABLE 6.3
Ideal Data for Final Analysis of Components of a Combustible MSW
Component Percentages by Mass (on Dry Bases)
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ash
Food waste 0.048 6.4 37.6 2.6 0.4 0.05
Paper 43.5 0.06 0.044 0.3 0.2 0.06
Cardboard 0.044 5.9 44.6 0.3 0.2 0.05
Plastics 0.060 7.2 22.8 10.0
Textiles 0.055 6.6 31.2 4.6 0.15 2.5
Rubber 0.078 10.0 0.02 0.010
Leather 0.060 8.0 11.6 0.010 0.4 10.0
Garden trimmings 47.8 6.0 0.038 3.4 0.3 4.5
Timber 49.5 0.06 42.7 0.2 0.1 1.5
Mixture of organic materials 48.5 6.5 37.5 2.2 0.3 0.05
Dirt, ash, bricks, and so on 26.3 0.03 0.02 0.5 0.2 68.0

Source: From Blackman, W. C. 2001. Basic Hazardous Waste Management, 3rd ed. CRC Press; de Bertoldi, M., (Ed.). 1996. Science of
Composting. Springer; CEHA. 1995. Solid waste management in some countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region. CEHA
Document No., Special studies, ss-4. Amman, Jordan: WHO, Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, Regional Centre for
Environmental Health Activities; Ojovan, M. I., (Ed.). 2011. Handbook of Advanced Radioactive Waste Conditioning
Technologies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing; Walsh, P. and OLeary, P. 1986. Implementing Municipal Solid Waste to Energy
Systems. University of WisconsinExtension for Great Lakes Regional Biogas Energy Program; Worrell, W. A. and Vesilind, P. A.
2012. Solid Waste Engineering. CL-Engineering Pub.

Another equation for estimating the heat value of refuse using ultimate analysis is illustrated in the
following equation:

(6.18)

where C, H, O, S, and N are the weight percentages (on a dry basis) of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulfur, and nitrogen, respectively, in the combustible fraction of the fuel. The sum of all of these
percentages has to add to 100%.
Formulas based on compositional analyses are an improvement over formulas based on ultimate
analyses. One such formula is indicated in the following equation:

(6.19)

where:
R is the plastics, % by weight of total MSW, on a dry basis
G is the food waste, % by weight of total MSW, on a dry basis
P is the paper, % by weight of total MSW, on a dry basis
W is the water, % by weight, on a dry basis

Using regression analysis and comparing the results to actual measurements of heat value, an improved
form of a compositional model is suggested by the following equation:

(6.20)
where:
R is the plastics, % by weight, on a dry basis
P is the paper, % by weight, on a dry basis
G is the food waste, % by weight, on a dry basis
W is the water, % by weight, on a dry basis.

Example 6.4
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the approximate chemical formula
of the organic component of a sample composition of a solid waste using chemical
composition obtained to estimate the energy content of this solid waste.
2. Find the approximate chemical formula of the organic component of the sample composition
of a solid waste as set out in the following table. Use chemical composition obtained to
estimate the energy content of this solid waste.
Component Percentage by Mass
Garden trimmings 10
Food waste 25
Timber 5
Paper 33
Cardboard 15
Rubber 7
Tin cans 5
Total sum 100

Determine the total organic composition of the solid waste assuming a mass of 100 kg of the sample
as shown in the following table:
Component Mass (kg)
Carbon 34
Hydrogen 5
Oxygen 26
Nitrogen 0.6
Sulfur 0.1
Ash 4

3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the computer program that enables calculating the approximate chemical formula of
Example 6.4 (1), see the listing of Program 6.4: chemical composition and energy content of
solid waste.
2. Determine the dry mass to solid waste sample assuming a mass of 100 kg of solid waste as
shown in the following table (column 4):
Composition (1) Percentage by Mass (2) Moisture Content (%) (from Table) (3) Dry Mass (kg) (4)
Garden trimmings 10 60 4
Food waste 25 75 7.5
Wood 5 20 4
Paper 33 6 31.02
Cardboard 14.25 5 15
Rubber 7 2 6.86
Tin cans 5 3 4.85
Total 100

Determine the dry mass of mixture without tin cans: 67.63%.

Determine the moisture content of mixture: 27.37.
3. The following table illustrates a summary of data of total organic composition of the solid
waste assuming a mass of 100 kg of the sample.
Change the moisture content (H2O) in the previous step to hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen = 3.04; oxygen = 24.33
Component Mass (kg)
Moisture content 28.62%
Carbon 34
Hydrogen 8.04
Oxygen 50.33
Nitrogen 0.6
Sulfur 0.1
Ash 4
Total 98.32

4. Find the percentage by mass as in the following table:

Composition Mass (kg) % (by Mass)
Carbon 34 35.03
Hydrogen 8.04 8.28
Oxygen 50.33 51.85
Nitrogen 0.6 0.62
Sulfur 0.1 0.10
Ash 4 4.12
Total 98.32 100

5. Find the energy value for waste from DuLong formula and the following table:

Element Mass (kg) Atomic Weight Number of Moles Chemical Formula with Sulfur Chemical Formula without Sulfur
Carbon 33.73 12 2.8 906. 7 66.1
Hydrogen 7.46 1 8.04 2357.2 187.6
Oxygen 50.05 16 3.15 1006.6 73.4
Nitrogen 0.61 14 0.043 13.7 1
Sulfur 0.13 32 0.003 1 0.072917

Then, the chemical formula with sulfur is C906.7H2573.2 O1006.6N 13.7S.

The chemical formula without sulfur is C66.1H187.6O73.4N.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.4 (CHAP6.4\FORM1.VB): CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION AND ENERGY CONTENT OF SOLID WASTE

**********************************************************************************
'Program 6.4: Calculates chemical composition and estimates
'energy content of solid waste.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim comp(27) As String
Dim moist(27) As Integer
Dim PERC(10, 5) As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.4: Chemical
composition of solid waste"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Select component:"
Label2.Text = "Percentage:"
Label3.Text = "Moisture (from Table):"
Label4.Text = "Dry weight (based on 100lb.):"
Label5.Text = "Component:"
Label6.Text = "Mass, kg:"
Label7.Text = "Carbon"
Label8.Text = "Hydrogen"
Label9.Text = "Oxygen"
Label10.Text = "Nitrogen"
Label11.Text = "Sulfur"
Label12.Text = "Ash"
Label13.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
DATA FROM TABLE 6.2
comp(0) = "Residential"
comp(1) = " Aluminum cans"
comp(2) = " Cardboard"
comp(3) = " Fines (dirt, etc.)"
comp(4) = " Food waste"
comp(5) = " Glass"
comp(6) = " Grass"

comp(7) = " Leather"

comp(8) = " Non-ferrous Metal"
comp(9) = " Leaves"
comp(10) = " Paper"
comp(11) = " Plastics"
comp(12) = " Ferrous metals"
comp(13) = " Rubber"
comp(14) = " Steel cans"
comp(15) = " Textiles"
comp(16) = " Wood"
comp(17) = " Yard waste"
comp(18) = " Garden trimmings"
comp(19) = "Commercial"
comp(20) = " Food waste"
comp(21) = " Mixed organics"
comp(22) = " Mixed"
comp(23) = " Wooden shipping crates and plant scales"
comp(24) = " Construction (mixed)"
comp(25) = " Dirt, ashes, bricks etc."
comp(26) = " Municipal waste"
comp(27) = "Select component"
MOISTURE CONTENT FROM TABLE 6.2
moist(0) = 0
moist(1) = 3
moist(2) = 5
moist(3) = 8
moist(4) = 70
moist(5) = 2
moist(6) = 60
moist(7) = 10
moist(8) = 2
moist(9) = 30
moist(10) = 6
moist(11) = 2
moist(12) = 3
moist(13) = 2
moist(14) = 3
moist(15) = 10
moist(16) = 20
moist(17) = 60
moist(18) = 60
moist(19) = 0
moist(20) = 70
moist(21) = 25
moist(22) = 15
moist(23) = 30
moist(24) = 8
moist(25) = 8
moist(26) = 0
ADD THE ITEMS INTO THE COMBOBOXES
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox2.Items.Clear()
ComboBox3.Items.Clear()
ComboBox4.Items.Clear()
ComboBox5.Items.Clear()
ComboBox6.Items.Clear()
ComboBox7.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox2.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox3.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox4.Items.AddRange(comp)

ComboBox5.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox6.Items.AddRange(comp)
ComboBox7.Items.AddRange(comp)
DISABLE THE TEXTBOXES
TextBox2.Enabled = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
TextBox4.Enabled = False
TextBox5.Enabled = False
TextBox7.Enabled = False
TextBox8.Enabled = False
TextBox10.Enabled = False
TextBox11.Enabled = False
TextBox13.Enabled = False
TextBox14.Enabled = False
TextBox16.Enabled = False
TextBox17.Enabled = False
TextBox19.Enabled = False
TextBox20.Enabled = False
PREPARE THE RADIOBUTTONS AND THE LAST COMBOBOX
RadioButton1.Text = "Select values from Table 6.3:"
RadioButton2.Text = "Enter new values:"
RadioButton2.Checked = True
ComboBox8.Items.Clear()
ComboBox8.Items.Add("--Select waste--")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Food waste")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Paper")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Cardboard")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Plastics")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Textile")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Rubber")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Leather")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Garden trimmings")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Timber")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Mixture of organic materials")
ComboBox8.Items.Add("Dirt, ash, bricks etc.")
DATA FROM TABLE 6.3
PERCENTAGES OF Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash
Dim percStr As String
percStr = "48,6.4,37.6,2.6,0.4,5.0,"
percStr += "43.5,6,44,0.3,0.2,6,"
percStr += "44,5.9,44.6,0.3,0.2,5,"
percStr += "60,7.2,22.8,0,0,10,"
percStr += "55,6.6,31.2,4.6,0.15,2.5,"
percStr += "78,10,0,2,0,10,"
percStr += "60,8,11.6,10,0.4,10,"
percStr += "47.8,6,38,3.4,0.3,4.5,"
percStr += "49.5,6,42.7,0.2,0.1,1.5,"
percStr += "48.5,6.5,37.5,2.2,0.3,5,"
percStr += "26.3,3,2,0.5,0.2,68,"
Dim last As Integer = 0
For i = 0 To 10
For j = 0 To 5
PERC(i, j) = Val(percStr.Substring(last, percStr.IndexOf(",", last) -
last)) last = percStr.IndexOf(",", last) + 1
Next
Next
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim i, M, Ww, Wd As Double
Dim totalWW, totalWd, moistC As Double

Dim cansWd, cansWw As Double

totalWd = 0
totalWW = 0
Calculate the dry weights of the components
i = ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox1.Text)
M = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If
TextBox3.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox2.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox6.Text)
M = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If
TextBox4.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox3.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox9.Text)
M = Val(TextBox8.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If
TextBox7.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox4.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox12.Text)
M = Val(TextBox11.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If
TextBox10.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox5.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox15.Text)
M = Val(TextBox14.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If

TextBox13.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox6.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox18.Text)
M = Val(TextBox17.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If
TextBox16.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
i = ComboBox7.SelectedIndex
If i <> 0 And i <> 19 And i <> 27 Then
Ww = Val(TextBox21.Text)
M = Val(TextBox20.Text)
Wd = Ww - (M * Ww / 100)
If i = 1 Then if selection is Tin Cans, save it to be subtracted
later cansWd = Wd
cansWw = Ww
End If
TextBox19.Text = Wd.ToString
totalWd += Wd : totalWW += Ww
End If
totalWd -= cansWd
totalWW -= cansWw
moistC = totalWW - totalWd
FORM TABLE (B) AS IN THE EXAMPLE
Dim total, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash As Double
Carbon = Val(TextBox22.Text)
Hydrogen = Val(TextBox23.Text)
Oxygen = Val(TextBox24.Text)
Nitrogen = Val(TextBox25.Text)
Sulfur = Val(TextBox26.Text)
Ash = Val(TextBox27.Text)
Change moisture content (H2O) in previous step to hydrogen and oxygen
Hydrogen += (2 / 18) * moistC
Oxygen += (16 / 18) * moistC
total = Carbon + Hydrogen + Oxygen + Nitrogen + Sulfur + Ash
Calculate the percentages for the gases
Carbon /= total
Hydrogen /= total
Oxygen /= total
Nitrogen /= total
Sulfur /= total
Ash /= total
Find energy value for waste from Dulong formula
Dim Dulong As Double
Dulong = (337 * Carbon) + (1428 * (Hydrogen - (Oxygen / 8))) + (9 *
Sulfur) Calculate moles for each gas
Dim molC, molH, molO, molN, molS As Double
molC = Carbon / 12 Moles = Mass/Atomic weight
molH = Hydrogen / 1 Moles = Mass/Atomic weight
molO = Oxygen / 16 Moles = Mass/Atomic weight
molN = Nitrogen / 14 Moles = Mass/Atomic weight
molS = Sulfur / 32 Moles = Mass/Atomic weight
Approximate chemical formula with sulfur
sulfur will be 1 mole = 0.004 * 250.. so multiply all moles by 250

Dim molC2, molH2, molO2, molN2, molS2 As Double

molC2 = molC * 250 * 100
molH2 = molH * 250 * 100
molO2 = molO * 250 * 100
molN2 = molN * 250 * 100
molS2 = molS * 250 * 100
Label13.Text = "Chemical formula with sulfur is: C" + Format(molC2, "n") +
_
" H" + Format(molH2, "n") + " O" + Format(molO2, "n") + " N" +
Format(molN2, "n") + " S"
Approximate chemical formula without sulfur
nitrogen will be 1 mole = 0.044 * 22.73.. so multiply all moles by 22.73
molC2 = molC * 22.73 * 100
molH2 = molH * 22.73 * 100
molO2 = molO * 22.73 * 100
molN2 = molN * 22.73 * 100
molS2 = molS * 22.73 * 100
Label13.Text += vbCrLf + "Chemical formula without sulfur is: C" +
Format(molC2, "n") + _
" H" + Format(molH2, "n") + " O" + Format(molO2, "n") + " N" +
Format(molN2, "n") End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox2.Text = ""
Else
TextBox2.Text = moist(ComboBox1.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox2_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox2.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox5.Text = ""
Else
TextBox5.Text = moist(ComboBox2.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub
Private Sub ComboBox3_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox3.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox8.Text = ""
Else
TextBox8.Text = moist(ComboBox3.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox4_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox4.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox11.Text = ""
Else
TextBox11.Text = moist(ComboBox4.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox5_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox5.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox14.Text = ""
Else
TextBox14.Text = moist(ComboBox5.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox6_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox6.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox17.Text = ""
Else
TextBox17.Text = moist(ComboBox6.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox7_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox7.SelectedIndexChanged enter the
moisture content (From Table 6.2) into the moisture field
If ComboBox7.SelectedIndex = 0 Or ComboBox7.SelectedIndex = 19 Or
ComboBox7.SelectedIndex = 27 Then These are items not to be selected by the
user, so clear the textbox and exit sub TextBox20.Text = ""
Else
TextBox20.Text = moist(ComboBox7.SelectedIndex).ToString
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged ComboBox8.Enabled
= True
End Sub

Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged ComboBox8.Enabled
= False
TextBox22.Text = ""
TextBox23.Text = ""
TextBox24.Text = ""
TextBox25.Text = ""
TextBox26.Text = ""
TextBox27.Text = ""
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox8_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox8.SelectedIndexChanged Dim i =
ComboBox8.SelectedIndex
If i <= 0 Then Exit Sub
TextBox22.Text = PERC(i - 1, 0).ToString
TextBox23.Text = PERC(i - 1, 1).ToString
TextBox24.Text = PERC(i - 1, 2).ToString
TextBox25.Text = PERC(i - 1, 3).ToString
TextBox26.Text = PERC(i - 1, 4).ToString
TextBox27.Text = PERC(i - 1, 5).ToString
End Sub
End Class

Example 6.5
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the percentage of heat value to be
generated from a municipal refuse, given its fractions.
2. Based on the given typical heat values, estimate the heat value of a processed refuse-derived
fuel (RDF) with the composition set along the following table: Table of Fractions by Weight
of MSW Components
Component Fraction by Weight, Dry Basis
Paper 0.5
Plastics 0.3
Glass 0.1
Wood 0.1

Typical Heat Values of MSW Components

Component Heat Value (Btu/lb), Dry Weight
Cardboard 7,000
Dirt, ashes, and other fines 3,000
Ferrous metals 300
Food waste 2,000
Garden trimmings 2,800
Glass 60
Leather 7,500
Nonferrous metals 300
Paper 7,200
Plastics 14,000
Rubber 10,000
Textiles 7,500
Wood 8,000

Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.5 (1), see the listing of Program 6.5. Given: Refuse
composition.
2. Form the following table:
Component Fraction by Weight, Dry Basis Heat Value
Paper 0.5 7,200
Plastics 0.3 14,000
Glass 0.1 60
Wood 0.1 8,000

Estimate the heat value based on the typical values in table: 0.5 * 7200 + 0.3 * 14000 + 0.1 * 60 +
0.1 * 8000 = 8606 Btu/lb.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
 LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.5 (CHAP6.5\FORM1.VB): HEAT VALUE

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.5: calculates percentage of heat value
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim MSW_Component() As String =
{"Cardboard", "Dirt, ashes and other fines",
"Ferrous metals", "Food waste",
"Garden trimmings", "Glass",
"Leather", "Nonferrous metals",
"Paper", "Plastics", "Rubber",
"Textiles", "Wood", "--Select comp.--"}
Dim MSW_Value() As Double =
{7000, 3000, 300, 2000,
2800, 60, 7500, 300,
7200, 14000, 10000,
7500, 8000}

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.5: Calculates
percentage of heat value"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Select component:"
Label2.Text = "Fraction by weight (dry basis):"
Label3.Text = "Heat value:"
Label4.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
prepare the selection boxes
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.AddRange(MSW_Component)
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 13
ComboBox2.Items.Clear()
ComboBox2.Items.AddRange(MSW_Component)
ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 13
ComboBox3.Items.Clear()
ComboBox3.Items.AddRange(MSW_Component)
ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 13
ComboBox4.Items.Clear()
ComboBox4.Items.AddRange(MSW_Component)
ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 13
ComboBox5.Items.Clear()
ComboBox5.Items.AddRange(MSW_Component)
ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 13
ComboBox6.Items.Clear()
ComboBox6.Items.AddRange(MSW_Component)
ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 13
TextBox2.Enabled = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
TextBox5.Enabled = False
TextBox7.Enabled = False
TextBox9.Enabled = False
TextBox11.Enabled = False
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim heatV As Double = 0


check each combobox to see if the user selected a component, if yes, add
it to the total.
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex <> 6 Then heatV += addHeatValue(1)
If ComboBox2.SelectedIndex <> 6 Then heatV += addHeatValue(2)
If ComboBox3.SelectedIndex <> 6 Then heatV += addHeatValue(3)
If ComboBox4.SelectedIndex <> 6 Then heatV += addHeatValue(4)
If ComboBox5.SelectedIndex <> 6 Then heatV += addHeatValue(5)
If ComboBox6.SelectedIndex <> 6 Then heatV += addHeatValue(6)
Label4.Text = "Heat value = " + heatV.ToString + " Btu/Lb."
End Sub
Function addHeatValue(ByVal n As Integer) As Double
Dim fraction, heat As Double
Select Case n
which combobox is it?
Case 1
fraction = Val(TextBox1.Text)
heat = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Return fraction * heat
Case 2
fraction = Val(TextBox4.Text)
heat = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Return fraction * heat
Case 3
fraction = Val(TextBox6.Text)
heat = Val(TextBox5.Text)
Return fraction * heat
Case 4
fraction = Val(TextBox8.Text)
heat = Val(TextBox7.Text)
Return fraction * heat
Case 5
fraction = Val(TextBox10.Text)
heat = Val(TextBox9.Text)
Return fraction * heat
Case 6
fraction = Val(TextBox12.Text)
heat = Val(TextBox11.Text)
Return fraction * heat
Case Else
Return 0
End Select
End Function

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged change
the heat value according to the selected component from the combobox.
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = -1 Or ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 13 Then
TextBox2.Text = ""
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox2.Text = MSW_Value(ComboBox1.SelectedIndex).ToString
End Sub


Private Sub ComboBox2_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox2.SelectedIndexChanged change
the heat value according to the selected component from the combobox.
If ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = -1 Or ComboBox2.SelectedIndex = 13 Then
TextBox3.Text = ""
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox3.Text = MSW_Value(ComboBox2.SelectedIndex).ToString
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox3_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox3.SelectedIndexChanged change
the heat value according to the selected component from the combobox.
If ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = -1 Or ComboBox3.SelectedIndex = 13 Then
TextBox5.Text = ""
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox5.Text = MSW_Value(ComboBox3.SelectedIndex).ToString
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox4_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox4.SelectedIndexChanged change
the heat value according to the selected component from the combobox.
If ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = -1 Or ComboBox4.SelectedIndex = 13 Then
TextBox7.Text = ""
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox7.Text = MSW_Value(ComboBox4.SelectedIndex).ToString
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox5_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox5.SelectedIndexChanged change
the heat value according to the selected component from the combobox.
If ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = -1 Or ComboBox5.SelectedIndex = 13 Then
TextBox9.Text = ""
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox9.Text = MSW_Value(ComboBox5.SelectedIndex).ToString
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox6_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox6.SelectedIndexChanged change
the heat value according to the selected component from the combobox.
If ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = -1 Or ComboBox6.SelectedIndex = 13 Then
TextBox11.Text = ""
Exit Sub
End If
TextBox11.Text = MSW_Value(ComboBox6.SelectedIndex).ToString
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Table 6.4 gives a general overview of solid waste properties and characteristics of concern.

TABLE 6.4
General Overview of Solid Waste Properties and Characteristics of Concern
Property Influencing Parameters Typical Values Measuring Device
Specific Location, season, storage time, equipment used, processing (compaction, 600900 lb/yd3 as delivered Pycnometry, density meter
weight shredding, etc.) (50300 kg/m3 )
Permeability Type of waste, compaction, soil characteristics Compacted solid wastes in a Oedometer, consolidation
landfill are in the range equipment
between ~1011 and 1012
m2
Moisture Unit weight, decomposition stage, temperature, waste composition, pore 40%65% Moisture gage, moisture
content fluid composition analyzer, electrical
resistance sensor
Angle of Density, surface area and shapes of the particles, the coefficient of friction 4590 Shear test method, tilting
repose of the material, gravity box, fixed funnel and
revolving cylinder method
Fusion point Acidic and alkaline composition and content, type of waste and fuel, type 1100C1200C for the Analytical instrument,
of ash (ash of reactor and burning equipment, rate of burning, temperature and formation of clinker furnace
fusibility) thickness of fire bed or ball, distribution of ash, viscosity
Heat value Waste composition, organic matter, moisture content Calorimeter, analytical
equipment

6.4 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION

MSW collection systems are customarily person/truck systems. MSW collectors traverse generation sites
and source production in trucks to transport the collected refuse to a site at which the truck is emptied.
This process may be an intermediate stopover where the refuse is transferred from a small truck into
trailers, larger vans, barges, or railway cars for long-distance transport or a selected final site such as the
landfill, compost site, or MRF. During this cycle, some of the useful MSW may be isolated, sorted out, or
segregated for reuse or recycling or conversion into other useful products.
The process of refuse collection is a multiphase process, and it can be divided into separate phases:
house-to-can (transferring MSW from home to dustbin inside or outside the house), can-to-truck (for
movement of MSW from dustbin to MSW and garbage car by MSW workers or owner of housing), truck
from house-to-house (collection phase of MSW from different sources by best and efficient ways and its
transfer to collection areas and to areas of intermediate or final disposal), truck routing (stage of path of
truck through the citys road network), and truck-to-disposal (stage of final disposal or recovery of
materials).

Example 6.6
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the number of cans and compacted
blocks produced by a family given the number of people, the rate of per capita daily
generation of solid waste, the bulk density of refuse in a typical garbage can, and the
 collection frequency.
2. A family of four people generates MSW at a rate of 2.5 lb/c/day, and the bulk density of
refuse in a typical garbage can is ~250 lb/yd3. If collection is once a week, how many 30-
gal garbage cans will they need, or the alternative, how many compacted 20-lb blocks would
the family produce if they had a home compactor? How many cans wovuld they need in that
case?
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.6 (1), see the listing of Program 6.6.
a. Solution to Example 6.6 (2): Given: P = 4, generated waste = 2.5 lb/c/day, = 250 lb/yd3.
2.
b. Weight of SW generated = 2.5 lb/c/day 4 persons 7 days/week = 70 lb.
c. Volume of solid waste = weight/density = 70 lb/250 lb/yd3 = 0.28 yd3
i. Volume (convert to gallons) = 0.28 yd3 202 gal/yd3 = 56.6 gal.
ii. They will require two 30-gal cans.
d. If the refuse is compacted into 20-lb blocks, they would need to produce such compacted blocks
to take care of the weeks refuse.
i. If each block of compacted refuse is 1400 lb/yd3, the necessary volume is 70 lb./1400 lb./yd3)
202 gal/yd3 = 10.1 gal.
ii. They would need only one 30-gal can.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.6 (CHAP6.6\FORM1.VB): NUMBER OF CANS

AND COMPACTED BLOCKS PRODUCED BY A FAMILY

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.6: Calculates number of cans and
' compacted blocks produced by a family
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.6: Cans and
compacted blocks"
Me.FormBorderStyle = BorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Number of people in the family:"
Label2.Text = "Rate of daily generation of solid waste (lb/c/day):"
Label3.Text = "Bulk density of refuse in a typical garbage can (lb/yd3):"
Label4.Text = "Collection frequency (per week):"
Label5.Text = ""
button1.text = "&Calculate"
Me.Height = 188
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim s As String = ""
Dim P, rate, dens, freq As Double
Dim weight, vol, vol2, vol3 As Double
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
rate = Val(TextBox2.Text)
dens = Val(TextBox3.Text)
freq = Val(TextBox4.Text)
weight = rate * P * (7 / freq) 'convert frequency per week to days
s += vbCrLf + "Weight of SW generated = " + rate.ToString + " lb/c/day x "
+ P.ToString + _
" persons x " + (7 / freq).ToString + " days/week = " + weight.ToString
+ " Lb."
vol = weight / dens
s += vbCrLf + "Volume of solid waste = weight/density = " +
weight.ToString + " lb./" + dens.ToString _
+ " lb./yd3 = " + vol.ToString + " yd3"
vol2 = vol * 202 'convert to gallons
s += vbCrLf + "Volume (convert to gallons) = " + vol.ToString + " yd3 x
202 gal/yd3 = " _
+ vol2.ToString + " gal"
s += vbCrLf + vbCrLf + "They will require " +
numberInLetters(Math.Ceiling(vol2 / 30)) + " 30-gal cans. "
s += vbCrLf + "If the refuse is compacted into 20-lb blocks, they would
need to "
s += vbCrLf + "produce such compacted blocks to take care of the weeks
refuse"
vol3 = (weight / 1400) * 202
s += vbCrLf + vbCrLf + "If each block of compacted refuse is 1400 lb/yd3,
the necessary volume is "
s += vbCrLf + "(" + weight.ToString + " lb./1400 lb./yd3) x 202 gal/yd3 =
" + _
Format(vol3, "##.##").ToString + " gal"
s += vbCrLf + "They would need only " + numberInLetters(Math.Ceiling(vol3
/ 30)) + " 30-gal can."
Label5.Text = s
Me.Height = 372
End Sub


'******************************************************************************
'takes a number as integer, and returns it in letters.
'e.g. 1 -> 'One', 2 -> 'Two' and so one.
'********************************************************************************
Function numberInLetters(ByVal n As Integer) As String
Select Case n
Case 0 : Return "Zero"
Case 1 : Return "One"
Case 2 : Return "Two"
Case 3 : Return "Three"
Case 4 : Return "Four"
Case 5 : Return "Five"
Case 6 : Return "Six"
Case 7 : Return "Seven"
Case 8 : Return "Eight"
Case 9 : Return "Nine"
Case 10 : Return "Ten"
Case 11 : Return "Eleven"
Case 12 : Return "Twelve"
Case 13 : Return "Thirteen"
Case 14 : Return "Fourteen"
Case 15 : Return "Fifteen"
Case Else : Return ""
End Select
End Function

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

The number of collection vehicles needed for a community may be determined from the following
equation:

(6.21)

where:
N is the number of collection vehicles needed
S is the total number of customers serviced
F is the collection frequency, number of collections per week
X is the number of customers a single truck can service per day
W is the number of workdays per week

Example 6.7
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the number of collection vehicles
that a community would need for a total of services (customers) that are to be collected once
per week during working days in a city.
2. Use the equation for estimating the number of MSW collection vehicles needed for a certain
community:
The number of collection vehicles a community would need for solid waste collection in a certain
municipality is six trucks. Find the total number of services (customers) that are to be collected once
per week during working days in a Al-Doha in KSA. (Realistically, most trucks can service only
~200300 customers before the truck is full, and a trip to the landfill is necessary).
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. Given:
N is the number of collection vehicles needed = 6
S is the total number of customers serviced = ?
F is the collection frequency, number of collections per week = 1.
X is the number of customers a single truck can service per day (A single truck can service 300
customers in a single day and still have time to take the full loads to the landfill) = 300.
2. W is the number of workdays per week (The town wants to collect on Saturdays, Sundays,
Mondays, and Tuesdays leaving Wednesdays for special projects and truck maintenance) = 4
days.
3. Thus, S = N * X * W/F = (300 * 4 * 6)/(1) = 7200.
4. The total number of customers to be serviced = 7200.
 LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.7 (CHAP6.7\FORM1.VB): NUMBER OF
COLLECTION VEHICLES NEEDED BY A COMMUNITY

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.7: Calculates number of collection vehicles needed by a community
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.7: Collection
vehicles"
Me.FormBorderStyle = BorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label6.Text = "Formula:" + vbCrLf + "N = (S* F)/(X * W)"
Label7.Text = "Solving for:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("N (Number of collection vehicles needed)")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("S (Total number of customers serviced)")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("F (Collection frequency per week)")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("X (Number of customers a single truck can service)")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("W (Number of workdays per week)")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim str As String = ""
Dim S, F, X, W, N As Double
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
Solving for N
S = Val(TextBox1.Text)
F = Val(TextBox2.Text)
X = Val(TextBox3.Text)
W = Val(TextBox4.Text)
N = (S * F) / (X * W)
str = "N = " + N.ToString
str += vbCrLf + "The community will need" +
numberInLetters(Math.Ceiling(N)) + " trucks."
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 1 Then
Solving for S
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
F = Val(TextBox2.Text)
X = Val(TextBox3.Text)
W = Val(TextBox4.Text)
S = (N * X * W) / (F)
str = "The total number of customers to be serviced = " +
CInt(S).ToString + " customer"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 2 Then
Solving for F
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
S = Val(TextBox2.Text)
X = Val(TextBox3.Text)
W = Val(TextBox4.Text)
F = (N * X * W) / (S)
str = "The collection frequency = " + CInt(F).ToString + " per week"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 3 Then
Solving for X
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
S = Val(TextBox2.Text)
F = Val(TextBox3.Text)
W = Val(TextBox4.Text)
X = (S * F) / (N * W)


str = "The number of customers a single truck can service = " +

CInt(X).ToString + " customer(s)"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 4 Then
Solving for W
N = Val(TextBox1.Text)
S = Val(TextBox2.Text)
F = Val(TextBox3.Text)
X = Val(TextBox4.Text)
W = (S * F) / (N * X)
str = "The number of workdays per week = " + CInt(W).ToString + " day(s)"
End If
Label5.Text = str
End Sub
********************************************************************************
takes a number as integer, and returns it in letters.
e.g. 1 -> One, 2 -> Two and so one.
********************************************************************************
Function numberInLetters(ByVal n As Integer) As String
Select Case n
Case 0 : Return "Zero"
Case 1 : Return "One"
Case 2 : Return "Two"
Case 3 : Return "Three"
Case 4 : Return "Four"
Case 5 : Return "Five"
Case 6 : Return "Six"
Case 7 : Return "Seven"
Case 8 : Return "Eight"
Case 9 : Return "Nine"
Case 10 : Return "Ten"
Case 11 : Return "Eleven"
Case 12 : Return "Twelve"
Case 13 : Return "Thirteen"
Case 14 : Return "Fourteen"
Case 15 : Return "Fifteen"
Case 16 : Return "Sixteen"
Case 17 : Return "Seventeen"
Case 18 : Return "Eighteen"
Case 19 : Return "Nineteen"
Case 20 : Return "Twenty"
Case Else : Return ""
End Select
End Function

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged
Label5.Text = ""
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
Label1.Text = "Total number of customers serviced, S:"
Label2.Text = "Collection frequency, F (per week):"
 Label3.Text = "Number of customers a single truck can service per day,
X:"
Label4.Text = "Number of workdays, W (per week):"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 1 Then
Label1.Text = "Number of collection vehicles needed, N:"
Label2.Text = "Collection frequency, F (per week):"

Label3.Text = "Number of customers a single truck can service per day,

X:"
Label4.Text = "Number of workdays, W (per week):"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 2 Then
Label1.Text = "Number of collection vehicles needed, N:"
Label2.Text = "Total number of customers serviced, S:"
Label3.Text = "Number of customers a single truck can service per day,
X:"
Label4.Text = "Number of workdays, W (per week):"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 3 Then
Label1.Text = "Number of collection vehicles needed, N:"
Label2.Text = "Total number of customers serviced, S:"
Label3.Text = "Collection frequency, F (per week):"
Label4.Text = "Number of workdays, W (per week):"
ElseIf ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 4 Then
Label1.Text = "Number of collection vehicles needed, N:"
Label2.Text = "Total number of customers serviced, S:"
Label3.Text = "Collection frequency, F (per week):"
Label4.Text = "Number of customers a single truck can service per day,
X:"
End If
End Sub
End Class

6.5 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION, PROCESSING, AND MATERIAL

SEPARATION
MSW refuse is a heterogeneous material with unpredictable and time-variable characteristics and
amounts. These conditions interfere negatively with design MSW processing and MRFs when attempting
to utilize the material in producing a desirable product. Some types of MSW refuse are easily processed,
yet certain other types are difficult and/or dangerous to handle. MSW processing operations incorporate
many interlinked factors at operational, organizational, and safety levels. Therefore, the material ought to
be designed for extraordinary contingencies. Such a requirement often results in overdesign and
underutilization of resources when processing all of the feed material.
Primary treatment operations are targeted to prepare MSW and garbage in a sustainable management
system format, increasing efficiency of operation, extracting useful materials and resources, and restoring
products and energy. This could be achieved through size reduction by mechanical means (e.g.,
compaction or fragmentation) or chemical means (e.g., incineration and burning) or by automatic and
mechanical means (e.g., separation of components or extraction of moisture content and drying).
 The basic types of conveyors used primarily to move MSW and refuse include rubber-belted
conveyors, live bottom feeders, and pneumatic conveyors. Other conveyors used to feed or meter refuse
to a load-sensitive device (such as a combustor) incorporate vibratory feeders, screw feeders, and drag
chains.
Power requirements of belt conveyors can be estimated by a number of empirical equations. Equation
6.22 represents the power necessary to move a load horizontally and vertically together with power loss
due to friction.

(6.22)

where:
L is the length of conveyor belt, ft
S is the speed of belt, ft/min
F is the speed factor, dimensionless
T is the capacity, tons/h
C is the idle resistance factor, dimensionless
H is the lift, ft
P is the pulley friction, horsepower

Screw conveyors are used to meter shredded refuse into a furnace. The volume of material moved by a
screw conveyor in a flooded condition can be estimated by the following equation:

(6.23)

where:
Q is the delivery of refuse, m3/min
C is the efficiency factor
N is the number of conveyor leads or the number of blades that are wrapped around the conveyor hub R
is the rotational speed of screw, rpm
V is the volume of refuse between each pitch, m3

Crushing devices or rolls break fragile materials such as glass while unfolding rout iron such as iron
cans, which would facilitate separation by sieving. Crushing rolls strongly hold the raw material entering
between two rollers operating in opposite directions. The maximum volume that can be squeezed by
crushing cylinders can be estimated by the following equation:

(6.24)

where:
C is the capacity, tons/h
k is the constant, dimensionless = 60, when taking units and dimensions described in Equation 6.24
v is the speed of cylinders, rpm
D is the cylinder diameter, m
L is the length of cylinder, m
s is the distance of separation between cylinders (disks), m
is the density of the material, g/cm3

Example 6.8
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the capacity of a crushing cylinder
given the speed of cylinder, cylinder diameter and length, the density of material, and the
distance between disks.
2. Find the capacity of a crushing cylinder noting that the speed of cylinder is 4600 cycles per
hour, cylinder diameter is 200 mm, its length is 45 cm, the density of material is 2400 kg/m3,
and the distance between disks is 5 mm.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.8 (1), see the listing of Program 6.8.
a. Solution to Example 6.8 (2): Given: v = 4600 cycles/h = 4600/60 cycles/min, D = 200 mm =
2.
20 cm, L = 0.45 m, = 2400/1000 = 2.4 g/cm3, s = 5 mm.
b. Then, capacity C = kvDLs or C = kv. D.L.s. = 60 (4600/60) rpm 0.2 m 0.45 m 0.005
m 2.4 (g/cm3) = 5 tons/h.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.8 (CHAP6.8\FORM1.VB): CAPACITY OF A

CRUSHING CYLINDER

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.8: Calculates capacity of a crushing cylinder
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim C, k, v, D, L, s, rho As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.8: Capacity of a
crushing cylinder"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Formula:" + vbCrLf
Label1.Text += "C = kvDLsrho"
Label2.Text = "Speed of cylinders (v), cycles/hr:"
Label3.Text = "Cylinder diameter (D), mm:"
Label4.Text = "Length of cylinder (L), cm:"
Label5.Text = "Distance of separation between discs (s), mm:"
Label6.Text = "Density of the material (rho), kg/m3:"
Label7.Text = ""
Label8.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
v = Val(TextBox1.Text)
D = Val(TextBox2.Text)
L = Val(TextBox3.Text)
s = Val(TextBox4.Text)
rho = Val(TextBox5.Text)
k = 60
v = v / 60 convert to cycles/min
D = D / 1000 convert to m.
L = L / 100 convert to m.

s = s / 1000 convert to m.
rho = rho / 1000 convert to g/cm3
C = k * v * D * L * s * rho
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label7.Text = "Capacity, C = " + FormatNumber(C, NumericUpDown1.Value) + "
tones/hr"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

In separating various pure materials from a mixture, the separation can be either binary (two output
streams) or polynary (more than two output streams). A binary separator is designed to extract one type of
material from a waste stream (e.g., magnet drawing off ferrous materials as the desired output or product
or extract). A polynary separator separates components from each other through multiple paths (e.g.,
screen with a series of different sized holes, producing several products) (Rietema 1957, Rodic-wiersma
2005).
Suppose in a binary separator, the input stream is composed of a mixture of x and y to be separated.
The mass per time (e.g., tons/h) of x and y fed to the separator is x0 and y0, respectively. The mass per
time of x and y exiting in the first output stream is x1 and y1, and the second output stream is x2 and y2. The
device separates x into the first output stream and y into the second. The effectiveness of the separation
then can be expressed in terms of recovery (Figure 6.2).

FIGURE 6.2 Binary separator.

The recovery of component x in the first output stream is Rx1, defined as shown in the following
equation:

(6.25)

where:
Rx1 is the recovery of component x in the first output stream (1) x1 is the first component emerging of
the first output stream (1), mass/time x0 is the x component entering to the binary separator, mass/time
Similarly, the recovery of y in the second output stream may be found from the following equation:

(6.26)

Purity of output can be determined from the following equation:

 (6.27)

where Px1 is the purity of the first output stream in terms of x, which is expressed as a percentage.
Similarly, the purity of the second output stream in terms of y is as presented in the following equation:

(6.28)

Overall recovery is useful only for process design, such as sizing conveyor belts. Nevertheless, it is
not a measure of separation effectiveness. It should not be used in describing the operation of materials
separation. Overall recovery may be defined as in the following equation:

(6.29)

where ORx, y is the overall recovery for components x and y.

Rietema separation effectiveness measure for a binary separation with inputs of x0 and y0 yields the
following equation:

(6.30)

WorrellStessel equation for finding the separation performance of a binary separator is reflected in
the following equation:

(6.31)

Example 6.9
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the recoveries and effectiveness of
separation of a binary separator, given the feed rate, the hourly output (1) and output (2), the
x constituent, and the amount of x ending up in output 2 using different methods.
2. A binary separator has a feed rate of 1 ton/h. It is operated so that during any 1 h, 750 kg
reports as output 1 and 250 kg as output 2. Of the 750 kg, the x constituent is 700 kg, whereas
70 kg of x ends up in output 2. Calculate the recoveries and effectiveness of the separation
using the methods of recovery, purity, Rietema effectiveness, and WorrellStessel equation.
Comment on your results.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution
 1. For the solution of Example 6.9 (1), see the listing of Program 6.9.
2. Solution to Example 6.9 (2): Given: Data: x0 + y0 = 1000 kg (1 ton), x1 = 750 kg, x2 = 70 kg
(see figure).
From the data, find x0 = x1 + x2 = 700 + 70 = 770 kg.
Then, find y0 = total value x0 = 1000 770 = 230 kg.
From track (1), the value of y1 = 750 x1 = 750 700 = 50 kg.
From track (2), the value of y2 = 250 x2 = 250 70 = 180 kg.
The recovery of x in the first output is

The purity of this output stream is

Using Rietemas definition of effectiveness,

And according to WorrellStessel effectiveness equation:

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.9 (CHAP6.9\FORM1.VB): RECOVERIES AND
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SEPARATION OF A BINARY SEPARATOR

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.9: Calculates the recoveries and the effectiveness
' of separation of a binary separator.
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.9:"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Program 6.9: Calculates the recoveries and the
effectiveness "
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "of separation of a binary separator."
Label2.Text = "Feed rate (kg/h):"
Label3.Text = "Hourly output (1) (kg):"
Label4.Text = "Hourly output (2) (kg):"
Label5.Text = "The x constituent (x1) (kg):"
Label6.Text = "The amount of x ending up in output2 (x2) (kg):"
Label7.Text = ""
button1.text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim feed, x0, x1, x2, y0, y1, y2, Rx, Px, Exy, Exy2 As Double
Dim out1, out2 As Double
feed = Val(TextBox1.Text)
out1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
out2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
x1 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
x2 = Val(TextBox5.Text)
x0 = x1 + x2
y0 = feed - x0
y1 = out1 - x1
y2 = out2 - x2
Find the recovery of x in the first output:
Rx = (x1 / x0) * 100
Find purity of this output stream:
Px = x1 / (x1 + y1) * 100
Using Rietemas definition of effectiveness:
Exy = 100 * abs((x1 / x0) - (y1 / y0))
Worrell-Stessel effectiveness equation:
Exy2 = sqrt(abs((x1 / x0) * (y2 / y0))) * 100
Dim str As String
str = "x0 = x1 + x2 = " + fN(x0) + "kg"
str += vbCrLf + "y0 = total - x0 = " + fN(y0) + "kg"
str += vbCrLf + "y1 = output1 - x1 = " + fN(y1) + "kg"
str += vbCrLf + "y2 = output2 - x2 = " + fN(y2) + "kg"
str += vbCrLf + "Recovery of x in the first output Rx1 = " + fN(Rx) + "%"
str += vbCrLf + "Purity of output stream Px1 = " + fN(Px) + "%"
str += vbCrLf + "Effectiveness (using Rietemas definition) = " + fN(Exy)
+ "%"
str += vbCrLf + "Effectiveness (using Worrell-Stessel eqn.) = " + fN(Exy2)
+ "%"
Label7.Text = str
End Sub

Function fN(ByVal n As Double) As String

formats a number n as ##.# and returns result as string
Return Format(n, "##.#")
End Function

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.6 SANITARY LANDFILL

A sanitary landfill is an engineered method for land disposal of solid or hazardous wastes in a manner
that protects the environment. Within the landfill, biological, chemical, and physical processes occur in
biodegrading wastes, resulting in the production of leachate and gaseous substances (Schubeler et al.
1996, Senate et al. 2003). Leachate production and quantity can be estimated using empirical data or a
water balance technique.
Water balance system in the landfill facilitates estimating the amount of percolating water production
by establishing a mass balance among precipitation, evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and soil moisture
storage as presented in the following equation:

(6.32)

where:
C is the total amount percolating within the top layer of soil, mm/year
P is the precipitation, mm/year
r is the coefficient of runoff (can be estimated for different types of soil) S is the storage in the soil or
solid waste, mm/year
E is the evapotranspiration, mm/year

Gas production over time may be estimated from the EPA landfill gas emissions model (LandGEM)
model* based on the following equation:

(6.33)

where:
QT is the total gas emission rate from a landfill, volume/time n is the total time periods of waste
placement
k is the landfill gas emission constant, time1
Lo is the methane generation potential, volume/mass of waste
ti is the age of the ith section of waste, time
Mi is the mass of wet waste, placed at time i

Example 6.10
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the peak gas production for a
number of years, given the landfill opening period, the annual waste received, the gas
emission constant, and the methane generation potential.
 2. A landfill cell is open for 4 years, receiving 90,000 tons of waste per year (recall that 1 ton
= 1000 kg). Find the peak gas production for the first year if the landfill gas emission
constant is 0.03 per year, and the methane generation potential is 140 m3/ton.
3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.10 (1), see the listing of Program 6.10.
a. Solution to Example 6.10 (2): Given: Mi = 90000 tons/year, k = 0.03, Lo = 140, ti = 1
2.

b. For the first year, QT = 2 (0.03) (140) (90000)(e0.0307(1)) = 733657 m3

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.10 (CHAP6.10\FORM1.VB): PEAK GAS

PRODUCTION FROM A LANDFILL

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.10: Calculates the peak gas production for a number of years
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Mi(), k(), Lo() As Double
Dim Qt, t As Double
Dim n As Integer

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.10: Peak gas
production"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "For each year, enter the annual waste received (Mi), gas
emission constant (k),"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "and the methane generation potential (Lo):"
Label2.Text = ""
Label3.Text = "Decimals:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("MCol", "Mi (tones/yr)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("KCol", "K (time-1)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LCol", "Lo (m3/ton)")
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
n = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
If n <= 0 Then
MsgBox("Enter at least one periods data!", vbOKOnly, "Error")
Exit Sub
End If
******************************************************************************
Formula is:
n
QT = SUM 2k * Lo * Mi * e^(-kti)
i=1
******************************************************************************
Qt = 0
t = 0
ReDim Mi(n), k(n), Lo(n)
For i = 0 To n - 1
Mi(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("MCol").Value)
k(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("KCol").Value)
Lo(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("LCol").Value)
t += 1
Qt += 2 * k(i) * Lo(i) * Mi(i) * (Math.E ^ (-k(i) * t))
Next
End Sub
Sub showResults()


Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value

If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
If n = 1 Then
Label2.Text = "For one year, QT = " + FormatNumber(Qt, decimals) + " m3"
Else
Label2.Text = "For " + n.ToString + " years, QT = " + FormatNumber(Qt,
decimals) + " m3"
End If
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Example 6.11
1. Use the EPA LandGEM model used for estimating methane production from a sanitary
landfill.
A landfill cell is open for 3 years, receiving 200,000 tons of waste per year (recall that 1 ton 1000
kg). Calculate the peak gas production if the landfill gas emission constant is 0.05 year1, and the
methane generation potential is 170 m3/ton.
Hint: For the second year, this waste produces less gas, but the next new layer produces more, and
the two layers are added to yield the total gas production for the second year.
Solution
QT is the total gas emission rate from a landfill, volume/time n is the total time periods of waste
placement
k is the landfill gas emission constant, time1
Lo is the methane generation potential, volume/mass of waste ti is the age of the ith section of waste,
time
Mi is the mass of wet waste, placed at time i

Given: Mi = 200,000 tons/year, k = 0.05 year1, Lo = 170 m3/ton, ti = 1 year

For the first year,
QT1 = 2 (0.05) (170) (200,000)(e0.05 * 1) = 3,234,180 m3.
Determine the gas produced for other years as shown in the following table:
T Mass, M Mass, M Constant, k Emission, L Total Gas, Q
1 200,000 200,000 0.05 170 3,234,180
2 200,000 400,000 0.05 170 6,152,894
3 200,000 600,000 0.05 170 8,779,221
4 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 6,918,848
5 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 6,581,412
6 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 6,260,433
7 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 5,955,108
8 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 5,664,674
9 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 5,388,404
10 200,000 497,100 0.05 170 5,125,609
 Procedure for using LandGEM

Given: Mi = 200,000 tons/year, k = 0.05 year1, Lo = 170 m3/ton, ti = 1 year.

Make a working copy of the file landfill gas emission model, LandGEM v3.02 (.xls MS Excel file).
Start MS Excel opening file landGEM-v302.xls to have the introduction sheet.
Select Enable content to have a working copy. Select continue.
Select Sheet 2 for user inputs, and insert your values.

Provide landfill characteristics: landfill open year = 0, landfill closure year = 4.

Determine model parameters: methane generation rate = 0.03 (select user-specified and type your
value), potential methane generation capacity = 150 (select user-specified and type your value).
Enter waste acceptance rates = 90,000, 90,000, 90,000, and 90,000 for 4 years.
Select Sheet 3: Pollutants if you have any.
Select Sheet 4: Input review to review your data.
Select Sheet 5: Methane to review findings.
Select Sheet 6: Results for results of computations.
Select Sheet 7: Graphs to view results graphically.
Select Sheet 8: Inventory.
Select Sheet 9: Report to view report of the model.
Save your file.

Depth of leachate in the lining can be estimated using Darcys law and continuity equation, depending
on the rates of filtration, the permeability of drainage materials, the distance from discharge tube, and the
slope of drainage system. Equation 6.34 illustrates the depth of leachate estimates:

(6.34)

where:
 Ymax is the maximum saturated depth over the liner, ft
P is the distance between collection pipes, ft
q is the vertical inflow (infiltration), defined in this equation as from a 25-year, 24-h storm, ft/day is
the inclination of liner from horizontal, degrees
K is the hydraulic conductivity of the drainage layer, ft/day

Needed land area can be found from the estimates of the required volume from the following equation:

(6.35)

where:
V is the volume of sanitary landfill area
W is the weight of solid waste to be buried
is the average density of solid waste and garbage
x is the percentage of compressed solid waste volume, %
vr is the volume of a layer of coverage required (thickness of 1530 cm for medium layers, temporary
edge and front and overhead slope, and at least 60 cm in the final layer), and that this volume ranges
between 17% of volume of solid waste for deep burial to 33% for surface burial and on average 25%.

Average sanitary landfill volume can be estimated as shown in the following equation:

(6.36)

Example 6.12
1. Write a computer program to estimate the design storm (vertical flow) in cm/s using a coarse
discharge material assuming that rain-water from 25 years and a 24-h storm entering the
leachate drainage system, given the maximum design depth of leachate above lining in a
sanitary landfill, the distance between leachate collection tubes, hydraulic conductivity, and
the slope of discharge.
2. The maximum design depth of leachate above lining in a sanitary landfill is 16 cm, and the
distance between leachate collection tubes is 19m. The hydraulic conductivity is 0.02 cm/s
for a slope of discharge 2%. Estimate the design storm (vertical flow) in cm/s using a coarse
discharge material and assuming that rainwater from 25 years and a 24-h storm entering the
leachate drainage system.
3. Use program developed in (1) to verify your computations in (2).
Solution
Given: Ymax = 16 cm, P = 1900 cm, k = 0.02 cm/s, q = ? cm/s, tan a = 2/100 = 0.02.
 By trial and error, q = 0.00038 cm/s (http://www.wolframalpha.com/).

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.12 (CHAP6.12\FORM1.VB): VERTICAL

FLOW

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 6.12: Estimates the design storm (vertical flow)
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Ymax, P, k, tanA, Q As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 6.12"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "The maximum design depth, Ymax (cm) ="
Label2.Text = "The distance between leachate tubes, P (m) ="
Label3.Text = "The hydraulic conductivity, k (cm/s) ="
Label4.Text = "The slope of discharge, tan a ="
Label5.Text = "The design storm (vertical flow), Q (cm/s) ="
Label6.Text = "Decimal places:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate Q"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Ymax = Val(TextBox1.Text)
P = Val(TextBox2.Text) * 100
k = Val(TextBox3.Text)
tanA = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Dim Z As Double
Dim b As Double = P / (2 * k)
Dim c As Double = k * (tanA ^ 2)
Dim d As Double = k * tanA
Dim _e As Double = (tanA ^ 2)
Z = ((Ymax ^ 2) - (((b ^ 2) * (c ^ 2)) + ((b ^ 2) * (d ^ 2) * _e))) / (b ^
2) Dim X As Double = (d ^ 2) / k
Dim Y As Double = (0.5 * X) ^ 2
Calculate the roots of the equation
Dim Q1 As Double = -Y + Math.Sqrt(Z + Y)
Dim Q2 As Double = -Y - Math.Sqrt(Z + Y)
If Q1 < 0 Then
Q = Q2
Else
Q = Q1
End If
showResult()
End Sub
Sub showResult()
TextBox5.Text = FormatNumber(Q, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResult()
End Sub
 End Class

6.7 BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES, COMBUSTION, AND ENERGY RECOVERY

In MSW, the components reliable for bioconversion processes are garbage (food waste), paper products,
and yard wastes for their cellulose content. All methods of biochemical conversion (anaerobic digestion,
composting) use the organic fraction of refuse. Decay of organic matter under anaerobic conditions
produces end products that include gases such as methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), small amounts of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and a few others.
Ideally, production of methane and carbon dioxide can be calculated using Equation 6.37 if chemical
composition of a material is known:

(6.37)

Example 6.13
1. Write a short computer program that enables estimating the production of CO2 and CH4
during the anaerobic decomposition of a certain material.
2. Estimate the production of CO2 and CH4 during the anaerobic decomposition of acetic acid,
CH3COOH.
Estimate the percentage of landfill gas that is methane for a rapidly decomposing waste with
the following composition: C68H111O50N. Assume that the maximum theoretical landfill gas
may be estimated using the following equation (University of Dammam, 2015):

3. Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.13 (1), see the listing of program 6.13.
a. Solution to Example 6.13 (2): Given: Reactants and products: a = 68, b = 111, c = 50, d = 1.
2.
b. The formula for acetic acid is CH3COOH.
c. The formula for the reaction is C68H111O50N + 16H2O = 35CH4 + 33CO2 + NH3.
d. Determine the water coefficient as (4a b 2c + 3d)/4 = (4 * 68 111 2 * 50 + 3 *
1)/4 = 16.
e. Determine the methane coefficient as (4a + b 2c 3d)/4 = (4 * 68 + 111 2 * 50 3 *
1)/8 = 35.
f. Determine carbon dioxide coefficient as (4a b + 2c + 3d)/4 = (4 * 68 111 + 2 * 50 +
3 * 1)/8 = 33.
g. Determine ammonia dioxide coefficient as d = 1.
h. Total of methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia = 35 + 33 + 1 = 69 moles.
i. Percentage of methane = 35 moles/69 moles = 51%.
 LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.13 (Chap6.13\Form1.vb): Production of CO2
and CH4

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.13: Estimates the production of CO2 and CH4
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim a, b, c, d As Double
Dim H2O, CH4, CO2, NH3
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.13: The production
of CO2 and CH4"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the chemical formula of the material, for example,
acetic acid is CH3COOH"
Label2.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
readChemicalFormula()
H2O = ((4 * a) - b - (2 * c) + (3 * d)) / 4
CH4 = ((4 * a) + b - (2 * c) - (3 * d)) / 8
CO2 = ((4 * a) - b + (2 * c) + (3 * d)) / 8
NH3 = d
H2O = abs(H2O)
CH4 = abs(CH4)
CO2 = abs(CO2)
NH3 = abs(NH3)
Label2.Text = "a=" + a.ToString + ", b=" + b.ToString + ", c=" +
c.ToString + ", d=" + d.ToString Label2.Text += vbCrLf + TextBox1.Text + " +
" + H2O.ToString + "H2O = " + CH4.ToString + "CH4 + " _
+ CO2.ToString + "CO2 + " + NH3.ToString + "NH3"
Dim molCH4, molCO2, totMol
molCH4 = CH4 * 16 molecular wt of CH4 is 16
molCO2 = CO2 * 44 molecular wt of CO2 is 44
totMol = molCH4 + molCO2
molCH4 = molCH4 / totMol
molCO2 = molCO2 / totMol
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + vbCrLf + "1 kg of " + TextBox1.Text.ToUpper + _
" produces " + FormatNumber(molCH4, 2) + " kg CH4 and " +
FormatNumber(molCO2, 2) + " kg CO2."
End Sub
********************************************************************************
Reads the chemical formula entered in TextBox1, goes through it letter-by-
letter.
if the letter is C, it adds one to variable a, if it is H, it adds to
b, and so on. If there is a number after the letter, e.g, H3 in
CH3COOH, it adds the value accordingly, in the above example it adds 3 to
variable c, and so on
********************************************************************************
Sub readChemicalFormula()
Dim i As Integer = 0
Dim formula As String = TextBox1.Text.ToUpper + " "
Dim tmp As Double
a = 0 : b = 0 : c = 0 : d = 0
While i < formula.Length - 1
Select Case formula.Chars(i)
Case "C"
If Val(formula.Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
tmp = Val(formula.Chars(i + 1))
i += 2
While i < formula.Length - 1
If formula.Chars(i) >= CChar("0") And formula.Chars(i) <=
CChar("9") Then tmp = (tmp * 10) + Val(formula.Chars(i))
Else : Exit While
End If
i += 1
End While
a += tmp
Continue While
Else : a += 1
End If
Case "H"
If Val(formula.Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
tmp = Val(formula.Chars(i + 1))
i += 2
While i < formula.Length - 1

If formula.Chars(i) >= CChar("0") And formula.Chars(i) <=

CChar("9") Then tmp = (tmp * 10) + Val(formula.Chars(i))
Else : Exit While
End If
i += 1
End While
b += tmp
Continue While
Else : b += 1
End If
Case "O"
If Val(formula.Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
tmp = Val(formula.Chars(i + 1))
i += 2
While i < formula.Length - 1
If formula.Chars(i) >= CChar("0") And formula.Chars(i) <=
CChar("9") Then tmp = (tmp * 10) + Val(formula.Chars(i))
Else : Exit While
End If
i += 1
End While
c += tmp
Continue While
Else : c += 1
End If
Case "N"
If Val(formula.Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
tmp = Val(formula.Chars(i + 1))
i += 2
While i < formula.Length - 1
If formula.Chars(i) >= CChar("0") And formula.Chars(i) <=
CChar("9") Then tmp = (tmp * 10) + Val(formula.Chars(i))
Else : Exit While
End If
i += 1
End While
d += tmp
Continue While
Else : d += 1
End If
End Select
i += 1
End While
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

In the beginning of composting process, mesophilic* microorganisms are frequent with most of the
occurring biochemical reactions being attributed to them. The increase in these organisms, after about a
week, increases the temperature of compost, which limits the growth of these organisms to be replaced by
thermophilic organisms. When the temperature drops, it usually means that the compost needs to be
aerated, or watered, or that composting is complete. It is desirable to work at a temperature between
60C and 75C for complete digestion.
A critical variable in composting is the moisture content. If the mixture is too dry, the microorganisms
cannot survive, and composting stops. If there is too much water, the oxygen from the air is not able to
penetrate to where the microorganisms are, and the mixture becomes anaerobic. The right amount of
moisture, whether wastewater sludge or other sources of water, that needs to be added to the solids to
achieve just the right moisture content can be calculated from a simple mass balance as presented in the
following equation:

(6.38)

where:
MP is the moisture in mixed pile (heap) ready to begin the process of composting, %
Ma is the moisture in solids as in shredded and screened refuse, %
xa is the mass of solids, wet tons
xs is the mass of sludge or other source of water, tons. (This assumes that the solids content of the
sludge is very low, a good assumption if waste activated sludge is used, which is commonly <1% solids)

Example 6.14
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the amount of water or wastewater
sludge to be added to the solids of an MSW to obtain the desired concentration of moisture
content of the heap to start the process of composting, given composted materials mass, the
amount of moisture content in it, and moisture content.
2. A mixture of solids that contains paper, newspapers, and potentially composted materials, with a
mass of 8 tons, has a moisture content of 4%. It is required to make a mixture for the process of
composting with the moisture content of 45% moisture. Find the amount of water or wastewater
sludge to be added to the solids of this MSW to obtain the desired concentration of moisture
content of the heap to start the process of composting.
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.14 (1), see the listing of Program 6.14.
 2. Solution to Example 6.14 (2): Given: Data: xa = 8 tons, Ma = 4%, MP = 45%.
a.
b. Use the following equation to find the amount of water needed xs from wastewater:

Then, xs = 6 tons from water or from wastewater sludge.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.14 (Chap6.14\Form1.vb): Amount of Water to

be Added to MSW to Obtain the Desired Moisture Content

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.14: Calculates amount of water or wastewater sludge to be added
'to the solids of a MSW to obtain desired concentration of moisture content.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim MP, Ma, Xa, Xs As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.14:"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "The formula:" + vbCrLf
Label1.Text += "MP = ((Ma * Xa) + (100 * Xs)) / (Xs + Xa)"
Label2.Text = "Composted materials mass, Xa (ton):"
Label3.Text = "The amount of moisture content in it, Ma (%):"
Label4.Text = "Moisture content, MP (%):"
Label5.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Xa = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Ma = Val(TextBox2.Text)
MP = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Formula: MP = ((Ma * Xa) + (100 * Xs)) / (Xs + Xa)
Xs = ((MP * Xa) - (Ma * Xa)) / (100 - MP)

Label5.Text = "xs = " + Format(Xs, "###.#") + " tons from water or from
wastewater sludge."
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Estimation of carbon and nitrogen levels and the C/N ratio is based on mass balances. If two materials
such as shredded refuse and sewage sludge are mixed, the carbon of the mixture is calculated as shown in
the following equation:

(6.39)

where:
Cp is the carbon concentration in the mixture prior to composting, % of total wet mass of mixture Cr is
the carbon concentration in the refuse, % of total wet refuse mass Cs is the carbon concentration in the
sludge, % of total wet sludge mass Xs is the total mass of sludge, wet tons per day
Xr is the total mass of refuse, wet tons per day

MSW and refuse can be burned as is, or it can be processed to improve its heat value and to make it
easier to handle in a combustor. Processed refuse also can be combined with other fuels (such as coal)
and cofired in a heat recovery combustor or can be used to provide electrical power for the community.
The amount of oxygen necessary to oxidize some hydrocarbon is known as stoichiometric oxygen.
Usually, refuse is not burned using air as the source of oxygen. Because air contains 23.15% oxygen by
weight, then stoichiometric air required can be determined from the following equation:

(6.40)

Example 6.15
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating stoichiometric oxygen and
stoichiometric air required for the combustion of a gas.
2. Calculate the stoichiometric oxygen and stoichiometric air required for the combustion of
methane gas.
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.15 (1), see the listing of Program 6.15.
a. Solution to Example 6.15 (2): The equation for combustion of methane is CH4 + 2O2 = CO2
2.
+ 2H2O.
b. That is, it takes 16 g of methane (12 + 4) to react with 2 2 16 = 64 moles of oxygen. Thus,
stoichiometric oxygen required for combustion of methane is 64/16 = 4 g O2/g CH4.
c Stoichiometric air requirement = 4/0.2315 = 17.3 g air/g methane.
LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.15 (Chap6.15\Form1.vb): Stoichiometric Oxygen
and Air Required for Combustion of a Gas

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.15: Calculates stoichiometric oxygen and air
' required for the combustion of a gas
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim a, b, c, d As Double
Dim H2O, GAS, CO2, O2 As Double
Dim outputStr(4) As String
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.15:"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle

Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter the equation for combustion of the gas:"
Label2.Text = ""
CheckBox1.Checked = False
CheckBox1.Text = "Use Example 6.15, Combustion of methane CH4 + 2O2 = CO2
+ 2H2O"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
readChemicalFormula()
Dim result, result2 As Double
result = O2 / GAS
result2 = result / 0.2315
Label2.Text = "It takes " + GAS.ToString + " grams of (" + outputStr(1) +
") to react with"
Label2.Text += O2.ToString + " moles of oxygen"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "Stoichiometric oxygen required for combustion is
" + Format(result, "###.#") Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "Stoichiometric air
requirement = " + result.ToString + "/0.2315 = " _
+ Format(result2, "###.#") + " g air/g gas."
End Sub
********************************************************************************
Reads the chemical formula entered in TextBox1, goes through it letter-by-
letter.
it divides the formula into four components, two on the left side of the
equal = sign and two on the right side. it then calculates the weight of
each one.
Sample formula: CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
********************************************************************************
Sub readChemicalFormula()
Dim i As Integer = 0
Dim i2 As Integer = 0
Dim formula As String = TextBox1.Text.ToUpper + " "
Dim f(4) As String
Dim r(4) As Double
Dim x, multiplier As Double
GAS = 0 : O2 = 0 : CO2 = 0 : H2O = 0
break down the formula into four parts
i = formula.IndexOf("+")
f(1) = formula.Substring(0, i)
i2 = formula.IndexOf("=")
f(2) = formula.Substring(i + 1, i2 - i - 1)
i = formula.IndexOf("+", i2)
f(3) = formula.Substring(i2 + 1, i - i2 - 1)
f(4) = formula.Substring(i + 1, formula.Length - i - 1)
For j = 1 To 4
run each part of the formula in turn, calculating its weight
i = 0
multiplier = 0
r(j) = 0
f(j) = " " + f(j) + " "
While i < f(j).Length - 1
If multiplier = 0 And IsNumeric(f(j).Chars(i)) Then
the first number in the formula is the multiplier, e.g. 2H2O
multiplier = Val(f(j).Chars(i))
Else
Select Case f(j).Chars(i)
Case "C"
if the next char is a number, e.g. C2, then multiply this

by the weight of carbon, then multiply by the multiplier that

was read early on if it is > 0.
If Val(f(j).Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
x = Val(f(j).Chars(i + 1)) * 12 weight of Carbon
If multiplier > 0 Then
r(j) = r(j) + x * multiplier multiplier, e.g. 2*C
Else
r(j) = r(j) + x
End If
i += 1
Else
If multiplier > 0 Then
r(j) = r(j) + 12 * multiplier multiplier, e.g. 2*C
Else : r(j) += 12
End If
End If
Case "H"
if the next char is a number, e.g. H2O, then multiply this
by the weight of hydrogen, then multiply by the multiplier that
was read early on if it is > 0.
If Val(f(j).Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
x = Val(f(j).Chars(i + 1)) weight of Hydrogen
If multiplier > 0 Then
r(j) = r(j) + x * multiplier multiplier, e.g. 2*H
Else
r(j) = r(j) + x
End If
i += 1
Else
If multiplier > 0 Then
r(j) = r(j) + multiplier multiplier, e.g. 2*H
Else : r(j) += 1
End If
End If
Case "O"
if the next char is a number, e.g. O2, then multiply this
by the weight of oxygen, then multiply by the multiplier that
was read early on if it is > 0.
If Val(f(j).Chars(i + 1)) > 0 Then
x = Val(f(j).Chars(i + 1)) * 16 weight of Oxygen
If multiplier > 0 Then
r(j) = r(j) + x * multiplier multiplier, e.g. 2*O2
Else
r(j) = r(j) + x
End If
i += 1
Else
If multiplier > 0 Then
r(j) = r(j) + 16 * multiplier multiplier, e.g. 2*O2
Else : r(j) += 16
End If
End If
End Select
End If
i += 1
End While
Next
make sure the right- and left side of the equation are balanced.
If (r(1) + r(2)) <> (r(3) + r(4)) Then
MsgBox("Equation is not balanced! Review and try again.", vbOKOnly,
"Equation Error")

Exit Sub
End If
the four parts are not arranged.. arrange then so that the gas result is
the first, the oxygen is second, the CO2 is third, and the water is fourth.
For i = 1 To 4
If f(i).Contains("CO2") Then
CO2 = r(i)
outputStr(3) = f(i).Trim
ElseIf f(i).Contains("O2") Then
O2 = r(i)
outputStr(2) = f(i).Trim
ElseIf f(i).Contains("H2O") Then
H2O = r(i)
outputStr(4) = f(i).Trim
Else
GAS = r(i)
outputStr(1) = f(i).Trim
End If
Next
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub CheckBox1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e
As System.EventArgs) Handles CheckBox1.CheckedChanged If CheckBox1.Checked
Then
TextBox1.Text = "CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O"
Else
TextBox1.Text = ""
End If
End Sub
 End Class

In a power plant, water is heated to steam in a boiler. Steam is used to turn a turbine, which drives a
generator. This process can be simplified to a simple energy balance where energy in has to equal energy
out (energy wasted in the conversion + useful energy) plus energy accumulated in box (energy changed in
form) as presented in the following equation:

(6.41)

Energy systems in a steady state are defined as no change occurring over time. As such, there cannot be
a continuous accumulation of energy, or if some of the energy out is useful and the rest is wasted and then
Equation 6.41 becomes:

(6.42)

(6.43)

Efficiency (E%) of process can be calculated as indicted in the following equation:

(6.44)

A thermal balance on a large combustion unit is difficult because much of the heat cannot be accurately
measured. Assuming recovery of heat as steam in a combustor, input heat to a black box (see Figure 6.3)
is from heat value in the fuel and heat in the water entering the water wall pipes. The output is the
sensible heat in the stack gases, the latent heat of water, the heat in the ashes, the heat in the steam, and the
heat lost due to radiation. If the process is in a steady state, the equation of thermal balance can be as
indicated in the following equation:

FIGURE 6.3 Energy flow in a combustor.

(6.45)

Example 6.16

1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the temperature of the stack gases
given heat value of the fuel, air flow, heat input lost due to radiation, percentage of fuel
remaining uncombusted in ash, ash exit temperature from combustion chamber, specific heat
of ash, specific heat of air, and latent heat of vaporization.
2. A refractory combustion unit lined with no water wall and no heat recovery is burning RDF*
consisting of 85% organics, 10% water, and 5% inorganics or inerts at a rate of 950 kg/h.
Determine the temperature, T, at which ash exits the combustion chamber (in both C and
a. F), assuming the following: Heat value of the fuel = 19,000 kJ/kg on a moisture-free basis.
b. Air flow = 9,500 kg/h and that the under-and overfire air contributes negligible heat.
c 5% of the heat input is lost due to radiation.
d 15% of the fuel remains uncombusted in the ash.
e Specific heat of ash = 0.837 kJ/kg/C.
f Specific heat of air = 1.0 kJ/kg/C.
g Latent heat of vaporization = 2575 kJ/kg.
h Temperature of the stack gases = 1500C.
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution
 1. For the solution of Example 6.16 (1), see the listing of Program 6.16.
2. Solution to Example 6.16 (2):
Given: RDF 85% organics, 10% water, 5% inorganics or inerts.
RDF rate = 950 kg/h.
Heat value of the fuel = 19,000 kJ/kg.
Air flow = 9,500 kg/h.
Heat input is lost due to radiation = 5%.
Fuel remaining uncombusted in the ash = 15%.
Specific heat of ash = 0.837 kJ/kg/C.
Temperature of the stack gases = 1500C.
Ash temperature = TC???
Specific heat of air is 1.0 kJ/kg/oC.
Latent heat of vaporization = 2575 kJ/kg.

Heat to ash = mass*temperature*specific heat of ash = 141.1391T kJ/h.

Temperature of ash = (15,342,500767,125 244,625 14,250,000)/141.1391 = 80,750/ 141.1391 =
8070/141.1391 = 572C = (572 * 9/5) +32 = 1062F.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.16 (Chap6.16\Form1.vb): Temperature of Stack

Gases

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.16: Calculates temperature of the stack gases
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim g As Graphics
Dim heatValue, airFlow, percRad, percAsh, exitTemp, AshSpHeat, AirSpHeat,
latentHeat As Double Dim RDFRate, percOrg, percWater, percInerts As Double
Dim toStack, toVapor, toRad, toAsh, fromFuel, gasTemp As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.16: Temperature of
the stack gases"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Heat value of the fuel (kJ/kg):"
Label2.Text = "Air flow (kg/h):"
Label3.Text = "Heat input lost due to radiation (%):"
Label4.Text = "Fuel remaining uncombusted in the ash (%):"
Label5.Text = "Stack gases temp. (C):"
Label6.Text = "Specific heat of ash (kJ/kg/C):"
Label7.Text = "Specific heat of air (kJ/kg/C):"
Label8.Text = "Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg):"
Label9.Text = "Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) rate (kg/h):"
Label10.Text = "Percentage of organics (%):"
Label11.Text = "Percentage of water (%):"
Label12.Text = "Percentage of inorganics/inerts (%):"
Label13.Text = "Ash exit temp. from combustion chamber (C):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
heatValue = Val(TextBox1.Text)
airFlow = Val(TextBox2.Text)
percRad = Val(TextBox3.Text)
percAsh = Val(TextBox4.Text)
gasTemp = Val(TextBox5.Text)
AshSpHeat = Val(TextBox6.Text)
AirSpHeat = Val(TextBox7.Text)
latentHeat = Val(TextBox8.Text)
RDFRate = Val(TextBox9.Text)
percOrg = Val(TextBox10.Text)
percWater = Val(TextBox11.Text)
percInerts = Val(TextBox12.Text)
If percOrg > 1 Then percOrg /= 100 if percentage is input as xx%, convert
to 0.xx%
If percWater > 1 Then percWater /= 100 if percentage is input as xx%,
convert to 0.xx%
If percInerts > 1 Then percInerts /= 100 if percentage is input as xx%,
convert to 0.xx%
If percRad > 1 Then percRad /= 100 if percentage is input as xx%, convert
to 0.xx%
If percAsh > 1 Then percAsh /= 100 if percentage is input as xx%, convert
to 0.xx%
fromFuel = RDFRate * percOrg * heatValue
toVapor = RDFRate * percWater * latentHeat
toRad = fromFuel * percRad
toAsh = ((RDFRate * percInerts) + (RDFRate * percOrg * percAsh)) *
AshSpHeat
toStack = airFlow * gasTemp * AirSpHeat
Dim ashTemp As Double = fromFuel - toRad - toVapor - toStack
ashTemp /= toAsh

TextBox13.Text = FormatNumber(ashTemp, 2)
drawStack()
End Sub
Sub drawStack()
Dim bmp As Bitmap = New Bitmap(PictureBox1.Width, PictureBox1.Height)
g = Graphics.FromImage(bmp)
g.Clear(Color.White)
draw stack box in the middle of the area
g.DrawRectangle(Pens.Black, CInt((PictureBox1.Width / 2) - 50), _
CInt((PictureBox1.Height / 2) - 35), 100, 70)
draw the 7 arrows, 2 into and 5 out of the stack
Dim x = CInt((PictureBox1.Width / 2) - 50)
Dim y = CInt((PictureBox1.Height / 2) - 35)
drawArrow(g, x - 30, y + 20, x, y + 20)
drawArrow(g, x - 30, y + 50, x, y + 50)
drawArrow(g, x + 20, y, x + 20, y - 20)
drawArrow(g, x + 40, y, x + 40, y - 10)
drawArrow(g, x + 60, y, x + 60, y - 30)
drawArrow(g, x + 60, y + 70, x + 60, y + 100)
drawArrow(g, x + 100, y + 40, x + 130, y + 40)
output the results
Dim s As String
Dim f As Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericSansSerif, 8)
Dim f2 As Font = New Font(f, FontStyle.Bold Or FontStyle.Underline)
s = "To stack = heat of combustion " + vbCrLf + " heat losses" + vbCrLf +
_
"= " + Format(toStack, "n") + " kJ/hr"
g.DrawString(s, f, Brushes.Black, New Point(10, y - 50))
s = "To vaporization = mass*%water" + vbCrLf + "*latent heat of
vaporization" + vbCrLf + _
"= " + Format(toVapor, "n") + " kJ/hr"
g.DrawString(s, f, Brushes.Black, New Point(x + 65, y - 50))
s = "From fuel = mass" + vbCrLf + "*%organics*heat " + vbCrLf + "value of
fuel" + _
vbCrLf + "= " + Format(fromFuel, "n") + " kJ/hr"
g.DrawString(s, f, Brushes.Black, New Point(10, y + 30))
s = "To radiation = from " + vbCrLf + "combustion*%to radiation" + vbCrLf
+ _
"= " + Format(toRad, "n") + " kJ/hr"
g.DrawString(s, f, Brushes.Black, New Point(x + 110, y + 50))
s = "To ash = (mass inerts+unburned)" + vbCrLf +
"*%organics*temperature*specific" + _
vbCrLf + " heat of ash" + vbCrLf + "= " + Format(toAsh, "n") + " kJ/hr"
g.DrawString(s, f, Brushes.Black, New Point(x + 40, y + 110))
s = "Energy flow in a combustor"
g.DrawString(s, f2, Brushes.Black, New Point(x - 15, y + 160))
PictureBox1.Image = Image.FromHbitmap(bmp.GetHbitmap)
g.Dispose()
bmp.Dispose()
End Sub
Sub drawArrow(ByRef g As Graphics, ByVal x As Integer, ByVal y As Integer,
ByVal x2 As Integer, ByVal y2 As Integer) Draw the arrow stem
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x, y, x2, y2)
Draw the arrow head
If x = x2 Then arrow is vertical
If y2 > y Then arrow is facing down
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 - 4, y2 - 4)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 + 4, y2 - 4)
Else arrow is facing up
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 - 4, y2 + 4)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 + 4, y2 + 4)

End If
Else arrow is horizontal
If x > x2 Then arrow is facing left
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 + 4, y2 - 4)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 + 4, y2 + 4)
Else arrow is facing right
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 - 4, y2 - 4)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, x2, y2, x2 - 4, y2 + 4)
End If
End If
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.8 COST ESTIMATES FOR SOLID WASTE FACILITIES

Solid waste may be defined as garbage, refuse, and other solid material derived from any agricultural,
commercial, consumer, or industrial operation or activity if it is both used material or residual material,
and reasonably expected to be introduced into a qualified* solid waste disposal process within a
reasonable time after such purchase or acquisition.
Solid waste financing or funding concerns revenues and costs, which vary with specifics of the solid
waste system, ownership and contractual arrangements, and complexity of financial system. Revenue and
profit for solid waste operations may be received from sale of services and goods, garbage bill paid by
home or business, tipping fees at disposal site, sale of recyclables, and sale of products such as landfill
gas or electricity from waste-to-energy plant. The initial cost of the facility (or its capital cost) is an
important one-time investment that may be paid from the budget of the municipality or agency, or proceeds
of bank loans, or general obligation bonds, or revenue bonds, and so on.

6.8.1 CAPITAL COST AND CAPITAL RECOVERY FACTOR

The capital costs of competing facilities can be projected by determining the cost that the municipality or
agency would incur if it were to pay interest on a loan of that amount and value. Computing the annual
cost of a capital investment resembles computing the annual cost of a loan or mortgage on a building or
land. The municipality or agency borrows the money from a moneylender or a financier or bank and then
has to pay it back in a number of equal installments. If the municipality borrows (X) dollars and aims to
pay back the loan in n number of installments at an interest rate of i, each installment can be found as
presented in the following equation:

(6.46)

where:
Y is the installment cost
i is the annual interest rate (enter interest i in decimal form, i.e., as a fraction) n is the number of
installments
X is the amount borrowed

A capital recovery factor (CRF) is defined as shown in the following equation:

(6.47)
Equations 7.1 and 7.2 can be combined as revealed in the following equation:

(6.48)

Example 6.17

1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the capital cost, CRF, and annual
installments on this capital expense to purchase a refuse collection truck, given truck
expected life, SAR, annual back payments, and interest rate.
2. A municipality decides to purchase a refuse collection truck that has an expected life of 10
years for SAR* 650,000. The cost of the truck is to be borrowed from the local bank and to
be paid back in 10 annual payments. Determine the annual installments on this capital
expense if the interest rate is 6.125%.
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.17 (1), see the listing of Program 6.17.
2. Solution to Example 6.17 (2):

a. Given: t = 10 years, cost of truck, X = SAR 650,000, payments = 10, i = 6.125%.

b. From Table 6.6, CRF for n years = 10 is 0.13667 or

c The annual cost to the municipality would then be Y = CRF * X = 0.13667 * 650,000 or Y =
SAR 88,836. That is, the municipality would have to pay SAR 88,836 each year for 10 years to
pay back the bank loan on this truck.
d It is to be noted that this truck does not cost 10 * 88,836 = SAR 888,360, because the Saudi
riyals for each year are different and cannot be augmented and added.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.17 (Chap6.17\Form1.vb): Capital Cost, Capital

Recovery Factor, and Annual Installments

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.17: Calculates capital cost, capital recovery factor
'and annual installments
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim exLife, price, backPay, intRate As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.17: Capital cost
et al"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = " Calculates capital cost, capital recovery factor and
annual installments."
Label2.Text = "Truck expected life (yr):"
Label3.Text = "Price (SAR):"
Label4.Text = "Annual back payments:"
Label5.Text = "Interest rate (%):"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label6.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
exLife = Val(TextBox1.Text)
price = Val(TextBox2.Text)
backPay = Val(TextBox3.Text)
intRate = Val(TextBox4.Text)
intRate /= 100
Dim CRF, aCost As Double
CRF = ((intRate * ((1 + intRate) ^ exLife)) / (((1 + intRate) ^ exLife) -
1))

aCost = CRF * price

Label6.Text = "CRF for " + backPay.ToString + " years is " + Format(CRF,
"n")
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "The annual cost would be, Y = " + Format(CRF,
"n") + _
" * " + backPay.ToString + " = SAR " + Format(aCost, "n")
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.8.2 PRESENT WORTH VALUE AND PRESENT WORTH FACTOR

The actual cost of a capital investment also may be estimated by evaluating the present worth value or the
value on a solution to example, given the date of a payment made at other times. This concerns finding the
amount to be invested at the moment (present), Y dollars, at a certain interest rate i to have available X
dollars every year for n number of years. The relationship can be figured as presented in the following
equation:

(6.49)

where:
Y is the amount that has to be invested
i is the annual interest rate
n is the number of years
X is the amount available every year

A present worth factor, PWF can be introduced as shown in Equation 6.50:

(6.50)

Then, by combining Equations 6.49 and 6.50, the following equation is obtained:

(6.51)

Example 6.18
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the amount to be invested at the
moment (present), Y dollars, at a certain interest rate i to have available X dollars every year
for n number of years.
2. A town wants to invest money in a bank account drawing an interest rate of 6.125% so that it
can withdraw SAR 88,836 every year for the next 10 years. Compute the amount that must be
invested.
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution
 1. For the solution of Example 6.18 (1), see the listing of Program 6.18.
a. Solution to Example 6.18 (2): Given: i = 6.125%, withdraw, X = SAR 88,836, n = 10 year.
2.
b. From Table 6.6, the PWF for n = 10 is 7.316.
c Thus, the money required, Y = PWF*X = 7.316 x SAR 88,836 or Y = SAR 649,924.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.18 (Chap6.18\Form1.vb): Amount of Investment

Needed for a Number of Years

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.18: Calculates amount of investment needed
'for a number of years.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim i, X, n, Y As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.18:"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = " Calculates amount of investment needed for a number of
years."
Label2.Text = "Interest rate (%):"
Label3.Text = "Yearly withdrawal needed (SAR):"
Label4.Text = "Total number of years:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label5.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
i = Val(TextBox1.Text)
X = Val(TextBox2.Text)
n = Val(TextBox3.Text)
i /= 100
Dim PWF As Double
PWF = ((((1 + i) ^ n) - 1) / (i * ((1 + i) ^ n)))
Y = PWF * X
Label5.Text = "Present worth factor (PWF) for " + n.ToString + " years is
" + Format(PWF, "n") Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "The money required, Y = " +
Format(PWF, "n") + _
" * " + Format(X, "n") + " = SAR " + Format(Y, "n")
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.8.3 SINKING FUND AND SINKING FUND FACTOR

Sinking fund may be defined as a fund established by a municipality or a government agency or a business
for the purpose of reducing debt by repaying or purchasing outstanding loans and securities held against
the entity. This indicates that a sinking fund would be a sum of money set up to collect a certain amount of
money to pay for purchasing a certain commodity or paying the bill of a major work. This means that the
municipality or agency is saving money by investing it so that at some later date, it would have some
specified sum available. An example of such a fund in solid waste engineering is for the case of landfill
entity investing money during the active life of the landfill so that, when the landfill is full, sufficient funds
would be available to place the required final landfill cover.
Equation 6.52 illustrates how to determine the funds Y necessary to be invested in an account that
draws i percent interest so that at the end of n years, the fund has X value in it:

(6.52)

A sinking fund factor, SFF, may be introduced as shown in the following equation:

(6.53)

Example 6.19

1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the funds Y necessary to be invested
in an account that draws i percent interest so that at the end of n years, the fund has X value
in it.
2. A local solid waste enterprise aspires to have SAR 2 million available at the end of a 10-
year period by investing annually into an account that gives an interest of 6.125%. Find the
amount the enterprise has to invest annually.
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.19 (1), see the listing of Program 6.19.
2. Solution to Example 6.19 (2).

a. Given: X = SAR 2,400,000, t = 10 years, i = 6.125%.

b. From Table 6.6, the SFF at 10 years is 0.07452.
 c The required annual investment is therefore Y = SFF*X = 0.07452 * SAR 2,400,000 or Y = SAR
178,848.
d Note that the value of money of 10 * 178,848 = SAR 1,788,480 is significantly less than SAR
2,400,000. This is because the investments during the early years are drawing interest and
adding to the sum available.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.19 (Chap6.19\Form1.vb): Necessary Funds to

Reach a Certain Value

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.19: Calculates necessary funds to reach a certain value
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim i, X, n, Y As Double
Dim SFF As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.19: Funds"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Calculates necessary funds to reach a certain value"
Label2.Text = "Interest rate (%):"
Label3.Text = "Total number of years:"
Label4.Text = "Target value at the end of investment period (SAR):"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
i = Val(TextBox1.Text)
n = Val(TextBox2.Text)
X = Val(TextBox3.Text)
i /= 100
SFF = i / (((1 + i) ^ n) - 1)
Y = SFF * X
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
Label5.Text = "Sinking fund factor (SFF) at " + n.ToString + " years is "
+ FormatNumber(SFF, decimals) Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "The required annual
investment, Y = " + FormatNumber(SFF, decimals) Label5.Text += " * " +
Format(X, "n") + " = SAR " + FormatNumber(Y, decimals)
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Table 6.5 gives a general summary of selected compounding factors.

TABLE 6.5
Summary of Selected Compounding Factors
Factor Abbreviation Equation Use Examples
Compound CA
amount
Capital CRF Pays loan back in a number of equal installments.
recovery Converts a present value into a stream of equal
factor annual payments over a specified time.
Present PWF How much to be invested right now?
worth
factor
Sinking SFF Saves money by investing it so that at some later When landfill owner must invest money during the
fund date some specified sum active life of landfill so that, when landfill is full, there
factor would be available. are sufficient funds to place final cover.

The capital recovery factor, present worth factor, and sinking fund factor need not be computed,
because they can be found in interest tables or are programmed into hand-held calculators or computer
software. Table 6.6 shows these capital recovery factors for an interest rate of 6.125%.

TABLE 6.6
Capital Recovery Factors for an Interest Rate of 6.125%
Year CRF PWF SFF
1 1.06,125 0.942,285,041 1
2 0.546,392,511 1.83,018,614 0.485,142,511
3 0.374,975,336 2.666,842,064 0.313,725,336
4 0.289,417,974 3.455,210,425 0.228,167,974
5 0.238,204,237 4.198,078,139 0.176,954,237
6 0.204,161,994 4.898,071,274 0.142,911,994
7 0.179,931,702 5.557,664,333 0.118,681,702
8 0.161,833,535 6.179,189,007 0.100,583,535
9 0.147,823,104 6.764,842,409 0.086,573,104
10 0.136,673,733 7.31,669,485 0.075,423,733
11 0.127,604,778 7.836,697,149 0.066,354,778
12 0.120,095,776 8.326,687,537 0.058,845,776
13 0.113,786,379 8.788,398,151 0.052,536,379
14 0.10,841,917 9.223,461,155 0.04,716,917
15 0.103,805,354 9.633,414,516 0.042,555,354
16 0.099,803,313 10.01,970,744 0.038,553,313
17 0.096,304,735 10.38,370,548 0.035,054,735
18 0.093,225,356 10.72,669,538 0.031,975,356
19 0.090,498,641 11.04,988,964 0.029,248,641
20 0.088,071,346 11.35,443,076 0.026,821,346

Key:
6.8.4 TOTAL COST
Total cost to the community is the sum of the annual payback of the capital costs (fixed costs) of the
investments and the labor and raw materials costs and operating and maintenance costs (variable costs).

Example 6.20
1. Write a short computer program that enables calculating the total cost that a refuse collection
truck costs the municipality every year, given the truck expected life, the truck cost, annual
installments interest rate, and annual operation cost of the truck.
2. A municipality wants to purchase a refuse collection truck that has an expected life of 10
years and costs SAR 600,000. The municipality preferred to pay back the loan in 10 annual
installments at an interest rate of 6.125%. The annual operation cost of the truck (gas, oil,
service, and regular maintenance) amounts to SAR 80,000. How much will this truck cost
the municipality every year?
3 Use the program developed in (1) to verify the manual computations conducted in (2).
Solution

1. For the solution of Example 6.20 (1), see the listing of Program 6.20.
2. Solution to Example 6.20 (2).

a. Given: n = 10 years, X = SAR 600,000, i = 6.125%. truck operating cost = SAR 80,000/year.
b. From Table 6.6, the CRF for n = 10 is 0.13667.
c So the annual cost of the capital investment is y = CRF*X = 0.13667 * SAR 600,000, or Y =
SAR 82,002.
d Total annual cost to the community = operating cost + annual investment = SAR 82,002 + SAR
80,000 or total cost = SAR 160,002.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 6.20 (Chap6.20\Form1.vb): Refuse Collection

Trucks Costs

'*********************************************************************************
'Program 6.20: Calculates refuse collection truck's costs
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim i, X, n, Y, cost As Double
Dim CRF, total As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Program 6.20: Truck costs"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Calculates refuse collection truck's costs"
Label2.Text = "Expected life of collection truck:"
Label3.Text = "Truck cost (SAR):"
Label4.Text = "Annual installments interest rate (%):"
Label5.Text = "Truck operating cost:"
Label6.Text = ""
Label7.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
n = Val(TextBox1.Text)
X = Val(TextBox2.Text)
i = Val(TextBox3.Text)
cost = Val(TextBox4.Text)
i /= 100
CRF = (i * ((1 + i) ^ n)) / (((1 + i) ^ n) - 1)
Y = CRF * X
total = Y + cost
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
Label6.Text = "Capital recovery factor (CRF) for " + n.ToString + " years
is " + FormatNumber(CRF, decimals) Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "The required
annual investment, Y = " + FormatNumber(CRF, decimals) Label6.Text += " * " +
Format(X, "n") + " = SAR " + FormatNumber(Y, decimals)
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "The annual cost = " + FormatNumber(cost,
decimals)
Label6.Text += " + " + FormatNumber(Y, decimals) + " = SAR " +
FormatNumber(total, decimals) End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

6.9 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN COMPUTER MODELING APPLICATIONS

FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE CLASSIFICATION, QUANTITIES,
PROPERTIES, COLLECTION, PROCESSING, MATERIAL SEPARATION, AND
COST ESTIMATES

6.9.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS

6.9.1.1 Solid Waste Research

1. Select a short research project on solid waste for a certain locality (municipal, industrial,
a. commercial, agricultural, hazardous, and so on). Write briefly about the following: Selection of
research topic and justification
b. Research objectives, hypothesis, and assumptions
c Research methodology
d Materials and methods for selected research area with emphasis on solid waste sources and
e characteristics, collection, segregation, sorting, treatment, final disposal, and reuse and recycling
Results and discussions
f Conclusions and recommendations
g References

6.9.1.2 Type of Waste

1. Compare between industrial and agricultural solid wastes as per indicated parameters within
the following table: Table of Comparison between Industrial and Agricultural Solid Wastes
Parameter Type of Solid Waste
Industrial Agricultural
Source and production unit
Type of solid waste
Quality
Reuse
Environmental impact

6.9.1.3 Solid Waste Types

1. Write briefly about three of the following:

a. Current classification of solid waste in KSA

b. The challenge for society is to minimize how much waste is generated and to convert waste into a
 c resource (essence of the zero waste concept) Potential problems of solid waste, garbage, and
sweeping
e Factors that affect quality and quantity of solid waste produced from a particular locality Most
d
2. important properties of solid waste and its significance Attempt writing briefly about any three
a. questions of the following: The challenge for society is to minimize how much waste is generated
and to convert waste into a resource. Discuss this statement.
b. MSW may be defined as a heterogeneous mass of throwaways from the urban community, as well
as the more homogeneous accumulations of agricultural, industrial, and mineral wastes. Based on
this definition, how can you classify urban MSW? State your reasons.
c Waste and garbage disposal is a big responsibility for the government. If the authority did not have
good management for its disposal, it exposes itself to political and social problems. Explain why?
d It is difficult to determine the relevance of diseases with waste and garbage. Nonetheless, ~50%
of various diseases are transferred by flies, mosquitoes, and rodents proliferating in the waste. To
take caution, what procedures would you advocate to be followed by concerned authorities?
e There are many sources of solid waste, garbage, and sweeping, which include agriculture, mining,
building and construction, industry, housing, homes, offices, open markets, restaurants, hospitals,
shops, educational institutions, hazardous, and so on. Outline the major types of hazardous solid
waste. Which type would expect to be found in KSA? Why?
f Write briefly about the most important properties of solid waste and its associated benefits.

6.9.1.4 Solid Waste Amount

How can you estimate the amount of solid waste in an area?

6.9.1.5 Solid Waste Properties

1. What is the benefit of properties of solid waste in management systems and related engineering
topics?
2. What are the related effects to the physical properties of solid waste and garbage?
3. What is the benefit of knowing the angle of stability in a landfill?
4. Indicate the importance of moisture content measurements for a sample of MSW.
5. Evaluate the impact of moisture in a stream of solid waste of a municipality on its system of
processing and final disposal.
6. Describe a method of conducting an experiment to estimate the moisture content of a household
solid waste.
7. Why do newspapers contain higher moisture content compared to plastic materials in a domestic
dustbin?
8. What is the benefit of knowing the size of grains of a solid waste?
9. How bulk density of trade solid waste is determined?
10.How can you estimate the chemical composition of garbage?
11. What is the benefit of estimating the calorific value of a solid waste?
12.What is the purpose of measuring heat values of refuse?
13.Compare between the methods used to identify the chemical components of solid waste and
garbage to estimate the amount of energy or heat value in an unknown fuel as per attached table.
Table for Methods Used to Identify Chemical Components of Solid Waste and Garbage
Method Description Examples Limitations
Ultimate analysis
Compositional analysis
Proximate analysis
Calorimetry

14.Rearrange group (I) with the corresponding relative ones of group (II) in the area allocated for
the answer.
Group (I) Rearranged Group (II) Group (II)
Recyclables Food waste
Refrigerators Hospitals
Bulky refuse Refineries
Yard waste Chemical and biological processes
Biomaterials Rubble and remnants of buildings
Sweeping Diverted refuse
Commercial waste Rest and stability
Municipal waste ASTM Standard
Industrial refuse Geotechnical engineering
Agriculture waste Generated by households
Hazardous waste Newspapers
Construction and demolition Quartering and coning
Refuse Production of gas
Dry weight moisture Thrown by users
Waste sampling Livestock farms
Representative samples Green waste
Not collected waste Furniture
Organic materials Warehouse waste
Angle of repose White waste

6.9.1.6 Solid Waste Collection

1. Write briefly about the following agenda concerning solid waste as related to a selected
a. research project in your residence area: Process of collection
b. Sorting of solid waste components from each other
c Responsible personnel for collection and sorting of solid waste.
e Preferred method to transport in your city. Give reasons for your answer Objectives of solid waste
d
collection
f Stages of solid waste collection
h Difference between collection of solid waste in both rural and urban areas Appropriate routes for
g
i car collecting solid waste between neighborhoods in the city Disadvantages and advantages of
transfer stations.
jk Transfer station location, divisions available, and methods to unload solid waste trucks Difference
between reuse and recycling
l Methods of collecting recyclable materials
m Methods of storage of solid waste in house, apartment, and office. Harmful effects for keeping solid
n waste for a long time Kinds of baskets preferred for storage until transferred
p Antibreeding of trash flies used risks resulting from breeding of blow flies Appropriate hours of
o
q collection of solid waste and related reasons Obstacles to collect solid waste in your area. Give
most appropriate solutions to improve the situation 2.. Write briefly about the objectives of MSW
 collection.
4. Write briefly about the objectives of MSW collection in Al-Danaha municipality Write briefly
3.
about refuse collection phases
6. Write briefly about the stages of MSW process collection in an urban area Write briefly about
5.
the role of a transfer station in MSW collection. Indicate when it is preferred to rely on transfer
7. stations Recommend the appropriate ways for collecting recyclables, yard wastes, and C&D of
solid wastes, as depicted in the following table: Table for Methods of SW Collection
Waste Method of Collection
Recyclables
Yard waste
C&D wastes

8. Compare between the different phases of MSW collection within a community as per the
following table: Table of Different Phases of MSW Collection within a Community
Stage or phase Description Location Responsible Body Limitations
Phase 1: House-to-can
Phase 2: Can-to-truck
Phase 3: Truck from house-to-house
Phase 4: Truck routing
Phase 5: Truck-to-disposal

6.9.1.7 Solid Waste Recycling and Reuse

1. Rank recycling among solid waste hierarchal system. Give an example of a material that is often
recycled in your residence area.
2.. Write briefly about MSW, recycling, and reuse.

6.9.1.8 Solid Waste Treatment

1. Appraise three advantages and three disadvantages of biological treatment in comparison with
physicalchemical treatment.
2.. Write briefly about primary treatment systems to prepare MSW.
3. The three components of MSW of greatest interest in the bioconversion processes are garbage
(food waste), paper products, and yard wastes. What are the main factors that affect the
variation of garbage fraction of refuse?
4. Theoretically, the combustion of refuse produced by a community is sufficient to provide ~20%
of the electrical power needs for that community. Discuss this statement.

6.9.1.9 Solid Waste Finance and Costs

1. Write briefly about the major factors affecting the cost of MSW collection.
2.. What innovative methods to finance and fund programs for collection and disposal of MSW
would you propose to be adopted in KSA? Outline your reasons for your proposal.
3. Assess the effect of the factors, outlined in the following table, on the cost of MSW collection.
Table of the Cost of MSW Collection
Factor Assessment
Time
Number of collection points
Distance to complete path and access final point of disposal
Volume of MSW placed in each collection point and relationship to MSW collection vehicle
Weight of MSW

4. True/false: Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). In each case,
justify your answer.

a. One of the goals of studying solid and hazardous waste management is transforming domestic and
b. industrial waste into usable materials that people may reuse. () Absence of good sanitation in work
areas, dump sites, and waste dumps is one of the main reasons for occurrence of risks and disease.
c () Ill management of waste deteriorates community public health as well as its environmental
d impact and pollution of water, air, and soil. () Sensory imbalance between workers may affect
e negatively their health. () Community opposition to landfill siting, which has exaggerated the
f problem of diminishing refuse disposal capacity, is known as NIMBY. () A transfer station is a site
g where solid waste is concentrated before it is taken to a processing facility or a sanitary landfill. ()
h Adawha district in Dhahran serves ~80% of its population with a curbside recyclables program. ()
i Recycling is the best approach to solid waste management. () Reusing plastic water bottles is an
j example of waste recovery. () Controlled tipping is so called because only a limited quantity of
k waste can be tipped at any one time. () Packaging can sometimes reduce overall wastes. ()
l Minimizing waste generated by the society and converting it into a resource is the essence of the
m zero waste concept. () MSW defines a heterogeneous mixture of refuse, C&D waste, leaves, and
n bulky items. () It is difficult to quantify hazardous waste due to lack of real statistics, and perhaps
o hiding it from producers. This calls for sudden visits and regular monitoring. () Factors that affect
the quality and quantity of waste produced include standards, laws and legislation in force, living
p conditions, urbanization in the region, and social and economic factors. () Low-income areas
q generate less waste but with higher proportion of food. () Properties of solid waste affect the
design of collection systems, treatment and disposal, operation, management, and performance of
5. units. () MCQs

ia. Determine the hazardous solid waste among the following: Agricultural waste
ii Chemical waste
iii Hospital waste
iv Agricultural and hospital waste
v Chemical and hospital waste
b. Choose .. levels that can be paid by the beneficiary.
i Cost
ii Dust
iii Leachate
iv Odor
v Organic matter
c Unpleasant and undesirable resulting from bacterial decomposition of organic
materials of components of the waste ought to be avoided.
i Diseases
ii Explosive gases
iii Odors
iv Toxic materials
v Unregulated waste
d Secure landfills require all but one of the following:
i A leachate collection system
ii Financial guarantees for postclosure activities
iii Groundwater monitoring
iv Single liners
ei Landfills have historically been the sources of all but one of the following: Breeding grounds for
insects and rodents
ii Odor
iii Pollution to groundwater
iv Producers of propane gas
fi An acronym* that indicates peoples desire to locate landfills away from their communities is
MRF
ii NIMBY
iii NIMTOO
iv NOPE**
v PAYT
g Biomedical waste may be disposed of by?
i Autoclaving
ii Incineration
iii Land filling
iv Both (ii) and (iii)
h Which of the following is a biodegradable organic chemical/substance?
i Garbage
ii Oils
iii Pesticides
iv Plastics
i Which of the following is a practice used to reduce and manage MSW?
i Waste combustion
ii Source reduction
iii Recycling of materials
iv All of the above
j Which of the following is not a material in MSW?
i Agricultural wastes
ii Food wastes
iii Glass and plastics
iv Wood wastes
k Which of the following is not a source reduction activity?
i Products package reuse
ii Reducing use by modifying practices
iii Saving energy by using recycled materials
l Package or product design that reduces material or toxicity Facilities that perform the function of
iv
preparing recyclables for marketing are referred to as ________________________________.
i WTEs (waste-to-energy)
ii RDFs (refuse-derived fuel)
iii TSDs (treatment, storage, and disposal)
iv MRFs (materials recovery facility)
i Which hierarchy is correct for the principle of waste generation Reuse-reduce-recycle-recover-
m
resource management
ii Reduce-reuse-recycle-recover-resource management
iii Reduce-recover-recycle-reuse-resource management
iv Reduce-recycle-recover-reuse-resource management
6. Complete missing titles by using the following words and phrases (flooding, providers, odors,
a. moisture. syringes) Garbage piles up on roads, streets, and parks producing foul
..
b. Bodies that deal with solid waste and garbage include: citizens on a daily basis, . of
waste collection services, scavengers and those working on reuse.
c Accumulation of waste in drainage networks and waterways increases the risk of
and contamination of water resources.
d Types of hazardous solid waste include linens, clothing, bandages and disposable, .,
needles, surgical equipment and medical devices disposed off, food and contaminated waste, and
flammable materials.
e Common contaminants of waste items include , food, and dirt.

6.9.2 SPECIFIC MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

6.9.2.1 Amount of Solid Waste

a.1. Write a computer program to determine the diversion, given the fractions of solid waste and its
fate for a particular society.
b. Verify your program for a community that produces the following in an annual basis:
Fraction Tons per year
Mixed house waste 260
Recyclables 37
Commercial waste 54
C&D debris 135
Leaves and miscellaneous 65
Treatment plant sludges 8

The recyclables are collected separately and processed at an MRF. The mixed household waste and the
commercial waste go to the landfill, as do the leaves and miscellaneous solid wastes. The sludges are
dried and applied on land (not into the landfill), and the C&D wastes are used to fill a large ravine.
Calculate the diversion.

6.9.2.2 Solid Waste Properties

 1. a. Write a computer program to find the overall moisture content of a sample of a collected
residential MSW, given the typical physical composition of the waste.
b. Verify your program by estimating the overall moisture content of a sample of as-collected
residential MSW with the typical composition given in the following table (University of Dammam,
2012).
Table of typical physical composition of residential MSW
Component Percentage by Weight
Range Typical
Organic
Food wastes 618 9.0
Paper 2540 34.0
Cardboard 310 6.0
Plastics 410 7.0
Textiles 04 2.0
Rubber 02 0.5
Leather 02 0.5
Yard wastes 520 18.5
Wood 14 2.0
Miscellaneous organics
Inorganic
Glass 412 8.0
Tin cans 28 6.0
Aluminum 01 0.5
Other metal 14 3.0
Dirt, ash, and so on 06 3.0
Total 100

2.. a. Write a computer program to find the approximate chemical formula and energy content of
organic component of a certain solid waste, given its composition and fractions.
b. Verify your program by finding an approximate chemical formula of the organic component of the
sample composition of a solid waste as set out in the following table. Use chemical composition obtained
to estimate energy content of this solid waste.
Component Percentage by Mass
Garden trimmings 13
Food waste 20
Timber 7
Paper 33
Cardboard 12
Rubber 8
Tin cans 7
Total sum 100

Assume the total organic composition of the solid waste assuming a mass of 100 kg of the sample as
shown in the following table (b):
Component Mass (kg)
Carbon 35
Hydrogen 5
Oxygen 28
Nitrogen 0.5
Sulfur 0.1
Ash 5

3. a. Write a computer program to find the heat value of a certain solid waste, given its fractions
on a dry basis.
b. Verify your program by estimating the heat value of a processed refuse-derived fuel having the
following composition:
Component Fraction by Weight, Dry Basis
Paper 0.25
Food waste 0.25
Plastics 0.3
Glass 0.2

4. a. Write a computer program to find the comparable, moisture-free Btu and the moisture- and
ash-free heat value for a sample of refuse, given its water content, Btu of the entire mixture,
weight of sample, and ash remaining after combustion.
b. Verify your program for a sample of refuse is analyzed and found to contain 15% water (measured as
weight loss on evaporation). The Btu of the entire mixture is measured in a calorimeter and is found to be
6000 Btu/lb. A 1.0 g sample is placed in the calorimeter, and 0.3 g ash remains in the sample cup after
combustion. What is the comparable, moisture-free Btu, and the moisture- and ash-free heat value?
6.9.2.3 Solid Waste Collection
a.1. Write a short computer program to determine the number of customers served by a truck, given
each household production of refuse per week, truck capacity, and compaction density.
b. Verify your program by assuming that each household produces 50 lb of refuse per week (as in
Problem 2). How many customers can a 20-yd3 truck that compacts the refuse to 580 lb/yd3 collect
before it has to make a trip to the landfill?
2..

a. Write a computer program that allows computation of customers that can be served by a truck if it
did not have to go to the landfill, given the number of crew, the time required per stop, and the
number of customers to be served.
b. Suppose a crew of two people, requires 3 min/stop, at which they can service 4 customers. If each
customer generates 55 lb of refuse per week, how many customers can they service if they did not
have to go to the landfill?

6.9.2.4 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal

a.1. Write a computer program that enables the determination of the percolation of water through a
sanitary landfill, given the annual amount of rainfall, the yearly transpiration, and the runoff
coefficient.
Verify your program by finding the percolation of water through a sanitary landfill assuming the amount
of rainfall is 1300 mm per year, and transpiration is 480 mm/year. Assuming a runoff coefficient of 0.15.
2..

a. Write a computer program that enables the estimation the percolation of water through a landfill,
given its depth, thickness of soil cover, population, R, E, soil field capacity, and refuse field
capacity as packed.
b. Verify your program by estimating the percolation of water through a landfill 12 m deep (h), with a
i 1.1 m cover of sandy loam soil (d). Use the following data: Precipitation (P) = 1000 mm/yr
ii Runoff coefficient (R) = 0.14
iii Evaporation (E) = 580 mm/yr
iv Soil field capacity, Fs = 210 mm/m
v Refuse field capacity, Fr = 320 mm/m, as packed.
3.
a. Write a computer program that allows the determination of maximum design depth above lining,
given the distance between leachate collection tubes, rain water from 25 years, and a 24-h storm
entering the leachate drainage system, design storm (vertical flow), hydraulic conductivity, and the
slope of discharge.
b. Verify your program by finding the maximum design depth above lining noting that the distance
between leachate collection tubes is 10 m. Using a coarse discharge material and assuming that
rainwater from 25 years and a storm entering the leachate drainage system, design storm (vertical
flow) = 0.017 cm/min, and hydraulic conductivity 0.017 cm/s, and the slope of discharge 1.8%.
4.
a. Write a computer program that allows the determination of the spacing between pipes in a leachate
 collection system, given design storm (25 years, 24-h), hydraulic conductivity, drainage, and the
maximum design depth on liner.
b. Verify your program by determining the spacing between pipes in a leachate collection system using
granular drainage material and the following properties. Assume that in the most conservative
design, all storm water from a 25-year, 24 h storm enters the leachate collection system.
i Design the storm (25 years, 24 h) = 8.2 in = 0.015 cm/min.
ii Hydraulic conductivity = 0.02 cm/s.
iii Drainage slope = 1.5%.
iv Maximum design depth on liner = 15 cm.
5.
a. Write a computer program that allows writing down a balanced equation for the anaerobic
decomposition of an organic compound and estimating the amount and volume produced (at STP)*
of CO2 and CH4 during the anaerobic decomposition of this compound.
b. Verify your program by writing down a balanced equation for the anaerobic decomposition of a
MSW, given its chemical formula. Estimate the production of CO2 and CH4 during the anaerobic
decomposition of MSW using the chemical composition approximation of organic fraction of refuse
as described by C99H149O59N.
6.
a. Write a computer program that allows the determination of the amount of water or sludge that must
be added to the solids to achieve a certain moisture concentration in the compost pile, given the
weight of mixture and the required moisture content.
b. Verify whether your program for 15 tons of a mixture of paper and other compostable materials has
a moisture content of 8%. The intent is to make a mixture for composting of 50% moisture. How
many tons of water or sludge must be added to the solids to achieve this moisture concentration in
the compost pile?
7.
a. Write a computer program that allows the determination of the efficiency of a certain power plant,
given the amount of coal used per day, and the energy value of the coal and plant production of
electricity each day.
b. Verify whether your program for a coal-fired power plant uses 850 Mg of coal per day. The energy
value of the coal is 28,000 kJ/kg. The plant produces 3.4 106 kWh of electricity each day. What
is the efficiency of the power plant?
8.
a. Write a computer program that allows the determination of the temperature at which ash exits the
combustion chamber (in both C and F) of a refractory combustion unit lined with no water wall
and no heat recovery burning an RDF, given RDF organics, water, and inorganics or inerts, and
their hourly rate, heat value of the fuel, air flow, heat loss due to radiation, amount of fuel remaining
uncombusted in the ash, specific heat of ash, specific heat of air, latent heat of vaporization, and
temperature of the stack gases.
b. Verify your program for a refractory combustion unit lined with no water wall and no heat recovery
is burning RDF consisting of 85% organics, 10% water, and 5% inorganics or inerts at a rate of
950 kg/h. Determine the temperature, T, at which ash exits the combustion chamber (in both C and
i F), assuming the following: Heat value of the fuel = 18,500 kJ/kg on a moisture-free basis.
ii Air flow = 8,700 kg/h and that the under and overfire air contributes negligible heat.
iii 5% of the heat input is lost due to radiation.
iv 15% of the fuel remains uncombusted in the ash.
v Specific heat of ash = 0.837 kJ/kg/oC.
vi Specific heat of air is 1.0 kJ/kg/oC.
vii Latent heat of vaporization = 2575 kJ/kg.
viii Temperature of the stack gases = 1500C.

6.9.2.5 Solid Waste Finance and Cost Analysis

a.1. Write a computer program that allows the determination of the annual installments on a capital
expense to purchase a refuse collection truck, given its expected life, SAR, and annual payments of
cost of truck to be paid back to the local bank.
b. Verify your program for a municipality deciding to purchase a refuse collection truck that has an
expected life of 15 years for SAR 650,000. The cost of the truck is to be borrowed from the local
bank and to be paid back in 15 annual payments. Determine the annual installments on this capital
expense if the interest rate is 6.125%.
2..

a. Write a computer program that allows the determination of the rate of interest if a certain
municipality chooses to purchase a refuse collection truck, given its expected life, value of SAR,
and annual payments.
b. Verify whether your program for a municipality chooses to purchase a refuse collection truck that
has an expected life of 15 years for the value of SAR 700,000. The cost of the truck is to be
borrowed from the local bank and to be paid back in 10 annual payments, given that the annual
installments on this capital expense are SAR 68,000. Find the rate of interest.

REFERENCES
Abdel-Magid, I.M. 2012. Problem Solving in Solid Waste Engineering. Dammam, KSA: University of Dammam.
Abdel-Magid, I. M., and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M. 2015a. Problem Solving in Solid Waste Engineering, 2nd ed. North Charleston, SC: Create
Space Independent Publishing Platform.
Abdel-Magid, I. M., and Abdel-Magid, M.I.M. 2015b. Solid Waste Engineering and Management. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace
Independent Publishing Platform (In Arabic).
Abdel-Magid, I. M., Hago, A., and Rowe, D. R. 1995. Modeling Methods for Environmental Engineers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press/Lewis Publishers.
Blackman, W. C. 2001. Basic Hazardous Waste Management, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
CEHA. 1995. Solid waste management in some countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region. CEHA Document No., Special studies, ss-4.
Amman, Jordan: WHO, Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities.
de Bertoldi, M. (Ed.). 1996. The Science of Composting London, UK: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Nakamura, M., Castaldi, M. J., and Themelis, N. J. 2005. Measurement of particle size and shape of New York city municipal solid waste and
combustion residues using image analysis. http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Nakamura_JSMWE_2005.pdf (accessed on
March 21, 2016).
Ojovan, M. I. (Ed.). 2011. Handbook of Advanced Radioactive Waste Conditioning Technologies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
Rietema, K. 1957. On the efficiency in separating mixtures of two components. Chemical Engineering Science, 7:8996.
Rodic-wiersma, L. 2005. Introduction to solid waste management and engineering. Refresher Course on Solid Waste Management and
Engineering, Organized by UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, the Netherlands, October 1622, Mombasa, Kenya.
Schubeler, P., Wehrle, K., and Christen, J. 1996. Conceptual framework for municipal solid waste management in low-income countries. Urban
Management and Infrastructure, UNDP, UNCHS (Habitat), World Bank, SDC Collaborative Program on Municipal Solid Waste
Management in Low-Income Countries, August 1996, Working Paper No. 9, SKAT (Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in
Technology and Management), Gallen, Switzerland.
Senate, E., Galtier, L., Bekaert, C., Lambolez-Michel, L., and Budka, A. 2003. Odor management at MSW landfill sites: Odor sources, odorous
compounds and control measures. Proceedings Sardinia, Ninth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, S.
 Marghorita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy, October 610.
von Blottnitz, H., Pehlken, A., and Pretz, T. 2002. The description of solid wastes by particle mass instead of particle size distributions. Resour,
Conserv and Recy J, 34:193207.
Walsh, P. and OLeary, P. 1986. Implementing Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Systems. Madison, WI: University of WisconsinExtension
for Great Lakes Regional Biogas Energy Program.
Worrell, W. A., and Vesilind, P. A. 2012. Solid Waste Engineering. Stamford, CT: CL-Engineering Pub.
* Trammel: A hollow cylindrical screen. Usually, it is a horizontal perforated rotating cylinder used to break open trash bags, large particles
of glass, and small abrasive items (e.g., stones, dirt, etc.).
* i ton = 2000 lb or 1000 kg.
* 1 Btu = heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1F.
(Btu/1b) 2.326 = kJ/kg.
* This model can be downloaded at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/products.html#software.
* Mesophiles live in medium temperature ranging from 25C to 45C.
Thermophiles are microorganisms that live at high temperatures, >45C.
* Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) refers to shredded waste as combined with fuel.
* A qualified solid waste disposal process may employ any biological, engineering, industrial, or technological method. Eligible types of solid
waste disposal processes include a final disposal process, an energy conversion process, and a recycling process. A final disposal process
is the placement of solid waste in a landfill, the incineration of solid waste without capturing any useful energy, or the containment of solid
waste with a reasonable expectation that the containment will continue indefinitely and that the solid waste has no current or future
beneficial use. Energy conversion process encompasses a thermal, chemical, or other process that is applied to solid waste to create and
capture synthesis gas, heat, hot water, steam, or other useful energy. The energy conversion process ends before any transfer or
distribution of synthesis gas, heat, hot water, steam, or other useful energy. Recycling process regards a process reconstituting,
transforming, or otherwise processing solid waste into a useful product
(http://www.squiresanders.com/tax_exempt_financing_of_solid_waste_disposal_facilities/).
* United States dollar, US$ 3.8 Saudi Arabia Riyal, SAR.
* Acronym is an abbreviation formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a word.
MRF (or Recycling or Factory) Not in My Back Yard.

Not in My Term of Office.
Not on Planet Earth Pay As You Throw Adapted from http://www.shareyouressays.com/114076/33-objective-type-questions-mcqs-with-

**
answers-on-environmental-pollution.
Adapted from http://www.shareyouressays.com/114076/33-objective-type-questions-mcqs-with-answers-on-environmental-pollution.
* STP is used for expression of the properties and processes of ideal gases. The standard temperature is the freezing point of water and the
standard pressure is one standard atmosphere. Standard temperature: 0C = 273.15 K; standard pressure = 1 atmosphere = 760 mmHg =
101.3 kPa; standard volume of 1 mole of an ideal gas at STP: 22.4 L.
Megagrams, or 1000 kg, commonly called a metric ton.
1 kWh = 3.6106 J.
 7 Computer Modeling Applications for Air Pollution Control Technology

The introduction to this chapter presents a brief overview of the air pollution field. This chapter deals
with fundamental concepts that are needed to make calculations dealing with air pollution control.
Computer programs based on mathematical equations and models relating to these fundamental concepts
are also included here. The most commonly used air pollution control devices for gaseous and particulate
pollutants are presented such as absorption, adsorption, and combustion for gaseous contaminants and
settling chambers; cyclones; electrostatic precipitators (ESPs); venture scrubbers; and baghouse filters for
controlling particulate emissions. Each control device or technique is accompanied by a computer
program that can aid in the design or evaluation of air pollution control equipment.
This section concludes with mathematical models that can be used for determining effective stack
heights (plume rise) as well as dispersion models that can help estimate the concentrations of air
pollutants dispersed in the atmosphere. Computer programs for both stack height calculations and
dispersion models are included.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The first step in directing compliance and enforcement of air pollution control laws and regulations is to
have a credible and acceptable definition as to what air pollution is. In the United States, the Code of
Federal Regulations (40 CFR 52.741, July 1, 1994) indicates that air pollution means the presence of one
or more contaminants in sufficient quantities and of such characteristics and duration as to be injurious to
human, plant, or animal life; to health; or to property, or to unreasonably interfere with the enjoyment of
life or property (Fed. Regist. 1994). All environmental regulations in the United States can be found in
CFR Part 40.
Ambient (outdoor) unpolluted dry air consists by volume of ~78% nitrogen (N2), 21% oxygen (O2),
0.93% argon (Ar), 0.03% carbon dioxide (CO2), and traces of other gases such as neon (Ne), helium
(He), methane (CH4), and krypton (Kr). The unpolluted dry air described previously exists only in theory;
all air contains natural contaminants such as pollen, fungi, spores, smoke, and dust particles from forest
fires and volcanic eruptions. In contrast to natural air, pollutants are contaminants of an anthropogenic
(manmade) origin.
Anthropogenic sources include transportation (mobile sources), fuel combustion from electric utilities,
fuel combustion from other sources, industrial processes, waste disposal and recycling, and
miscellaneous sources such as open burning, agricultural burning, and recreation. The two basic physical
forms of air pollutants are particulate matter (PM) and gases. PM includes small solid or liquid particles
such as dust, smoke, mists, and fly ash. Gases include substances such as carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has further classified air pollutants as
criteria pollutants and noncriteria pollutants. Criteria pollutants are pollutants that have been identified as
being both common and detrimental to human health and welfare. The EPA currently designates six
pollutants as criteria pollutants (Air Pollution Training Institute 1992): Carbon monoxide (CO)
Ozone (O3)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 PM <10 m in diameter
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Lead (Pb)

The U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments established a new classification of noncriteria pollutants called
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). This act listed 189 compounds as HAPs and directed the EPA to
investigate possible regulation of sources emitting these pollutants (EPA 2014).
For each criteria pollutant, the EPA was required to set both a primary standard and a secondary
standard. The purpose of the primary standard is to protect public health, whereas secondary standards
are set at a level to protect public welfare from any adverse effects. The primary and secondary standards
for each of the criteria pollutants are shown in Table 7.1. Collectively, these standards are the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (Air Pollution Training Institute 1992, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency 2014).
For comparison, Table 7.2 presents air quality standards for other countries in the world, indicating the
standard in micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3) and the averaging time. Table 7.3 presents the total air
pollutant emissions (million tons per year) for the six major air pollutants in the United States for 1993
(Council on Environmental Quality 1993). Of these pollutants, transportation produced ~77% of the total
carbon monoxide, 36% of the VOCs, 44% of the oxides of nitrogen, 22% of the PM10 particulates, 3% of
the oxides of sulfur, and 32% of the lead. Transportation was responsible for 56% by weight of all the
major contaminants emitted to the atmosphere in the United States in 1993 (Council on Environmental
Quality 1993).
As mentioned earlier, air pollutants can be divided into two classes, gaseous and particulate, and they
generally require different prevention and control methods. The broad prevention methods to control air
pollution emissions for both gaseous and particulates include the following (Air Pollution Training
Institute 1992): TABLE 7.1
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Primary (Health-Related) Standard Level Secondary (Welfare-Related) Standard Level
Pollutant Averaging Time Concentration Averaging Time Concentration
Particle pollution: 24 h (not to be exceeded more than once per year on 150 g/m3 Same as primary Same as
PM 10 m average over 3 years) primary
PM 2.5 m 24 h (98th percentile, averaged > 3 years) 35 g/m 3 Same as primary Same as
primary
SO2 1 h (99th percentile of 1 h daily maximum 75 ppb 3 h (not to be exceeded more than 0.5 ppm
concentrations, averaged > 3 years) once per year)
CO 8 h 3
10,000 g/m (9 No secondary standard No secondary
ppm) standard
1 h 40,000 g/m3 No secondary standard No secondary
(35 ppm) standard
NO2 Annual mean, 1 year 53 ppb Same as primary Same as
primary
1 h (98th percentile of 1 h daily maximum 100 ppb No secondary standard No secondary
concentrations, averaged > 3 years) standard
O3 8 h (Annual fourth highest daily maximum 8 h 0.070 ppm Same as primary Same as
concentration, averaged > 3 years) primary
Pb Rolling 3-month period 0.15 g/m3 Same as primary Same as
primary

Source: NAAQS, Air Pollution Training Institute 1992; Environmental Protection Agency, EPA. 2016. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS). https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/criteria.html.

TABLE 7.2
Air Quality Standards for Selected Pollutants in Several Countries (g/m3)
Country Suspended Particulate Sulfur Oxide Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxide
Canada 120/24 h 450/1 h 15,000/1 year 400/1 h
6070/1 year 150/24 h 6000/8 h 200/24 h
3060/1 year 60100/1 year
Japan 200/1 h 300/1 h 11,100/8 h 100/24 h
100/24 h 120/24 h
Russia 150/24 h 157/24 h 5723/8 h 113/24 h
1145/24 h
Saudi Arabia 340/24 h 800/1 h 40,000/1 h 660/1 h
80/1 year 400/24 h 10,000/8 h 100/1 year
85/1 year
West Germany 480/1/2 h 500/1/2 h 40,000/1 h 1,000/1/2 h
10,000/8 h

Process change
Changes in fuel
Good operating practices
Plant shutdowns

The basic principles involved in the control of gas emissions include the following: Combustion
Adsorption
Absorption
Condensation

The most commonly used devices to control particulate emissions include the following: Settling
chambers
Cyclonics
Electrostatic precipitation
Venture scrubber
Baghouse filters

Pollution control efforts utilizing these various principles and techniques have reduced the air pollution
emissions of sulfur dioxide by 30% from 1970 to 1993; carbon monoxide by 18%, and VOCs by 20%.
The PM10 particulate emissions from 1985 to 1993 were reduced 10%; however, from 1970 to 1993,
nitrogen emissions have increased ~11%. One of the greatest environmental success stories has been the
reduction of lead in the ambient air. From 1984 to 1993, lead concentrations at 204 sampling sites in the
United States have shown an 89% reduction (Council on Environmental Quality 1993). Although there
have been gains made in controlling air pollution, it must be remembered that some of these gains have
been offset by an increase in all activities, especially motor vehicle registration and miles traveled.

TABLE 7.3
Sources of Air Pollutants in the United States, 1993a
Source: Council on Environmental Quality, 24th Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, Washington, D.C, 1993.
a
In million short tons (2000). (See Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) b PM10 includes only those particles with aerodynamic diameter
<10 m (see Council on Environmental Quality 1993).
c VOCs, volatile organic compounds (see Council on Environmental Quality 1993).

n.a., not available.

In the past, identification and characterization of exposure of people to pollutants in the outdoor air
have been emphasized. In recent years, attention has been directed at the effects of exposure to indoor air.
Most people spend 80%90% of their time indoors, and it has been shown that exposure to some
pollutants can be 25 times higher indoors than outdoors (Air Pollution Training Institute 1992). Some of
these indoor pollutants include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxides (SOx), PM,
asbestos, formaldehyde (HCHO), ozone, and radon gas (Ra-222). Some of the sources for these indoor
air pollutants include emissions from combustion appliances, tobacco smoke, aerosol propellants, plastic
furniture, rugs and curtains, refrigerants, paints, cleaners, and building materials. The broad measures that
can be used to reduce exposure to indoor air pollution are careful selection and operation of household
appliances, proper building design (selection of materials and construction), and, of course, proper
ventilation.
Although more attention is being paid to indoor air pollution on a regional, a continental, and a global
basis, some of the major air pollution problems include the following (Peavey et al. 1985): Global
warming (greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide [CO2] emissions) Acid rain (sulfur dioxide, SO2,
and nitrogen oxides, NOx, transformed into acids in the atmosphere) Ozone layer depletion (increased
ultraviolet radiation exposure caused by depletion of the ozone layer due to reaction with chlorine
released by fluorocarbons emitted to the atmosphere) 7.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN AIR
POLLUTION

7.2.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

In the past, many confusing and conflicting units have been used in the air pollution field. At present, the
trend is to try to standardize the units by utilizing the metric system. For instance, on an international
basis, it is recommended that weights be reported in grams (g), milligrams (mg), or micrograms (g), and
volumes be reported in cubic meters (m3). The U.S. EPA has recommended using the units for particulates
and gaseous pollutants as presented in Table 7.4 (Air Pollution Training Institute 1983).
A common practice at present is to present the concentration of the gas contaminants first in g/m3,
followed by parts per million (ppm), parts per hundred million, or parts per billion by volume. For gases,
ppm can be converted in to g/m3 or vice versa by using the following equation:

(7.1)

For instance,

At 1 atm and 0C (273 K), L/min = 22.41 L.

At 1 atm and 25C (298 K), or standard temperature and pressure (STP), L/mol = 24.46 L.

TABLE 7.4
EPA Recommended Units of Measurement
Parameter Unit Recommended
Particle fallout Milligrams/square centimeter/month (or year): mg/cm2 /month (or yr)
Outdoor airborne PM Micrograms/cubic meter: g/m3
Gaseous materials g/m3 or parts per million (ppm)
Standard conditions for reporting gas volumes 760 mmHg (1 atm) 25C (STP)
Particle counting Number of particles/m3 of gas
Temperature C
Pressure mmHg (atm)
Sampling rate m3 /min or L/min
Visibility Kilometers (km)

Source: Air Pollution Training Institute, Atmosphere Sampling, (S1:435), Research Triangle Park, NC, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1983.
STP, standard temperature and pressure.

Example 7.1
1. Prepare a computer program relating the various elements in Equation 7.1 to convert ppm to
g/m3 or vice versa for gaseous air contaminants.
2. Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the concentration of SO2 in g/m3
when it has been reported to be 0.14 ppm by volume at STP.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 7.1 (1), see the listing of Program 7.1.
2. Solution to Example 7.1 (2):
LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.1 (CHAP7.1\FORM1.VB): CONCENTRATION
OF GASEOUS AIR CONTAMINANTS
'********************************************************
'Example 7.1: Relating elements of equation 7-1: ' Converts PPM to
micrograms/m{3}
'********************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim ppm, MolWgt, lMole, Ugmol, ugm As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.1: converts PPM
micrograms/m{3} and vice versa"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
label1.text = "Convert measure to:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("ug/m{3} = (ppm * Molecular Weight * 10{3})/liter/mole")
ListBox1.Items.Add("ppm = (ug/m{3} * liter/mole)/(Molecular Weight * 10{3})")
ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
Label2.AutoSize = False
Label2.Height = 120
Label2.Width = 433
Label2.Text = "At 1 atm. And 0 degrees C (273)K, liters/mole=22.41 liters"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "At 1 atm. And 25 degrees C (298K),
liters/mole=24.46"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "1 atm. And 25 degrees C are known as Standard
Temperature and Pressure"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "u = micro"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "a number in curly braces {} is a superscript
number"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + " m{3} = cubic meters"
Label6.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label3.Text = "Enter the measurement in ppm "
Label4.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the gas "
Label5.Text = "Enter the liters/mole "
Case 1
Label3.Text = "Enter the measure in ug/m{3} "
Label4.Text = "Enter the liters/mole "
Label5.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the gas "
End Select
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
ppm = Val(TextBox1.Text)
MolWgt = Val(TextBox2.Text)
lMole = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Ugmol = (ppm * MolWgt) / lMole * 1000
Label6.Text = "micrograms/cubic meter = " + FormatNumber(Ugmol, 2)
Case 1
ugm = Val(TextBox1.Text)
lMole = Val(TextBox2.Text)
MolWgt = Val(TextBox3.Text)
ppm = (ugm * lMole / MolWgt) * 0.001
Label6.Text = "parts per million = " + FormatNumber(ppm, 2)
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Example 7.2
Using the computer program developed in Example 7.1 (1), convert 9.0 ppm CO to g/m3 at 0C (273
K), 1 atm, and at STP.
Solution
At 0C (273 K) and 1 atm:

At STP, 25C (298 K), and 1 atm:

7.2.2 MOLE AND MOLE FRACTION

The mole is a practical, simple unit that has helped to make chemistry an exact and quantitative science. A
mole of a substance is the molecular weight of the substance, expressed in mass units, where the
molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms that compose the substance. For example,
a molecule of hydrogen (two atoms, H2) has a molecular weight of 2, and a molecule of oxygen (two
atoms, O2) has a molecular weight of 32. Water (H2O) has a molecular weight of 18. The atomic weight
expresses the ratio of the weight of one atom to that of another. Because the atomic weight is a relative
weight, the numerical value must be determined by reference to some standard. In 1961, the carbon-12
atom was adopted as the atomic weight standard with a value of exactly 12. Tables are readily available
giving atomic weight (see Appendix A3).
Avogadro in 1811 was the first to suggest that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and
pressure have the same number of molecules. This was known as Avogadros hypothesis and led to the
discovery that one mole of gas, any gas, contained 6.02 1023 particles or entities; this value is now
called Avogadros number. By definition, one mole of a substance contains 6.02 1023 particles or
constituents. It can be expressed as atoms per mole, molecules per mole, ions per mole, electrons per
mole, or particles per mole: 6.02 1023 O atoms = 16.0 g O
 6.02 1023 H atoms = 1.01 g H
6.02 1023 H2O molecules = 18.0 g H2O
6.02 1023 OH ions = 17.0 g OH

Also, for example, 1 mole of carbon-12 contains 6.02 1023 carbon atoms. In mathematical terms, the
number of moles of a gas can be expressed as

(7.2)

where:
n is the number of moles of a gas
m is the mass of the gas, g
MW is the molecular weight of the gas, g-mol

In a gaseous mixture, the mole fraction for each gas is the ratio of the moles of the given gas divided by
the total number of moles of all gases present in the mixture, or

(7.3)

where:
X is the mole fraction for each gas present in the gaseous mixture
n is the moles of each gas present in the gaseous mixture
ni = n1 + n2 + + ni is the total number of moles present in the gaseous mixture

Example 7.3
A gaseous mixture contains 4 g O2, 10 g N2, 1 g CO, and 5 g CO2. Determine the moles present for each
gas, as well as the mole fraction for each gas. The total number of moles present and the mole fraction for
each gas can be determined as follows:

Component Weight (g) Molecular Weight Moles Mole Fraction

O2 4.0 32 0.125 0.20
N2 10.0 28 0.357 0.56
CO 1.0 28 0.036 0.06
CO2 5.0 44 0.114 0.18
Total 0.632 1.00

The mole fraction has no dimensions and no units, and the sum of the mole fractions for a gas mixture
equals unity.

Example 7.4
1. Write a computer program that can be used to calculate the moles and mole fraction for each
gas present in a gaseous mixture.
 Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the moles and mole fraction for
2. each of the gases present in the following mixture: 6.5 g methane (CH ), 3 g carbon dioxide
4
(CO2), 0.1 g hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 0.4 g nitrogen (N2), and 0.1 g hydrogen (H2). The total
number of moles present and the mole fraction for each gas present can be determined as
follows:

Component Weight (g) Molecular Weight Moles Mole Fraction

CH4 6.5 16 0.406 0.750
CO2 3.0 44 0.068 0.126
H2 S 0.1 34.1 0.003 0.005
N2 0.4 28 0.014 0.026
H2 0.1 2 0.050 0.093
Total 0.541 1.000

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.4 (CHAP7.4\FORM1.VB): MOLES AND

MOLE FRACTIONS IN A GASEOUS MIXTURE
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.4: calculates moles and mole fractions
'for each gas present in a gaseous mixture
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Wgt(), MolWgt(), moles(), MolFrac() As Double
Dim gas() As String
Dim totmoles, totMolFrac As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.4: calculates
moles and mole fractions"
Me.MaximizeBox = False

Label1.Text = "Formulas:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add("Moles = weight/molecular weight")
ListBox1.Items.Add("Mole fraction = moles/total moles")
Label2.Text = "Type in the names, weights, and molecular weights of the
gases:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("nameCol", "Gas Name")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("wgtCol", "Gas Wgt")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("MWCol", "Gas MW")
TextBox1.Multiline = True
TextBox1.Height = 125
TextBox1.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
TextBox1.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 9)
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If DataGridView1.Rows.Count <= 1 Then
MsgBox("Type in at least one gas!", vbOKOnly + vbExclamation, "Prompt")
Exit Sub
End If

Dim count = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1

ReDim gas(count), Wgt(count), MolWgt(count), moles(count), MolFrac(count)

totmoles = 0
totMolFrac = 0

For i = 0 To count - 1
gas(i) = DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("nameCol").Value
Wgt(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("wgtCol").Value)
MolWgt(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("MWCol").Value)
moles(i) = Wgt(i) / MolWgt(i)
Totmoles = totmoles + moles(i)
Next

For i = 0 To count - 1
MolFrac(i) = moles(i) / totmoles
totMolFrac = totMolFrac + MolFrac(i)
Next

Dim s As String
s = "Gas Wgt MW Moles Mole Fraction"
For i = 0 To count - 1
s += vbCrLf + gas(i) + Space(8 - gas(i).Length)
s += Format(Wgt(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(MolWgt(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(moles(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(MolFrac(i), "00.000").ToString
Next
s += vbCrLf + Space(24) + "------"
s += Space(2) + "------"
s += vbCrLf + Space(24) + Format(totmoles, "00.000").ToString
s += Space(2) + Format(totMolFrac, "00.000").ToString
TextBox1.Text = s
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.3 BASIC GAS LAWS

7.2.3.1 Boyles Law
Boyles law states that the volume of a given quantity of an ideal gas varies inversely to its absolute
pressure, with the temperature being held constant. A practical and easy way to remember Boyles law is
provided by the following equation:

(7.4)

where:
P1 is the initial gas pressure, atm
V1 is the volume of gas at P1, L
P2 is the final gas pressure, atm
V2 is the volume of gas at P2, L

Example 7.5
1. Prepare a computer program relating the four elements in Boyles law (Equation 7.4).
2. Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the volume of a gas held in a 100-L
gas cylinder if the initial pressure was 35 atm and the final pressure was 10 atm, with the
temperature being held constant.
Solution

1. For solution to Example 7.5 (1), see the listing of Program 7.5.
2. Solution to Example 7.5 (2):

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.5 (CHAP7.5\FORM1.VB): BOYLES LAW

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.5: Relates the four elements in Boyles law
'*********************************************************************************
'Equation is P1*V1 = P2*V2
Public Class Form1
Dim result As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.5: Boyles law"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "P1*V1 = P2*V2"
Label2.AutoSize = False
Label2.Height = 120
Label2.Width = 433
Label2.Text = "P1 = initial gas pressure, atm."
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "V1 = volume of gas at P1, liters"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "P2 = final gas pressure, atm."
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "V2 = volume of gas at P2, liters"
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label6.Text = ""
Label7.Text = "Solving for:"
Label8.Text = "Decimal points:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("P1")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("V1")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("P2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("V2")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 3
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim V1, V2, P1, P2 As Double
Select Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for P1
V1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
P2 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
P1 = P2 * V2 / V1
result = P1
Case 1
'Solving for V1
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
P2 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
V1 = P2 * V2 / P1
result = V1
Case 2
'Solving for P2
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
P2 = P1 * V1 / V2
result = P2
Case 3
'Solving for V2
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
P2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
V2 = P1 * V1 / P2
result = V2
End Select
End Sub

Sub showResult()
Select Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label6.Text = "Initial gas pressure, P1 = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " atm."
Case 1
Label6.Text = "Volume of gas at P1, (V1) = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " litre(s)"
Case 2
Label6.Text = "Final gas pressure, P2 = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " atm."
Case 3
Label6.Text = "Volume of gas at P2, (V2) = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " litre(s)"
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResult()
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for P1
Label3.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Case 1
'Solving for V1
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Case 2
'Solving for P2
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Case 3
'Solving for V2
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResult()
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.3.2 Charless Law

Charles law, also known as Gay-Lussacs law, states that the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas
varies directly as the absolute temperature with the pressure being held constant.

(7.5)

Combining the laws of Boyle and Charles into one expression gives the following equation 7.6:

(7.6)

where:
P1 is the initial gas pressure, atm
V1 is the volume of gas at P1, L
T1 is the initial gas temperature, K
P2 is the final gas pressure, atm
V2 is the volume of gas at P2, L
T2 is the final gas temperature, K

Example 7.6
1. Prepare a computer program relating the various elements in Equation 7.6, which combines
Boyles and Charles laws.
2. One very important use of the combined Boyles and Charles law (Equation 7.6) is to
compare an actual gas volume to its volume under a set of standard conditions. For most
applications in regard to air pollution, the standard conditions are 25C (298 K) and 1 atm
(760 mmHg). The term standard conditions for temperature and pressure is abbreviated
STP. This principal can also be extended so as to compare the actual volumetric flow rates
to the volumetric flow rates under standard conditions.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.6 (CHAP7.6\FORM1.VB): BOYLES AND

CHARLES LAWS
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.6: Combined Charles and Boyles laws
'*********************************************************************************
'Equation is P1*V1/T1 = P2*V2/T2"
Public Class Form1
Dim result As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.6: Combined
Charles and Boyles laws"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "(P1*V1)/T1 = (P2*V2)/T2"
Label2.AutoSize = False
Label2.Height = 120
Label2.Width = 433
Label2.Text = "P1 = initial gas pressure, atm."
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "V1 = volume of gas at P1, liters"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "T1 = initial gas temperature, C"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "P2 = final gas pressure, atm."
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "V2 = volume of gas at P2, liters"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "T2 = final gas temperature, C"
Label3.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in m{3}/min)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the initial gas temperature, (T1) (in C)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the final gas temperature, (T2) (in C)"
Label8.Text = ""
Label9.Text = "Solving for:"
Label10.Text = "Decimal points:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("P1")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("V1")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("T1")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("P2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("V2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("T2")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 4
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim V1, V2, P1, P2, T1, T2 As Double
Select ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for P1
V1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
T1 = Val(TextBox2.Text) + 273
P2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
T2 = Val(TextBox5.Text) + 273
P1 = (P2 * V2 * T1) / (V1 * T2)
result = P1
Case 1
'Solving for V1
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
T1 = Val(TextBox2.Text) + 273
P2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
T2 = Val(TextBox5.Text) + 273
V1 = (P2 * V2 * T1) / (P1 * T2)
result = V1
Case 2
'Solving for T1
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
P2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
T2 = Val(TextBox5.Text) + 273
T1 = (P1 * V1 * T2) / (P2 * V2)
result = T1
Case 3
'Solving for P2
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
T1 = Val(TextBox3.Text) + 273
V2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
T2 = Val(TextBox5.Text) + 273
P2 = (P1 * V1 * T2) / (V2 * T1)
result = P2
Case 4
'Solving for V2
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
T1 = Val(TextBox3.Text) + 273
P2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
T2 = Val(TextBox5.Text) + 273
V2 = (P1 * V1 * T2) / (P2 * T1)
result = V2
Case 5
'Solving for T2
P1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
T1 = Val(TextBox3.Text) + 273
P2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)
V2 = Val(TextBox5.Text)
T2 = (P2 * V2 * T1) / (P1 * V1)
result = T2
End Select
End Sub

Sub showResult()
Select Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label8.Text = "Initial gas pressure, P1 = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " atm."
Case 1
Label8.Text = "Volume of gas at P1, (V1) = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " litre(s)"
Case 2
Label8.Text = "Initial gas temperature, T1 = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " K"
Case 3
Label8.Text = "Final gas pressure, P2 = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " atm."
Case 4
Label8.Text = "Volume of gas at P2, (V2) = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " litre(s)"
Case 5
Label8.Text = "Final gas temperature, T2 = " + FormatNumber(result,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " K"
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResult()
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for P1
Label3.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the initial gas temperature, T1 (in C)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the final gas temperature, T2 (in C)"
Case 1
'Solving for V1
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the initial gas temperature, T1 (in C)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the final gas temperature, T2 (in C)"
Case 2
'Solving for T1
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the final gas temperature, T2 (in C)"
Case 3
'Solving for P2
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the initial gas temperature, T1 (in C)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the final gas temperature, T2 (in C)"
Case 4
'Solving for V2
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the initial gas temperature, T1 (in C)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the final gas temperature, T2 (in C)"
Case 5
'Solving for T2
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial gas pressure, (P1) (in atm.)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P1, (V1) (in liters)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the initial gas temperature, T1 (in C)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the final gas pressure, (P2) (in atm.)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the volume of gas at P2, (V2) (in liters)"
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResult()
End Sub
 End Class

Example 7.7
Using the computer program developed in Example 7.6 section (1), determine the standard volumetric
flow rate at STP for the following conditions: Actual volumetric flow rate = 6 m3/min (V2)
Actual operating temperature = 90C (T2)
Actual operating pressure = 1 atm (P2)
STP = 25C (T1) and 1 atm (P1)

Solution
Substituting in Equation 7.6:

7.2.3.3 Ideal Gas Law

Ideal gases that obey Boyles and Charles laws, as well as Avogadros hypothesis (see Section 7.2.2),
comply with the ideal gas equation:

(7.7)

where:
P is the absolute pressure, atm
V is the volume of a gas, L
T is the absolute temperature, K
n is the number of moles of a gas
R is the ideal or universal constant, (L) atm (K)1 (g-mol)1

Typical values of R are as follows:

R = 0.08206 (L) atm (K)1 (g-mol)1

R = 62.4 (1) (mmHg) (K)1 (g-mol)1
R = 1.986 cal/g-mol-K

R is chosen in order to provide appropriate units consistent with the equation used.
 As indicated earlier, the number of moles of a gas, n, can be determined if the mass and molecular
weight of a gas are known:

(7.2)

where:
n is the number of moles of gas
m is the mass of gas, g
MW is the molecular weight of gas, g-mol

Also, the density of a gas can be determined by rearranging Equation 7.7 as follows:

(7.8)

where:
is the gas density, g/L
m is the mass of gas, g
V is the volume of gas, L

Substituting Equation 7.2 into Equation 7.7 gives

(7.9)

When the above equation is rearranged,

(7.10)

Substituting Equation 7.8 into the above equation gives

(7.11)

The units for this equation are the same as presented earlier.
No real gas obeys the ideal gas law exactly, although the lighter gases (hydrogen, oxygen, air, etc.)
under ambient conditions approach ideal gas law behavior. The heavier gases, such as sulfur dioxide
and hydrocarbons, particularly at high pressures and low temperatures, deviate considerably from the
ideal gas law. Despite these deviations, the ideal gas law is routinely used in air pollution calculations
(Air Pollution Training Institute 1981, 1984).

Example 7.8
 Prepare computer programs for each of the equations dealing with the ideal gas law
1.
(Equations 7.7 through 7.10).
2. Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the volume occupied by 1 mole of
an ideal gas at 0C (273 K) and 1 atm pressure.
3. Using the computer program developed for Equation 7.9, calculate the pressure exerted by
38.0 g of carbon monoxide in a volume of 25 L at 500 K; assume that the ideal gas law
applies.
4. Using the computer program developed for Equation 7.9, determine the molecular weight of
a gas if 0.6 g of the gas occupies 400 mL at 25C and 760 mmHg (1 atm) (standard
conditions for temperature and pressure).
5. Using the computer program developed for Equation 7.10, determine the density of air if it
has a molecular weight of 29, and the air temperature is 93C at 1 atm of pressure.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 7.8 (1), see the listing of Program 7.8.
2. Solution to Example 7.8 (2):

(7.7)

where:
P = 1, atm
n = 1, g-mol
R = 0.08206 (L), atm (K)1 (g-mol)1
T = 0C (273 K)
V is the molar volume, L

where V = 22.4 L.
Thus, 1 mole of an ideal gas at 273 K and 1 atm occupies 22.4 L.
3. Solution to Example 7.8 (3):

(7.9)

P = 2.22 atm = 1693 mmHg (1 atm = 760 mmHg at 273 K)

(7.9)

4. Solution to Example 7.8 (4):

 which yields
MW = 36 g/g-mol
5. Solution to Example 7.8 (5):

(7.12)

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.8 (CHAP7.8\FORM1.VB): IDEAL GAS LAW

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.8: Ideal gas law
'*********************************************************************************
'Equations 7.7, 7.9, and 7.10
Public Class Form1
Dim eq(2) As String

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.8: Ideal gas law"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
eq(0) = "P * V = n * R * T"
eq(1) = "P * V = (m/MW) * R * T"
eq(2) = "r(rho) = (P*MW)/(R * T)"
Label1.Text = "Select option:"
ListBox1.Items.Clear()
ListBox1.Items.Add(eq(0))
ListBox1.Items.Add(eq(1))
ListBox1.Items.Add(eq(2))
ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
Label2.AutoSize = False
Label2.Height = 120
Label2.Width = 433
Label2.Text = "P = 1 atmosphere"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "V = molar volume, L"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "n = 1 g-mol"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "R = 0.08206 (L) atm, (K){-1}, (g-mol){-1} (a
constant)"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "T = 0 degrees C (K = 273 + degrees C)"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "m = weight of gas, g"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "MW = Molecular weight of gas"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "r(rho) = density of a gas (in g/L or g/cm*10{3})"
Label6.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Visible = False
End Sub

Private Sub ListBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ListBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label7.Text = "Equation 7.7: " + eq(0)
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "(1 atm.) V = n * R * T Solving for V"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "1 * V = 1 (g-mol) * 0.08206 (1 atm/g-mol K)*273
(K)"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "V = 1 * 0.08206 * 273"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "V = 22.4 L"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "1 mole of an ideal gas at 273 K and 1 atm
occupies 22.4 L"
ComboBox1.Visible = False
Case 1
Label7.Text = "Equation 7.9: " + eq(1)
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "P * V = (m/MW) * R * T Solving for (Select from
the right):"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Pressure, P")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Volume, V")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Mass, m")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("Mol. Wt, MW")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
ComboBox1.Visible = True
Case 2
Label7.Text = "Equation 7.10: " + eq(2)
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "r(rho) = P * (MW)/R * T Solving for r"
Label3.Text = "Enter the number of atmospheres (P) (in atm)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the gas (MW)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the gas temperature, T (in K)"
ComboBox1.Visible = False
End Select
Label8.Text = ""
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 0 Then
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
Button1.Visible = False
Else
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
If ListBox1.SelectedIndex = 1 Then
Label6.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
Else
Label6.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
End If
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
Button1.Visible = True
End If
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Dim P, V, m, MW, T, Rho As Double
Const R As Double = 0.08206
Select Case ListBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Exit Sub
Case 1
'Equation 7.9: PV = mRT/MW
Select Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for P
V = Val(TextBox1.Text)
m = Val(TextBox2.Text)
MW = Val(TextBox3.Text)
T = Val(TextBox4.Text)
P = (m * R * T) / (MW * V)
Label8.Text = "Gas pressure = " + FormatNumber(P, 2) + " atm"
Case 1
'Solving for V
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
m = Val(TextBox2.Text)
MW = Val(TextBox3.Text)
T = Val(TextBox4.Text)
V = (m * R * T) / (MW * P)
Label8.Text = "Volume of gas = " + FormatNumber(V, 2) + " L"
Case 2
'Solving for m
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V = Val(TextBox2.Text)
MW = Val(TextBox3.Text)
T = Val(TextBox4.Text)
m = (P * V * MW) / (R * T)
Label8.Text = "Weight of gas = " + FormatNumber(m, 2) + " g"
Case 3
'Solving for MW
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
V = Val(TextBox2.Text)
m = Val(TextBox3.Text)
T = Val(TextBox4.Text)
MW = (m * R * T) / (P * V)
Label8.Text = "Molecular weight of gas = " + FormatNumber(MW, 2) + "
g/g-mol"
End Select
Case 2
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
MW = Val(TextBox2.Text)
T = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Rho = (P * MW) / (R * T)
Label8.Text = "Rho = " + FormatNumber(Rho, 2) + " g/L"
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
Label3.Text = "Enter the volume of the gas (V) (in L)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the weight of the gas (m) (in g)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the gas (MW)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the gas temperature, (T) (in K)"
Case 1
Label3.Text = "Enter the pressure (P) (in atm)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the weight of the gas (m) (in g)"
Label5.Text = "Enter gas's molecular weight (MW)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the gas temperature, (T) (in K)"
Case 2
Label3.Text = "Enter the pressure (P) (in atm)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of the gas (V) (in L)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the gas (MW)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the gas temperature, (T) (in K)"
Case 3
Label3.Text = "Enter the pressure (P) (in atm)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the volume of the gas (V) (in L)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the weight of the gas (m) (in g)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the gas temperature, (T) (in K)"
End Select
Label8.Text = ""
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.4 VAN DER WAALS EQUATION

As indicated, the ideal gas law is not strictly applicable to real gases. Van der Waals equation contains
two discreet constants, which often provide a better representation of the actual volumetric behavior of a
gas:

(7.13)

where:
P is the absolute pressure, atm
V is the volume of a gas, L
n is the number of moles of gas
R is the ideal or universal gas constant, 0.08206 (L) atm (K)1 (g-mol)1
T is the absolute temperature, K
a and b are the constants determined experimentally for each gas; these constants are available in most
handbooks of chemistry (see Table 7.5) a = L2-atm/mol2
b = L/mol

TABLE 7.5
Van der Waals Constants for Some Gases
Gas a [L2 -atm/(mol)2 ] b (L/mol)
O2 1.382 0.03186
CO2 3.658 0.04286
H2 0.2453 0.02651
CH4 2.300 0.04301
N2 1.370 0.0387
NO 1.46 0.0289

Source: From Lide, D.R. and Frederikse, H.P.R., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 76th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
1995/1996, pp. 648. With permission.

Example 7.9
1. Write a computer program that relates the various elements in Van der Waals equation
(Equation 7.12).
2. Using the computer program developed in section (1), determine the pressure developed by
660 g of CO2 put into an 80-L container under the conditions stated in the solutions section.
Also compare the results if the ideal gas law is used.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 7.9 (1), see the listing of Program 7.9.
2. Solution to Example 7.9 (2):

Using Equation 7.2, n = 660/44 = 15 mol.

(7.14)

Using the ideal gas law,

(7.7)

Van der Waals equation gives 6.12 atm, and the ideal gas law gives 6.20 atm. The ideal gas law gives
a pressure of 0.08 atm higher than Van der Waals equation.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.9 (CHAP7.9\FORM1.VB): VAN DER WAALS

EQUATION
*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.9: Van der Waals equation (7.11)
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim P1, P2, V, T, m, n, MW, a, b As Double
Const R As Double = 0.08206
Dim eq(2) As String
'********************************************************************************
'See Table 7.5 for a and b values
'*********************************************************************************

Dim a_table() As Double = {1.382, 3.658, 0.2453, 2.3, 1.37, 1.46}

Dim b_table() As Double = {0.03186, 0.04286, 0.02651, 0.04301, 0.0387,
0.0289}

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.9: Van der Waals
equation"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Formula: P = ((n * R * T)/V (n * b)) (n{2} * a)/V{2}"
Label2.AutoSize = False
Label2.Height = 120
Label2.Width = 433
Label2.Text = "P = absolute pressure, atm"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "V = volume of gas, L"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "n = number of moles of gas"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "R = 0.08206 (L) atm, (K){-1}, (g-mol){-1} (a
constant)"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "T = absolute temperature, K"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "a,b = constants determined for each gas"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "a = (L{2} atm)/mol{2}, "
Label2.Text += "b = L/mol"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "Equation 7.11: "
Label2.Text += "By Van der Waals Equation"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "P = (n*R*T)/(V-(n*b) (b{2}*a)/V{2}"
Label3.Text = "Enter the volume of gas, (V) (in liters)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the temperature of the gas, (T), (C)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the weight of the gas, g"
Label6.Text = "Select the gas:"
Label7.Text = ""
Label10.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("O2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("CO2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("H2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("CH4")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("N2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("NO")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
V = Val(TextBox1.Text)
T = Val(TextBox2.Text) + 273
m = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Dim index As Integer = ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
If index = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please select a gas from the list.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
n = m / MW
a = a_table(index)
b = b_table(index)
Dim step1, step2 As Double
'Van der Waal equ.
step1 = (n * R * T) / (V - (n * b))
step2 = ((n ^ 2) * a) / (V ^ 2)
P1 = step1 - step2
'Ideal gas equ.
P2 = (n * R * T) / V
End Sub

Sub showResults()
Label7.Text = "By Ideal Gas Law"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "P = n*R*T/V"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "P = " + FormatNumber(P1, NumericUpDown1.Value)
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "Van der Waals equation gives " + FormatNumber(P1,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " atm"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "The ideal gas law gives " + FormatNumber(P2,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " atm"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0 'O2
MW = 32
Case 1 'CO2
MW = 44
Case 2 'H2
MW = 2
Case 3 'CH4
MW = 16
Case 4 'N2
MW = 28
Case 5 'NO
MW = 30
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.5 DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

When a mixture of gases (having no chemical interaction) is present in a container, the total pressure
exerted by the gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if it alone
occupied the container.

(7.15)

The pressure exerted by each gas in the mixture is called its partial pressure:

(7.16)

There are two ways to express the fraction which one gaseous component contributes: either by mole
fraction (Equation 7.3) or by pressure fraction (Equation 7.16).

Example 7.10
A gas mixture contains the following components. Using Equations 7.2 and 7.3, determine the number
of moles of each gas present as well as the mole fraction for each gas (Air Pollution Training Institute
1984).

Gas Weight (g) Molecular Weight Moles Mole Fraction

O2 20 32 0.625 0.885
SO2 2 64 0.0313 0.044
SO3 4.0 80 0.050 0.071
Total 0.7063 1.000

The total number of moles in this gaseous mixture is 0.7063, using the moles present for each gas and
the ideal gas law, Equation 7.7. Determine the partial pressure for each gas as well as the partial
volumes when the gas temperature is 25C, and the gas is held in a 2-L container.
Solution
For O2,

For SO2,
 For SO3,

Total pressure = 8.63 atm.

Partial pressure for O = = 0.885 atm Partial pressure for SO2 = = 0.044 atm Partial
2

pressure for SO3 = = 0.071 atm The partial volumes for each gas can also be calculated by
using the ideal gas law, Equation 7.7.

For O2,

For SO2,

For SO3,

Total volume = 2.000 L.

Partial volume for O2 = = 0.885 L

Partial volume for SO2 = = 0.044 L
Partial volume for SO3 = = 0.071 L

The partial pressure for each gas indicates the concentrations of that particular gas, and for most
purposes, the gas concentration governs the behavior of a gaseous substance regardless of the
presence of other gases in the mixture (Lide and Frederiske 1995/1996).

7.2.6 HENRYS LAW

Henrys law, simply stated, indicates that the concentration of a gas dissolved in a solvent under
equilibrium conditions is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution at constant
temperature. A mathematical equation describing this relationship is provided as follows:

(7.17)
where:
Ci is the concentration of gas i dissolved in solution, mol/L
Ki is the Henry law constant, mol/L
pi is the partial pressure of the gas, atm

Table 7.6 presents Henrys law constants for some gases in water at 25C (Manahan 2009).

Example 7.11
1. Write a computer program relating the elements contained in Henrys law that will make it
possible to determine the concentration of a gas in water, provided Henrys gas constant is
given.

TABLE 7.6
Henrys Law Constants for Some Gases in Water at 25C
Gas K, mol L1 atm1
O2 1.28 103
CO2 3.38 102
H2 7.90 104
CH4 1.34 103
N2 6.48 104
NO 2.0 104

Source: Manahan, S.E., Environmental Chemistry, 9th ed, Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 2009.

2. Using the computer program prepared in (1), determine the solubility of oxygen in water at
25C, knowing that air contains 20.95% oxygen by volume.
Solution
1. For a solution to Example 7.11 (1), see the listing of Program 7.11.
2. In calculating the solubility of a gas in water, a correction must be made for the partial
pressure of water by subtracting it from the total pressure of the gas. At 25C, the partial
pressure of water is 0.0313 atm; values at other temperatures are readily obtained from
standard handbooks. The concentration of oxygen in water saturated with air at 1 atm (760
mmHg) and 25C (298 K) may be calculated as an example of a simple gas solubility
calculation. Considering that dry air is 20.95% by volume oxygen and factoring in the partial
pressure of water gives the following:

Because the molecular weight of oxygen is 32, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water in
equilibrium with air under the conditions given above is 8.32 mg/L or 8.32 ppm.8
 LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.11 (CHAP7.11\FORM1.VB): HENRYS LAW
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.11: relates the components in Henrys law
'to determine the concentration of a gas in water
'provided Henrys gas constant is given.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim gas As String
Dim k, P, MW, comp, comp2 As Double

'********************************************************************************
'See Table 7.6
'********************************************************************************
Dim k_table() As Double =
{1.28 / 1000, 3.38 / 100, 7.9 / 10000, 1.34 / 1000, 6.48 / 10000, 2.0 /
10000}

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.11: Henrys law"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
label1.text = "The formula is C[i] = K[i] * P[i]"
Label2.Text = "Select the gas"
Label3.Text = "Enter the partial pressure of gas (in atm)"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = "Decimal places:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 4
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("O2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("CO2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("H2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("CH4")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("N2")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("NO")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please select a gas from the list.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
k = k_table(ComboBox1.SelectedIndex)
comp = k * P * MW
comp2 = comp * 1000
End Sub

Sub showResults()
Label5.Text = "C[i] = K[i] * p[i]"
Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "C[i] = " + FormatNumber(k, NumericUpDown1.Value) +
" * "
Label5.Text += FormatNumber(P, NumericUpDown1.Value) + " * " +
FormatNumber(MW, NumericUpDown1.Value) Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "C[i] = " +
FormatNumber(comp, NumericUpDown1.Value) + " g/liter or "
Label5.Text += FormatNumber(comp2, NumericUpDown1.Value) + " mg/L"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub

Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,

ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0 'O2
MW = 32
Case 1 'CO2
MW = 44
Case 2 'H2
MW = 2
Case 3 'CH4
MW = 16
Case 4 'N2
MW = 28
Case 5 'NO
MW = 30
End Select
End Sub

Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal

e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Example 7.12
Use the computer program developed in (1) of Example 7.11 to determine the weight of CO2 that
would be dissolved in 1 L of water at 25C under a CO2 pressure of 1 atm.

Solution

(7.17)

From Table 7.6,

Ki = 3.38 102 mol/L/atm

Ci = 3.38 102 mol/L/atm 1 atm
Ci = 3.38 102 mol/L
1 mol CO2 = 44 g
Ci = 3.38 102 mol/L 44 g/mol/L = 1.48 g/L or 1487 mg/L

7.2.7 CLAUSIUSCLAPEYRON EQUATION

The solubilities of gases decrease increasing temperature. This factor is taken into account with the
following ClausiusClapeyron equation:

(7.18)

where:
C1 is the gas concentration at absolute temperature T1
C2 is the gas concentration at absolute temperature T2
H is the heat of solution
R is the ideal or universal gas constant (1.987 cal/degmol)

Example 7.13
1. Prepare a computer program relating the various elements in Equation 7.18.
2. Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the concentration of oxygen in
water at 40C when the solubility of oxygen is 14.60 mg/L at 0C and 7.54 mg/L at 30C.
Solution
1. For solution to Example 7.13 (1), see the listing of Program 7.13.
 2. Using the ClausiusClapeyron equation, determine H for 0C and 30C oxygen

concentration:

The estimated solubility of oxygen in water at 40C would then be

which yields C2 = 6.22 mg/L estimated oxygen concentration at 40C.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.13 (CHAP7.13\FORM1.VB): CLAUSIS

CLAPEYRON EQUATION
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.13: Clausis-Clapeyron equation.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim gasc1, gasc2, gast1, gast2 As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.13: Clausis-
Clapeyron equation"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "The formula is:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "ln(C2/C1) = ({D}H/R) * ((1/T1) (1/T2))"
Label2.Text = "Enter the gas concentration at absolute temp T1 (C1) (in
mg/L) "
Label3.Text = "Enter the temperature of the gas C1 (T1) (in C) (in mg/L) "
Label4.Text = "Enter the gas concentration at absolute temp T2 (C2) (in
mg/L) "
Label5.Text = "Enter the temperature of the gas C2 (T2) (in C) (in mg/L) "
Label6.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
gasc1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
gast1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
gasc2 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
gast2 = Val(TextBox4.Text)

Dim gasccomp, gasccompf, gastemp1, gastemp2, gastemp3, gastemp4, gastemp5,

delhen As Double Gasccomp = gasc2 / gasc1
gasccompf = Math.Log(gasccomp)
Gastemp1 = 273 + gast1 'T1
Gastemp2 = 273 + gast2 'T2
Gastemp3 = 1 / gastemp1
Gastemp4 = 1 / gastemp2
Gastemp5 = gastemp3 - gastemp4
delhen = (gasccompf * 1.986) / gastemp5
Label6.Text = "The Delta H (heat of solution) at " + gastemp2.ToString + "
degrees is " + FormatNumber(delhen, 2) Dim gastemp6, gastemp7, delhen2,
step1, step2, step3, answ As Double
Dim temp3 = InputBox("Type in the new water temperature (in C)", "Enter
Temperature") Gastemp6 = 273 + temp3
Gastemp7 = gastemp3 - (1 / gastemp6)
Delhen2 = delhen / 1.986
Step1 = delhen2 * gastemp7
step2 = Math.Log(gasc1)
Step3 = step1 + step2
answ = Math.Exp(step3)
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + vbCrLf + "Estimated oxygen concentration at " _
+ temp3.ToString + " degrees C" + vbCrLf + "C2 = " + FormatNumber(answ, 2)
+ " gm/L"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.8 REYNOLDS NUMBERS

The Reynolds number (Re) relates inertial forces to viscous forces per unit volume for the medium
involved (gas or liquid). Typical inertial force per unit volume of fluid is given as follows:

(7.19)

Typical viscous force per unit volume of fluid is given as follows:

(7.20)

The first expression divided by the second provides the dimensionless ratio known as Reynolds number:

(7.21)

where:
is the density of the fluid (mass/volume), kg/m3
v is the velocity of the fluid, m/s
g is the dimensional constant
L is the linear dimension, m
is the viscosity of the fluid, kg/m/s
Re is the Reynolds number, dimensionless

The Reynolds number provides information on flow behavior. Laminar flow is normally encountered at a
Reynolds number < 2100 in a tube, but it can persist up to Reynolds numbers of several thousands under
special conditions. Under ordinary conditions of flow, the flow is turbulent at a Reynolds number ~>
4000. Between 2100 and 4000, a transition region is found where the type of flow may be either laminar
or turbulent. By definition, the Reynolds number is dimensionless (Air Pollution Training Institute 1984).

Example 7.14
1. Write a computer program that includes the elements contained in Equation 7.19 in order to
calculate the Reynolds number.
2. Given the data in the Solutions section for the flow of an air stream through a circular duct,
determine the Reynolds number for this air stream.
Solution
 1. For solution to Example 7.14 (1), see the listing of Program 7.14.
2. Solution to Example 7.14 (2): a = 0.965 kg/m3
v = 10.0 m/s
L = 0.50 m (diameter of duct)
a = 2.15 105 kg/m/s

(7.22)

This would be turbulent flow. For most air pollution conditions, the flow is usually in the turbulent
range with high Reynolds numbers.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.14 (CHAP7.14\FORM1.VB): REYNOLDS

NUMBER
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.14: Calculates the Reynolds number
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim dimen, vel, dens, visc As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.14: Reynolds
number"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "The formula is:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Re = (L * v * r(rho))/u (viscosity)"
Label2.Text = "Type in the diameter of the duct, (L) (in m)"
Label3.Text = "Type in the velocity of the fluid, (v) (in m/s)"
Label4.Text = "Type in the density of the gas, (r (rho)) (in kg/m{3})"
Label5.Text = "Type in the viscosity of the fluid, (u) (in kg/m.s"
Label5.Text += vbCrLf + " use scientific notation (x.xxxE+/-x)"
Label6.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
dimen = Val(TextBox1.Text)
vel = Val(TextBox2.Text)
dens = Val(TextBox3.Text)
visc = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Dim step1, step2 As Double
step1 = dimen * vel * dens
step2 = step1 / visc
Label6.Text = "The Reynolds number is " + Format(step2, "##.####").ToString
If step2 < 2100 Then
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "Laminar flow"
ElseIf step2 < 4000 Then
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "Transition region"
Else
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "Turbulent flow"
End If
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.9 STOKES LAW

The terminal settling velocity of spherical particles larger than the free mean path in a fluid is described
by Stokes law, provided the particles are not so large that inertial effects arise from the fluid displaced
by the falling particles. Terminal velocity is a constant value of velocity reached when all forces (gravity,
drag, buoyancy, etc.) are acting on a body balance. The sum of all the forces is then equal to zero (no
acceleration). Particles smaller than about 50 m reach a constant settling velocity within a fraction of a
second. The terminal settling velocity is given by the following equation:

(7.23)

where:
vt is the terminal settling velocity, cm/s
g is the gravitational constant, cm/s2
p is the density of the particle, g/cm3
a is the density of air, g/cm3
dp is the diameter of particle, m
is the viscosity of air, g/cm/s

For the determination of the terminal settling velocity of particles, three size regimes are considered
here, based on a dimensionless constant k. Terminal velocity is a constant value of velocity reached when
all forces (gravity, drag, buoyancy, etc.) are acting on a body balance. The sum of all the forces is then
equal to zero (no acceleration). A dimensionless constant k determines the appropriate range of the fluid-
particle dynamic laws which apply (Air Pollution Training Institute 1984).

(7.24)

where:
k is the dimensionless constant, which determines the range of the fluid-particle dynamic laws dp is the
particle diameter, cm
g is the gravity force, cm/s2
p is the particle density, g/cm3
is the fluid (gas) density, g/cm3
is the fluid (gas) viscosity, g/cm/s
 The numerical value of k determines the appropriate law, and the values of k that apply for the three
regimes are as follows: k < 3.3, Stokes law range
3.3 < k < 43.6, intermediate law range 43.6 < k < 2360, Newtons law range

The equations for each regime are as follows:

For Stokes law range:

(7.23)

For intermediate law range:

(7.25)

For Newtons law range:

(7.26)

When particles approach sizes comparable to the mean free path of the fluid molecules, the medium can
no longer be regarded as continuous because particles can fall between the molecules at a faster rate than
predicted by aerodynamic theory. To allow for this slip, Cunningham correction factor is introduced to
Stoke law (Air Pollution Training Institute 1984):

(7.27)

(7.28)

where:
A = 1.257 + 0.40e1.10dp/2
is the mean free path of the fluid molecules (6.53 106 cm for ambient air) The Cunningham
correction factor is usually applied to particles equal to or smaller than 1 m (Air Pollution
Training Institute 1984).
Example 7.15
1. Write a computer program that provides for the calculation of the dimensionless constant k
and thus provides information as to which appropriate terminal velocity equation to use.
2. Write a computer program that relates the various elements in Stokes law (Equation 7.23)
and will determine the terminal settling velocity for spherical particles.
3. Using the computer programs developed in (1) and (2), estimate the terminal settling
velocity in cm/s for a 30 m particle with a density of 2.31 g/cm3. The room air is 24C
with a room depth of 2.7 m. Estimate the time required for this particle to settle from the
ceiling to the floor.
Solution
1. For a solution to Example 7.15 (1), see the listing of Program 7.15.
2. For a solution to Example 7.15 (2), first calculate the density of air at 24C using Equation
7.11:

where:
P = 1, atm
MW = 29 g/g-mol for air
R = 0.08206 (L) at) (g-mol)1 (K)1
T = K, (273 + C)

Using Equation 7.24, calculate the value of k in order to determine which equation to use to estimate
the terminal settling velocity for the 30 m particle:

If k < 3.3, the appropriate equation to use is Stokes law (Equation 7.23):

(7.23)
The time required for this 30 m particle to settle from the ceiling to the floor would be

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.15 (CHAP7.15\FORM1.VB): TERMINAL

VELOCITY AND STOKES LAW
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.15: Provides for calculation of the dimensionless
'constant k and provides information on which terminal velocity
'equation to use.
'Also relates the elements of Stokes law.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim pres, molwgt, temp As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.15"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Example 7.15: Provides for calculation of the dimensionless"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + " constant k and provides information on which
terminal velocity"
Label1.Text += " equation to use."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Also relates the elements of Stokes law."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The initial formulas are:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "r(rho) = (P * (MW))/R * T Formula 7.10"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "k = d[p] * (g * r[p] * (r/u{2})){1/3} Formula
7.20"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "v[t] = (g * d[p]{2} * (r[p] r[a]))/18 * u
Formula 7.19"

Label2.Text = "To calculate the density of air:"

Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "Type in the pressure, (P) (in atm)"
Label3.Text = "Type in the molecular weight of the air, (MW) (in g(g-mole)
{-1})"
Label4.Text = "Type in the temperature of the air, (T) (in C)"
Label5.Text = "Type in the particle diameter (um)"
Label6.Text = "Type in the particle density (g/cm{3})"
Label7.Text = "Type in the room depth (m)"
Label8.Text = "Type in the gas viscosity (from a table) (in g/cm.s)"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
pres = Val(TextBox1.Text)
molwgt = Val(TextBox2.Text)
temp = Val(TextBox3.Text)

Dim comptemp, nom, denom, dem, dens, denscm As Double

Dim depth, compdiama, compdiam, compdens, deptha, V, time As Double
Dim diam, partden, visc As Double
Dim decimals As Integer = 2
Dim decimals2 As Integer = 4
Dim s As String

comptemp = 273 + temp

nom = pres * molwgt
dem = 0.08206 * comptemp
dens = nom / dem
denscm = dens * 0.001
s = "The density of the air at " + FormatNumber(temp, decimals) + " degrees
C is "
s += FormatNumber(dens, decimals) + " g/L"
s += " and " + FormatNumber(denscm, decimals2) + " g/cm*10{3}"
diam = Val(TextBox4.Text)
partden = Val(TextBox5.Text)
depth = Val(TextBox6.Text)
visc = Val(TextBox7.Text)

Dim nom2, comp1, comp2, comp3, diamcomp, comp4 As Double

Nom2 = 981 * partden * denscm
comp1 = nom2 / visc
comp2 = comp1 / visc
comp3 = comp2 ^ (0.3333)
diamcomp = diam * 0.0001
comp4 = diamcomp * comp3
s += vbCrLf + "k = " + FormatNumber(comp4, decimals2)
If comp4 < 3.3 Then
s += " (using Stokes law range)"
ElseIf comp4 < 43.6 Then
s += " (using the intermediate law range)"
Else
s += " (using Newtons law range)"
End If

Compdiama = diam * diam

Compdiam = compdiama * 0.00000001#
Compdens = partden - denscm
nom = 981 * compdiam * compdens
denom = 18 * visc
V = nom / denom
deptha = depth * 100
time = deptha / V
s += vbCrLf + "Settling time = " + FormatNumber(time, decimals) + "
seconds"
s += vbCrLf + "The velocity = " + FormatNumber(V, decimals) + " cm/s"
MsgBox(s, vbOKOnly, "Results")
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

7.2.10 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONLOG NORMAL

The most important single parameter in evaluating the effects of and determining the best method for
control of airborne particulates is the size of the particulate. Airborne particles are never all the same
size; therefore, it is necessary to try to characterize and quantify the distribution of the various sizes
involved. The most often used mathematical expression to do this evaluation is the log-normal
distribution. There is, however, no law that says all particles follow the log-normal classification. In a
number of industrial and ambient air studies, the size distribution of the particulate followed the normal
or Gaussian distribution (Rowe et al. 1985).
The log-normal distribution of suspended particulate in the atmosphere is often used, as it is a
relatively simple and convenient way to analyze the data. This is done by plotting on log-probability
paper the particle size diameter on the ordinate (log scale) and the cumulative percentage less than or
equal to a stated size on the abscissa (probability scale). If the data are plotted as a straight line on log-
probability paper, this tends to indicate that the size distribution of the particulate is log normal. The log-
normal probability distribution for particulates can be described by the following mathematical
expression (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 1973):

(7.29)

where:
F(d) is the frequency of particle occurrence of diameter d N is the total number of particles
g is the standard geometric deviation for the data
dg is the geometric mean diameter of the particles

If the size distribution data do plot a straight line on log-probability paper, then two parameters that
characterize these data are the geometric mean diameter dg = d50 and the geometric standard deviation g:

(7.30)

where:
d84.13 is the diameter such that particles constituting 84.13% of the total mass of particles are smaller
than this size d50 is the geometric mean diameter
d15.87 is the diameter such that particles constituting 15.87% of the total mass of particles are smaller
than this size g is the geometric standard deviation
 Example 7.16
Determine if the following particle size distribution data are log normal. If the data indicate log-
normal distribution, what then are the geometric mean diameter and the geometric standard deviation?

Data Answer

Particle Size d (m) Weight of Particles (g) Cumulative Total Cumulative Percentage
0.4 10 10 5.7
0.55 30 40 22.8
0.70 25 65 37.1
0.90 60 125 71.4
1.20 30 155 88.6
1.5 15 170 97.1
2.00 5 175 100

These data give a straight line on log-probability paper and therefore can be considered to have a
log-normal distribution.

From the graph for Example 7.16:

d50 = 0.8 m or the geometric mean diameter

d84.13 = 1.09 m
d15.87 = 0.59 m

Example 7.17
1. Develop a computer program that can be used to determine if the data for a particle size
distribution sample are log normal. If the data give a log-normal distribution, then include in
the program a means, by which the geometric mean diameter, d50, d15.87, and d84.13 sizes can
be determined, as well as the geometric standard deviation, g.
 2. Using the computer program developed in (1), determine if the following data for a particle
size distribution are log normal. Also indicate the d15.87, d84.13, and d50 sizes as well as g.

Particle Size d (m) Weight of Particles (g)

0.4 30
0.7 123
1.1 130
2.1 540
3.3 230
4.0 99
8.5 128

Solution
1. For a solution to Example 7.17 (1), see the listing of Program 7.17.
2. A solution to Example 7.17 (2):

Particle Size d (m) Weight of Particles (g) Cumulative Total Cumulative Percentage
0.4 30 30 2.3
0.7 123 153 12.0
1.1 130 283 22.1
2.1 540 823 64.3
3.3 230 1053 82.3
4.0 99 1152 90.0
8.5 128 1280 100.0

Plot the data on a log-probability paper as shown on graph for Example 7.17. Determine from the graph
the following:
7.3 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

7.3.1 SETTLING CHAMBERS

The oldest and probably least effective air pollution control device is the gravity settling chamber.
Although simple to construct and having a low operating cost, settling chambers are still generally used
only to collect large particles above 4050 m in size. However, if the particles have a high density, then
particles as small as 1015 m can be collected. Settling chambers generally are simply an enlargement
of the conduit carrying the contaminated airstream (see Figure 7.1).
Settling chambers are often used as a precleaning stage for treating a contaminated gas stream in order
to protect the other downstream collection equipment from hot, coarse, and abrasive materials.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.17 (CHAP7.17\FORM1.VB): PARTICLE SIZE

DISTRIBUTION
'*********************************************************************************
'Program 7.17: Determine if distribution is log-normal
'and compute the geometric SD.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim Partsz(), Wgt(), cumtot(), cumper(), per() As Double
Dim sum1X, sum1Y, sum2X, sum2Y As Double
Dim m As Double
Dim a, b As Double
Dim g As Graphics
'********************************************************************************
'get_max(): Gets the largest number of an
'array, given a reference to
'the array and member count.
'********************************************************************************

Private Function get_max(ByRef array() As Double, ByVal count As Integer) As

Double Dim i As Integer
Dim max As Double = array(0)
For i = 1 To count - 1
If max < array(i) Then
max = array(i)
End If
Next
Return max
End Function
'********************************************************************************
'Draws a straight line from the scattered
'point data. The algorithm used is simple:
'(1) Divide data into two sets
'(2) Find a mid-point in each set
'(3) Find line equation from these two points
'(4) Find the first and last points in this line
'(5) Draw the line!
'********************************************************************************

Private Sub draw_straight_line()

Dim count As Integer = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
Dim w As Integer = PictureBox1.Width - 4
Dim h As Integer = PictureBox1.Height - 4
Dim max_Y As Double = get_max(Partsz, count)
Dim max_X As Double = get_max(cumper, count)
Dim scaleY As Double = h / max_Y
Dim scaleX As Double = w / max_X
Dim zeroX As Integer = 2
Dim zeroY As Integer = h + 2
Dim mid_count As Integer = count / 2
Dim i As Integer
sum1X = 0 : sum2X = 0
sum1Y = 0 : sum2Y = 0
For i = 0 To mid_count - 1
sum1X += cumper(i)
sum1Y += Partsz(i)
Next
sum1X /= mid_count
sum1Y /= mid_count
For i = mid_count To count - 1
sum2X += cumper(i)
sum2Y += Partsz(i)
Next
sum2X /= (count - mid_count)
sum2Y /= (count - mid_count)
m = (sum2Y - sum1Y) / (sum2X - sum1X)
'find straight line equation:
'y = a + bx
'y2 = mx2 - mx1 + y1
a = sum1Y - (m * sum1X)
b = m
'*******************************************************************************
'find first and last points 'from the
'equation to draw the line.
'*******************************************************************************
Dim x1, y1, x2, y2 As Double
x1 = cumper(0)
x2 = cumper(count - 1)
y1 = a + b * x1
y2 = a + b * x2
Dim j1, j2, l1, l2 As Integer
j1 = zeroX + (x1 * scaleX)
j2 = zeroX + (x2 * scaleX)
l1 = zeroY - (y1 * scaleY)
l2 = zeroY - (y2 * scaleY)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, j1, l1, j2, l2)
End Sub

Function get_Y_value(ByVal X As Double) As Double

Dim Y As Double
Y = a + b * X
Return Y
End Function

Private Sub draw_graph()

Dim count As Integer = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
Dim bmp As Bitmap = New Bitmap(PictureBox1.Width, PictureBox1.Height)
g = Graphics.FromImage(bmp)
g.Clear(Color.White)
Dim w As Integer = PictureBox1.Width - 4
Dim h As Integer = PictureBox1.Height - 4
Dim max_Y As Double = get_max(Partsz, count)
Dim max_X As Double = get_max(cumper, count)
Dim scaleY As Double = h / max_Y
Dim scaleX As Double = w / max_X
Dim countX As Integer = 5
Dim countY As Integer = 5
Dim zeroX As Integer = 2
Dim zeroY As Integer = h + 2
Dim i, j, k As Integer
Dim f As Font = New Font("Arial", 8)
'Draw X axis
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, zeroX, zeroY, zeroX + w, zeroY)
Dim x As Double = max_X / 5
For i = 1 To countX
j = zeroX + (i * x * scaleX)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, j, zeroY, j, zeroY - 2)
g.DrawString(FormatNumber(i * x, 0), f, Brushes.Black, j, zeroY - 12)
Next
'Draw Y axis
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, zeroX, zeroY, zeroX, 2)
Dim y As Double = max_Y / 5
For i = 1 To countY
j = zeroY - (i * y * scaleY)
g.DrawLine(Pens.Black, zeroX, j, zeroX + 2, j)
g.DrawString(FormatNumber(i * y, 0), f, Brushes.Black, 4, j)
Next
'Draw major points
For i = 1 To count
j = zeroX + (cumper(i - 1) * scaleX)
k = zeroY - (Partsz(i - 1) * scaleY)
g.DrawEllipse(Pens.Black, j - 2, k - 2, 4, 4)
Next
draw_straight_line()
PictureBox1.Image = Image.FromHbitmap(bmp.GetHbitmap)
g.Dispose()
bmp.Dispose()
End Sub

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.17: Calculates
mole fractions"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Determine if particles size distribution data is log normal"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "and compute the geometric SD."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Procedure:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "First determine the cumulative total for the
particles and the cumulative percentages of each."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Then the geometric SD is computed."
Label2.Text = "Type in the particle sizes (in um) and weights:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("sizeCol", "Particle size")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("wgtCol", "Particle Wgt")
TextBox1.Multiline = True
TextBox1.Height = 135
TextBox1.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
TextBox1.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 9)
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
If DataGridView1.Rows.Count <= 1 Then
MsgBox("Type in at least one entry!", vbOKOnly + vbExclamation, "Prompt")
Exit Sub
End If
Dim count = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
Dim cumtota, cumpera As Double
ReDim Partsz(count), Wgt(count), cumtot(count), per(count), cumper(count)
cumtota = 0
cumpera = 0
For i = 0 To count - 1
Partsz(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("sizeCol").Value)
Wgt(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("wgtCol").Value)
cumtota += Wgt(i)
cumtot(i) = cumtota
Next
For i = 0 To count - 1
per(i) = (Wgt(i) / cumtota) * 100
cumpera = cumpera + per(i)
cumper(i) = cumpera
Next

Dim s As String
s = "Particle size Wgt of Cumulative Cumulative"
s += vbCrLf + "d in um particle total paercent"
For i = 0 To count - 1
s += vbCrLf + Format(Partsz(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(Wgt(i), "000.000 ").ToString
s += Format(cumtot(i), "0000.000 ").ToString
s += Format(cumper(i), "00.000").ToString
Next
draw_graph()
Dim d84 As Double = get_Y_value(84.13)
Dim d50 As Double = get_Y_value(50.0)
Dim d15 As Double = get_Y_value(15.87)
Dim SD1, SD2 As Double
SD1 = d84 / d50
s += vbCrLf + "d[84.13] = " + FormatNumber(d84, 2)
s += vbCrLf + "d[50.00] = " + FormatNumber(d50, 2)
s += vbCrLf + "Geometric SD = d[84.13]/d[50.00] = " + FormatNumber(SD1, 2)
s += vbCrLf + "d[50.00] = " + FormatNumber(d50, 2)
s += vbCrLf + "d[15.87] = " + FormatNumber(d15, 2)
SD2 = d50 / d15
s += vbCrLf + "Geometric SD = d[50.00]/d[15.87] = " + FormatNumber(SD2, 2)
TextBox1.Text = s
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

If we assume that Stokes law applies, we can derive a formula that can be used to calculate the
minimum diameter of particles to be collected at 100% theoretical efficiency in a chamber of given length
L.
The following equation can be used to predict the largest sized particle that can be removed with 100%
efficiency in a settling chamber with given dimensions:

(7.31)

where:
is the gas viscosity, g/cm*s
vh is the horizontal gas velocity, cm/s
H is the height of chamber, cm
g is the gravitational constant 981, cm/s2
L is the length of chamber, cm
p is the particle density, g/cm3

Example 7.18
Estimate the minimum size of particle that will be removed with 100% efficiency from a settling
chamber, given the following data: Dimensions of gravity settling chamber: 8 m wide, 6 m high, and
15 m long
Volumetric gas flow of 1.3 m3/s
Particle density of 2.0 g/cm3

FIGURE 7.1 Settling chamber.

Viscosity of the air in the gas stream of 1.85 104 g/cm*s
 Gravitational constant of 981 cm/s2
Solution
The velocity vh can be determined from the continuity equation:

Substituting in Equation 7.31:

Example 7.19
1. Prepare a computer program that can be used to predict the largest sized particle that can be
removed with 100% efficiency in a settling chamber (Equation 7.31).
2. Using the computer program developed in (1), estimate the largest sized particle that can be
removed with 100% efficiency in a settling chamber, given the following data: Gravity
settling chamber dimensions: 4 m wide, 1.2 m high, and 8 m long
Volumetric gas flow of 1.2 m3/s
Particle density of 2.5 g/cm3
Viscosity of the air at 27C of 1.86 104 g*cm/s
Solution

1. For solution to Example 7.19 (1), see the listing of Program 7.19.
2. A solution to Example 7.19 (2):
a. Calculate vh from Q = VA:

b. Substituting in Equation 7.31:

7.3.2 CYCLONES
Cyclones are the most commonly used air pollution devices for the removal of particulate from an air
stream. They are inertial separators depending on the centrifugal force as the separating mechanism. The
separation of particulate in a cyclone is similar to that of gravitational settling, except that centrifugal
forces instead of gravitational forces are used.
Cyclones are inexpensive to operate and have no moving parts. The cyclone operates with two
vortexes, one spiraling downward at the outside of the cone and the other spiraling upward on the inside
of the cone. The efficiency of a cyclone depends upon its size; a single, high-efficiency cyclone is most
efficient at the removal of particles in the 4050 m size range, whereas small cyclones 25 cm in
diameter are most efficient in the 1520 m size range. Figure 7.2 shows a conventional single, high-
efficiency cyclone.
An equation that can be used to calculate the size of particles that can be collected with a 50%
efficiency (cut diameter) is as shown in the following equation:

(7.32)

where:
d50 is the diameter of the particle that is collected with 50% efficiency (cut diameter) is the gas
viscosity, kg/m*s
Bc is the width of cyclone inlet, m
Ne is the number of effective turns within the cyclone
vi is the inlet gas velocity, m/s
p is the density of the PM, kg/m3

LISTING OF PROGRAM 7.19 (CHAP7.19\FORM1.VB): SETTLING

CHAMBER
'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.19: predict the largest sized particle that can be
'removed with 100% efficiency in a settling chamber.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim measq, meash1, measw1, visc, hgt, lnth, dens As Double
Dim comp1, comp2, comp3 As Double
Dim comp6, comp7, comp8 As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.19"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.Height = 252
Label1.Text = "Predict the largest sized particle that can be"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "removed with 100% efficiency in a settling
chamber."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formula:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "d[p] = (18 um v[h] H / g L r[p]){1/2}"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The value for v[h] is computed first."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "This formula is Q = VA"
Label2.AutoSize = False
Label2.Height = 120
Label2.Width = 433
Label2.Text = "Enter the value of the volumetric gas flow in m{3}/s"
Label3.Text = "Enter the height of chamber (m):"
Label4.Text = "Enter the width of chamber (m):"
Label5.Text = ""
Label6.Text = "Enter the gas viscosity (g/cm s)"
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "Enter as scientific ex; 1.86E-5"
Label7.Text = "Enter the length of chamber (cm)"
Label8.Text = "Enter the particle density (g/cm{3})"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate V"
Button2.Text = "C&alculate d[p]"
Label10.Text = ""
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
measq = Val(TextBox1.Text)
meash1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
measw1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
comp1 = meash1 * measw1
Comp2 = measq / comp1
Comp3 = comp2 * 100
Label5.Text = FormatNumber(measq, 2) + " = V (" + FormatNumber(meash1, 2) +
" x " + FormatNumber(measw1, 2) + ")"
Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "V = " + FormatNumber(measq, 2) + " / " +
FormatNumber(comp2, 2) Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "V = " + FormatNumber(comp2,
2) + " m/sec"
Label5.Text += vbCrLf + "V = " + FormatNumber(comp3, 2) + " cm/sec"
Me.Height = 480
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub

Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click visc = Val(TextBox4.Text)
hgt = Val(TextBox2.Text)
lnth = Val(TextBox5.Text)
dens = Val(TextBox6.Text)
comp6 = (18 * visc * comp3 * hgt) / (981 * dens * lnth)
comp7 = comp6 ^ (0.5)
comp8 = comp7 * 10000
Label10.Text = "d[p] = ((18 x " + FormatNumber(visc, 2) + " x " +
FormatNumber(comp3, 2) + _
" x " + FormatNumber(hgt, 2) + ") / (981 x " + FormatNumber(dens, 2) + "
x " _
+ FormatNumber(lnth, 2) + ")){1/2}"
Label10.Text += vbCrLf + "d[p] = " + FormatNumber(comp7, 4) + " cm = " +
FormatNumber(comp8, 2) + " um"
End Sub
 End Class

FIGURE 7.2 (a) Typical dimension for single, high-efficiency cyclone. (b) Nomenclature for a single,
high-efficiency cyclone.

The number of effective turns (N) within the cyclone can be approximated by the following equation
7.29 (Cooper and Alley 2010):

(7.33)

where:
Hc is the height of inlet duct, m
Lc is the length of vertical cylinder, m
Zc is the length of cone section, m

The collection efficiency of particles both larger and smaller than the d50 (cut diameter) can be estimated
by using the following equation or from Figure 7.3 (Danielson 1973, Theodore and DePaola 1980):

(7.34)

where:
E is the collection efficiency
 d50 is the particle diameter with 50% collection efficiency (cut diameter), m d is the particle diameter
of a specified size, m

FIGURE 7.3 Cyclone efficiency versus particle size ratio.

The pressure drop through a cyclone can be estimated by using the following empirical equation
(Vesilind, Morgan and Heine 2009):

(7.35)

where:
P is the pressure drop through cyclone, m of water
Q is the flow rate, m3/s
P is the absolute pressure, atm
is the gas density, kg/m3
T is the temperature, K
K is the factor, function of cyclone diameter (approximate values are shown in Table 7.7) TABLE 7.7
Values of K for Calculating Pressure Drop through Cyclone
Cyclone Diameter (cm) K
74 104
40 103
20 102
10 101

Source: Vesilind, P.A. et al. Environmental Engineering, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA, 1988. With permission.

Example 7.20 demonstrates the use of Equations 7.32 through 7.35.

Example 7.20
Determine the size of the particles that can be collected with 50% efficiency (cut diameter) for a
cyclone with the following dimensions and operating under the following conditions at a cement kiln
plant. Also estimate the pressure drop through the cyclone as well as the removal efficiency for
particles with a 20 m diameter.
Flow rate, Q = 1.6 m3/s
Length of vertical cyclone cylinder, Le = 1 m
Length of cyclone cone section, Zc = 1 m
Cyclone diameter, Dc = 0.50 m
Cyclone inlet width, Bc = 0.15 m
Cyclone inlet height, Hc = 0.25 m
Specific gravity of particles, p = 2000 kg/m3
Gas viscosity (air) = 0.0756 kg/m*h
Density of air, a = 0.965 kg/m3
Pressure P = 1 atm
Temperature = 93C
Solution
From Equation 7.33, the estimated number of effective turns (Ne) within the cyclone would be

The gas inlet velocity vi = Q/A:

From Equation 4.32, the d50 or cut diameter can be calculated as follows:

Use Equation 7.35 to estimate the pressure drop through the cyclone: Q = 1.6 m3/s
P = 1 atm
a = 0.965 kg/m3
T = 93C
K = factor for cyclone, interpolation for a 50 cm diameter from Table 7.7 gives K = 0.00074 or 7.4
104

For a 20 m diameter particle, the removal efficiency can be estimated from Equation 7.34 as
follows:

From Figure 7.3, removal efficiency for a 20 m diameter particle would be as follows:
 From the graph, the efficiency would approach 100%.

Example 7.21
1. Prepare a computer program that can be used to estimate the size of particles that can
be collected with 50% (cut diameter) efficiency with a cyclone of given dimensions.
Include in the program a system for the determination of the number of effective turns
(Ne) within the cyclone, the collection efficiency for particles both smaller and larger
than d50 size, as well as an estimate of the pressure drop (P) through the cyclone.
2. For a single high-efficiency cyclone with the following dimensions that is operating
under the given conditions, use the computer program developed in (1) to estimate the
size of particles that can be collected with 50% efficiency, Ne, P, and the collection
efficiency for a 15 m sized particle.

Flow rate Q = 6 m3/s

Length of vertical cyclone cylinder Lc = 3 m
Length of cyclone section Zc = 3 m
Cyclone diameter Dc = 1.5 m
Cyclone inlet width Bc = 0.375 m
Cyclone inlet height Hc = 0.75 m
Specific gravity of particle p = 1700 kg/m3
Gas viscosity at 80C = 0.0745 kg/m*h
Density of air at 80C a = 1.001 kg/m3
Pressure = 1 atm
K = factor for cyclone (D = 1.5 m), extrapolation from Table 4.7 gives 5 105
Solution

1. For a solution to Example 7.21 (1), see the listing of Program 7.21 for the
determination of d50, Ne, P, and collection efficiency for particles smaller and larger
than the d50 size.
2. A solution to Example 7.21 (2):

a From Equation 7.33:

b The gas inlet velocity vi = Q/A:

c From Equation 7.32:
 d From Equation 7.35:

e From Equation 7.34, the efficiency for a 15 m particle is calculated as follows:

f From Figure 7.3, d/d50 = 15/7 = 2.14. The collection efficiency = 82%

Listing of Program 7.21 (Chap7.21\Form1.vb): Efficiency of Cyclone

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.21: Estimate the size of particles that can be collected
'with a 50% (cut diameter) efficiency with a cyclone of given dimensions
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim screen As Integer = 1
Dim hgt1, vert1, length1, bq, bwidth, dens, visc As Double
Dim factor, pres, gasdens, temp, diam As Double
Dim acomp1, acomp2, acomp3, aansw As Double
Dim bcomp1, bansw, banswb As Double
Dim ccomp1, ccomp2, ccomp3, cansw, canswb As Double
Dim tcomp, qs, dcomp1, dansw, danswb As Double
Dim ecomp1, ecomp2, ecomp3, ecomp4, eansw As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.21: Cyclone
Efficiency"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False

Label1.Text = "Estimate the size of particles that can be collected"

Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "with a 50% (cut diameter) efficiency with a
cyclone of given dimensions"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Ne = (1/h[c]) * (L[c] + Z[c]/2))"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "V[i] = Q/A"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "d[50] = (9uB[c] / 2piN[e]V[i]r[p]1/2"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Delta P = 3950 K Q2 P r / T"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "E = 1 / (1 + (d[50]/d){2}) * 100"
GroupBox1.Text = ""
changeScreen()
End Sub
'********************************************************************************
'This sub prepares the screen every time by resetting
'the labels' text, the button text, and empties the
'textboxes. It shows/hides the controls as needed.
'********************************************************************************
Sub changeScreen()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
TextBox3.Text = ""
TextBox4.Text = ""
Select Case screen
Case 1
Label2.Text = "Ne = (1/h[c]) * (L[c] + Z[c]/2))"
Label3.Text = "Enter the height of the inlet duct H[c] (in m)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the length of vertical cylinder L[c] (in m)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the length of cone section Z[c] (in m)"
Label6.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'Ne'"
Case 2
Label2.Text = "v[i] = Q/A"
Label3.Text = "Enter the Flow Rate Q (in m{3}/s)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the cyclone inlet width B[c] (in m)"
Label5.Text = "Enter specific gravity of patricles Rho[p] (in
kg/m{3})"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'v[i]'"
Case 3
Label2.Text = "d[50] = (9uB[c] / 2piN[e] V[i] Rho[p])1/2"
Label3.Text = "Enter the gas viscosity u(in kg/m*h)"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'd[50]'"
Case 4
Label2.Text = "Delta P = 3950 K Q{2} P Rho[a] / T"
Label3.Text = "Enter k factor from Table 7.7 use scientific notation
x.xxE+/-x"
Label4.Text = "Enter the absolute pressure (in atm)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the gas density Rho[a] (in kg/m{3})"
Label7.Text = "Enter the temperature T (in C)"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'delta[P]'"
Case 5
Label2.Text = "E = 1 / (1 + (d[50]/d){2})* 100"
Label3.Text = "Enter particle diameter (in um)"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'E'"
End Select
Select Case screen
Case 1, 2
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = False

Case 3, 5
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label7.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
Case 4
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label7.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
End Select
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Select Case screen
Case 1
hgt1 = Val(TextBox1.Text)
vert1 = Val(TextBox2.Text)
length1 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
Acomp1 = 1 / hgt1
Acomp2 = length1 / 2
Acomp3 = vert1 + acomp2
Aansw = acomp1 * acomp3
Label6.Text = "Ne = " + FormatNumber(aansw, 2)
screen = 2
changeScreen()
Case 2
bq = Val(TextBox1.Text)
bwidth = Val(TextBox2.Text)
dens = Val(TextBox3.Text)
bcomp1 = bwidth * hgt1
bansw = bq / bcomp1
banswb = bansw * 3600
Label6.Text = "v[i] = " + FormatNumber(bansw, 2) + " m/s = " +
FormatNumber(banswb, 2) + " m/hr"
screen = 3
changeScreen()
Case 3
visc = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Ccomp1 = 9 * visc * bwidth
Ccomp2 = 2 * 3.14 * aansw * banswb * dens
Ccomp3 = ccomp1 / ccomp2
Cansw = ccomp3 ^ (0.5)
Canswb = cansw * 1000000
Label6.Text = "d[50] = " + FormatNumber(cansw, 6) + " m = " +
FormatNumber(canswb, 2) + " um"
screen = 4
changeScreen()
Case 4
factor = Val(TextBox1.Text)
pres = Val(TextBox2.Text)
gasdens = Val(TextBox3.Text)
temp = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Tcomp = 273 + temp
Qs = bq * bq
Dcomp1 = 3950 * factor * qs * pres * gasdens
Dansw = dcomp1 / tcomp

Danswb = dansw * 100

Label6.Text = "Delta P = " + FormatNumber(dansw, 2) + " m = " +
FormatNumber(danswb, 2) + " cm"
screen = 5
changeScreen()
Case 5
diam = Val(TextBox1.Text)
ecomp1 = canswb / diam
ecomp2 = ecomp1 ^ 2
ecomp3 = 1 + ecomp2
ecomp4 = 1 / ecomp3
eansw = ecomp4 * 100
Label6.Text = "E = " + FormatNumber(eansw, 2) + " percent"
screen = 6
Button1.Text = "Start over"
Case 6
screen = 1
changeScreen()
End Select
End Sub
 Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class.

7.3.3 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

ESPs operate by ionizing air molecules into positive and negative ions. This ionization takes place when
the air is passed through a very high direct current voltage, anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 V. As the
negative ions move to the positive collecting electrode, they attach themselves to the particles in the gas
stream. When the particles become charged by the negative ions, they move to the positively charged
collection surface (see Figure 7.4). The particles are removed from the collection surface either by
rapping it or by washing it.

FIGURE 7.4 Schematic diagram of an ESP.

There are two types of precipitators: plate type and tube type (see Figure 7.5). The plate type tends to
be used most often. The size of the collection plates used ranges from 1 to 3 m long and 15 m high. The
distance between the plates ranges from 15 to 40 cm. ESPs can handle huge volumes of gas and are
widely used at power plants where electrical power is readily available.
FIGURE 7.5 High-voltage electrostatic precipitators: a) plate type precipitator and b) Tube type
precipitator.
ESPs have many advantages, including the following (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
1973): High efficiency, especially for submicron particles
Dry collection of dusts
Low pressure drop
Ability to collect mists and corrosive acids
Low maintenance costs
Low operating costs
No moving parts
Collection efficiency can be adjusted by unit size
Ability to handle gases up to 815C

The disadvantages of ESPs include the following:

High initial cost

Frequently needs a precleaner
Large space requirements
Not suitable for collecting combustile particles such as grain or wood dust The efficiency of an ESP
can be estimated by the following empirical equation (Deutsch-Anderson equation) (Air Pollution
Training Institute 1984):

(7.36)
where:
is the fractional collection efficiency
A is the area of the collection plates, m2
w is the drift velocity of the charged particles, m/s
Q is the flow rate of the gas stream, m3/s

The drift velocity w is the velocity at which a particle approaches the collection surface and can be
estimated by the following equation (Air Pollution Training Institute 1984):

(7.37)

where:
w is the drift velocity, m/s
a is the constant, a function of the charging field, the carrier gas properties, and the ability of the
particle to accept an electrical charge, s1
dp is the particle size, m

Drift velocities commonly range from 0.02 to 0.2 m/s and can be determined experimentally. The
following example demonstrates the calculations that can be used to evaluate the operation or design of an
ESP.
Example 7.22
An ESP is to remove fly-ash particles of 0.5 m diameter from a gas stream flowing at 0.7 m3/s.
Determine the plate area required to collect the 0.5 m particles at 98% efficiency. The value for the
constant a has been found to be 0.24 106/s.
Solution
Using Equation 7.37, the drift velocity will be
Using Equation 7.36 and 98% removal efficiency:

which yields A = 23 m2.

Considering that both sides of the plate are available for collecting particles, the plate area
required is 23/2 = 11.5 m2. Use a square plate 3.4 by 3.4 m3.

Example 7.23
1 Prepare a computer program that can be used to estimate the drift velocity for a plate-type
ESP, given the constant a in Equation 7.37. Also include in the program the elements in
Equation 7.36. Design the program so that any of the other elements can be calculated,
provided any of the other two elements are given.
2 Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the number of 6 by 6 m plates
needed to collect 0.4 m particles with a drift velocity constant a of 2.5 105/s. The total
air flow is 30 m3/s, and the collection efficiency is to be 90%.
Solution

1 For a computer program for Example 7.23 (1), see the listing of program 7.23, which
includes the elements in Equations 7.36 and 7.37.
a A solution to Example 7.23 (2): Using Equation 7.37:
2

b Using Equation 7.36:

which yields A = 691 m2. Each plate surface has 6 6 x 2 = 72 m2 surface area. Use 10 plates.

Listing of Program 7.23 (Chap7.23\Form1.vb): Electrostatic Precipitator

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.23: Estimate the drift velocity for a plate-type
'electrostatic precipitator given the constant in eqn. 7.32.
'The program can calculate any of the elements given the other two.
'*********************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim aconst, partsize, wcompa, compvel As Double
Dim area, rate, perc As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.23:"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Estimate the drift velocity for a plate-type"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "electrostatic precipitator given the constant in
eqn. 7.32."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The program can calculate any of the elements
given the other two."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "w = a*d[p]"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "n = 1 exp(-(A*w/Q))"
Label8.Text = "Enter value for constant a Use scientific notation
(x.xxE+/-x)"
Label9.Text = "Enter particle size d[p] (in um)"
Label6.Text = ""
Label10.Text = ""
Label2.Text = "n = 1 exp(-(A*w/Q))"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "In the above formula, given w, this program solves
for:"
RadioButton1.Text = "n, the fractional collection efficiency"
RadioButton2.Text = "A, the area of the collection plates"

RadioButton3.Text = "Q, the flow rate of the gas stream"

RadioButton4.Text = "Start a new problem (recompute w)"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Button1.Text = "Calculate 'w'"
Button2.Text = "Calculate 'n'"
GroupBox1.Text = ""
Me.Height = 223
End Sub
'********************************************************************************
'calculates the equation, solving for:
' n if Radiobutton1 is selected
' A if Radiobutton2 is selected
' Q if Radiobutton3 is selected
' or,
' reset the textboxes and start over
' if Radiobutton4 is selected.
'********************************************************************************
Sub calculateResults()
Dim comp1, comp2, comp3, comp4, comp5, pcomp, acomp, qcomp As Double
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
area = Val(TextBox1.Text)
rate = Val(TextBox2.Text)
comp1 = (area * compvel) / rate
comp2 = (Exp(-2.32))
comp3 = 1 / (comp2)
comp4 = 1 / comp3
comp5 = 1 - comp4
pcomp = comp5 * 100
Label6.Text = "The fractional collection efficiency, n = " +
FormatNumber(pcomp, 2) + "%"
ElseIf RadioButton2.Checked Then
Dim platewidth, plateheight, platearea, numplates As Double
perc = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If (perc > 1) Then
perc = perc * 0.01
End If
rate = Val(TextBox2.Text)
comp1 = 1 - perc
comp3 = Log(comp1)
comp4 = rate / compvel
acomp = (comp4 * comp3) * -1
Label12.Text = "The area of the collection plates is " +
FormatNumber(acomp, 2) + " m{2}"
Label12.Text += vbCrLf + "Determining the number of plates of a given
size"
platewidth = Val(TextBox4.Text)
plateheight = Val(TextBox7.Text)
platearea = platewidth * plateheight * 2
numplates = acomp / platearea
Label6.Text = "The plate area is computed as width*height*2 (plates have
two sides)"
Label6.Text += vbCrLf + Format(numplates, "##")
Label6.Text += " plates will be required for this collection"
ElseIf RadioButton3.Checked Then
perc = Val(TextBox1.Text)
If (perc > 1) Then
perc = perc * 0.01
End If
area = Val(TextBox2.Text)
comp1 = 1 - perc
comp2 = 1 / comp1
comp3 = Log(comp2)
comp4 = area * compvel

qcomp = comp4 / comp3

Label6.Text = "The flow rate Q is " + FormatNumber(qcomp, 2) + " m{3}/s"
End If
End Sub
'********************************************************************************
'This sub prepares the screen every time by resetting
'the labels' text, the button text, and empties the
'textboxes. It shows/hides the controls as needed.
'********************************************************************************
Sub changeDisplay(ByVal n As Integer)
Select Case n
Case 1
Label3.Text = "Solving for n, the fractional collection efficiency"
Label3.Text += vbCrLf + "n = 1 exp(-(A*w/Q))"
Label4.Text = "Enter the plate area A (in m{2})"
Label5.Text = "Enter the flow rate of the stream Q (in m{3}/s)"
Label7.Visible = False
Label11.Visible = False
Label12.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
Button2.Text = "Calculate 'n'"
Case 2
Label3.Text = "Solving for A, area of the collection plates"
Label3.Text += vbCrLf + "A = (Q(ln(1/1-n))/w"
Label4.Text = "Enter the efficiency n (in %)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the flow rate of the stream Q (in m{3}/s)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the width of the collection plate (in m)"
Label11.Text = "Enter the height of the collection plate (in m)"
Label12.Visible = True
Label12.Text = ""
Label7.Visible = True
Label11.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox7.Visible = True
Button2.Text = "Calculate 'A'"
Case 3
Label3.Text = "Solving for Q, the flow rate of the gas stream"
Label3.Text += vbCrLf + "Q = (A w)/(ln(1/1 n)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the efficiency n (in %)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the plate area A (in m{2})"
Label7.Visible = False
Label12.Visible = False
Label11.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox7.Visible = False
Button2.Text = "Calculate 'Q'"
Case 4
Me.Height = 223
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Label10.Text = ""
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
TextBox4.Text = ""
TextBox7.Text = ""
TextBox5.Text = ""
TextBox6.Text = ""
TextBox5.Focus()
End Select
Label6.Text = ""
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click aconst = Val(TextBox5.Text)
partsize = Val(TextBox6.Text)
Wcompa = aconst * partsize
Compvel = wcompa * 0.000001
Label10.Text = "The Drift velocity w = " + FormatNumber(compvel, 2) + "
m/s"
Me.Height = 562
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton1.Checked Then changeDisplay(1)
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton2.Checked Then changeDisplay(2)
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton3_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton3.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton3.Checked Then changeDisplay(3)
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton4_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton4.CheckedChanged If
RadioButton4.Checked Then changeDisplay(4)
End Sub
 End Class

7.3.4 VENTURI SCRUBBERS

A venturi scrubber passes a contaminated gas stream through a duct that has a converging venturi-shaped
throat, followed by a diverging section (see Figure 7.6). The scrubbing liquid is injected at right angles to
the incoming gas stream, which breaks the liquid into small droplets that can then combine with the
gaseous or particulate contaminants.

FIGURE 7.6 Venturi wet collector: a) isometric view b) sectional view.

A venturi scrubber will remove from 92% to 99% of particulate in the size range from 0.02 to 0.5 m,
which makes them very effective for removal of submicron particles in smoke and fumes (Danielson
1973). The advantages of using a venturi scrubber include the following: Collecting both particulate
and gaseous contaminants
Cooling high-temperature gas streams
Elimination of problems with fires or explosions
Variable collection efficiency
Recovery of a valuable by-product is made possible

Its disadvantages include the following:

High power costs

Collecting large volumes of liquid that require disposal
Elimination of buoyancy of gas at the stack exit by reduced gas temperature White vapor cloud at the
stack exit that may concern the surrounding community Problems with corrosion

Johnstones equation can be used to evaluate the operation and design of venturi scrubbers (Air
Pollution Training Institute 1984):

(7.38)

where:
E is the fractional collection efficiency
k is the correlation coefficient depending upon system geometry and operating conditions QL/QG is the
liquid-to-gas ratio (QL, m3/s; QG m3/s) is the interial impaction parameter

(7.39)

where:
C is the Cunningham correction factor, dimensionless
p is the particle density, kg/m3
v is the gas velocity at venturi throat, m/s
dp is the particle diameter, m
do is the average droplet diameter, m
is the gas viscosity, kg/m*s

The Cunningham correction factor may be approximated by using the following equation (Air & Waste
Management Association and Davis 2000):

(7.40)

where:
T is the absolute gas temperature, K
dp is the diameter of particle, m

Under normal conditions, the Cunningham factor is taken as 1 for particles larger than 1 m.
The average liquid droplet do may be determined by using the following equation 7.41 (Air Pollution
Training Institute 1984):

(7.41)

where do is the average droplet diameter, m

The other terms in Equation 7.41 are the same as presented earlier.
 The pressure drop through a venturi scrubber can be estimated by the following empirical equation
(Vesilind, Morgan and Heine 2009):

(7.42)

where:
P is the pressure drop across the venturi scrubber, cm of water
v is the gas velocity through throat, cm/s
L is the water-to-gas volume ratio, L/m3

Example 7.24 demonstrates the calculations that can be made to evaluate the operation and design of a
venturi scrubber.

Example 7.24
Determine the collection efficiency of a venturi scrubber for particles 0.7 m in diameter from a
gas stream containing fly ash. The liquid-to-gas ratio is 1.12 103 m3 of liquid per m3 of gas. Also
determine the pressure drop across the venturi scrubber, given the scrubber described below: Throat
velocity = 90 m/s
Density of particles = 900 kg/m3
Gas viscosity = 2.2 105 kg/m/s
Gas temperature = 100C
Correlation coefficient K = 2000

SOLUTION

Using Equation 7.40, estimate the Cunningham correction factor:

Using Equation 7.41, estimate the average droplet diameter do:

Using Equation 7.39, calculate the interial impaction parameter:

Using Equation 7.39, determine the venturi scrubbers collection efficiency: E = 1 exp[2000
1.12 103 1.12] = 1 0.07 = 93% for removal of 0.7 sized particles The pressure drop
across the venturi scrubber can be calculated from Equation 7.42: P = (9000 cm/s)2(1.12
L/m3)106 = 90.72 cm = 35.7 in H2O
 Listing of Program 7.25 (Chap7.25\Form1.vb): Venturi Scrubber

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.25: Estimate the efficiency of a Venturi scrubber to remove
'particles of a specific size as well as the pressure drop through
'the scrubber.
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim screen As Integer = 1
Dim temp, dia, qg, ql, vel, visc, dens, cc As Double
Dim ratio, tcomp, acomp1, acomp2, acomp3, acomp4, acomp5, acomp6, d, c As
Double
Dim dcomp, diacomp, diasquar, nom, denom, IIP, para As Double
Dim ecomp1, ecomp2, eff As Double
Dim lfr, pcomp1, pcomp2, pcomp3, expon, drop, dropb As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.25:"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Example 7.25: Estimate the efficiency of a venturi scrubber
to
remove"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "particles of a specific size as well as the
pressure drop through"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "the scrubber."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "E = 1 exp [-k (Q[L]/Q[G]) SQR-IIP]"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "(SQR-IIP = Square root of interial impaction
parameter)"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "IIP = C r[p] v d[p]{2} / 18 d[o] u"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "C = 1 + ((6.21 x 10{04})T) / d[p]"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "d[o] = (5000/v) + 29.67 (1000 (Q[L]/Q[G]){1.5}"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Delta P = v{2} L x 10{-6}"
GroupBox1.Text = ""
changeScreen()
End Sub
'********************************************************************************
'This sub prepares the screen every time by resetting
'the labels' text, the button text, and empties the
'textboxes. It shows/hides the controls as needed.
'********************************************************************************
Sub changeScreen()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
TextBox3.Text = ""

TextBox4.Text = ""
TextBox5.Text = ""
Select Case screen
Case 1
Label7.Text = "C = 1 + ((6.21 x 10{04})T) / d[p]"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "d[o] = (5000/v) + 29.67 (1000 (Q[L]/Q[G])
{1.5}"
Label2.Text = "Enter the gas temperature T (in C)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the diameter of the particle d[p] (in um)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the gas flow rate (Q[G]) (in m{3}/s)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the liquid flow rate (Q[L]) (in m{3}/s)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the throat velocity v (in m/s)"
Label8.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'C' and 'd[o]'"
Case 2
Label7.Text = "IIP = C r[p] v d[p]{2} / 18 d[o] u"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "Enter the gas viscosity u (in kg/m/s)"
Label2.Text = "- use scientific notation (x.xxE+/-x)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the particle density r[p] (in kg/m{3})"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'IIP'"
Case 3
Label7.Text = "E = 1 exp[-k (Q[L]/Q[G]) SQR-IIP]"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "(SQR-IIP = Square root of interial impaction
parameter)"
Label2.Text = "Enter the correlation coefficient"
Case 4
Button1.Text = "Start over"
End Select
Select Case screen
Case 1
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label5.Visible = True
Label6.Visible = True
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = True
TextBox4.Visible = True
TextBox5.Visible = True
Case 2
Label3.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
Case 3
Label3.Visible = False
Label4.Visible = False
Label5.Visible = False
Label6.Visible = False
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = False
TextBox3.Visible = False
TextBox4.Visible = False
TextBox5.Visible = False
End Select
End Sub

Sub calculateResults()
Select Case screen
Case 1
temp = Val(TextBox1.Text)
dia = Val(TextBox2.Text)
qg = Val(TextBox3.Text)
ql = Val(TextBox4.Text)
vel = Val(TextBox5.Text)
tcomp = 273 + temp
acomp1 = 0.000621 * tcomp
acomp2 = acomp1 / dia
C = 1 + acomp2
acomp3 = 5000 / vel
Ratio = ql / qg
Acomp4 = 1000 * ratio
Acomp5 = acomp4 ^ (1.5)
Acomp6 = acomp5 * 29.67
D = acomp3 + acomp6
Label8.Text = "C = " + FormatNumber(c, 2)
Label8.Text += vbCrLf + "d[o] = " + FormatNumber(d, 2) + " um"
screen = 2
changeScreen()
Case 2
visc = Val(TextBox1.Text)
dens = Val(TextBox2.Text)
Dcomp = d * 0.000001
Diacomp = dia * 0.000001
Diasquar = diacomp ^ 2
Nom = c * dens * vel * diasquar
denom = 18 * dcomp * visc
IIP = nom / denom
para = Math.Sqrt(IIP)
Label8.Text = "IIP = " + FormatNumber(IIP, 2) + " Square Root of IIP =
" +
FormatNumber(para, 2)
screen = 3
changeScreen()
Case 3
cc = Val(TextBox1.Text)
ratio = ql / qg
Ecomp1 = cc * ratio * para
ecomp2 = Math.Exp(-ecomp1)
Eff = (1 - ecomp2) * 100
Label6.Text = "The efficiency is " + FormatNumber(eff, 2) + "%"
Label8.Text = "Delta P = v{2} L x 10{-6}"
Lfr = ql * 1000
ratio = lfr / qg
Pcomp1 = vel * 100
pcomp2 = pcomp1 ^ 2
Pcomp3 = pcomp2 * ratio
Expon = 1 / 1000000
Drop = pcomp3 * expon
Dropb = drop * 0.3937
Label8.Text += vbCrLf + "The pressure drop is " + FormatNumber(drop, 2)
+ _
" cm or " + FormatNumber(dropb, 2) + " inches of H[2]O"
screen = 4
changeScreen()
Case 4
screen = 1
changeScreen()
End Select

End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

Example 7.25
1 Prepare a computer program that will estimate the efficiency of a venturi scrubber to remove
particles of a specific size as well as the pressure drop through the venturi scrubber. Include
in the program all the elements contained in Equations 7.38 through 7.40 and 7.42.
2 Using the program developed in (1), estimate the collection efficiency of a venturi scrubber
at removing 3.2 m sized particles. The particles have a density of 3000 kg/m3. Also
determine the pressure drop across the venturi scrubber. The venturi scrubber characteristics
are as follows: Gas flow rate = 310 m3/min = 5.2 m3/s
Liquid flow rate = 0.00139 m3/s
Gas flow velocity at throat = 100 m/s
Correlation coefficient = 1500
Temperature = 90C
Gas viscosity = 2.1 105 kg/m/s
Solution

1 For a solution to Example 7.25 (1), see the listing of Program 7.25, which includes elements
in Equations 7.38 through 7.42.
a A solution to Example 7.25 (2): Using Equation 7.40, estimate the Cunningham correction
2
factor:
b Using Equation 7.41, estimate the average droplet diameter:

c Using Equation 7.39, calculate the interial impaction parameter:

d Using Equation 7.38, determine the venturi scrubbers collection efficiency for collecting 3.2
m sized particles: E = 1 exp(1500 0.00139/5.2 12.69) = .994 = 99.4%
e Using Equation 7.42, estimate the pressure drop across the throat of the venturi scrubber: P =
(10,000 cm/s)2(1.39 L/s liquid/5.2 m3/s gas)106 = 26.73 cm = 10.52 inches of H2O

7.3.5 BAGHOUSE OR FABRIC FILTERS

Baghouse or fabric filters are air pollution control devices that are used to separate solid particles from a
gas stream. The particulate-laden gas stream is passed through woven or felted fabric; the fabric used for
the filter varies from cotton to glass. The type of fabric used depends upon operational conditions such as
temperature, pressure drop, chemical or physical degradation, cleaning methods, and, of course, cost and
the life of the fabric. Filter bags usually are tubular or envelope shaped and are capable of removing >
99% of particles down to 0.3 m, as well as substantial quantities of particles as small as 0.1 m. Filter
bags range from 1.8 to 12 m in length and 0.1 to 0.4 m in diameter. A typical baghouse filter is shown in
Figure 7.7.

FIGURE 7.7 Baghouse filter.

The particles are captured and retained on the fibers of the fabric by means of interception, inertial
impaction, Brownian diffusion, thermal precipitation, gravitational settling, and electrostatic attraction.
Once a mat or cake of particulate has been collected on the fabric surface, further collection of particles
is accomplished by sieving. The fabric then serves mainly as a supporting structure for the dust mat
responsible for the high collection efficiency. Periodically, the accumulated particulates are removed by
mechanical shaking, reverse air cleaning, or pulse jet cleaning (Colls and Tiwary 2009). The advantages
of fabric filters include the following (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 1973): High
efficiency for collection of particles as small as 0.1 m Moderate power requirements
Reasonably low pressure drops
Dry disposal of recovered particulate
Operation over a wide range of particulates
Modular design for simple add-ons

Their disadvantages include the following:

High capital cost.

Large space required
High maintenance and replacement costs
Cooling required for high-temperature gas streams
 Fabric harmed by corrosive chemicals
Control of moisture in particulate required
Potential for fire or explosions

Equation that can be used to evaluate and aid in the design of fabric filters is as follows:

(7.43)

where:
Af is the total filtering area, m2
Q is the volume of gas stream, m3/min
vf is the filtering velocity (air-to-cloth ratio), m/min

For cylindrical bags:

(7.44)

where:
Ab is the filtering area for each bag, m2
= 3.1416
d is the diameter of the bag, m
h is the length of the bag, m

The number of bags required then is

(7.45)

where N is the number of bags required.

The cleaning frequency for a baghouse filter can be estimated from Equation 7.46, provided the
desirable pressure drop is known, or, if the cleaning frequency is known, then the pressure drop can be
estimated (Williams, Hatch and Greenburg 1940, Air & Waste Management Association and Davis 2000):

(7.46)

where:
P is the pressure drop
Se is the effective residual drag
vf is the gas velocity at filter surface
k2 is the specific resistance coefficient of collect particulate
c is the concentration of particulate in the gas stream
 t is the filtration time

Values for Se and k2 can be found in publications or handbooks such as Reference 17. Equation 7.47
includes the values for Se and k2. This equation can be used under specified conditions to estimate the
pressure drop through a fabric filter, provided the required time between cleanings is known or vice
versa (Air Pollution Training Institute 1984):

(7.47)

where:
P is the pressure drop, cm
vf is the filtering velocity, m/min
c is the particulate concentration in the air stream, kg/m3
t is the time required between cleanings, min

Example 7.26 demonstrates the calculations that can be made in order to evaluate the operation or
design of a fabric filter.

Example 7.26
Determine the filter cloth area and the required frequency of cleaning, given the following data:
Volume of contaminated air stream Q = 400 m3/min
Filtering velocity vf = 0.8 m/min
Particulate concentration in the air stream c = 0.03 kg/m3
Diameter of the filter bag = 0.2 m
Length of the filter bag = 5.0 m

The system is designed for cleaning of filter when pressure drop reaches 9 cm of water.
Solution

The total filter area required according to Equation 7.43:

Using Equation 7.44, the filtering bag area, which is 0.2 m in diameter and 5.0 m long, can be
calculated as follows: Ab = 3.14(0.2 m)(5.0 m) = 3.14 m2 per bag The number of bas required
can be determined from Equation 7.45:
The frequency for cleaning these bags can be estimated from Equation 7.47: 9 cm = 1.6(0.8
m/min) + 8.52(0.03 kg/m3)(0.80 m/min)2t which yields t = 47 min.

Example 7.27
1 Prepare a computer program that will aid in the design and operation of a baghouse
(fabric filter unit). Include the elements in Equations 7.43 through 7.45 and 7.47 in the
program.
2 Using the program developed in (1), determine the number of filtering bags required and
 the cleaning frequency of a plant employing a baghouse filter, given the following design
data: Volume of contaminated gas stream Q = 12 m3/s
Filtering velocity vf = 2 m/min
Particulate concentration in the air stream c = 0.025 kg/m3
Diameter of filter bag = 0.3 m
Length of filter bag = 8 m

The baghouse filter system is to be cleaned when pressure drop reaches 15 cm.
Solution

1 For a solution to Example 7.27 (1), see the listing of Program 7.27, which includes the
elements in Equations 7.43 through 7.45 and 7.47.
a A solution to Example 7.27 (2): From Equation 7.43, the total filter area required is
2

b From Equation 7.44, the surface area for each bag is as follows: Ab = 3.14(0.3 m)(8 m) =
7.54 m2
c From Equation 7.45, the number of bas required is as follows:

d From Equation 7.47, the estimated frequency of cleaning is as follows: 15 cm = 1.6(2

m/min) + 8.52(0.025 kg/m3)(2 m/min)2t which yields t = 13.8 min.

Listing of Program 7.27 (Chap7.27\Form1.vb): Design and Operation of a

Baghouse

******************************************************************************
'Example 7.27: A program to aid in the design and operation
' of a baghouse (Fabric filter unit)
'******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim screen As Integer = 1
Dim temp, dia, qg, ql, vel, visc, dens, cc As Double
Dim vol, volcomp, af, ab, n, length, drop, conc As Double
Dim comp1, comp2, comp4, compt, compvel As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.27: Baghouse
operation"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Example 7.27: A program to aid in the design and
operation of a baghouse"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + " (Fabric filter unit)"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "A[f] = Q / v[f]"

Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "A[b] = pi d h"

Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "N = A[f] / A[b]"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Delta P = 1.6 v[f] + 8.52 c v[f]{2}t"
Label4.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericSerif, 9, FontStyle.Bold)
GroupBox1.Text = ""
changeScreen()
End Sub
'*****************************************************************************
'This sub prepares the screen every time by resetting
'the labels' text, the button text, and empties the
'textboxes. It shows/hides the controls as needed.
'*****************************************************************************
Sub changeScreen()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
Select Case screen
Case 1
Label7.Text = "A[f] = Q / v[f]"
Label2.Text = "Enter the volume of contaminated gas stream Q (in
m{3}/s)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the filtering velocity v[f] (in m/min)"
Label4.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'A[f]'"
Case 2
Label7.Text = "A[b] = pi d h"
Label2.Text = "Enter the diameter of the bag d (in m)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the length of the bag h (in m);length"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'A[b]'"
Case 3
Label7.Text = "N = A[f] / A[b]"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "All the factors for this equation are from
previous equations"
N = af / ab
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "N = "
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + Format(N, "#####") + " bags"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "(Rounded to the nearest whole number)"
Label2.Text = ""
Label3.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "Next"
Case 4
Label7.Text = "Delta P = 1.6 v[f] + 8.52 c v[f]{2}t"
Label2.Text = "Enter the pressure drop Delta P (in cm)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the particulate concentration in the air stream
(kg/m{3})"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 't'"
Case 5
Button1.Text = "Start over"
End Select
Select Case screen
Case 3
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
Case 1, 2, 4
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
End Select
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Select Case screen

Case 1
vol = Val(TextBox1.Text)
vel = Val(TextBox2.Text)
volcomp = vol * 60
af = volcomp / vel
Label4.Text = "A[f] = " + FormatNumber(af, 2) + " m{2}"
screen = 2
changeScreen()
Case 2
dia = Val(TextBox1.Text)
length = Val(TextBox2.Text)
ab = 3.1416 * dia * length
Label4.Text = "A[b] = " + FormatNumber(ab, 2) + " m{2}"
screen = 3
changeScreen()
Case 3
screen = 4
changeScreen()
Case 4
drop = Val(TextBox1.Text)
conc = Val(TextBox2.Text)
comp1 = 1.6 * vel
compvel = vel ^ 2
comp2 = 8.52 * conc * compvel
comp4 = drop - comp1
compt = comp4 / comp2
Label4.Text = "t = " + FormatNumber(compt, 2) + " minutes"
screen = 5
changeScreen()
 Case 5
screen = 1
changeScreen()
End Select
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

7.3.6 COMBUSTION PROCESSES

Control of gaseous air contaminants can be categorized as adsorption, absorption, condensation, or
combustion. Gaseous pollutants can be controlled by a wide variety of devices applying one or more
of these basic principles. Although combustion is one of the major sources of air pollution, it is also
an important air pollution control method.
Combustion is defined as the burning or rapid oxidation of organic (fuel) compounds accompanied
by the release of energy in the form of heat and light. Scientifically, the terms combustion and
incineration have the same definition and often are used interchangeably (Lee 2005). Combustion or
incineration can be further categorized as direct-flame combustion, thermal combustion, or catalytic
combustion.
Only one catalytic combustion system will be considered here. In 1971, a homogeneous catalytic
system for the oxidation of carbon monoxide was developed and was later patented in 1974 (Lloyd
and Rowe 1971, 1974). This catalytic system was further developed, and by 1985, 10 patents were
issued in the United States, Canada, England, and Japan (Zackay and Rowe 1984/1985). The first
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic system (1974) contained palladium (II) salts and copper (II)
salts, along with a specified balance of copper (II) halide and a nonhalide copper (II) salt. This
catalyst was effective at oxidizing CO to CO2 and SO2 and SO3.
After modifications and further development, this oxidizing catalyst in 1985 was composed of
palladium, copper, and nickel on an alumina substrate. The catalyst was produced by impregnating the
alumina substrate with a halide salt solution of palladium chloride, nickel chloride, copper chloride,
and copper sulfate. The catalyst could remove by oxidation, adsorption, or decomposition gases such
as carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone present in dilute
concentrations in air (Zackay and Rowe 1984/1985). See Figure 7.8 for the gaseous contaminants that
can be removed by this catalytic system at both room temperatures and elevated temperatures (Air
Pollution Training Institute 1992).
FIGURE 7.8 The gaseous contaminants that can be removed by catalytic system at both room
temperatures and elevated temperatures: (a) Teledynes room-temperature catalyst at room
temperature effectively removes carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), formaldehyde (HCHO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). (b) Teledynes room-temperature
catalyst at elevated temperature effectively removes hydrogen cyanide (HCN), propane (C3H8),
methane (CH4), and isobutane (C4H10).
(From Teledyne Technology Introduces a New Room Temperature Catalyst, From 1007-F-33, Teledyne Water Pik Research &
Development Laboratory, Ft. Collins, CO, 1983. With permission.) This catalytic system has many potential applications, some of which
are listed as follows (Rowe and Lloyd 1978, Teledyne Technology 1983): Home appliances (kerosene heaters, stove hoods, etc.)
Indoor air filtration (home and office)
Industrial air filtration
Automotive emissions and passenger compartment (air-conditioning unit) Home or public parking
garages
Warehouse and dock areas
Airline industry
Mine safety equipment
First safety equipment
Carbon monoxide analytical equipment and monitors
Cigarette filters

One application of this catalyst was marketed in 1985 by Teledyne Water Pik. One stage of the four-
stage Teledyne Water Pik Instapure Filtration System used this catalyst for the removal of indoor
gaseous contaminants (Teledyne Instapure Filtration System 1985).
Not only is the percentage of reduction of the air contaminant important but also parameters such as
contact time and the reaction rate coefficient are important. To calculate the percentage of reduction of
the air contaminant by the catalyst, the following equation 7.48 can be used:

(7.48)

where:
C0 is the initial air contaminant concentration, g/m3
Ce is the effluent air contaminant concentration, g/m3
 The contact time can be determined by using the following equation 7.49:

(7.49)

where:
t is the contact time, s
Sc is the space around the catalyst, mL
fr is the contaminated gas flow rate, mL/s

A mathematical model (first-order reaction) proved valuable in evaluating the various catalysts.
This mathematical model was verified by testing various catalytic systems using a fixed quantity of
catalyst and a constant initial air contaminant concentration (C0), but the gas flow was varied, which
in turn varied the contact time (t). The data from these tests yielded a straight line when Ce/C0 versus t
was plotted on a semilog paper. This indicated that the air contaminant removal by the catalyst was a
first-order reaction.
Equation 7.50 is the mathematical model describing this process:

(7.50)

where:
e is the base of natural logarithm, 2.71828
k is the reaction rate, coefficient, s1
t is the catalytic contact time s
C0 and Ce are the same as previously indicated

In general, the longer the contact time with the catalyst, the greater the reduction in the air
contaminant levels. For most catalytic systems, the contact time needs to be on the order of a few
hundredths of a second.
The reaction rate coefficient k is a single number that measures the overall activity of a catalyst.
With equal contact time, the higher the k value, the greater the ability of the catalyst to remove air
contaminants. It was found that for this catalytic system, k values > 10 s1 indicated a catalytic system
worthy of further development. Example demonstrates how Equations 7.48 through 7.50 can be used
to evaluate a catalyst.

Example 7.28
1 A 2.5 g catalytic sample was tested for its removal efficiency of carbon monoxide (CO)
from an air stream. The initial CO concentration was 23,300 g/m3 (C0). The CO
concentration in the air stream after passing through the catalyst was 1770 g/m3 (Ce).
The airstream flow rate was 700 mL/min. The space around the catalytic support system
was 0.6 mL. Determine the percentage of CO removal, the contact time in seconds, and
 the reaction rate coefficient.
2 Prepare a short computer program to solve this problem.
Solution

a A solution to Example 7.28 (1): Percentage of CO removal can be determined by using

1

Equation 7.48:

b Contact time can be calculated by using Equation 4.49:

c Reaction rate coefficient can be determined by using Equation 7.50:

which yields K = 50.6 s1.

d This would indicate that with 92.4% removal of CO at a contact time (t) of 0.051 s and a
reaction rate coefficient (k) of 50.6 s1, further development of this catalyst should be
considered.
2 For a solution to Example 7.28 (2), see the listing of Program 7.28.

Listing of Program 7.28 (Chap7.28\Form1.vb): Catalytic System

'******************************************************************************
'Example 7.28: A program that can be used to evaluate
' a catalytic system
'******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim screen As Integer = 1
Dim co, ce, perc, space, rate, time, acomp, k As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.28: Catalytic
System evaluation"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Example 7.28: A program that can be used to evaluate a
catalytic system"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Removal (%) = ((C[o] C[e])/C[o]) * 100"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "t = s[c]/f[r]"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "C[e]/C[o] = e{-kt}"
Label4.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericSerif, 9, FontStyle.Bold)

Label5.Text = "Decimals:"
GroupBox1.Text = ""
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
changeScreen()
End Sub
'*****************************************************************************
'This sub prepares the screen every time by resetting
'the labels' text, the button text, and empties the
'textboxes. It shows/hides the controls as needed.
'*****************************************************************************
Sub changeScreen()
TextBox1.Text = ""
TextBox2.Text = ""
Select Case screen
Case 1
Label7.Text = "Removal(%) = ((C[o] C[e])/C[o]) * 100"
Label2.Text = "Enter the initial concentration C[o] (in um/m{3})"
Label3.Text = "Enter the initial concentration after the catalyst
C[e] (in um/m{3})"
Label4.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'percentage'"
Case 2
Label7.Text = "t = s[c]/f[r]"
Label2.Text = "Enter the space around the catalyst s[c] (in mL)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the air stream flow rate f[r] (in mL/min)"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate 'time'"
Case 3
Label7.Text = "C[e]/C[o] = e{-kt}"
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "All factors for this equation are from the
previous equations"
acomp = Math.Log(ce / co)
K = acomp / time * -1
Label7.Text += vbCrLf + "k = " + FormatNumber(k,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + " sec{-1}"
Label2.Text = ""
Label3.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "Start over"
End Select
Select Case screen
Case 3
TextBox1.Visible = False
TextBox2.Visible = False
Case 1, 2
TextBox1.Visible = True
TextBox2.Visible = True
End Select
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
Select Case screen
Case 1
co = Val(TextBox1.Text)
ce = Val(TextBox2.Text)
perc = ((co - ce) / co) * 100

Label4.Text = "The percentage of removal = " + FormatNumber(perc,

decimals)
screen = 2
changeScreen()
Case 2
space = Val(TextBox1.Text)
rate = Val(TextBox2.Text)
time = space / (rate / 60)
Label4.Text = "The contact time is = " + FormatNumber(time,
decimals) + " sec"
screen = 3
changeScreen()
Case 3
screen = 1
changeScreen()
End Select
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 7.29
1. Prepare a computer program that can be used to evaluate a catalytic system
including the percentage of reduction of an air contaminant, contact time, and
reaction rate coefficient. This program should incorporate all the elements in
Equations 7.48 through 7.50.
2. 2 Using the computer program developed in (1), indicate which of the following
catalysts should be considered for further development. The air space around the
catalyst was found to be 0.24 mL/g of catalyst.
Catalyst Weight of Catalyst Flow Rate (mL/s) CO Initial (CO0 ) (m/m3 ) CO Final (COe) (m/m3 )
1 0.5 20 33,700 26.600
2 1.0 13 30,490 14,670
3 1.5 4 13,210 3100
4 2.0 12 19,720 1610

Solution

1 For solution to Example 7.29 (1), see the listing of Program 7.29, which includes all the
elements in Equations 7.48 through 7.50.
2 Solution to Example 7.29 (2):
Catalyst Removal (%) Contact Time (s) Reaction Rate Constant k (s 1 )
1 21 0.006 39.4
2 52 0.018 39.6
3 77 0.09 16.1
4 92 0.04 62.6

Of these four catalysts, number 4 shows the greatest promise for further development.

Listing of Program 7.29 (Chap7.29\Form1.vb): Multiple Catalysts

'******************************************************************************
'Example 7.29: A program that can be used to evaluate a
' catalytic system.
' Evaluates multiple catalysts.
'******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim cat(), wgt(), flow(), initial(), final() As Double
Dim aspace(), perc(), ctime(), comp1(), rrate() As Double
Dim space As Double

Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.29:"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Example 7.29: a program that can be used to evaluate a
catalytic system."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Evaluates multiple catalysts."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Removal (%) = ((C[o] C[e])/C[o]) * 100"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "t = s[c]/f[r]"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "C[e]/C[o] = e{-kt}"
Label2.Text = "Type in the catalyst no., weight, flow rate, and initial
"
Label2.Text += "&& final gas concentrations:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("NCol", "No.")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("wgtCol", "Catalyst Wgt")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("FCol", "Flow rate (mL/s)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("ICCol", "Gas initial conc. (um/m3)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("FCCol", "Gas final conc. (um/m3)")
DataGridView1.AutoResizeColumns()
TextBox1.Multiline = True
TextBox1.Height = 140
TextBox1.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
TextBox1.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 9)
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If DataGridView1.Rows.Count <= 1 Then
MsgBox("Type in at least one entry!", vbOKOnly + vbExclamation,
"Prompt")
Exit Sub
End If
Dim count = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
ReDim cat(count), wgt(count), flow(count), initial(count), final(count)
ReDim aspace(count), perc(count), ctime(count), comp1(count),
rrate(count)
For i = 0 To count - 1
cat(i) = DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("NCol").Value
Wgt(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("wgtCol").Value)
flow(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("FCol").Value)
initial(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("ICCol").Value)
final(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("FCCol").Value)
Next
space = InputBox("Enter the air space around the catalyst (ml/g)",
"Enter space", 0) For i = 0 To count - 1
Aspace(i) = space * wgt(i)
perc(i) = ((initial(i) - final(i)) / initial(i)) * 100
ctime(i) = aspace(i) / flow(i)
comp1(i) = Math.Log(final(i) / initial(i))
rrate(i) = (comp1(i) / ctime(i)) * -1
Next
Dim s As String
s = " Space Initial Final"
s += vbCrLf + " Wt of around Flow conc. conc."
s += vbCrLf + "Catalyst Catalyst Catalyst Rate um/m{3} um/m{3}"

For i = 0 To count - 1
s += vbCrLf + Format(cat(i), "000 ").ToString
s += Format(wgt(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(aspace(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(flow(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(initial(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(final(i), "00.000").ToString
Next
TextBox1.Text = s
s = "--------------------------------------------------------"
s += vbCrLf + " Removal Contact time Reaction rate"
s += vbCrLf + "Catalyst % (sec) Constant k (s{-1})"
For i = 0 To count - 1
s += vbCrLf + Format(cat(i), "000 ").ToString
s += Format(perc(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(ctime(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(rrate(i), "00.000").ToString
Next
TextBox1.Text += vbCrLf + s

End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
 End Class

7.3.7 PACKED COLUMN ABSORPTION TOWERS

Absorption is a process by which a liquid (absorbent) is used to remove one or more soluble gases
(absorbate) from a contaminated air stream. The liquid absorbent may react chemically or physically
with the absorbate to remove it from the gas stream. Typical absorbents are water or dilute basic or
acidic solutions.
Chemical absorption involves a liquid absorbent reacting with a pollutant to yield a nonvolatile
product. A typical process here is the reaction of SO2 and aqueous H2O2 to produce sulfuric acid.
Physical absorption involves the physical dissolving of the pollutant in a liquid. This process is
generally reversible. The ideal absorbent would be relatively nonvolatile, inexpensive, noncorrosive,
stable, nonviscous, nonflammable, and nontoxic. In many cases, distilled water fulfills many of these
characteristics (Air Pollution Training Institute 1983). The types of absorption equipment used for air
pollution control include the following: Spray towers
Spray chambers
Venturi scrubbers
Packed column (towers)

The amount of absorbate (gas) that dissolves in the absorbent (liquid) depends upon the properties
of the absorbent and the absorbate, the absorbate (gas) concentration, the partial pressure of the
pollutant, the temperature of the system, the turbulence, the flow rate, and the type of air pollution
control equipment used. For dilute solutions, as is the usual case in air pollution control, the
relationship between the partial pressure and the concentration of the absorbate (gas) in the absorbent
(liquid) is given by Henrys law (see Section 7.2.6).
Only the packed column absorption type of air pollution control equipment will be considered here.
One of the most efficient ways to contact the absorbent with absorbate is the countercurrent flow
system shown in Figure 7.9a (Corman and Black 1974). In this system, the gas and liquid run in
opposite directions. The absorbate (gas) enters at the bottom and the absorbent (liquid) at the top of
the column. With this arrangement, the high-concentration pollutant (gas) is absorbed into the
absorbent (liquid) with a high-pollutant concentration, and the lower concentration pollutant (gas) is
absorbed into the absorbent (liquid) that has no contaminants present. As indicated by Henrys law,
the concentration of a gas dissolved in a solvent under equilibrium conditions is proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas above the solution at constant temperature.
FIGURE 7.9 (a) Countercurrent-packed column: a typical countercurrent-packed column absorber
system. (b) Countercurrent-packed column. (c) Countercurrent-packed column: graphical presentation
of the packed column.
Applying this principle from the bottom to the top of the packed tower makes it possible to
determine the mole fraction of the pollutant (absorbate) in the gas phase in equilibrium with the mole
fraction of the pollutant (absorbate) in the liquid phase. When these data are plotted with the gas mole
fraction on the ordinate (y-axis) and the liquid mole fraction on the abscissa (x-axis), an equilibrium
line is produced (see Figure 7.9b).
For absorption to take place, the operating line must be above the equilibrium line. The vertical
distance between the equilibrium line and the operating line indicates the degree of saturation of the
liquid with the pollutant (see Figure 7.9b). The operating line in this case is considered to be a
straight line, and an equation depicting this line follows:

(7.51)

where:
L1 is the liquid flow, kg*mol/h
Gt is the gas flow, kg*mol/h
XA is the mole fraction of the pollutant in the liquid phase into the column XB is the mole fraction of
the pollutant in the liquid phase out of the column YA is the mole fraction of the pollutant in the gas
phase out of the column YB is the mole fraction of the pollutant in the gas phase into the column See
Figure 7.9c for a graphical representation of these terms.
Example 7.30 demonstrates how Equation 7.51 can be used to evaluate and aid in the design of
packed columns used for air pollution control. While the following example illustrates some of the
principle used for packed column evaluation and design, there are many other factors that must be
taken into account, such as the number of transfer units, the height of an overall gas transfer unit, the
type of packing, and the required packed column height and diameter. However, it is not possible to go
into all these functions and formula here.

Example 7.30
A 500 kg/h air stream contains a mixture of acetone in air (CH3COCH3; molecular weight of
acetone = 58.08; molecular weight of air at 25C = 28.970) to be treated in a countercurrent-
packed column absorber, which has a diameter of 0.45 m and is packed with Raschig rings. The
equilibrium equation was found to be YB = 2.53XB, where YB is the mole fraction of acetone in air,
and XB is the mole fraction of acetone in water.
The operating temperature is 25C at 1 atm pressure. The acetone in the air stream entering at
the bottom of the column is 50 mg/L, and it is required that the allowable level of acetone leaving
the column to be reduced to 2.5 mg/L. What is the required flow rate of water in kg/h (acetone
free, XA = 0) to lower the acetone concentration to the desired level?

Solution

Inlet acetone concentration = 50 mg/L = 0.050 kg/m3

Air at 25C has a density of 1.185 kg/m3:

Outlet acetone concentration = 2.5 mg/L = 0.0025 kg/m:

The incoming distilled water has no acetone present, so

Substituting these values in Equation 7.51 gives

which yields
 The number of moles of inlet air based on the following airacetone mixture is calculated as

follows:

The kg/mol of air = 0.979 500 kg/h/29.58 = 16.55 kg*mol/h L1 = 2.437G

G1 = 16.55 kg*mol/h
L1 = 2.437 (16.55) kg*mol/h of H2O = 40.33 kg*mol/h of H2O
1 kg*mol of H2O = 18 kg
Water flow rate = 40.33 18 = 726 kg/h

Example 7.31
1. 1 Prepare a computer program that incorporates all the elements in Equation 7.51 and
thus provides a means to evaluate or aid in the design of packed columns used for
air pollution control.
2. 2 Using the computer program prepared in (1) and given the following data, determine
the liquid flow required to remove 97% of SO2 from the stack gas of a coal-fired
furnace.
3. Column diameter = 3.00 m
4. Operating temperature = 25C
5. Operating pressure = 1 atm
6. Gas flow rate = 30,000 m3/h
7. SO2 inlet concentration = 20,000 ppm

Incoming liquid is pure water, XA = 0

Solution
1 For solution to Example 7.31 (1), see the listing of Program 7.31, which includes all the
elements in Equation 7.51.
2 Convert 20,000 ppm SO2 to g/m3 using Equation 7.1 at STP:

Inlet concentration SO2 = 0.0523 kg/m3

a Air at 25C has a density of 1.185 kg/m3:

 b Outlet SO2 concentration = 0.03 0.0523 kg/m3 = 0.001569.

c XA = 0 for the incoming distilled water.

d Given: YB = 30 XB

e Substituting these values in Equation 7.51 gives

which yields

f The kg*mol of air is 30,000 m3/h 1.185 kg/m3 = 35,550 kg/h.

g Inlet gas composition:
0.98 = percentage of air
0.02 = percentage of SO2
h The kg*mol of air is 0.98 35,550 kg/h/28.970 MW of air = 1202.6 kg*mol/h L1 = 29.69
G1
L1 = 29.69(1202.6) = 35,707 kg*mol/h of H2O
1 kg*mol of H2O = 18 kg
i Water flow rate = 35,707 18 = 642,729 kg/h, or 178 kg/s.

Listing of Program 7.31 (Chap7.31\Form1.vb): Packed Columns

Absorption Towers

'******************************************************************************
'Example 7.31: A program that can be used to evaluate
'or aid in the design of packed columns
'absorption towers used for air pollution
'control.
'******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim inconc, gasmolwgt, airdens, airmolwgt, outconc As Double
Dim inconck, outconck, yb1, yb2, yb, ya1, ya, xa As Double
Dim factor, strea As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Exercise 7.31:"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label2.Text = "A program that can be used to evaluate or aid in the"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "design of packed columns absorption towers used
for air pollution control."
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "The formula:"
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "L[1] * ((X[a]/(1-X[a]) (X[b]/1-X[b])) = "
Label2.Text += vbCrLf + "G[1] * ((Y[a]/(1-Y[a]) (Y[b]/1-Y[b])) "
Label3.Text = "Enter the inlet concentration of the gas (ppm)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the gas"
Label5.Text = "Enter the air density (kg/m{3})"
Label6.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the air"
Label7.Text = "Enter the percentage of removal of the gas (%)"
Label1.Text = "The incoming distilled water has none of the gas;
therefore X[A] = 0"
Label8.Text = "Enter the value for the # in the following given
equilibrium equation"
Label8.Text += vbCrLf + "- Y[B] = #X[B]"
Label9.Text = "Enter the gas flow rate (m3/hr)"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
inconc = Val(TextBox1.Text)
gasmolwgt = Val(TextBox2.Text)
airdens = Val(TextBox3.Text)
airmolwgt = Val(TextBox4.Text)
outconc = Val(TextBox5.Text)
If outconc > 1 Then outconc /= 100
outconc = 1 - outconc
factor = Val(TextBox6.Text)
strea = Val(TextBox7.Text)
inconck = inconc * gasmolwgt * 10 ^ -6 / 24.46
outconck = inconck * outconc

yb1 = inconck / gasmolwgt

yb2 = airdens / airmolwgt
yb = yb1 / yb2
ya1 = outconck / gasmolwgt
ya = ya1 / yb2
xa = 0
Dim xb, compl1, compg1, compd1, gas, compare, air, combmolwgt As Double
Dim stream, g1, l1, flowrate As Double
xb = yb / factor
compl1 = (xa / (1 - xa)) - (xb / (1 - xb))
compg1 = (ya / (1 - ya)) - (yb / (1 - yb))
 compd1 = compg1 / compl1
gas = yb * gasmolwgt
compare = 1 - yb
air = compare * airmolwgt
combmolwgt = gas + air
stream = strea * airdens
g1 = compare * (stream / airmolwgt)
Dim s As String
s = "A kg*mole of water = 18 kg"
s += vbCrLf + "L[1] = " + FormatNumber(compd1, 2) + "G"
s += vbCrLf + "G[1] = " + FormatNumber(g1, 2) + " kg.mole/hr of H[2]O"
L1 = compd1 * g1
Flowrate = l1 * 18
s += vbCrLf + "L[1] = " + FormatNumber(l1, 2) + " kg.mole of water"
s += vbCrLf + "Water flow rate = " + FormatNumber(flowrate, 2) + "
kg/hr"
MsgBox(s, vbOKOnly, "Results")
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

7.3.8 ADSORPTION
Adsorption is a phenomenon by which gases, liquids, and solutes within liquids are attracted,
concentrated, and retained at a boundary surface (Air Pollution Training Institute 1983). In air
pollution control, this process involves the retention of molecules from the gas phase onto a solid
surface. A typical process consists of passing a contaminated gas stream through a container filled
with an absorbent such as activated carbon, activated alumina, silica gel, acid-treated clay, molecular
sieve, Fullers earth, or magnesia.
In the air pollution field, gas adsorption can be used to remove VOCs, H2S, SO2, and NO2 from
contaminated air streams. In industry, adsorption is used to recover valuable volatile solvents such as
benzene, ethanol, trichloroethylene, and Freon.
Adsorption involves either physical adsorption (physiosorption) or chemical adsorption
(chemisorption). With physical adsorption, the attractive forces consist of Van der Waals interactions,
dipoledipole interactions, and/or electrostatic interactions (Air Pollution Training Institute 1983).
An example of physical adsorption is when a contaminant in a gas stream is adsorbed onto activated
carbon. In physical adsorption, the adsorbed layer generally is considered to be several molecules
thick (multilayer adsorption).
In chemical adsorption, the contaminant gas molecules form a chemical bond with the adsorbent,
and the gas (adsorbate) is held strongly to the solid surface (adsorbent) by valence forces. An
example of chemical adsorption is the adsorption of oxygen by activated charcoal to form carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The CO and CO2 are not easily removed from the
activated carbon, and this can only be accomplished at elevated temperatures. Chemical adsorption is
usually limited to the formation of a single layer of molecules on the surface of the adsorbent
(monolayer adsorption) (Air Pollution Training Institute 1983). The variables affecting gas adsorption
 are as follows: Concentration of the contaminant in the gas stream
Surface area of the adsorbent
Temperature of the system
Presence of other competing contaminant gases
Characteristics of the adsorbent, such as weight, electrical polarity, and chemical reactivity The
relationship between the amount of pollutant adsorbed by the adsorbent under equilibrium
conditions and at a constant temperature is called an adsorption isotherm. An isotherm is a
graphical representation of the adsorbents capacity versus the partial pressure of the absorbate
(contaminant) at a particular temperature (Lee 2005). Adsorption isotherms are useful in
providing a means of evaluating the following: Quantity of gas adsorbed at various
concentrations
Adsorption capacity of the adsorbent at various gas concentrations Adsorption capacity of the
adsorbent for various gases
Surface areas for a given amount of adsorbent

A graphical plot of the amount of the gas absorbed per gram of adsorbent at various gas
concentrations at equilibrium and under conditions of constant temperature produces isotherms with
many shapes. Specific isotherms have been developed by Freundlich, Langmuir, and Brunauer,
Emmett, and Teller (BET).
Only the Freundlich isotherm will be considered here. The Freundlich isotherm is a purely
empirical equation valid for monomolecular physical and chemical adsorptions. The equation is

(7.52)

where:
X/M is the mass (X) of the element or contaminant adsorbed from solution per unit mass of
adsorbent (M) K and n are the constants fitted from the experimental data
C is the concentration of the contaminant in the gas phase at equilibrium

By taking the logarithm of both sides, this equation is converted to a linear form:

(7.53)

If the experimental data fit the Freundlich adsorption isotherm, a plot of log X/M versus log C gives a
straight line as shown in Figure 7.10. If a vertical line is erected from a point on the horizontal scale
corresponding to the initial contaminant concentration (C0) and the isotherm extrapolated to intersect
that line, the X/M value at this point of intersection can then be read from the vertical scale. The value
of (X/M)C0 represents the amount of contaminant adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent when that
adsorbent is in equilibrium with the initial contaminant concentration. This represents the ultimate
sorption capacity of the adsorbent for that contaminant (Culp et al. 1978).
FIGURE 7.10 Straight-line form of the Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
The Freundlich equation is most useful for dilute solutions over small concentration ranges. The 1/n
value represents the slope or change in rate of effectiveness in uptake with varying amounts of
adsorbent, and K, the ordinate intercept, the fundamental effectiveness of the adsorbent. High K and
high n values indicate high adsorption capacities; low K and high n values indicate low adsorption
capacities; low n values or a steep slope indicates high adsorption at high contaminant levels and low
adsorption at low contaminant levels (Ford 1975). Both graphical and computer analyses can be made
for the Freundlich adsorption isotherm (Chansler et al.1995).
In the air pollution control field, adsorption systems can be either nonregenerative or regenerative.
They also can be fixed, moving, or fluidized beds. Nonregenerative adsorption systems have thin beds
and are economical only when the contaminant level in the gas stream is in the g/m3 or ppm range.
Regenerative beds are generally thick and are designed to handle considerable contaminant loadings
with the additional advantage of the recovery of a valuable solvent (see Figure 7.11a,b).

FIGURE 7.11 (a) Schematic of a regenerative adsorption-type system. (b) Schematic of a

nonregenerative adsorption-type system.
(From Lloyd, W.G. and Rowe, D.R., Environ. Sci. Technol., 5, 11, 1971. With permission.) (From Corman, R.D., and Black, D.,
Controlling Air Pollution, American Lung Association, Washington, DC, 1974. With permission.) Adsorption of a contaminant from an
air stream continues until the bed capacity has been reached; at this point, the adsorbent is saturated with the adsorbate. The
concentration of the contaminant in the exit gas stream begins to rise rapidly, and the adsorber must be regenerated or disposed of. This
point in the adsorption system is called the breakthrough capacity of the bed.
An equation that can be used to calculate the breakthrough capacity of an adsorption bed is as
follows (Air Pollution Training Institute 1984):
 (7.54)

where:
CB is the breakthrough capacity, fractional
Cs is the saturation capacity, fractional
MTZ is the mass transfer zone, cm
D is the adsorption bed depth, cm

The degree of saturation of an adsorption bed is defined as follows (Turk 1977):

(7.55)

where:
Cs is the saturation capacity, fractional
WAE is the weight of adsorbate, g or kg
WAT is the weight of adsorbent, g or kg

When an adsorbent bed is regenerated, it is not economical to remove absolutely all the adsorbate
(contaminant). The residual contaminant in the adsorbent after regeneration is called the heel. The
practical capacity or working capacity of an adsorbent can be computed as follows (Air Pollution
Training Institute 1984):

(7.56)

where:
Wc is the working capacity of adsorbent, fractional
H is the heel, fractional
PF is the packing factor, fractional

The working capacity is lower than the breakthrough or saturation capacity. The packing factor is
determined experimentally for each adsorbent. The time required before an adsorbent needs to be
regenerated is an important parameter in the operation of an adsorption system. An estimate of the
time an adsorbent can be left in operation can be computed by using the following equation (Turk
1977):

(7.57)

where:
t is the duration of adsorbent service before saturation, h
S is the proportionate saturation of sorbent, fractional
W is the weight of adsorbent, kg
E is the sorption efficiency, fractional
Q is the airflow rate through sorbent bed, m3/h
M is the average molecular weight of sorbed vapor, g/mol
C is the entering vapor concentration, ppm by volume

Examples 7.32 and 7.33 demonstrates the use of Equations 7.52 through 7.57.

Example 7.32
Given the following data for the uptake or adsorption of benzene by activated carbon from a gas
stream, determine if these data fit the Freundlich isotherm; if so, then determine the K and n values
as well as the ultimate adsorption capacity of the activated carbon (X/M)C0 for benzene at its
initial concentration.
Activated Carbon (g)(M) Residual Benzene Concentration (g/m3 ) (C0 = 30) Benzene Adsorbed (g)(X) (X/M)
0
200 20 11 0.055
300 15 15 0.050
500 11 19 0.038
650 8 22 0.034
900 5 25 0.028
1600 2 28 0.018

Solution
The data plot a straight line on loglog paper, indicating the data fit the Freundlich isotherm (see
the following graph). The K and 1/n constants are 0.012 and 0.52, respectively. The ultimate
capacity of the activated carbon for benzene adsorption at 30 g/m3 is 0.07 g/g, or 7 g of benzene
can be adsorbed by 100 g of this activated carbon.

Example 7.33
1 Prepare a computer program incorporating all the elements in Equation 7.52 (Freundlich
isotherm) that makes it possible to determine the constants K and n as well as the
adsorbents ultimate capacity (X/M)C0.
2 Using the computer program developed in (1), determine the K and n values as well as
the adsorbents ultimate capacity (X/M)C0 for toluene adsorption.

Solution

1 For solution to Example 7.33 (1), see the listing of Program 7.33.
2 These data plot a straight line on loglog paper indicating it follows the Freundlich
isotherm (see the following graph). The K and 1/n constants are 0.017 and 0.45,
respectively. The ultimate capacity of this activated carbon for toluene adsorption at 40
g/m3 was 0.09 g/g, or 9 g of toluene can be adsorbed on 100 g of activated carbon.
Activated Carbon (g)(M) Residual Toluene Concentration (g/m3 )(C0 = 40 g/m3 ) Toluene Adsorbed (g) (X) (X/M)
100 32 8 0.08
240 24 16 0.067
430 15 25 0.058
600 11 29 0.048
1000 5 35 0.035
2500 1 39 0.016

Listing of Program 7.33 (Chap7.33\Form1.vb): Freundlich Adsorption

Isotherm

'******************************************************************************
'Example 7.33: Freundlich adsorption isotherm:
' a retyped version from older program.
'******************************************************************************
Imports System.Math
Public Class Form1
Dim M(), C(), X(), Q() As Double
Dim N, Cont As String
Dim T, Co As Double
Dim a, b As Double
Dim sum1X, sum1Y, sum2X, sum2Y As Double
'****************************************************************************
'Calculates the straight line equation from the
'scattered point data. The algorithm used is:
'(1) Divide data into two sets

'(2) Find a mid-point in each set

'(3) Find line equation from these two points
'****************************************************************************
Private Sub get_line_equ()
Dim count As Integer = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
Dim mid_count As Integer = count / 2
Dim i As Integer
sum1X = 0 : sum2X = 0
sum1Y = 0 : sum2Y = 0
For i = 0 To mid_count - 1
sum1X += C(i)
sum1Y += Q(i)
Next
sum1X /= mid_count
sum1Y /= mid_count
For i = mid_count To count - 1
sum2X += C(i)
sum2Y += Q(i)
Next
sum2X /= (count - mid_count)
sum2Y /= (count - mid_count)
b = (sum2Y - sum1Y) / (sum2X - sum1X)
'find straight line equation:
'y = a + bx
'y2 = mx2 - mx1 + y1
a = sum1Y - (b * sum1X)
End Sub
Function get_Y_value(ByVal X As Double) As Double
Dim Y As Double
Y = a + b * X
Return Y
End Function
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.33: Freundlich
adsorption isotherm"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Name of adsorption material (optional)"
Label2.Text = "Name of contaminant material (optional)"
Label3.Text = "Initial concentration (g/m{3})"
Label4.Text = "Enter measurements and g/m{3} of contaminant remaining:"
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("MCol", "Measurement (gm adsorbent)")
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("CCol", "Contaminant remaining (g/m{3})")
DataGridView1.AutoResizeColumns()
TextBox1.Multiline = True
TextBox1.Height = 140
TextBox1.ScrollBars = ScrollBars.Vertical
TextBox1.Font = New Font(FontFamily.GenericMonospace, 9)
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
If DataGridView1.Rows.Count <= 1 Then
MsgBox("Type in at least one entry!", vbOKOnly + vbExclamation,
"Prompt")
Exit Sub
End If

N = TextBox2.Text
Cont = TextBox3.Text
Co = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Dim count = DataGridView1.Rows.Count - 1
ReDim M(count), C(count), X(count), Q(count)
For i = 0 To count - 1
M(i) = DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("MCol").Value
C(i) = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("CCol").Value)
X(i) = CO - C(i)
Q(i) = X(i) / M(i)
Next
'PRINT DATA
Dim s As String
s = "[M] [C] [X] [X/M]"
s += vbCrLf + " Concentration Amount "
s += vbCrLf + " remaining absorbed "
s += vbCrLf + "grams g/m{3} g/m{3} mg/g"
s += vbCrLf + "----- ------------- -------- -----"
For i = 0 To count - 1
s += vbCrLf + Format(M(i), "00.00 ").ToString
s += Format(C(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(X(i), "00.000 ").ToString
s += Format(Q(i), "00.000").ToString
Next
s += vbCrLf + "Initial concentration was " + Co.ToString + " g/m{3}"
get_line_equ()
s += vbCrLf + "Slope = " + FormatNumber(b, 4)
s += vbCrLf + "Intercept = " + FormatNumber(a, 4)
s += vbCrLf + "Ultimate sorption capacity of absorbent = " +
FormatNumber(get_Y_value(Co), 4) + " g/g"
TextBox1.Text = s
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 7.34
Calculate the breakthrough capacity and the working capacity of an adsorption bed using
Equations 7.54 and 7.56, given the following data (neglect the packing factor, PF): Depth of
adsorption bed = 1 m (100 cm)
Saturation capacity = 42%
MTZ (mass transfer zone) = 10 cm
Heel = 2%
Solution

CB = Breakthrough capacity:

(7.58)

Wc = Working capacity (neglect PF):

(7.59)

Example 7.35
1 Prepare a computer program that incorporates all the elements in Equations 7.50 and
7.52 so that the breakthrough and working capacities of an absorbent can be determined,
given the depth of bed, the saturation capacity, mass transfer zone, and heel.
2 Using the computer program developed in (1) and given the following data, calculate the
breakthrough capacity and the working capacity for this absorbent bed.
Depth of adsorption bed = 50 cm
Saturation capacity = 0.75
MTZ = 3 cm
Heel = 2.5%
Solution

1 For a solution to Example 7.35 (1), see the listing of Program 7.35.
2 A solution to Example 7.35 (2): Breakthrough capacity, CB = 0.5(.75)(3) + .75(50
3)/50 = 0.7275 = 72.8%
Working capacity, Wc = 72.8 2.5 = 70.3%

Listing of Program 7.35 (Chap7.35\Form1.vb): Breakthrough Working

Capacity of an Adsorption Bed

'******************************************************************************
'Example 7.35: A program to calculate the breakthrough
'capacity and the working capacity of an
'adsorption bed.
'******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim cap, MTZ, depth, heel As Double
Dim cb, Wc As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.35: Adsorption
bed capacity"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Example 7.35: A program to calculate the breakthrough
capacity and"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "the working capacity of an adsorption bed"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "C[B] = (0.5 * C[s] * (MTZ) + C[s] * (D
MTZ))/D"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "W[c] = C[B] H PF"
Label2.Text = "Enter the saturation capacity (C[s])"
Label3.Text = "Enter the value of MTZ (in cm)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the adsorption bed depth (D) in cm"
Label5.Text = "Enter the heel value (H) in %"
Label6.Text = ""
Label7.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
GroupBox1.Text = ""
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
cap = Val(TextBox1.Text)
MTZ = Val(TextBox2.Text)
depth = Val(TextBox3.Text)
heel = Val(TextBox4.Text)
Dim comp1, comp2, comp3, comp4, cb1 As Double
Comp1 = 0.5 * cap * MTZ
Comp2 = depth - MTZ
Comp3 = cap * comp2
Comp4 = comp1 + comp3
Cb1 = comp4 / depth
Cb = cb1 * 100
Wc = cb - heel
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label6.Text = "Breakthrough capacity (C[B]) = " + FormatNumber(cb,
NumericUpDown1.Value) + "%"

Label6.Text += vbCrLf + "Working capacity (W[c]) = " + FormatNumber(Wc,

NumericUpDown1.Value) + "%"
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
showResults()
End Sub
End Class

Example 7.36
An activated carbon adsorption bed is used to remove trichloroethylene (TCE) from an air
stream at 21C and 1 atm. The actual flow rate is 12,730 m3/h, and the inlet TCE concentration is
2000 ppm by volume (MW of TCE = 131.5). Estimate the service time of the adsorbent before
saturation. The proportionate saturation of the adsorbent is taken to be 0.2. The activated carbon
bed is in a cylinder-type configuration, 1.36 m in radius and 1 m deep (V = r2h = 3.14 1.85 1
m = 5.8 m3). The density of the adsorbent is 480 kg/m3. The sorption efficiency is 99.5%.
Solution
Using Equation 7.57, the estimated service time of the adsorbent would be

Example 7.37
1 Prepare a computer program that incorporates all the elements in Equation 7.57, which
makes it possible to estimate the adsorbents service time before regeneration.
2 An adsorption bed of activated carbon is to be used to remove acetone (MW = 58.08)
from an air stream. The bed is 4 m thick and has a surface area of 6 m2. The gas flow rate
is 5,000 m3/h. The density of the activated carbon is 400 kg/m3. The inlet acetone
concentration is 110,000 pp. The proportionate saturation of the adsorbent is taken to be
0.2. The sorption efficiency is 99.5%. Using Equation 7.57, estimate the service time of
the adsorbent before regeneration is required.
Solution

1 For a solution to Example 7.37 (1), see the listing of Program 7.37, which incorporates
all the elements in Equations 7.52, and 7.57.
 2 A solution to Example 7.37 (2):

Listing of Program 7.37 (Chap7.37\Form1.vb): Adsorbents Service Time

before Regeneration

'******************************************************************************
'Example 7.37: A program to estimate the adsorbents
' service time before regeneration.
'******************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim V, thick, surface As Double
Dim S, dens, e, q, m, C As Double
Dim comp1, comp2, t As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.37:"

Me.MaximizeBox = False
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Label1.Text = "Example 7.37: A program to estimate the adsorbents
service time"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "before regeneration."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formula:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "t = (2.41E7 * S * W)/(E * Q * M * C)"
Label2.Text = "Is the adsorption bed square (1) or cylindrical (2)?"
RadioButton1.Text = "Square"
RadioButton2.Text = "Cylindrical"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Label5.Text = "Enter the proportionate saturation of adsorbent
(fractional) (x.x)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the density of the adsorbent (kg/m{3})"
Label7.Text = "Enter the adsorbent efficiency (fractional .xxx)"
Label8.Text = "Enter the gas flow rate through the bed (m{3}/h)"
Label9.Text = "Enter the molecular weight of the sorbed vapor (gm/mol)"
Label10.Text = "Enter the entering vapor concentration (ppm by volume)"
Label11.Text = ""
Label12.Text = "Decimals:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
changeDisp()
End Sub
'Changes the the first textboxes' labels according to the radiobutton
selected.
Sub changeDisp()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
Label3.Text = "Enter the depth of the bed of adsorbent (m)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the diameter of the cylinder (m)"
Else
Label3.Text = "Enter the thickness of the bed of adsorbent (m)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the surface area of the adsorbent (m{2})"
End If
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
thick = Val(TextBox1.Text)
surface = Val(TextBox2.Text)
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
V = 3.14 * thick * surface
Else
V = thick * surface
 End If
S = Val(TextBox3.Text)
dens = Val(TextBox4.Text)
e = Val(TextBox5.Text)
q = Val(TextBox6.Text)
m = Val(TextBox7.Text)
C = Val(TextBox8.Text)
comp1 = 24100000.0 * S * V * dens
comp2 = e * q * m * C
t = comp1 / comp2
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Label11.Text = "The time, t = " + FormatNumber(t, NumericUpDown1.Value)
+ " hours"
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged
changeDisp()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged
changeDisp()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
showResults()
End Sub
End Class

7.4 AIR QUALITY MODELING

7.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Dispersion modeling is a procedure used to estimate the ambient air pollutant concentrations at
various locations (receptors) downwind of a source, or any array of sources, based on emission rates,
release specifications, and meteorological factors such as wind speed, wind direction, atmospheric
stability, mixing height, and ambient temperature (Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 1989).
Air quality models can be categorized into four generic classes: Gaussian, numerical, statistical or
empirical, and physical. Gaussian models generally are considered to be state-of-the-art techniques
used for estimating the environmental impact of nonreactive pollutants. Numerical models are more
appropriate than Gaussian models for multisource applications that involve reactive pollutants.
Statistical or empirical models frequently are used in situations where incomplete scientific
understanding of the physical and chemical processes makes use of a Gaussian or numerical model
impractical. Physical modeling involves the use of wind tunnels or other fluid modeling facilities.
Physical modeling is a complex process and applicable to a limited geographic area of only a few
square kilometers (Zackay and Rowe 1984/1985).
In the United States, the 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments required that air quality models be used
to identify potential violations of the NAAQS and to determine emission limits (Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards 1978).
A wide variety of air quality models are available to evaluate and simulate atmospheric dispersion
processes. Two modeling systems used by the EPA are the Industrial Source Complex (ISC2) model
and the SCREEN2 model. The SCREEN2 model is a scoping model that can be used to evaluate the
air quality and estimate whether or not a given source is likely to pose a threat and cause the NAAQS
to be exceeded. This type of dispersion model is used first, before going to a regulatory model in
order to evaluate air quality conditions. The Industrial Source Complex model is more precise that a
screening model uses local data to predict the levels of pollutants at a specific place (Air Pollution
Training Institutre 1992). The EPA ISC2 model is a Gaussian dispersion model and has both a long-
term module (ISCLT) and a short-term module (ISCST) (Lee 2005).
The Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) of the U.S. EPA, through the
Technology Transfer Network (TTN), has established an electronic bulletin board system (BBS),
which allows remote users with either terminals or microcomputers to dial up and have access to
numerous air quality models (U.S. EPA 2013). Only two air quality models will be considered here:
the basic Gaussian model and the SCREEN2 model. First, however, the equations, formulas, models,
or procedures used to estimate the effective stack height will be presented.

7.4.2 EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT

To apply the various Gaussian dispersion models, one important element in the models is the height at
which the pollutant is emitted. Most stack emissions have an initial upward momentum and buoyancy.
The buoyancy is due to the hot gases being ejected. The temperature differential between the hot stack
gases (less dense) and the surrounding cooler ambient air causes the plume to rise into the
atmosphere. The distance above the stack that a plume will rise into the atmosphere before leveling
off is called the plume rise, h. The plume rise is affected not only by temperature but also by wind
speed, the molecular weight of the gases being emitted, the physical stack height, its inside diameter,
and the ambient pressure.
The emission height used in the dispersion models is the effective stack height, which is not only the
physical stack height (h) but also the plume rise (see Figure 7.12a) (Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards 1983).
FIGURE 7.12 (a) An example of plume rise calculations. (b) An example of the reduced ground-level
contaminant concentration due to doubling of the effective stack height.

(7.60)

where:
H is the effective stack height, m
h is the physical stack height, m
h is the rise of the plume above the stack, m

The plume rise which is part of the effective stack height is an important element in estimating the
maximum downwind ground-level concentration of a pollutant emitted from a stack. The maximum
downwind ground-level concentration of a pollutant is reduced approximately by the inverse square
of the effective stack height. For example, if the effective stack height is doubled, the maximum
downwind ground-level concentration on the centerline of the plume will be reduced by a factor of 4
(see Figure 7.12b).
Numerous systems are available to estimate the effective stack height. The names of a few of these
equations, models, or procedures are as follows.

Bryant-Davidson
Bosanquet
Concawer
Briggs
Moses and Carson
Holland

Only the well-known Holland equation will be presented here (Holland 1953):

(7.61)

where:
vs is the stack gas velocity, m/s
u is the mean wind speed at stack height, m/s
d is the stack inner diameter, m
 p is the atmospheric pressure, mb
Ts is the stack gas temperature, K
Ta is the atmospheric temperature, K

Equation 7.61 is valid for neutral stability conditions; however, Holland suggests that the plume
rise be adjusted by a factor of from 1.1 to 1.2 for unstable conditions such as stability types A and B
and from 0.8 to 0.9 for stability conditions E and F (see Table 7.8) (Turner 1969, Air Pollution
Training Institute 1982).

TABLE 7.8
Pasquill Stability Types
Surface Wind Speed (m/s) Day Night
Incoming Solar Radiation (Sunshine) Thinly Overcast or 4/8 Low Cloud 3/8 Low Cloud
Strong Moderate Slight
<2 A AB B
2 AB B C E F
4 B BC C D E
6 C CD D D D
>6 C D D D D

Sources: Turner, D.B., Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, Cincinnati, OH, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, 31, 1969; Air Pollution Training Institute, Basic Air Pollution Meteorology, (SI:409), Research Triangle Park,
NC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1982.
Note:A, extremely unstable; B, moderately unstable; C, slightly unstable; D, neutral; E, slightly stable; F, moderately stable. Neutral class
D should be assumed for overcast conditions during day or night.

To estimate the mean wind speed (u) at the top of the stack, an empirical formula can be used. This
formula generally is considered appropriate for estimating wind speed at various heights up to 700
1000 m. This simple formula, or power law, is as follows:

(7.62)

where:
v is the wind speed at height z, m/s
v0 is the wind speed at anemometer level z0, m/s
k is the exponent or coefficient, dimensionless

The exponent k in the past has been taken generally as 1/7; however, recent research has provided
values for k depending upon the stability class. Table 7.9 presents k values for each stability class.39
Examples 7.38 and 7.39 demonstrate the use of Equations 7.60 through 7.62.

TABLE 7.9
Average Values of Wind Profile Power Law Exponents (k) by Stability Class
Pasquill Stability Class Average Value of Exponent
A 0.141
B 0.176
C 0.174
D 0.209
E 0.277
F 0.414
Ga 0.435

Source: From Touma, J.S., J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 27, 863, 1977. With permission.

a
Pasquill stability class G is considered to be very stable.

Example 7.38
Determine the effective stack height, given the following data:
Physical stack height, h = 183 m inside diameter, with d = 6 m
Wind velocity at anemometer level (2 m above ground) = 5 m/s
Air temperature = 10C
Atmospheric pressure = 1000 mbar
Stack gas velocity = 16 m/s
Stack gas temperature = 135C
Class B Pasquill stability type
Solution

Determine the mean wind speed at the top of the stack; use Equation 7.62.

For Class B stability, k = 0.176 (see Table 7.9).

Convert temperature to K:
Ta = 273 + 10 = 283 K
Ts = 273 + 135 = 408 K
Substitute the given and calculated values in Hollands equation (7.61) to determine the plume

rise, h:

Use Equation 7.60 to determine the effective stack height: H = 183 m + 56 M = 239 m

Example 7.39
1 Prepare a computer program that will determine the effective stack height, given all the
required elements contained in Equations 7.60 through 7.62.
2 Using the computer program developed in (1), compute the effective stack height, given
the following data: Physical stack height h = 50 m with inside diameter d = 3.5 m
Wind velocity at anemometer level (4 m above ground level) = 10 m/s
Air temperature = 0C
Atmospheric pressure = 1000 mbar
Stack gas velocity = 20 m/s
Stack gas temperature = 150C
Class C Pasquill stability type
Solution

1 For a solution to Example 7.39 (1), see the listing of Program 7.39, which includes the
elements in Equations 7.60 through 7.62. This computer program can be used to estimate
the effective stack height.
a A solution to Example 7.39 (2): Determine the mean wind speed at the top of the stack
2
(50 m); use Equation 7.62:

For Class C stability, k = 0.174 (see Table 7.9).

b Convert temperature to K:
Ta = 0 + 273 = 273 K
Ts = 150 + 273 = 423 K
c Substitute values in Hollands equation (7.61) to determine the plume rise, h:

d Use Equation 7.60 to determine the effective stack: H = 50 m + 21.8 m = 71.8 m

Listing of Program 7.39 (Chap7.39\Form1.vb): Effective Stack Height

***************************************************************************
'Example 7.39: A program to determine the effective stack height.
'***************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim hT, h, dh, k, z0 As Double
Dim v, v0, vs, d, p, Ts, Ta As Double
Dim k_table() As Double =
{0.141, 0.176, 0.174, 0.209, 0.277, 0.414, 0.435}
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.39: Effective
stack height"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Example 7.39: A program to determine the effective
stack height."
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "The formulas:"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "H = h + (delta)h"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "delta(h) = ((v[s] * d) / u) * (1.5 + 2.68(10)
{-3} r((T[s] - T[a]) / T[s])d)"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "v/v[o] = (z / z[o]){k}"
Label2.Text = "Enter the physical stack height, h (m)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the inside diameter of the stack, d (m)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the wind velocity at anemometer level, v0 (m/s)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the anemometer height above ground level, z0 (m)"
Label6.Text = "Enter the air temperature, Ta (C)"
Label7.Text = "Enter the atmospheric pressure, p (mbar)"
Label8.Text = "Enter the stack gas velocity, vs (m/s)"
Label9.Text = "Enter the stack gas temperature, Ts (C)"
Label10.Text = "Pasquill stability class"
Label11.Text = ""
Label12.Text = "Decimals:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
GroupBox1.Text = ""
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("A")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("B")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("C")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("D")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("E")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("F")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("G")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim index As Integer = ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
If index = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please select Pasquill stability class.",
vbOKOnly Or vbExclamation)
Exit Sub
End If
k = k_table(index)
h = Val(TextBox1.Text)
d = Val(TextBox2.Text)
v0 = Val(TextBox3.Text)
z0 = Val(TextBox4.Text)

Ta = Val(TextBox5.Text) + 273
p = Val(TextBox6.Text)
vs = Val(TextBox7.Text)
Ts = Val(TextBox8.Text) + 273
v = v0 * ((h / z0) ^ k)
dh = ((vs * d) / v) * (1.5 + (0.00268 * p * ((Ts - Ta) / Ts) * d))
hT = h + dh
End Sub
Sub showResults()
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
Label11.Text = "Wind speed at the top of the stack = " +
FormatNumber(v, decimals) + " m/s"
Label11.Text += vbCrLf + "The plume rise dh = " + FormatNumber(dh,
decimals) + " m"
Label11.Text += vbCrLf + "The effective stack height = " +
FormatNumber(hT, decimals) + " m"
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
showResults()
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged
showResults()
End Sub
End Class
7.4.3 DISPERSION MODELS

7.4.3.1 Basic Gaussian Dispersion Model

Many dispersion models have been developed; most of the models in use today are based on the work of
Pasquill and modified by Gifford. The binormal Gaussian plume equation (7.57) relates dispersion in the
x (downwind) direction as a function of variables in all directions of a three-dimensional space.
The concentration () of a gas or aerosol (<20 m) calculated at the ground level for a distance
downwind (x) is expressed as follows:

(7.63)

where:
(x, y) are the receptor coordinates, m
is the ground-level concentration, g/m3
Q is the emission rate, g/s
H is the effective stack height, m
is the mean wind speed, m/s y, and z are the dispersion coefficients, m = 3.14159
exp is the base of natural log, 2.7182818

Figure 7.13a depicts a graphical presentation of this equation (Turner 1969).

Figure 7.13 (a) Coordinate system showing Gaussian distribution in the horizontal and vertical directions.
(b) Flat terrain for Gaussian distribution.
The Gaussian distribution equation expresses downwind ground-level contaminant concentration when
the terrain is approximately flat (see Figure 7.13b). Uneven terrain such as valleys, hills, and mountains
makes it necessary to modify the Gaussian plume distribution. These modifications are exponential and
vary depending upon the specific air quality model used (Air Pollution Training Institute 1982).
Values for the dispersion coefficients y and z depend not only on the downwind distances but also on
the atmospheric stability (lapse rates). Values for y and z for various distances downwind (x) with
various stability categories can be determined by using Figure 7.14a,b (Turner 1969). The Pasquill
stability types or categories were previously presented in Table 7.8.
FIGURE 7.14 (a) Horizontal dispersion coefficient, y, as a function of downwind distance from the
source. (b) Vertical dispersion coefficient, z, as a function of downward distance from the source.

Equation 7.63 can be simplified if only the ground-level downwind concentrations along the centerline
of the plume are needed. In this case, y = 0, and the equation then becomes

(7.64)

The units for this equation are the same as for Equation 7.63. See Figure 7.15a for a schematic
presentation of this equation (Turner 1969, Air Pollution Training Institute 1982).

FIGURE 7.15 (a) Schematic of ground-level concentration underneath the center line of the plume. (b)
Schematic of contaminants generated under ground-level conditions.
Equation 7.64 may be further simplified if the effective stack height is H = 0. In this case, the source,
such as a burning dump, is at ground level. Equation 7.59 can then be used to calculate the ground-level
downwind concentrations (Turner 1969, Air Pollution Training Institute 1982):

(7.65)

The units for this equation are the same as for Equations 7.63 and 7.64. Figure 7.15b is a graphical
schematic presentation of this equation (Turner 1969, Air Pollution Training Institute 1982).
The maximum downwind ground-level concentration of a contaminant occurs on the centerline of the
plume. The maximum downwind ground-level concentration can be estimated by taking the differential of
a modified version of Equation 7.63, resulting in the following expression (Colls and Tiwary 2009):

(7.66)

This equation holds true, provided z/y are constants with downwind distance x. This gives a rough
approximation of the maximum downwind ground-level concentration and is a much better approximation
for unstable conditions than for stable conditions (Turner 1969).
The distance at which the maximum downwind ground-level concentration occurs can then be estimated
by using the vertical dispersion coefficient z (Figure 7.14b) and the appropriate stability type. Examples
7.40 and 7.41 demonstrate the use of the dispersion modeling equations.

Example 7.40
A modern 700-MW coal-fired power plant operates under the following conditions: Stack height = 203
m
Inside stack diameter = 7 m
Stack gas exit velocity = 16 m/s
Stack gas temperature = 160C
Ambient air temperature = 24C
The average wind speed at anemometer level (2 m above ground level) = 4 m/s Atmospheric pressure =
1000 mbar
Atmospheric conditions are neutral stability (type D)
Emission rate for SO2 from the stack = 4000 g/s

Determine the effective stack height using Hollands equation (7.61). What is the maximum downwind
ground-level concentration and how far is this from the plant? What would the expected ground-level
concentration be at 300 m crosswind from the point on the plume center-line where the maximum
downwind ground-level concentration occurred? Do the emissions from this plant cause the U.S.
NAAQS, 24-h standards for SO2 at ground-level downwind from the plant to be exceeded?

Solution

Determine the mean wind speed at the top of the stack; use Equation 7.62:

For Class D stability, k = 0.209 (see Table 7.9).

Convert temperature to K:
Ta = 24 + 273 = 297 K
Ts = 160 + 273 = 433 K
Use the Hollands equation (7.61) to determine the plume rise, h:
 Use Equation 7.60 to determine the effective stack height: H = 203 m + 78.9 m = 281.9 m (usse 282
m).
Determine the location for the maximum ground-level concentration; use Equation 7.66: z = 0.707H
= 0.707(282 m) = 199 m.
From Figure 7.14b and under neutral-type D stability, z reaches a value of 199 m at a distance of 20
km from the stack.
Thus, max occurs ~20 km downwind from the plant. Determine the maximum ground-level
concentration at 20 km; use Equation 7.64. From Figure 7.14a and b:

Determine the expected ground-level concentration at 300 m crosswind from the point of maximum
downwind ground-level concentration; use Equation 7.63.

From Table 7.1, the primary U.S. NAAQS standard for the 24-h SO2 level is 365 g/m3, whereas the
3-h secondary SO2 standard is 1300 g/m3. In this case, the emissions of SO2 from this plant do not
cause the downwind SO2 ambient air concentrations to exceed the standards. However, field testing
would be necessary to confirm this.

Example 7.41
1 Prepare a computer program that incorporates all the elements in Equations 4.63 through 4.66.
2 Using the computer program developed in (1), compute the maximum downwind ground-level
a concentration, given the following data: A manufacturing plant emits nitrogen dioxide (NO2) on
a continuous 24-h/day basis. What is the concentration of NO2 at a receptor 8 km downwind of
the plant? Does this plant cause concentrations at the receptor to be in excess of the primary and
secondary U.S. NAAQS?
b The effective stack height for this plant is 60 m.
 c The NO2 emission rate is 100 g/s.
d The wind speed at the top of the stack is 15.5 m/s.
e Pasquill stability type is moderately stable, type F.
Solution

1 For a solution to Example 7.41 (1), see the listing of Program 7.41.
2 A solution to Example 7.41 (2):

a Use Equation 7.64. From Figure 7.14a and b at 8 km and F stability:

b The U.S. NAAQS for NO2 (Table 7.1) for the primary and secondary standards is 100 g/m3, with
an averaging time of 1 year. The receptor in this case would not be exposed to NO2 concentrations
above the standard.

Listing of Program 7.41 (Chap7.41\Form1.vb): Downwind Ground-Level

Concentration

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 7.41: A program to compute the max. downwind
' groundlevel concentration
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim u, wind, sheight, aheight, stabil As Double
Dim vel, dia, pres, airtemp, stemp As Double
Dim q, sy As Double
Dim k_table() As Double =
{0.141, 0.176, 0.174, 0.209, 0.277, 0.414, 0.435}
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 7.41: Max. downwind
groundlevel concentration"
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Dispersion coefficients (sigma)[y] and (sigma)[z] will be
represented by the letter S."
GroupBox1.Text = "Is the mean wind speed at the top of the stack is
provided?"
RadioButton1.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton2.Text = "No"
RadioButton1.Checked = True
Label2.Text = "Enter wind speed at the top of the stack u (m/s)"
Label3.Text = "Enter the wind velocity at anemometer level u (m/s)"
Label4.Text = "Enter the stack height (m)"
Label5.Text = "Enter the anemometer height above ground level (m)"
Label6.Text = "Select stability type class"
Label7.Text = ""
GroupBox2.Text = "Is the effective stack height for this plant is
provided?"
RadioButton4.Text = "Yes"
RadioButton3.Text = "No"
RadioButton4.Checked = True
Label13.Text = "Enter the effective stack height for this plant (m)"
Label12.Text = "Enter the emission rate (g/s)"
Label11.Text = "The Pasquill stability type data is provided. S[y] is
read from the tables"

Label11.Text += vbCrLf + "Enter the value of S[y] from the tables"

Label10.Text = "The value of S[z] is = .707 * effective stack height"
Label9.Text = "Enter the stack gas velocity (m/s)"
Label8.Text = "enter the inside diameter of the stack (m)"
Label15.Text = "Enter the atmospheric pressure (mbar)"
Label14.Text = "Enter the air temperature (C)"
Label16.Text = "Enter the stack gas temperature (C)"
Label17.Text = ""
Label18.Text = ""
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
Label19.Text = "Decimal places:"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("A")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("B")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("C")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("D")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("E")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("F")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("G")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
changeDisp()
End Sub
'*********************************************************************************
'According to the selected Radiobutton,
'enables/disables textboxes and labels
'on the form, to modify user's inputs.
'*********************************************************************************
Sub changeDisp()
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
TextBox1.Enabled = True
TextBox2.Enabled = False
TextBox3.Enabled = False
TextBox4.Enabled = False
Label2.Enabled = True
Label3.Enabled = False
Label4.Enabled = False
Label5.Enabled = False
Label6.Enabled = False
Label7.Enabled = False
ComboBox1.Enabled = False
Else
TextBox1.Enabled = False
TextBox2.Enabled = True
TextBox3.Enabled = True
TextBox4.Enabled = True
Label2.Enabled = False
Label3.Enabled = True
Label4.Enabled = True
Label5.Enabled = True
Label6.Enabled = True
Label7.Enabled = True
ComboBox1.Enabled = True
End If
If RadioButton4.Checked Then
TextBox6.Enabled = False
TextBox7.Enabled = False
TextBox8.Enabled = True
TextBox10.Enabled = True

TextBox11.Enabled = False
TextBox12.Enabled = False
TextBox13.Enabled = False
Label9.Enabled = False
Label8.Enabled = False
Label10.Enabled = True
Label11.Enabled = True
Label13.Enabled = True
Label14.Enabled = False
Label15.Enabled = False
Label16.Enabled = False
Label17.Enabled = False
Else
TextBox6.Enabled = True
TextBox7.Enabled = True
TextBox8.Enabled = False
TextBox10.Enabled = False
TextBox11.Enabled = True
TextBox12.Enabled = True
TextBox13.Enabled = True
Label8.Enabled = True
Label9.Enabled = True
Label10.Enabled = False
Label11.Enabled = False
Label13.Enabled = False
Label14.Enabled = True
Label15.Enabled = True
Label16.Enabled = True
Label17.Enabled = True
End If
End Sub
Sub calculateResults()
Dim COMP1, COMP2, COMP3, COMP4, COMP5, COMP6, COMPT As Double
Dim ta, ts, dh, h As Double
Dim decimals As Integer = NumericUpDown1.Value
If decimals < 0 Or decimals > 10 Then decimals = 2
If RadioButton1.Checked Then
u = Val(TextBox1.Text)
Else
Dim k_index As Integer = ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
If k_index = -1 Then
MsgBox("Please select Pasquill stability class.", vbOKOnly Or
vbExclamation) Exit Sub
End If
stabil = k_table(k_index)
wind = Val(TextBox2.Text)
sheight = Val(TextBox3.Text)
aheight = Val(TextBox4.Text)
COMP1 = sheight / aheight
COMP2 = COMP1 ^ stabil
u = wind * COMP2
Label7.Text = "Wind speed at the top of the stack = " + FormatNumber(u,
decimals) + " m/s"
End If
q = Val(TextBox9.Text)
If RadioButton4.Checked Then
h = Val(TextBox10.Text)
sy = Val(TextBox8.Text)
Else
vel = Val(TextBox7.Text)

dia = Val(TextBox6.Text)
pres = Val(TextBox12.Text)
airtemp = Val(TextBox11.Text)
stemp = Val(TextBox13.Text)
sy = 1000
ta = airtemp + 273
ts = stemp + 273
COMP3 = (vel * dia) / u
COMPT = (ts - ta) / ts
COMP4 = pres * COMPT * 0.001
COMP5 = 2.68 * COMP4 * dia
COMP6 = 1.5 + COMP5
dh = COMP3 * COMP6
Label17.Text = "The plume rise, (delta)h = " + FormatNumber(dh,
decimals) + " m"
h = sheight + dh
Label17.Text += vbCrLf + "The effective stack height = " +
FormatNumber(h, decimals) + " m"
End If
Dim sz, den1, half1, den2, half2, xg, xu As Double
sz = h * 0.707
den1 = Math.PI * u * sy * sz
half1 = q / den1
den2 = -0.5 * ((h / sz) * (h / sz))
half2 = Math.Exp(den2)
xg = half1 * half2
xu = xg * 1000000
Label18.Text = "The maximum downwind groundlevel concentration "
Label18.Text += vbCrLf + "is " + FormatNumber(xu, decimals) + " ug/m{3}"
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton1_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton1.CheckedChanged changeDisp()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton2_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton2.CheckedChanged changeDisp()
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click calculateResults()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton4_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton4.CheckedChanged changeDisp()
End Sub
Private Sub RadioButton3_CheckedChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles RadioButton3.CheckedChanged changeDisp()
End Sub
 End Class

7.4.3.2 U.S. EPA Dispersion Models

As indicated at the beginning of this section, the U.S. EPA OAQPS, through the TTN, has established an
electronic bulletin board system that allows anyone in the world to dial up and exchange information
about air pollution (Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 1994). EPA personnel, state and local
agencies, the private sector, and foreign countries all have access to this network (Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards 1994).
To access the 18 bulletin boards currently available on the network, a computer, modem, and
communications software set with the following parameters are needed: Data bits: 8
Parity: N
Stop bits: 1
Terminal emulation: VT100 or VT/ANSI
Duplex: Full

A short explanation of the communications software parameters is as follows: Each 0 or 1 in a binary

system is a bit; 0 and 1 are binary numbers. A byte is a string of binary digits and usually contains eight.
Data bits indicates that a packet of information is being processed, whereas Stop bits indicates that
no information is being transmitted. Parity indicates that an extra bit has been added to a computer word
to detect errors. Terminal emulation designates a communications program that makes a personal
computer act like a terminal for the purpose of interacting with a remote computer. The terms VT100 or
VS/ANSI are options that are used in order to access particular computer programs. ANSI stands for the
American National Standards Institute. Full duplex indicates a method of transmitting data that allow
for the simultaneous sending and receiving of data. Using the communications software, the number to call
is (919) 5415742 for modems up to 14,400 (bps), or a voice help line is available at (919) 5415384.
Of the bulletin boards currently available, the SCRAM (Support Center for Regulatory Air Models)
provides regulatory air quality model computer codes, meteorological data, and documentation, as well
as modeling guidance (Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 1994).

7.4.3.3 SCREEN2 Dispersion Model

The SCREEN2 dispersion model uses the Gaussian plume model that incorporates source-related factors
and meteorological factors to estimate pollutant concentration from continuous sources. It is assumed that
the pollutant does not undergo any chemical reactions and that no other removal processes, such as wet or
dry deposition, act on the plume during its transport from the source (Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards 1992). The Gaussian model equations and the interactions of the source-related and
meteorological factors are presented in Section 7.4.3.1, and more details are presented in the work of
Turner (1969).
The basic equation used in the SCREEN2 model for determining ground-level concentrations under the
plume center-line is as follows (Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 1992):
 (7.61)

where:
is the concentration, g/m3
Q is the emission rate, g/s
= 3.141593
us is the stack height wind speed, m/s
y is the lateral dispersion parameter, m
z is the vertical dispersion parameter, m
zr is the receptor height above ground, m
he is the plume center line height, m
zi is the mixing height, m
k is the summation limit for multiple reflections of plume off of ground and elevated inversion, usually
4

This SCREEN2 model can be used for point sources or area sources (Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards 1992).
For point sources, the inputs needed are as follows:

Emission rate, g/s

Stack height, m
Stack inside diameter, m
Stack gas exit velocity, m/s, or flow rate (ACFM or m3/s) Stack gas temperature, K
Ambient temperature, K (use default of 293 K if not known) Receptor height above ground (may be
used to define flagpole receptors) Urban/rural option (U = urban, R = rural)

For area sources, the inputs needed are as follows:

 Emission rate, g/s/m2
Source release height, m
Length of side of the square area, m
Receptor height above ground, m
Urban/rural option (U = urban, R = rural)

Other information that must be considered in the SCREEN2 model is as follows: Mixing height
Worst-case meteorological conditions
Plume rise for point source
Dispersion parameters
Buoyancy-induced dispersion
Building downwash
Fumigation
Shoreline fumigation
Complex terrain 24-h screen

For stable conditions and/or mixing heights 10,000 m, unlimited mixing is assumed, and the
summation term in Equation 7.67 is assumed to be zero. The mixing height used in Equation 7.67 is based
on Randerson calculations (see Randerson 1984). The worst-case meteorological conditions use the
various stability classes (see Table 7.8) and wind speeds to identify the worst-case scenario.
The plume rise equations developed by Briggs are used in the SCREEN2 model to estimate the plume
rise. The plume rise equations come from References Briggs 1969, 1973, 1975. The dispersion
coefficients z, vertical, and y, lateral, were designed to be used in the Gaussian plume models and were
first published by Pasquill in 1959 (see Figure 7.14a,b). The dispersion coefficients used for rural and
urban sites in the SCREEN2 model come from Reference U.S. EPA 1992. The dispersion coefficients (y
and z) are adjusted in most cases to account for the effects of buoyancy-induced dispersion using the

following equations:

where:
ye is the adjusted lateral dispersion coefficient, m
ze is the adjusted vertical dispersion coefficient, m
h is the distance-dependent plume rise, m

The building downwash, cavity, and wake-screening problems encountered in dispersion modeling are
dealt with in References Hosker 1984 and U.S. EPA 1992.
When an inversion layer occurs a short distance above a plume source and superdiabatic conditions
prevail below the stack, the plume is said to be fumigating. In this case, the air contaminants are suddenly
brought to ground level. In the SCREEN2 model, the inversion breakup calculations are based on
procedures described by Turner (1969).
 A special-purpose model has been developed to consider the worst-case impact for complex terrain,
24-h screen. This dispersion model is called VALLEY and is a modified Gaussian model (Burt 1977).
This model assumes F stability conditions (E for urban) and a stack height wind speed of 2.5 m/s. The
width of the sector of uniform air contaminant concentration is assumed to be 22.5. The following
information is taken directly from the Reference (Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 1992).
If the plume height is at or below the terrain height for the distance entered, then SCREEN2 will make a
24-h average concentration estimate using the VALLEY screening technique. If the terrain is above the
stack height but below the plume center-line height, then SCREEN2 will make a VALLEY 24-h estimate
(assuming F or E and 2.5 m/s) and also will estimate the maximum concentration across a full range of
meteorological conditions using simple terrain procedures with terrain chopped off at physical stack
height, and select the higher estimate. Calculations continue until a terrain height of zero is entered. For
the VALLEY model concentration, SCREEN2 will calculate a sector-averaged ground-level concentration
with the plume center-line height (he) as the larger of 10.0 m or the difference between the plume height
and the terrain height.

7.5 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN COMPUTER MODELING APPLICATIONS

FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

7.5.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS

1 Define:

a Charles law
b Boyles law
c Ideal gas law
d Henrys law
e Daltons law
f Reynolds law
g Stokes law
h Air pollution
2 What are the four major components that make up the troposphere of the earth and what is the
percentage of each?
3 What are the two basic physical forms of air pollution?
4 What are the six criteria pollutants designated by the U.S. EPA?
5 In the United States, what are the four principal sources (categories) of air pollution, and what
are the major pollutants emitted by these sources?
6 If you were to read an air pollution control report, in what units would you expect to see the
following concentrations reported?

a SO2
b CO
c Pb
d PM10
7 Indicate the basic principles involved in the control of gaseous air pollution emissions.
 8 Indicate the commonly used devices for control of particulate air pollution emissions.
9 In the following equations, what does each term represent? Give the units for each, as well as
the name associated with each equation.

Name: ______________

Name: ______________

Name: ______________

Name: ______________
10 What industrial plant-operating conditions would dictate the use of an electrostatic air-cleaning
device instead of a fabric filter?
11 What control technology do we have available for control of particulate airborne contaminants?
Indicate the size range for which each type of unit is most efficient for removal.
12 What is meant by effective stack height and what are the controlling factors?
13 What are the four general categories of air quality models?
14 Multiple choice and matching questions:

ai Dispersion models estimate the ambient air concentrations as a function of Source location
ii Emission strengths
iii Terrain features
iv Meteorological conditions
v All of the above
i The primary mobile source of air pollution in the United States is Diesel trucks
b
ii Automobiles
iii Airplanes
iv Lawn mowers
c Which air pollution control device generates a large volume of wastewater?
i Venturi scrubbers
ii Cyclone
iii Settling chamber
iv Electrostatic precipitator
 A substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without the substance itself being changed or
d
i consumed by the reaction is a(n): Additive
ii Catalyst
iii Add-on
iv Stimulus
e Match the type of atmospheric stability to the appropriate PasquillGifford stability categories:
___ Unstable (i) EF
___ Neutral (ii) ABC
___ Stable (iii) D
fi The y and z used in the Gaussian dispersion formulas are defined as Atmospheric pressure at
points y and z
iii Standard deviations of pollutant concentration in the horizontal and vertical directions Temperature
ii
iv variations in the y and z directions None of the above
g Match the category of air quality model with its definition.
___Empirical i. Investigate pollutant dispersion for complicated situations ___Numerical ii. Derived
from an analysis of source data, meteorological data, and air quality ___Physical iii. Use complex
equations to simulate the effects of turbulence, chemical transformations, deposition, and so on on
pollutant transport and dispersion ___Gaussian iv. Techniques for estimating the impact of nonreactive
hpollutants; use simple algebraic expressions for reactive pollutants Plume rise from a stack is due to
i Heat and type of pollutant
ii Momentum and buoyancy
iii Composition of the stack
iv None of the above
i Settling chambers use _______ to remove solid particles from a gas stream.
i Electrostatic pressure
ii Gravity
iii Hydraulic simulation
iv Filtration
15 Draw a schematic diagram for each of the following air pollution control devices and briefly
describe the mechanisms, principles, or processes involved in their operation.

a Settling chambers
b Electrostatic precipitators
c Cyclone clean
d Venturi scrubber
e Packed tower
16 Indicate the equipment needed to access the EPA, OAQPS, BBS, and SCRAM regulatory
dispersion models on the Internet; also indicate the parameters required on the communications
software. Define or explain each of these parameters.
17 What are the three categories for the SCRAM BBS models?
18 How are the regulatory dispersion models and the screening models used by the EPA?
19 What data or information is needed in order to use the SCREEN2 model?

7.5.2 SPECIFIC MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1a Write a computer program to determine the partial pressure exerted by a gas, given the temperature of
the gas mixture, the prevailing pressure, and the gas concentration.
1b Use the program developed in (a) to find the partial pressure exerted by carbon monoxide in a gas
mixture. The gas mixture which is at 25C and 1 atm pressure contains 150 mg/L of carbon monoxide
(CO) gas.
2a Write a computer program to find the percentage of the margin of safety lost if the temperature of a gas
in a tank rises to T2C from a temperature of T1, given the gas pressure and the pressure the tank is able to
withstand.
2b A tank is tested to be able to withstand 17 atm of pressure. The tank is filled with gas at 25C and 10
atm of pressure. What percentage of the margin of safety is lost if the temperature goes to 100C? Use the
program developed in (a) to check your answer.
3a Write a short computer program that allows the determination of the volume of a certain gas, given its
weight, temperature, and pressure.
3b Use the computer program developed in (a) to calculate the volume of 36 g of SO2 at 25C and an
absolute pressure of 1 atm.
4a A cylinder containing 100 g of carbon monoxide (CO) fell off a laboratory table and broke the release
valve, permitting the gas to escape into the closed laboratory room that was 20 m long, 10 m wide, and 3
m high. What would the average CO concentration be in this room in g/m3 and ppm?
4b Write a short computer program to solve the problem outlined in (a).
5a Write a computer program to find the new volume of a gas, the temperature of which has been
increased from a certain value to another, given its initial pressure.
5b Use the program developed in (a) to solve the following problem: When the temperature of 25 mL of
dry carbon dioxide (CO2) is increased from 10C to 35C at a pressure of 1 atm, what is the volume of
the gas?
6a Write a short computer program to compute the number of moles present of each gas in a gas mixture
composed of three different gaseous substances enclosed in a container of a known volume, given the
weight of each gas. Let the program determine the total pressure exerted by the gas mixture. The program
should also estimate the percentage of each volume of gas present in the container.
6b Use the program developed in (a) to solve the following problem: a 2.5 L volume cylinder at 25C
contains 1 g of methane (CH4), 2 g of nitrogen (N2), and 12 g of oxygen (O2). What is the number of moles
of each gas present? What is the partial pressure exerted by each gas? What is the total pressure exerted
by the gas mixture, and what is the percentage by volume of each gas present in the cylinder?
7 Write a simple computer program to change the concentration of a certain pollutant from g/m3 to ppm
by volume, given the relevant atomic weights. Use the program to fill in the blanks in the following table:
Pollutant Concentration (g/m3 ) Concentration (ppm by Volume)
SO2 60
NO2 0.70
CO 55

Note S = 32; O = 16; N = 14; C = 12.

8. Use the computer program developed for Example 7.15 to solve the following problem: According to
Stokes law, what would be the terminal settling velocity of a 1.0 m radius particle of quartz that has a
specific gravity of 2.75, and the temperature is 27C?
9a It is desired that all particles with a size of 50 m and larger be removed with 100% efficiency in a
settling chamber, which has a height of 0.8 m. The air moves at 1.6 ft/s, and its temperature is 80oF. The
particle density is 2.2 g/cm3. What minimum length of chamber should be provided?
9b Write a short computer program to solve the problem of (a).
10a Write a computer program to determine the particle size collected in a cyclone cleaner, given the
outer diameter of the cyclone, the number of effective turns for the cyclone, air flow, the temperature and
pressure of gas, the density of particles, the gas velocity at the entrance to the cyclone, and the efficiency
of the system.
10b Use the program developed in (a) to solve the following problem: A cyclone cleaner has an outer
circumference of 251 mm and handles 3.7 m3/s of contaminated air at a temperature of 30C and 1 atm of
pressure. The density of the particles is 2.0 g/cm3. The gas velocity at the entrance to the cyclone is 15
m/s. Determine the particle size in microns collected with 50% efficiency if the number of effective turns
for the cyclone is 4.6.
11a Calculate the fabric area, in square meters, required in a baghouse to treat 6500 m3/min of
particulate-laden gas stream at a removal efficiency of 99.82%. The baghouse unit operates at an air-to-
cloth ratio of 0.72 m/min.
1. 6,000 3. 9,000
2. 5,500 4. 15,000

11b Calculate the area a, in square meters, for an ESP required to process 4000 m3/min of a particulate-
laden gas stream with a removal efficiency of 99.5%. The drift velocity w has been determined to be 0.07
m/s.
1. 6,500 3. 55,000
2. 10,000 4. 60,500

11c A plant has an inlet loading to a baghouse of 23,000 mg/m3. The average filtration velocity is 3
m/min, and the gas flow rate is 700 m3/min. What is the total filtering area for this operation?
1. 76 m/min 3. 233 m2 /min
2. 3 m3 /min/m2 4. 2 m/min

11d At the point of maximum concentration downwind from a source with an effective stack height of 70
m, z is closest to
1. 15 m 3. 50 m
2. 58 m 4. 80 m

11e The concentration at 1000 m downwind of a 60 m (effective stack height) source emitting 100 g/s
under type B stability conditions with a 6 m/s mean wind speed is
1. 7.0 105 g/m3 3. 2.6 104 g/m3
2. 1.5 103 g/m3 4. 5.3 103 g/m3

11f Write short computer programs to solve each of the aforementioned multiple choice questions.
12a Write a short computer program to estimate the collection efficiency of a venturi scrubber at
removing particles of given densities. Let the program determine the pressure drop across the venturi
scrubber, given the relevant characteristics of the venturi scrubber.
12b Use the program developed in (a) to solve the following problem: Estimate the collection efficiency
of a venturi scrubber at removing 4 m sized particles. The particles have a density of 2750 kg/m3. Also,
determine the pressure drop across the venturi scrubber. The venturi scrubber has the following
characteristics: Gas flow rate = 7 m3/s
Liquid flow rate = 0.002 m3/s
Gas flow rate at the throat = 80 m/s
Correlation coefficient = 1700
Temperature = 100C
13a Write a computer program to find the geometric mean diameter and the geometric standard deviation
for a certain aerosol, given the results for the mass distribution of the aerosol.
13b Use the program developed in (a) to solve the following problem: The results for the mass
distribution of an aerosol are given in the following table. From this, determine the geometric mean
diameter and the geometric standard deviation for this aerosol.
Average Size (m) Percentage by Weight
0.25 0.1
1.0 0.4
2.0 9.5
3.0 20.0
4.0 20.0
5.0 15.0
6.0 11.0
7.0 8.0
8.0 5.5
10.0 5.5
14.0 4.0
20.0 0.8
>20.0 0.2

14a Write a computer program to compute the collection efficiency of an ESP for a certain particle size
having a certain drift velocity. Let the program determine the efficiency for other particle diameters, given
the ESP specifications.
14b Use the program developed in (a) to determine the collection efficiency of the ESP described below
for a particle size of 0.70 m diameter having a drift velocity of 0.20 m/s. What would be the efficiency
for 1.0 m particles? ESP specifications are given as follows: Plate height = 8 m
Plate length = 6 m
Number of passages = 6
Plate spacing = 0.3 m
Gas flow rate = 20 m3/s
15a A 2.5 g sample of catalyst was tested for its efficiency for removal of CO from an air stream. The
initial CO concentration entering the catalyst was 160 ppm; the CO concentration after passing through the
catalyst was found to be 2.5 ppm. Determine the percent removal of CO for this catalyst, the contact time
or space velocity, and the reaction rate coefficient for the catalyst. The space around the catalyst was
found to be 1.3 cm3, and the air stream in which the CO is present had a flow rate of 800 cm3/min.
15b Write a computer program to solve the problem indicated in (a).
16a Develop a computer program to find the effective stack height for a power plant, given the physical
stack height, stack inside diameter, stack gas effluent velocity, effluent gas temperature, ambient air
temperature, and mean wind speed.
16b Use the computer program developed in (a) to determine the effective stack height for a power plant
operating under the following conditions: Physical stack height = 45 m
Stack inside diameter = 3 m
Stack gas effluent velocity = 16 m/s
Effluent gas temperature = 160C
Ambient air temperature = 22C
Mean wind speed = 5 m/s
17a A manufacturing plant emits nitrogen oxides under the conditions set forth below on a continuous 24-
h/day basis. What is the concentration of NO2 at a receptor 760 m downwind of the plant? Does this plant
by itself cause concentrations at the receptor to exceed U.S. primary and secondary ambient annual air
quality standards for NO2?
Physical stack height = 55 m (situated on level terrain)
Stack inside diameter = 1 m
Stack exit velocity = 4.6 m/s
Stack temperature = 120C
NO2 emission rate = 450 kg/h
Mean wind speed u = 3.8 m/s
tair = 10C
p = 1000 mbar
Pasquill stability category D
17b Develop a computer program to solve the problem mentioned in (a).
18a Improve the computer program for Example 7.33 to solve the following problem given in 18b, given
the following data for the adsorption of vinyl chloride by activated carbon:
Activated Carbon (g) Concentration of Vinyl Chloride Remaining (g/m3 )
2.0 80
3.5 50
5.0 31
16.0 2.7
25.0 1.0

Note: Control or initial concentration at the start of the test = 155 g/m3.

1Determine if the data follow the Freundlich isotherm. If the data do follow the Freundlich isotherm,
Determine the k and n values.
2 Determine the ultimate capacity of this activated carbon (X/M)C0 for vinyl chloride adsorption
at the control or initial concentration.
19a An effluent air stream contains 5.0% SO2 by volume. It is desired to reduce this concentration to
25000 mg/m3 by passing the gas stream through a packed column adsorption tower before releasing the
air stream to the atmosphere. The inlet gas flow rate is 30 m3/min measured at 1 atm and 22C, and the
absorber is the counterflow type. The equilibrium of SO2 in water is assumed to be reasonably
represented by the following relationship: YB = 30XB (YB = mole fraction of SO2 in the air, and XB = mole
fraction of SO2 in the water). Estimate the minimum amount of water (SO2-free) required as a solvent, in
cubic meters per second, to meet the desired requirements.
19b Develop a suitable computer program to solve the problem outlined in (a).

REFERENCES
Air & Waste Management Association and Davis, W. R. 2000. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience.
Air Pollution Training Institute. 1981. Control Techniques for Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants, (S1:422). Research Triangle Park, NC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Air Pollution Training Institute. 1982. Basic Air Pollution Meteorology, (SI:409). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Air Pollution Training Institute. 1983. Atmosphere Sampling, (S1:435). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Air Pollution Training Institute. 1984. Control of Gaseous and Particular Emissions, (S1:412D). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Air Pollution Training Institute. 1992. Air Pollution Control Orientation Course, (S1:422). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Briggs, G.A. 1969. Plume Rise, USAEC Critical Review Series, TID-25075. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service.
Briggs, G.A. 1973. Diffusion Estimation for Small Emissions, NOAA ATDL, Contribution File No. 79 (draft), Oak Ridge, TN.
Briggs, G.A. 1975. Plume Rise Predictions, in Lectures on Air Pollution and Environmental Impact Analysis, Haugen, D.A., Ed. Boston,
MA: American Meteorological Society, 59.
Burt, E.W. 1977. VALLEY Model Users Guide, 450/2-77-018. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Chansler, J.M., Lloyd, W.G., and Rowe, D.R. 1995. Soil sorption of zinc according to the Freundlich isotherm. Florida Water Resources
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 8 Computer Modeling Applications for Noise Pollution and Abatement

8.1 SOUND AND NOISE

Sound is oscillatory motion of small amplitude in elastic media (Thumann 1990). The vibrating surface
causes a disturbance of the pressure and density in the air as well as particle velocity. Each element of air
transfers momentum and energy to the adjacent air element, and the pressure disturbance is propagated
through the air in the form of a wave (see Figure 8.1).
Sound, hence noise, results from periodic disturbances of the air, and at room temperature, sound is
propagated in air at a speed of 340 m/s. In water and steel, for example, the speed is much greater, being
respectively ~1500 m/s and 5000 m/s (see Tables 8.1 and 8.2). As the disturbance spreads geometrically,
its effect will decrease with its distance from the sound source, but the diminution in sound intensity will
also be affected by the damping of the sound waves by the transmitting medium (Isaac 1985).
Importance of sound detection is reflected on communications with people, reception of useful
information from the environment, and provision of warning (alarm) and enjoyment (music).
However, noise is unwanted or extraneous sound (Anderson and Bratos-Anderson 1993), that is,
unwanted by-product of civilization such as transportation mechanisms (trucks, airplanes, trains, etc.),
industrial sector (machinery and equipment), appliances (construction, air conditioners, etc.), and similar
sound producers.
Urban noise sources include (Vesilind and Morgan 2010, Hansen 2005, Bhatia 2007, Harris 2013)
transportation, aircraft/airport, motor vehicle, rapid transit, railroads (freight and passenger), industrial,
construction or domestic (in the home, e.g., air conditioners, lawn mower, vacuum cleaner), and outdoors,
for example, garbage disposal.
Noise is any undesired sound. It is measured on a decibel scale ranging from the threshold of hearing (0
dB) to the threshold of pain (130 dB) or any unwanted disturbance within a useful frequency band in a
communication channel (Saenz and Stephens 1986).
Decibel is a unit used to compare two power levels, usually applied to sound or electrical signals.
Although the decibel is one-tenth of a Bel, It is the decibel, not the Bel, that is invariably used.
Two power levels P and Po differ by n decibels as presented in the following equation:

(8.1)

where:
n is the sound intensity level, dB
P is the level of sound intensity to be measured, W
P0 is the reference level, usually the intensity of a note of the same frequency at the threshold of
audibility = intensity of the least audible sound, usually given as Po = 1012 W (Anderson and
Bratos-Anderson 1993).

The logarithmic scale is convenient as human audibility has a range of 1 (just audible) to 1012 (just
causing pain), and one decibel, representing an increase of some 26%, is about the smallest change the
ear can detect (Saenz and Stephens 1986).
Threshold level is the number of decibels by which the sound intensity must be increased to be heard,
relative to 0 dB hearing level, which is the sound level that can be heard by an ear that presumably has
never been affected by any deleterious agent (Isaac 1985).
Sound signifies a vibration in an elastic medium at a frequency and intensity that is capable of being
heard by the human ear. The frequency of sound lies in the range 2020,000 Hz, but the ability to hear
sounds in the upper part of the frequency range declines with age. Vibrations that have a lower frequency
than sound are called infrasound, and those with a higher frequency are called ultra sounds (Saenz and
Stephens 1986) (see Figure 8.2).
Sound is in effect a transfer of energy (Anderson and Bratos-Anderson 1993); it travels at different
speeds in different materials, depending on the materials elasticity.
Velocity of sound in a given medium can be found from the following equation:

(8.2)

where:
c is the velocity of the sound in a given medium, m/s
is the wavelength, m
f is the frequency, cycle/s, Hz

Example 8.1
1. Write a computer program to evaluate the wavelength of a sound generated by a
machine, given the frequency and the sound waves traveling velocity.
2. Find the wavelength of a sound from a machine, given that the frequency is 70 cycle/s,
and the sound waves travel at about 2.1 km/s.
3. Use program set in (1) to verify your computations in (2).

FIGURE 8.1 Sound wave travel in space.

TABLE 8.1
Speed of Sound in Different Media at 0C
Medium Velocity of Sound at 0C (m/s)
Air 331
Oxygen 460
Alcohol 1213
Water 1435
Copper 3560
 Iron 5130

TABLE 8.2
Speed of Sound in Air at Different Temperatures
Temperature (C) Velocity of Sound (m/s)
0 331
20 344
100 386
500 553
1000 700

Solution

1. For the solution of Example 8.1 (1), see the listing of Program 8.1.
2. Given: c = 2100/s m, f = 70 cycle/s.
3. Use Equation 8.2 to determine wavelength as follows: = c/f = 2100 m/s/70 cycle/s =
30 m.

Noise as a sound sensation has its origin in the mechanical vibrations of matter, either in the solid or in
the fluid state. The transmission of these vibrations through air is received at the ear to become
interpreted as sound by the human sensory system (Isaac 1985).

FIGURE 8.2 Examples of environmental noise on a decibel scale.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 8.1 (CHAP8.1\FORM1.VB): SOUND VELOCITY
AND WAVELENGTH

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 8.1: Sound velocity and wave length
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim c, d, f As Double
Dim result As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 8.1: Velocity and
Wave length"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Calculate sound velocity and wavelength"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Using the equation: c = d * f"
Label2.Text = "Solving for:"
Label5.Text = "Decimal places:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("c, sound velocity")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("d, wave length")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("f, frequency")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Select ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for c
d = Val(TextBox1.Text)
f = Val(TextBox2.Text)
c = d * f
result = c
Case 1
'Solving for d
c = Val(TextBox1.Text)
f = Val(TextBox2.Text)
d = c / f
result = d
Case 2
'Solving for f
c = Val(TextBox1.Text)
d = Val(TextBox2.Text)
f = c / d
result = f
Case Else
MsgBox("Please select an item from the list.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End Select
showResult()
End Sub

Sub showResult()
TextBox3.Text = FormatNumber(result, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResult()
End Sub
Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for c
Label3.Text = "Wave length, d, (m):"
Label4.Text = "Frequency, f (Hz):"
Label6.Text = "Sound velocity, c (m/s):"
Case 1
'Solving for d
Label3.Text = "Sound velocity, c (m/s):"
Label4.Text = "Frequency, f (Hz):"
Label6.Text = "Wave length, d, (m):"
Case 2
'Solving for f
Label3.Text = "Sound velocity, c (m/s):"
Label4.Text = "Wave length, d, (m):"
Label6.Text = "Frequency, f (Hz):"
End Select
End Sub
 End Class

Vibrations of matter are controlled by its density and its elasticity (or springiness).
Due to elastic bonds in matter, any local vibration is transmitted to the neighboring elements. The
process of vibration transmission through condensed media constitutes the elastic wave propagation,
which is responsible for the transport of mechanical (acoustical) energy (Isaac 1985).
The sound wave is commonly associated with elastic waves in the frequency range of the human
hearing (i.e., 20 Hz to 20 kHz). Waves below and above this range are, respectively, known as infra- and
ultrasounds.
The propagation of vibrational energy takes a finite time, and the distance traveled by the wave front
(all points of which are in the same phase of the oscillation), in unit time, is the so-called phase velocity
or speed of sound, c. The value of c depends on the type of wave and physical characteristics of the
propagation medium.
Wave is a periodic disturbance in a medium or in space. In a traveling wave (progressive wave),
energy is transferred from one place to another by the vibrations.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves whereby the air is alternately compressed and rarefied by
displacements in the direction of propagation (Saenz and Stephens 1986).
The chief characteristics of a wave are its speed of propagation, its frequency, its wave length, and its
amplitude (Saenz and Stephens 1986) (see Figure 8.3).
Speed propagation is the distance covered by the wave in unit time.
Frequency is the number of complete disturbances (cycles) in unit time (hertz). It is interrelated to
pitch: the lower the frequency, the lower is the sound pitch, and vice versa.
Wave length is the distance (m) between successive points of equal phase in a wave.
Amplitude is the maximum distance of the disturbed quantity from the mean value. It determines how
loud is the sound to the receiver: Large amplitude means louder sounds and small amplitude means
quieter sounds (see Figure 8.4).

FIGURE 8.3 Amplitude and frequency.

FIGURE 8.4 Frequency, pitch, amplitude, and sound level.

8.2 EFFECTS OF NOISE

Effects of noise may include its irreversible effect on humans physiologically (including temporary or
permanent hearing impairment), psychologically, or socially (Barrett 2010, Berglund and Lindvall 1995,
Munjal 2013).
Prolonged exposure to noise of a certain frequency pattern (Saenz and Stephens 1986) may cause
temporary or permanent hearing loss. Temporary hearing loss, or temporary threshold shift, disappears in
a few hours or days (e.g., performers in rock bands, industrial applications).
Permanent loss is also referred to as permanent threshold shift.
Factors affecting hearing (Saenz and Stephens 1986, Thumann 1990, Kamboj 2002, Abdel-Magid
1995, Abdel-Magid 2002, Abdel-Magid and Abdel-Magid 2015) include the following: Age: Hearing
becomes less acute with age (presbyacusis) Environmental noise (motor cycles, rock music)
Education and illness
Intensity, duration, and exposure of sound Disadvantages of noise (Faulkner 1976, Isaac 1985, Saenz
and Stephens 1986, Thumann 1990, Vesilind and Morgan 2010, Bies and Hansen 2013) include the
following: Deterioration of level of hearing
Introduction or increase of certain diseases such as cardiovascular, rhythm of heartbeat, blood
thickening, dilation of blood vessels, headache, irritability, relaxation prevention, and mental anguish
like that in a supersonic aircraft Sociological problems such as focusing difficulties, annoyance to
people during close work, for example, watch makers, and increased convalescence time in noisy
hospitals Economic difficulties, for example, cost to compensate hearing disorders, cost for sleeping
pills, lost time in industry and apartment sound proofing, property damage, and so on Primary effects
of noise (Vesilind and Morgan 2010) could be direct or indirect effects.
Direct effects include sleep disturbance, speech interference, hearing loss, noisiness, task interference,
masking, unconditioned physiological response, disturbances in auditive and nonauditive performance,
communication, information processing, and rest and relaxation.
Indirect effects address annoyance, social behavior, health and well-being, sleep disturbance, other
task interference or fatigue, conditioner, physiological response, impairment of peoples well-being
(closing windows, reducing speech communication or refraining from it, changing dwelling areas), and
annoyance (psychic effects).
Auditory aftereffects of noise signify impairment and handicap (partial deafness), hearing damage
(inability to hear weak sounds), tinnitus (ringing in the ears), paracusis (hearing sounds incorrectly),
speech misperception, and physiological damage (alterations in the peripheral blood circulation).
8.3 DECIBEL SCALE
The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale applied in acoustics to scaling the ratio of sound intensities or the
ratio of sound pressures.
The benefits of a decibel are as follows (Thumann 1990, Sound Research Laboratories 1991; Anderson
and Bratos-Anderson 1993): It describes intensity or energy level of a physical quantity It
compresses the quantity into convenient numbers for data presentation It may be applied in acoustics
and electrical power and mechanical energy presentations The human response to sound may be
approximated by the laws of Weber and Fechner. Law of Weber states that The minimum increase of
stimulus which will produce a perceptible increase of sensation is proportional to the pre-existent
stimulus. The Fechners law states that the intensity of human sensation changes logarithmically with the
energy which causes the sensation (Thumann 1990, Anderson and Bratos-Andreson 1993, Nathanson and
Schneider 2014). These two laws may be used in the definition of a decibel as shown in the following
equation:

(8.3)

where:
SWL is the sound power level, dB
W is the power of sound wave, W
W0 is the some reference sound power = 1012 W, pW

The basic equation used for expressing the decibel concept in terms of sound intensities from a single
sound source is as indicated in the following equation (Thumann 1990, Sound Research Laboratories
1991; Anderson and Bratos-Andreson 1993):

(8.4)

where:
SPL is the sound pressure level, dB
P is the pressure of sound wave, Pa
Pref is some reference sound pressure = 2 * 105 Pa

Example 8.2
1 Write a computer program to determine the sound pressure level, given the pressure of a sound
wave.
2 The pressure of a sound wave is 5 Pa. Determine the sound pressure level.
3 Use program set in (1) to verify your computations in (2).
Solution

1 For the solution of Example 8.2 (1), see the listing of Program 8.2.
2 Given: P = 5 Pa.
3 Find the sound pressure level from Equation 8.4 as follows:

LISTING OF PROGRAM 8.2 (CHAP8.2\FORM1.VB): SOUND PRESSURE

LEVEL

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 8.2: Sound Pressure Level
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim SPL, P As Double
Const Pref As Double = 2 / 100000
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 8.2: SPL"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Calculate Sound Pressure Level"
Label1.Text += vbCrLf + "Using equation: SPL = 20 * Log [P / Pref]"
Label2.Text = "Pressure of sound wave, P (Pa):"
Label3.Text = "Decimal places:"
Label4.Text = "Sound pressure level, SPL (dB):"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResult()
End Sub
Sub showResult()
TextBox2.Text = FormatNumber(SPL, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub

Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As

System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click P = Val(TextBox1.Text)
SPL = 20 * Math.Log10(P / Pref)
showResult()
End Sub
 End Class

The intensities of some typical environmental noises are shown in Figure 8.2 (Faulkner 1976, Isaac
1985, Anderson and Bratos-Andreson 1993, Kamboj 2002, Vesilind and Morgan 2010).

8.4 SOUND FIELDS FROM DIFFERENT SOUND SOURCES

For sound fields generated from different sound sources (e.g., different machines), the SPLN can be found
from the following equation (Faulkner 1976, Thumann 1990, Nathanson and Schneider 2014):

(8.5)

where:
SPLN is the net sound pressure level, dB
SPLi is the sound pressure level from source i, dB
N is the number of sound sources

Example 8.3
1 Write a computer program to evaluate SPL sound produced in a workshop by a number of
machines when they work independently together, given sound pressure levels produced by
each machine.
2 In a workshop, four machines independently produce sound pressure levels of 85, 66, 72,
and 103 dB. Determine the SPL sound produced by the four machines when they work
together.
3 Use program set in (1) to verify your computations in (2).
Solution

1 For the solution of Example 8.3 (1), see the listing of Program 8.3.
2 Given: SPL1 = 85 dB, SPL2 = 66 dB, SPL3 = 72 dB, SPL4 = 103 dB.
3 Use Equation 8.5 to compute the overall noise generated by all machines when they operate
together.
 LISTING OF PROGRAM 8.3 (CHAP8.3\FORM1.VB): NET SOUND
PRESSURE LEVEL

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 8.3: Net Sound Pressure Level
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 8.3: SPLn"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter sound pressure levels (dB):"
Label2.Text = "Decimal places:"
Label3.Text = "Net sound pressure level, SPLn (dB):"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0

Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("SPLCol", "SPL (dB)")
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Dim count As Integer =
DataGridView1.RowCount - 1
If count = 0 Then
MsgBox("Please enter at least one SPL!",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
Dim sum As Double = 0
Dim SPLi, SPLn As Double
For i = 0 To count - 1
SPLi = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("SPLCol").Value) / 10
sum += Math.Pow(10, SPLi)
Next
SPLn = 10 * Math.Log10(sum)
TextBox1.Text = FormatNumber(SPLn, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
 End Class

The daily personal noise exposure level (LEP ,d) may be determined from the following equation
(Thumann 1990, Nathanson and Schneider 2014):

(8.6)

where:
LEP ,d is the daily personal noise exposure level, dB
Te is the duration of the persons personal exposure to noise To is the length of the working day (usually
taken to be 8 hrs) PA(t) is the time-varying value of A-weighted instantaneous sound pressure, Pa
Pref is some reference sound pressure = 2 * 105, Pa
A weekly average LEP ,w of the daily values can be found from Equation 8.7 (Thumann 1990):

(8.7)

where:
LEP ,w is the weekly average of the daily personal noise exposure, dB(A) (LEP ,d)i is the daily personal
noise exposure of day i, dB(A) N is the number of working days taken into account during the
week

Example 8.4
1 Write a computer program to determine the weekly average of the daily personal noise
exposures for a factory worker who works for five days during the week, given the daily
personal noise exposures for the working days.
2 A factory worker works for 5 days during the week. The daily personal noise exposures for the
5 days are 80, 77, 84, 70, and 93 dB(A). Determine the weekly average of the daily personal
noise exposures.
3 Use program set in (1) to verify your computations in (2).
Solution

1 For the solution of Example 8.4 (1), see the listing of Program 8.4.
2 Given: LEP1 = 73 dB, LEP2 = 85 dB, LEP3 = 68 dB, LEP4 = 57 dB, LEP5 = 97 dB.
3 Determine the weekly average of the daily personal noise exposures from Equation 8.7 as
 follows:

LEP ,w = 90.30 dB(A).

LISTING OF PROGRAM 8.4 (CHAP8.4\FORM1.VB): WEEKLY AVERAGE

OF NOISE EXPOSURES

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 8.4: Weekly average of noise exposures
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 8.4: LEP Week"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Enter daily personal noise exposures (dB):"
Label2.Text = "Decimal places:"
Label3.Text = "Weekly average of noise exposures, LEPw (dB):"
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
DataGridView1.Rows.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Clear()
DataGridView1.Columns.Add("LEPdCol", "LEP,d (dB)")
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click Dim count As Integer =
DataGridView1.RowCount - 1
If count = 0 Then
MsgBox("Please enter at least one (LEP,d)!",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End If
Dim sum As Double = 0
Dim LEPd, LEPw As Double
For i = 0 To count - 1
LEPd = Val(DataGridView1.Rows(i).Cells("LEPdCol").Value) / 10
sum += Math.Pow(10, LEPd)
Next
sum /= 5
LEPw = 10 * Math.Log10(sum)
TextBox1.Text = FormatNumber(LEPw, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
 End Class

Sound levels drop significantly with increasing distance from the noise source (Kamboj 2002). The
relationship between the sound level and the distance from a line source can be written as indicated in
the following equation:

(8.8)

where:
SLPA is the sound level at distance DA from the noise source SLPB is the sound level at distance DB
from the noise source

Example 8.5
1 Write a computer program to find the distance from the sound source at which the sound will fall
to a certain level, given the sound level at a particular distance from the sound source.
2 The sound level at a distance of 2 m from a sound source is 89 dB(A). Find the distance from the
sound source at which the sound will fall to 72 dB(A).
3 Use program set in (1) to verify your computations in (2).
Solution

1 For the solution of Example 8.5 (1), see the listing of Program 8.5.
2 Given: SPLA = 89 DA = 2, SPLB = 72, DB = ?
3 Determine the distance from the sound source at which the sound will fall to 86 dB(A):

Thus, DB = 100.24 m.

LISTING OF PROGRAM 8.5 (CHAP8.5\FORM1.VB): SOUND LEVEL AT

A DISTANCE

'*********************************************************************************
'Example 8.5: Sound level at a distance
'*********************************************************************************
Public Class Form1
Dim result As Double
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load Me.Text = "Example 8.5: Sound level"
Me.FormBorderStyle = Windows.Forms.FormBorderStyle.FixedSingle
Me.MaximizeBox = False
Label1.Text = "Equation: SPLB = SPLA - 10*Log(DB/DA)"
Label2.Text = "Solving for:"
Label6.Text = "Decimal places:"
Button1.Text = "&Calculate"
ComboBox1.Items.Clear()
ComboBox1.Items.Add("SPLB")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("SPLA")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("DB")
ComboBox1.Items.Add("DA")
ComboBox1.SelectedIndex = 0
NumericUpDown1.Value = 2
NumericUpDown1.Maximum = 10
NumericUpDown1.Minimum = 0
End Sub
Private Sub ComboBox1_SelectedIndexChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles ComboBox1.SelectedIndexChanged Select
Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for SPLB
Label3.Text = "Sound level at distance DA, SPLA (dB):"
Label4.Text = "Distance DB (m):"
Label5.Text = "Distance DA (m):"
Label7.Text = "Sound level at distance DB, SPLB (dB):"
Case 1
'Solving for SPLA
Label3.Text = "Sound level at distance DB, SPLB (dB):"
Label4.Text = "Distance DB (m):"
Label5.Text = "Distance DA (m):"
Label7.Text = "Sound level at distance DA, SPLA (dB):"
Case 2
'Solving for DB
Label3.Text = "Sound level at distance DA, SPLA (dB):"
Label4.Text = "Sound level at distance DB, SPLB (dB):"
Label5.Text = "Distance DA (m):"
Label7.Text = "Distance DB (m):"
Case 3
'Solving for DA
Label3.Text = "Sound level at distance DA, SPLA (dB):"
Label4.Text = "Sound level at distance DB, SPLB (dB):"
Label5.Text = "Distance DB (m):"
Label7.Text = "Distance DA (m):"
End Select
End Sub
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As
System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click

Dim SPLA, SPLB, DA, DB As Double
Select Case ComboBox1.SelectedIndex
Case 0
'Solving for SPLB
SPLA = Val(TextBox1.Text)
DB = Val(TextBox2.Text)
DA = Val(TextBox3.Text)
SPLB = SPLA - (10 * Math.Log10(DB / DA))
result = SPLB
Case 1
'Solving for SPLA
SPLB = Val(TextBox1.Text)
DB = Val(TextBox2.Text)
DA = Val(TextBox3.Text)
SPLA = SPLB + (10 * Math.Log10(DB / DA))
result = SPLA
Case 2
'Solving for DB
SPLA = Val(TextBox1.Text)
SPLB = Val(TextBox2.Text)
DA = Val(TextBox3.Text)
DB = DA * (10 ^ ((SPLA - SPLB) / 10))
result = DB
Case 3
'Solving for DA
SPLA = Val(TextBox1.Text)
SPLB = Val(TextBox2.Text)
DB = Val(TextBox3.Text)
DA = DB / (10 ^ ((SPLA - SPLB) / 10))
result = DA
Case Else
MsgBox("Please select an item from the list.",
vbOKOnly Or vbInformation)
Exit Sub
End Select
showResult()
End Sub
Sub showResult()
TextBox4.Text = FormatNumber(result, NumericUpDown1.Value)
End Sub
Private Sub NumericUpDown1_ValueChanged(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal
e As System.EventArgs) Handles NumericUpDown1.ValueChanged showResult()
End Sub
 End Class

8.5 NOISE MEASUREMENT

A number of techniques exist for measuring loudness easily, accurately, and precisely, such as sound level
meter. It consists of a microphone, an amplifier, a frequency-weighing circuit (filters), and an output
scale. The weighing network filters out specific frequencies to make the response more characteristic of
human hearing (see Figure 8.5).
Sound measurement instruments (Crocker and Kessler 1982) include microphones, electronic weighing
networks, and sound level meters.
Factors affecting noise control (Vesilind and Morgan 2010) incorporate regulations, economic
concerns, and operational and environmental considerations. In controlling noise in the open air, it is very
common and important to build an obstacle (e.g., screen, solid fence, buildings, earth berms, terrain that
blocks source from observer) between a noise source and observers to reduce noise that is received. This
effect is called acoustic shielding (Isaac 1985).
Noise control is possible at three levels (Saenz and Stephens 1986, Singal 2005, Tan and Chan 2006):
reducing the sound produced, interrupting the path of the sound, or protecting the recipient (see Figure
8.6).

FIGURE 8.5 Schematic diagram of a sound level meter.

FIGURE 8.6 Important means for reducing noise pollution.
For industrial noise control, the following are used: replacement of noise-producing machinery or
equipment with quiet alternatives, interruption of path of noise (covering a noisy motor with insulating
material), or protecting recipient by distributing earmuffs to the employees.
Community noise control may be done through control by local ordinances; muffling of air
compressors, jack hammers, and hand compactors; or diverting noise from populated areas.
Noise control and reduction techniques are listed in terms of source-path receiver system. In source
approaches use is made of a quieter source, choosing the quietest machine available in new installations
or substituting quieter machine (or part) for machines in existing installations. Reducing force amplitude
in a machine addresses reducing imparts or impulses by applying forces more slowly or using softer
materials for contacting surfaces, balancing moving parts, reducing friction by lubrication, or alignment of
bearings, or using dynamic absorbers that have compensating force certain degrees out of phase with
driving force. In reducing response, one may increase internal energy dissipation (damping) of machine
structure, after natural frequencies of machine structure, reduce efficiency of sound radiation, or change
operating procedure.
Sound insulation is used to control the transmission path of the sound and can be achieved by inserting
a wall or panel between the path of the source and the listeners. It is a technique used for controlling air-
borne sound and is particularly applied to problems of sound propagation from one room to another in a
building. For effective insulation, heavy walls of brick or concrete are required. Sound absorption is used
to reduce the level of reflected sound in a room in which both the noise source and the listener, whose
acoustic conditions are intended to improve, are situated, for example, lead. Silencers are used to reduce
the transmitted sound through a duct to an observer (e.g., use of silencers in room ventilation) (Thumann
1990).
Silencers are applied for the control of noise due to mechanical equipment, engines (internal
combustion, diesel, etc.), and high-velocity air flows (Faulkner 1976).

8.6 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN COMPUTER MODELING APPLICATIONS

FOR NOISE POLLUTION AND ABATEMENT
8.6.1 DISCUSSION PROBLEMS
1. Define all of the following: sound, noise, acoustic wave, frequency, and ultrasonic wave
amplitude.
2. What is the use of sound in human life?
3. What causes noise in your area?
4. How sound travels from one medium to another?
a. Write briefly about each of the following: Life in a sound isolated area
5.
b. Risk of noise pollution on humans
d. Use of decibel unit for measuring sound level Noise pollution control
c.
6. What are the main factors that affect the ability of hearing and its continuity?
7. How can you use the equation of finding the average daily personal exposure of sound
pollution?
8. Which of the following represents a danger to hearing? Why is that?
a. Jet aircraft
b. Car horn
c. Dirt suction home cleaner
9. How do you measure the intensity of noise?
10.What are the objectives of public control of noise pollution?

8.6.2 SPECIAL MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1 a. Write a computer program to find the resulting sound level from combining the different
decibels.
b. Find the resulting sound level from combining the following decibels: 91, 66, 78, 95, 109,
and 83.
2 a. Write a computer program to determine sound transmission speed from a machine, given the
length of a sound wave and its frequency.
b. Determine sound transmission speed from a machine assuming the length of sound wave of 96
m and frequency of 71 Hz.
3. a. Write a computer program to compute the sound pressure level of a sound wave of a certain
pressure.
b. Compute the sound pressure level of a sound wave of pressure of 5 Pa.
4. a. Write a computer program to find the value of the sound pressure level of a number of
machines (n) when working together in a mechanical workshop that includes the given machines,
given the sound produced from each one.
b. A mechanical workshop includes five machines, each of which produces a sound estimated at
113, 72, 52, 90, and 105 dB(A), respectively. Find the value of the sound pressure level of the
five machines when working together.
5. a. Write a computer program to determine the sound level at a certain distance (x) from a noise
source, given the sound level at another fixed distance (y) from the sound source.
b. Sound level at a distance of 3 m is estimated to be 91 dB. Determine the sound level at a
distance of 15 m from noise source.
REFERENCES
Abdel-Magid, I. M. 1995. Environmental Engineering. Amman, Jordan: Dar Al-Mustaqbal Publishers and Distributors (Number at the
National Library 464/5/1995) (A reviewed book) (doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1688.4244).
Abdel-Magid, I. M. 2002. Pollution: Hazards and Control. AlGabbadah, Al-Aslia, P.O. gBox 1120, Tunis: Arab League Education Culture
Science Organization ALECSO. Won ALECSO prize for a book in engineering, 2002, ISBN 9973-15-100-3. (doi:
10.13140/RG.2.1.1364.2722) Abdel-Magid, I. M. Sr., and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M. Jr. 2015. Noise Pollution. CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform.
Anderson, J. S., and Bratos-Anderson, M. 1993. Noise and Its Measurement, Analysis, Rating and Control. Hants: Avebury Technical.
Barrett, K., Brooks, H., Boitano, S., Barman, S. 2010. Ganongs Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
Berglund, B., and Lindvall, T. 1995. Community noise. Archives of the Center for Sensory Research. 2:1-195.
http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html (accessed November 9, 2015).
Bhatia, S. C. 2007. Textbook of Noise Pollution and Its Control. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.
Bies, D. A., and Hansen, C. H. 2013. Engineering Noise Control: Theory and Practice, 4th ed. New York: Spon Press.
Crocker, M. J., and Kessler, F. M. 1982. Noise and Noise Control, Vol II. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Faulkner, L. L. (Ed.). 1976. Handbook of Industrial Noise Control. New York: Industrial Press, Inc.
Hansen, C. H. 2005. Noise Control: From Concept to Application. London: Taylor & Francis.
Harris, D. A. 2013. Noise Control Manual: Guidelines for Problem-Solving in the Industrial/Commercial Acoustical Environment.
Boston, MA: Springer.
Isaac, A. (Ed.). 1985. Concise Dictionary of Physics. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications/Oxford University Press.
Kamboj, N. S. 2002. Control of Noise Pollution, 2nd ed. New Delhi, India: Deep & Deep Publications.
Munjal, M. L. 2013. Noise and Vibration Control (IIsc Lecture Notes Series - Vol 3), 1st ed. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishing
Company.
Nathanson, J. A., and Schneider, R. A. 2014. Basic Environmental Technology: Water Supply, Waste Management and Pollution Control,
6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Saenz, A. L., and Stephens, R. W. B. (Ed.) 1986. Noise Pollution: Effects and Control. Chichester: Published on Behalf of the Scope of the
ICSU, by John Wiley & Sons.
Singal, S. P. 2005. Noise Pollution and Control, 1st ed. Oxford: Alpha Science International, Ltd.
Sound Research Laboratories. 1991. Noise Control in Industry, 3rd ed. London: E.&F.N. Spon, An imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Tan, K. T., and Chan, M.O.Y. (2006) Industrial Noise ControlThe Singapore Experience. Singapore: Occupational Health Department,
Occupational Safety and Health Division, Ministry of Manpower.
Thumann, A. 1990. Fundamentals of Noise Control Engineering, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Vesilind, P. A., and Morgan, S. M. 2010. Introduction to Environmental EngineeringSI Version, 3rd ed. Stamford, CT: CL Engineering.
Appendices

APPENDIX A1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Source: Van der Leeden, F., The Water Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, Celsea, MI, CRC Press, 1990. With permission.


APPENDIX A2
SATURATION VALUES OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN WATER EXPOSED TO
WATER-SATURATED AIR CONTAINING 20.9% OXYGEN UNDER A
PRESSURE OF 760 MMHGa

Source: Hammer, M. J., Water and Wastewater Technology, 2nd ed, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1986. With permission.
a Saturation at barometric pressures other than 760 mm (29.92 in.), C , is related to the corresponding tabulated values, C, by the equation:
s
where:
Cs is the solubility at barometric pressure P and given temperature, mg/L
Cs is the saturation at given temperature from table, mg/L
P is the barometric pressure, mm
p is the pressure of saturated water vapor at temperature of the water selected from table, mm

APPENDIX A3
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Source: Leigh, G. L. (Ed.), Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1990; American Chemical
Society, Group notation revised in periodic table. Chemical and Engineering News, 63(5), 2627, 1985; International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry, Atomic weights of the elements, Pure & Appl. Chem., 66, 24232444, 1994; Manahan, S. E.,
Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, Celsea, MI, Lewis Publishers, 1993. With permission.
Note: The larger and smaller labels reflect two different numbering schemes in common usage.

APPENDIX A4
HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS GRAPH FOR CIRCULAR SEWERS
Source: Qasim, S. R., Waste Water Treatment Plants: Planning, Design and Operation, Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, p. 163, Figure 7-6,
1999. With permission.

APPENDIX A5
ALIGNMENT CHART FOR FLOW IN PIPES

Source: Joint Taskforce of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Water Pollution Control Federation. 1982. Gravity Sanitary
Sewer Design and Construction, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, No. 60. New York: ASCE, WPCF.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher American Society of Civil Engineers.

APPENDIX A6
MOODYS DIAGRAM FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER VERSUS RELATIVE
ROUGHNESS AND FRICTION FACTOR
Source: Rayaprolu, K., Boilers: A Practical Reference, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p. 163, 2012. With permission.

APPENDIX 7
TYPICAL SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND MOISTURE CONTENT DATA FOR
RESIDENTIAL, COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL
WASTES

Type of Waste Specific Weight (lb/yd3 ) Moisture Content, Weight (%)

Range Typical Range Typical
Residential (Compacted)
Food wastes (mixed) 220810 490 5080 70
Paper 70220 150 410 6
Cardboard 70135 85 48 5
Plastics 70220 110 14 2
Textiles 70170 110 615 10
Rubber 170340 220 14 2
Leather 170440 270 812 10
Yard wastes 100380 170 3080 60
Wood 220540 400 1540 20
Glass 270810 330 14 2
Tin cans 85270 150 24 3
Aluminum 110405 270 24 2
Other metal 2201940 540 24 3
Dirt, ash, and so on 5401685 810 612 8
Ashes 10951400 1255 612 6
Rubbish 150305 220 520 15
Residential Yard Wastes
Leaves (loose and dry) 50250 100 2040 30
Green grass (loose and moist) 350500 400 4080 60
Green grass (wet and compacted) 10001400 1000 5090 80
Yard waste (shredded) 450600 500 2070 50
Yard waste (composted) 450650 550 4060 50
Municipal
In compactor truck 300760 500 1540 20
In landfill
Normally compacted 610840 760 1540 25
Well compacted 9951250 1010 1540 25
Commercial
Food wastes (wet) 8001600 910 5080 70
Appliances 250340 305 02 1
Wooden crates 185270 185 1030 20
Tree trimmings 170305 250 2080 5
Rubbish (combustible) 85305 200 1030 15
Rubbish (noncombustible) 305610 505 515 10
Rubbish (mixed) 235305 270 1025 15
Construction and Demolition
Mixed demolition (noncombustible) 16852695 2395 210 4
Mixed demolition (combustible) 505675 605 415 8
Mixed construction (combustible) 305605 440 415 8
Broken concrete 20203035 2595 05
Industrial
Chemical sludges (wet) 13501855 1685 7599 80
Fly ash 11801515 1350 210 4
Leather scraps 170420 270 615 10
Metal scrap (heavy) 25303370 3000 05
Metal scrap (light) 8401515 1245 05
Metal scrap (mixed) 11802530 1515 05
Oils, tars, and asphalts 13501685 1600 05 2
Sawdust 170590 490 1040 20
Textile wastes 170370 305 615 10
Wood (mixed) 6751140 840 3060 25
Agricultural
Agricultural (mixed) 6751265 945 4080 50
Dead animals 340840 605
Fruit wastes (mixed) 4201265 605 6090 75
Manure (wet) 15151770 1685 7596 94
Vegetable wastes (mixed) 3401180 605 6090 75

Source: Abdel-Magid, I. M. and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M., Solid Waste Engineering and Management, CreateSpace Independent Publishing
Platform, North Charleston, SC: (In Arabic), 2015; Blackman, W. C., Basic Hazardous Waste Management, 3rd ed, CRC Press,
2001; de Bertoldi, M., Science of Composting, Springer, 1996; Cheremisinoff, N. P., Handbook of Solid Waste Management and
Waste Minimization Technologies, Burlington, MA, Elsevier Science 2003; CEHA, Solid waste management in some countries of
the Eastern Mediterranean region. CEHA Document No., Special studies, ss-4. Amman, Jordan, WHO, Eastern Mediterranean
Regional Office, Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities, 1995; McDougall, F. R. et al., Integrated Solid Waste
Management: A Life Cycle Inventory, Oxford, Blackwell Science, 2009; Ojovan, M. I. (Ed.), Handbook of Advanced
Radioactive Waste Conditioning Technologies, Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing, 2011; Peavy, H. S. et al., Environmental
Engineering, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1985; Walsh, P., and OLeary, P., Implementing Municipal Solid Waste to
Energy Systems, Madison, WI, University of WisconsinExtension for Great Lakes Regional Biogas Energy Program, 1986.

APPENDIX A8
CONVERSION TABLE

Multiply By To Obtain
Area
acre 0.4047 ha
acre 43560 ft2
acre 4047 m2
cm2 0.155 in2
ft2 0.0929 m2
ha 2.471 acre
ha 104 m2
in2 6.452 cm2
km2 0.3861 mile2
m2 10.76 ft2
mm2 0.00155 in2
Concentration
mg/L 8.345 lb/M gal (U.S.)
ppm 1 mg/L
Density
g/cm3 1000 kg/m3
g/cm3 1 kg/L
g/cm3 62.428 lb/ft3
g/cm3 10.022 lb/gal (Br.)
g/cm3 8.345 lb/gal (U.S.)
kg/m3 0.001 g/cm3
kg/m3 0.001 kg/L
kg/m3 0.06242 lb/ft3
Flow Rate
ft3 /s 448.83 gal (U.S.)/min
ft3 /s 28.32 L/s
ft3 /s 0.02832 m3 /s
ft3 /s 0.6462 M gal (U.S.)/day
gal (U.S.)/min 0.00223 ft3 /s
gal (U.S.)/min 0.06309 L/s
L/s 15.85 gal (U.S.)/min
M gal (U.S.)/day 1.547 ft3 /s
m3 /h 4.403 gal (U.S.)/min
m3 /s 35.31 ft3 /s
Length
ft 30.48 cm
in 2.54 cm
km 0.6214 mile
km 3280.8399 ft
m 3.281 ft
m 39.37 in
m 1.094 yd
mile 5280 ft
mile 1.60934 km
mm 0.03937 in
yard 0.914 m
Mass
g 2.205 * 103 lb
kg 2.20462 lb
lb 0.453592 kg
lb 16 Oz
ton 2240 lb
ton 1.1023 ton (2000 lb)
Power
Btu 252.16 Cal
Btu 778.169 ft-lb
Btu 3.93 * 104 Hp-h
Btu 1055.06 J
Btu 2.9307 * 104 kWh
Hp 0.7457 kW
Pressure
atm 33.93 ft H2 O
atm 29.921 in Hg
atm 1.033 * 104 kg/m2
atm 760 mmHg
atm 10.33 m water
atm 1.013 * 105 N/m2
Bar 105 N/m2
cm water 98.096 N/m2
in H2 O 1.8651 mmHg
in Hg 0.491154 lb/in2 (psi)
in Hg 25.4 mmHg
in Hg 3386.4 N/m2
kPa 0.145 lb/in2 (psi)
lb/in2 (psi) 0.070307 kg/cm2
lb/in2 (psi) 6895 N/m2
mmHg 13.595 kg/m2
mmHg 0.019336 lb/in2 (psi)
mmHg 133.3 N/m2
mmHg 1 Torr
Torr 133.3 N/m2
Temperature
Celsius (C) (9C/5) + 32 Fahrenheit (F)
Fahrenheit (F) 5(F-32)/9 Celsius (C)
Celsius (C) C + 237.16 Kelvin (K)
Fahrenheit (F) F + 459.67 Rankine (R)
Velocity
cm/s 0.03281 ft/s
cm/s 0.6 m/min
m/s 196.85 ft/min
m/s 3.281 ft/s
ft/min 0.508 cm/s
ft/s 30.48 cm/s
ft/s 1.097 km/h
mile/h 1.609 km/h
Viscosity
P (g/cms) 0.1 Ns/m2
cP 0.01 g/cms
cP 0.01 Dynes/cm2 (Pas)
Stoke 104 m2 /s
Volume

ft3 6.22884 gal (Br.)

ft3 7.4805 gal (U.S.)
ft3 28.3168 L
ft3 0.02832 m3
gal (Br.) 0.16054 ft3
gal (U.S.) 0.13368 ft3
gal (U.S.) 0.83267 gal (Br.)
gal (U.S.) 3.7854 L
in3 16.3871 cm3
L 0.03531 ft3
L 0.219969 gal (Br.)
L 0.26417 gal (U.S.)
L 0.001 m3
m3 35.3147 ft3
m3 1000 L

REFERENCES
Abdel-Magid, I. M. and Abdel-Magid, M. I. M. 2015. Solid Waste Engineering and Management, North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace
Independent Publishing Platform (in Arabic).
American Chemical Society. Group notation revised in periodic table. Chemical and Engineering News, 63(5), 2627, 1985.
Blackman, W. C. 2001. Basic Hazardous Waste Management, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
CEHA. 1995. Solid waste management in some countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region. CEHA Document No., Special studies, ss-4.
Amman, Jordan: WHO, Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities.
Cheremisinoff, N. P. 2003. Handbook of Solid Waste Management and Waste Minimization Technologies. Burlington, MA: Elsevier
Science.
de Bertoldi, M., (Ed.). 1996. The Science of Composting. London, UK: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Hammer, M. J. 1986. Water and Wastewater Technology, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 1994. Atomic weights of the elements, Pure & Appl. Chem., 66, 24232444.
Joint Taskforce of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Water Pollution Control Federation. 1982. Gravity Sanitary Sewer
Design and Construction, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, No. 60. New York: ASCE, WPCF.
Leigh, G. L. (Ed.) 1990. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Manahan, S. E. 1993. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry. Celsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
McDougall, F. R., White, P. R., Franke, M., and Hindle, P. 2009. Integrated Solid Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory. Oxford:
Blackwell Science.
Ojovan, M. I. (Ed.) 2011. Handbook of Advanced Radioactive Waste Conditioning Technologies. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Peavy, H. S., Rowe, D. R., and Tchobanglous, G. 1985. Environmental Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Qasim, S. R. 1999. Waste Water Treatment Plants: Planning, Design and Operation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p. 163.
Rayaprolu, K. 2012. Boilers: A Practical Reference. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 163.
van der Leeden, F. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. Celsea, MI: CRC Press.
Walsh, P. and OLeary, P. 1986. Implementing Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Systems. Madison, WI: University of WisconsinExtension
for Great Lakes Regional Biogas Energy Program.
Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figures and tables, respectively.
A
Absorption, 423
Acoustic shielding, 465
Address bus, 3
Adsorbents service time, 434436
Adsorption, 427436
isotherm, 428
Aeration and gas transfer, 161164
Aerators, 161
Aerodynamic theory, 388
Aesthetic problems, corrosion, 192
Aggressiveness index (AI), 193195, 193t
Air pollutants
indoor, 363
sources, 362, 363t
Air pollution control technology, 361448
adsorption, 427436
air quality modeling, 436448
dispersion models, 440448
effective stack height, 436440, 438t
baghouse/fabric filters, 413417, 414f
combustion processes, 417423
cyclones, 396, 398403, 398f
ESPs, 361, 403408, 403f
fundamentals of, 363391
ClausiusClapeyron equation, 384386
Daltons law of partial pressures, 381382
gas laws, 368378
Henrys law, 382384
mole and mole fraction, 365368
particle size distributionlog normal, 390391
Re, 386387
Stokes law, 387390
units of measurement, 363365
Van der Waals equation, 378381, 378t
overview, 361363
packed column absorption towers, 423427
settling chambers, 392, 395398, 396f
venturi scrubbers, 408413
Air quality modeling, 436448
dispersion models, 440448
Gaussian, 440446, 441f, 442f
SCREEN2, 436, 447448
U.S. EPA, 447
effective stack height, 436440, 438t
Air quality standards, 362, 362t
ALU (arithmetic and logic unit), 23
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 447
Amplitude, 458, 458f, 459f
Angle of repose, 304, 304f
ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 447
Anthropogenic source, air pollutant, 361
Apparent density, 303304
Aqueous chlorine, activation energies (E), 191t
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), 23
Arithmetic progression method, 69
Artificial groundwater recharge, 86
Assembly language, 7, 10
Avogadros hypothesis, 365
Avogadros number, 365366
B
Babbage, Charles, 1
Backwashing, 179
Baghouse, 413417, 414f
design and operation, 415417
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), 9, 11, 13
Basic input/output system (BIOS), 56
BBS (bulletin board system), 436
Binary separator, 327, 327f
recoveries and effectiveness, 329330
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 5360
by Thomas method, 5860
Biochemical processes, combustion, and energy recovery, 335346
Biological properties, 297
water and wastewater, 5160
BOD, 5360
DO, 5153
Biological treatment, unit processes, 131
BIOS (basic input/output system), 56
BOD. See Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Booleans, 15
Bottom scour, 147
Bottom-up approach, water footprint, 67
Boyles law, 368370
Branching pattern with dead ends, pipeline, 92
Braun, Antonius, 1
Breakthrough capacity, 428, 433434
Bulk modulus, 4143
Bulletin board system (BBS), 436
Buoyancy, 436
ByRef (passing by reference), 18
Byte, 447
ByVal (passing by value), 18
C
C++, 910
Calculator 8 water hardness calculator, 45
CALL statement, 18
Calorimeter, 307
Capillary
depression, 36
rise, 36, 36f
Capital cost, 346348
Capital recovery factor (CRF), 346348, 351t
CarmanKozeny equation, 167
Cascade aerator, efficiency coefficient of, 162164
CASE construct, 16
Casio water hardness calculator, 45
Catalytic combustion system, 417
Catalytic system, 419421
CDs (compact discs), 5
Central processing unit (CPU), 23
ALU, 3
control unit, 2
Characters, 14
Charless law, 370374
Chemical adsorption, 427
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test, 5354
advantages, 54
Chemical treatment, unit processes, 131
Chicks law, 190
Chlorination, 190192
CIL (common intermediate language), 12
Circular sedimentation tank, 133f, 151154
design, 153154
Circular water storage tank, 118121
ClausiusClapeyron equation, 384386
Clear wells, 86
Closed conduit, 92
Closed loop, water pipe, 102
COD test. See Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test
Colebrook formula, 95
Combustion processes, 417423
Combustor, energy flow, 343f
Common intermediate language (CIL), 12
Compact discs (CDs), 5
Compilation, 7
Compiler, 7, 9
Compounding factors, 351t
Compression settling, 134
Computer
components, 25, 2f
CPU, 23
data storage media, 5
input devices, 34
output devices, 45
definition, 2
overview, 1
Computer-aided design models, 1
Conditional branching, 15
Conductivity, 27
Constants, 14
Control
bus, 3
unit, 2
Corrosion, 155, 192197
classification, 196f
definition, 195
overview, 192
potential indicators, 192195
AI, 193195, 193t
LI, 192
RI, 192193
rate of, 195197
types, 195f
Countercurrent-packed column, 424, 424f
CPU. See Central processing unit (CPU)
CRF (capital recovery factor), 346348, 351t
Criteria air pollutants, 361
Crushing devices, 325
capacity, 326327
Cumulative frequency distribution plot, 139f
Cunningham correction factor, 388
Cyclones, 396, 398403, 398f
efficiency vs. particle size ratio, 399f
pressure drop calculation through, 399t
D
Daily sludge removal, 151
Daltons law of partial pressures, 381382
DarcyWeisbach equation, 93, 111
Data
bits, 447
bus, 3
Debugging process, 8, 13
Decibel scale, 455, 459461
environmental noise, 456f
Delphi, 10
Density, 31
Depressions in observation wells, 8183
Desalination/desalting, 181190
definition, 181
freezing, 181
membrane process, 181
methods, 181190
distillation, 181184
electrodialysis, 188190, 188f
osmosis, 184187, 184f
RO process, 181, 185f
Digital pen, 4
DIM statement, 1718
Direct effects noise, 459
Discrete particle settling, 132, 134138
Disinfection process, 190192
chemical disinfectant characteristics, 190
chlorination, 190192
Diskettes, 5
Dispersion models, 436, 440448
Dissolved oxygen (DO), 51
concentration, 5253
saturation values in water, 470
Dissolved solids content, 181t
Distillation, 181184
benefits, 182
heating tubes, 182
Distribution reservoirs, 86, 87f
Diverted refuse, 293
DO. See Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Document scanners, 4
DOLOOP construct, 17
Dorr settling tanks, 151154
Dot matrix printers, 4
.NET, 9
.NET framework (.NET FX), 1112
Downwind ground-level concentration, 443446
DrawLine() function, 17
DrawRectangle() function, 17
DrawString() function, 17
Drift velocity, 404
DuLong formula, 307
Dynamic viscosity, 34
E
Economic problems, corrosion, 192
Effective area of settlement, 151
Effective stack height, 436440, 438t
Efficiency coefficient of system, 162
Electric conductivity, 2728
Electrodialysis, 188190, 188f
Electrokinetics, 155
Electrokinetic potential, 155
Electrophoretic mobility (EM), 155
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), 361, 403408, 403f
Empirical power law velocity profile, 94
Encapsulation, 7
End statement, 15
Energy loss equations, pipe, 103
Enigma, 1
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 361
ISC2 model, 436
units of measurement, 364t
Equivalent-length method, 100102
Equivalent-velocity-head method, 98100
ESPs. See Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
Event handler, 12, 18
F
Fabric filters, 413417, 414f
Fechners law, 459
FEM. See Finite element method (FEM)
Filter
bags, 413
bed expansion, 179
Filtration, 164180
backwashing of rapid sand, 179180
bed expansion, depth of, 180
effluents, impurities concentration of, 179
filter bed clogging, 178179
friction factor, 167
head loss, 167173
Newtons drag coefficient, 167
objectives, 164
overview, 164166
porous media, 164
rapid vs. slow sand, 165t
schematic diagram, sand, 167f
theory, 167178
Finite element method (FEM), 110112
advantages, 118
application, 110
Fire
demand, 7275
approximation, 7375
flow duration, 72t
hydrant spacing, 72t
Flocculation
and coagulation, 155161
design parameters, 157
electrokinetics, 155156
overview, 155
design, 157161
power for, 158161
Flocculent settling, 132
removal ratio, 150
Floppy disks, 5
Flow-mass curve, 87
Flow resistance, 131
FormatNumber() function, 17
form_load() function, 1
FORTO statement, 16
FORTRAN (Formula Translation), 9
Free- and open-source software (FOSS), 10
Free Software Foundation (FSF), 10
Frequency, 458, 458f, 459f
Freundlich adsorption isotherm, 428, 430432
straight-line form, 428, 428f
Friction factor, 95, 111
Froude number, 148
Full duplex method, 447
G
Garbage collector, 9
Gas(es), 361
laws, 368378
Boyles law, 368370
Charless law, 370374
ideal gas law, 374378
Gaseous air contaminants concentration, 364365
Gaseous contaminants, 418, 418f
Gaussian dispersion models, 440446, 441f, 442f
Gaussian models, 436
Gay-Lussacs law, 370
General Public License (GPL), 10
General-purpose languages, 7
GoTo statement, 15
Graphical user interfaces (GUIs), 3
Graphics object, 17
Gravity aerators, 161
Grid pattern, pipeline, 92
Grit removal, 241244
Groundwater, 67
aquifers, 75
drawdown computations, steady unconfined aquifer, 85
flow velocity within, 7779
flow, 7586
aquifers, 75
depressions in observation wells, 8183
steady unconfined, 84
velocity within aquifers, 7779
recharge, 86
GUIs (graphical user interfaces), 3
H
HagenPoiseuille flow, 93
Half-life period, 60
HAPs (hazardous air pollutants), 361
Hard disks, 5
Hardness of water, 4546
advantages and disadvantages, 46
degree of, 46t
estimation, 4750
Hardy Cross method, 103104, 106109
disadvantages, 110
FEM advantage over, 118
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 361
Head loss, pipe, 95
due to friction, 9597
minor, 98
Health problems, corrosion, 192
Heat value of refuse, 307, 317319
Heel, 429
Henrys law, 382384
gases in water at 25C, 382, 382t
High-level programming languages, 710
C++, 910
FORTRAN, 9
Java, 9
Pascal, 10
VB.NET, 9
Hindered settling, 132134
Hydraulic conductivity, 76
Hydraulic elements graph, 472
Hydrogen ion concentration, 4345
Hydrological cycle, water, 68f
I
Ideal gas law, 374378
Ideal settling basin, 146
IFELSE construct, 16
IFTHEN statement construct, 16
Imhoff tank, 235236
Impact printers, 5
Incidental groundwater recharge, 86
Indirect effects noise, 459
Industrial Source Complex (ISC2) model, 436
Infrasound, 455, 458
INPUTBOX functions, 18
Input devices, 34
digital pen, 4
document scanners, 4
keyboard, 3
QWERTY, 2f, 3
mouse, 2f, 34
Integrated development environment (IDE), 12
Intentional groundwater recharge, 86
Intermediate language, 7
Internet of Things, 6
ISC2 (Industrial Source Complex) model, 436
Isotherm
adsorption, 428
Freundlich adsorption, 428, 430432
J
Java, 9
Java virtual machine (JVM), 89
Jitter, 12
Johnstones equation, 408
Just-in-time translator, 12
JVM (Java virtual machine), 89
K
Kemeny, John, 13
Keyboard, 3
Kinematic
velocity, 134
viscosity, 34
from dynamic viscosity, 3536
Kirchoffs loop law, 103
Kirchoffs node law, 103
Kurtz, Thomas, 13
L
Laminar flow, 386
Laminar pipe flow, 93
Landfill gas emissions model (LandGEM) model, 330
Langelier index (LI), 192
Law of Weber, 459
Lenntech water hardness calculator, 45
LI (Langelier index), 192
Light particles, 132
Linux, 6
Logarithmic scale, 455, 459
Logical errors, 13
Log-normal distribution, 390
Loop, pipe, 102
M
Mass curve, water storage, 8688, 88f
Materials recovery facility (MRF), 293
Mathematical modeling technique, 1
Memory mapped input/output (MMIO), 4
Moderate rate of growth method, 6970, 70f
Moisture content, 297298
solid waste, 299303
uncompacted refuse components, 297298, 298t
Mole
fraction of gas, 51
and mole fraction, 365368
gaseous mixture, 366368
Monitor, 4
Moody chart, 95
Moodys diagram, 474
Mouse, 2f, 34
MRF (materials recovery facility), 293
MSGBOX functions, 18
MS Windows, 11
Multiple catalysts, 421423
Multiuser printer, 4
Municipal solid waste (MSW), 293353
biochemical processes, combustion, and energy recovery, 335346
combustible, components, 307, 307t
overview, 293297
sanitary landfill, 330334
solid waste
chemical properties, 306320
collection, 320330
cost estimates, 346353
physical properties, 297306
Municipal water works, 131
N
Namespace, 15
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), 361, 362t
Net sound pressure level, 461462
Newtons drag coefficient, 167
NEXT statement, 16
Noise, 455
control, 465466
exposure, weekly average, 463
pollution and abatement, 455467
decibel scale, 459461
effects, 459
measurement, 465467, 466f
sound and noise, 455459
sound fields, 461465
Nonimpact printers, 5
Nonregenerative adsorption systems, 428
Nonuniform velocity distribution and short-circuiting, 147149
O
Object-oriented programming (OOP), 6
OCR (optical character recognition) software, 4
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS), 436, 447
OOP (object-oriented programming), 6
Open loop, water pipe, 102
Open Source Initiative, 10
Open-source movement, 1012
Operating system, 6
Optical character recognition (OCR) software, 4
Optimization models, 1
OS kernel, 6
Osmosis, 184187, 184f
Osmotic pressure, 184
Output devices, 45
monitor, 4
printers and plotters, 45
P
Packed column absorption towers, 423427
Packing factor, 429
Parallel water pipes, 102118, 104f
FEM, 110112
advantages, 118
application, 110
Hardy Cross method, 103104, 106109
disadvantages, 110
FEM advantage over, 118
Parity, 447
Partial pressure, 381
Daltons law, 381382
Particle size, 298303
distribution, 390395
Particulate matter (PM), 361, 363
Pascal, 10
Pascal, Blaise, 1
Pasquill stability, 437t, 440
Passing by reference (ByRef), 18
Passing by value (ByVal), 18
PC. See Personal computer (PC)
Peak gas production, 331332
Permanent threshold shift, 459
Permeability, 303
coefficient of aquifer, 79
Personal computer (PC), 2. See also Computer
components, 3f
keyboard, 3
Personal printer, 4
pH, 43
Phase velocity/speed of sound, 458
Physical adsorption, 427
Physical modeling, 436
Physical printers, 4
Physical treatment, unit operations, 131
Pipe(s), 92
coefficient, 112
constant exponent, 103
flow
alignment chart, 473
rate through, 93
friction and continuity equations, 100
head loss due to friction in, 9597
network, 102, 110f
analysis by FEM, 110118
in parallel, 102118, 104f
FEM, 110112
Hardy Cross method, 103104, 106109
in series, 98102, 98f
equivalent-length method, 100
equivalent-velocity-head method, 98
viscous flow in, 9394
water flow in, 9398
laminar flow, 93
minor losses, 98
turbulent flow, 9495
Plant storage reservoirs, 86
Plate type precipitator, 403, 404f
Plotter, 5
Plume rise, 436437
calculations, 437, 437f
PM (particulate matter), 361, 363
Poiseuilles law, 93
Pollutants concentration
lakes, 286287
in rivers, 279
Population estimation, 6971
arithmetic progression method, 69
geometric progression method, 70
long-period estimates, 69
moderate rate of growth, 6970, 70f
short-period estimates, 69
Present worth factor (PWF), 348
Present worth value, 348
Printers, 45
Procedural programming, 6
Processor, 2
Programming and languages, 610
compiled and translated languages, 78
event-driven environments, 7
high-level, 710
C++, 910
FORTRAN, 9
Java, 9
Pascal, 10
VB.NET, 9
intermediate, 7
object-oriented vs. procedural programming, 67
Programs (computer), 56
preparation and execution error, 13
Proximate analysis, 307
Pseudo loop, water pipe, 102
PWF (present worth factor), 348
Q
QWERTY keyboard layout, 2f, 3
R
Radial flow sedimentation tank, 152f
Radioactivity, 6063
rate of decay, 6163
Random access memory (RAM), 5
Raoults law, 184
RDF (refuse-derived fuel), 316
Re. See Reynolds numbers (Re)
Reaction rate coefficient, 419
Read-only memory (ROM), 5
Rectangular horizontal sedimentation tank, 133f
Rectangular sedimentation tank, 150151, 150f
Rectangular water storage tank, 121123
Refuse collection trucks costs, 352
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), 316
Regenerative adsorption-type system, 428, 429f
Relaxation method, 103
REM statement, 15
Reservoirs, water storage, 86
capacity, 8891
Residential fire flows, 72t
Resistance coefficient, 103
Reverse osmosis (RO) process, 181, 185f
Reynolds numbers (Re), 92, 146, 386387
RI (Ryznar index), 192193
Rippl mass curve, 87
River classification patterns, 280t
ROM (read-only memory), 5
RosinRammlerSperlingBennett (RRSB) function, 303
Runtime errors, 13
Ryznar index (RI), 192193
S
Salinity, 29
correction term, 192
Sand filter, schematic diagram of, 167f
Sanitary landfill, 330334
Scan code, 3
Scouring, 147
SCRAM (Support Center for Regulatory Air Models), 447
SCREEN2 dispersion models, 436, 447448
Sedimentation process, 132154
aim of, 132
basin, 146
efficiency reduction, 146149
definition, 132
and flotation, 132f
general design considerations, 150154
circular settling tanks, 151154
rectangular tanks, 150151
settling. See Settling phenomenon
tanks
circular, 133f, 153154
radial flow, 152f
rectangular, 150f
rectangular horizontal, 133f
round-the-end baffles in, 147f
Series water pipes, 98102, 98f
equivalent-length method, 100
equivalent-velocity-head method, 98
Settling phenomenon, 132154
chambers, 392, 395398, 396f
characteristics, 138146
circular settling tanks, 151154
class I, 134
column test, 138f
cumulative frequency distribution plot, 139f
definition, 132
of flocculent particles, 150
tank
efficiency, 144146
effluent, SS in, 140144
types of, 132134
compression, 134
discrete particle, 132, 134138
flocculent, 132
hindered, 132134
velocity for spherical discrete particles, 135138
zone designing, 149150
allowable weir loading, 150
surface area, 149
SFF (sinking fund factor), 348
Shared printer, 4
Shear stress, 94
Short-circuiting, 147
Simulation models, 1
Sinking fund, 348
Sinking fund factor (SFF), 348
Sludge
 hopper, 150
volume of, 152
treatment and disposal, 266278
dewatering, 268274
digestion, 266268
Software, 5
Solid font mechanisms, 5
Solids, 29, 29f
Solid waste
chemical composition and energy content, 309316
chemical properties, 306320
fusion point of ash, 306
heat value of refuse, 307320
proximate analysis, 307
ultimate analysis, 307
volatile solids, 307
collection, 320330
processing, and material separation, 325330
cost estimates, 346353
capital cost and CRF, 346348
present worth value and PWF, 348
sinking fund and SFF, 348351
total cost, 351353
diversion, 295296
physical properties, 297306
angle of repose, 304, 304f
apparent density, 303304
material abrasiveness, 306
moisture content, 297298
particle size, 298303
permeability of compacted waste, 303
size of reduction in volume, 304306
production units, 294t
properties and characteristics, 320, 320t
volume reduction, 305306
Sound, 455
absorption, 466467
in different media at 0C, 456t
fields, 461465
insulation, 466
level, 464465
meter, 465, 466f
and noise, 455459, 456f, 456t
pressure level, 460461
speed in air, 456t
velocity and wavelength, 457458
wave, 458
travel, 456f
Special-purpose languages, 7
Specific capacity, well, 79
Specific gravity, 31
Specific volume, 31
Specific weight, 31
Speed propagation, 458
Spherical discrete particles, settling velocity, 135138
SS. See Suspended solids (SS)
Stack gases, temperature, 344346
Stallman, Richard, 10
Stand pipe, 86
State-of-the-art techniques, 436
Stoichiometric oxygen, 339
and air for gas combustion, 339342
Stokes law, 387390
terminal velocity, 389390
Stop bits, 447
Storage
reservoirs, 86
tanks, structural design of, 118126
design, 123126
forces analysis, 118123
STRING class, 17
Strings, 14
Subroutine, 18
Sun Microsystems, 9
Supervisor programs (computer), 6
Surface tension, 36, 36f
capillary heights in, 3741
Surface water, 67
Suspended solids (SS), 239
concentration, 138
in settling tank effluent, 140144
Syntax errors, 13
System bus, 2f, 3
T
Tank depth, 151
TDS (total dissolved solids), 31, 31f, 181f
Technology Transfer Network (TTN), 436, 447
Teledyne Water Pik Instapure Filtration System, 418
Temperature, water and wastewater, 2327
conversion to different scales, 2427
Thermophilic organisms, 337
Thiem formula, 79
Thomas method, 54
Threshold level, 455
Top-down approach, water footprint, 67
Torvalds, Linus, 6
Total dissolved solids (TDS), 31, 31f, 181f
Transmissibility, 76
Treatment process of water, 131197
aeration and gas transfer, 161164
aim, 131
classification, 131
corrosion, 192197
classification of, 196f
overview, 192
potential indicators, 192195
rate of, 195197
types, 195f
desalination methods, 181190
distillation, 181184
electrodialysis, 188190
osmosis, 184187
disinfection process, 190192
chlorination, 190192
dissolved solids content, 181t
filtration, 164180
backwashing of rapid sand, 179180
bed expansion, depth of, 180
effluents, impurities concentration of, 179
filter bed clogging, 178179
friction factor, 167
head loss, 167173
Newtons drag coefficient, 167
overview, 164166
porous media, 164
rapid vs. slow sand, 165t
schematic diagram, sand, 167f
suitable materials, 164
theory, 167178
flocculation and coagulation, 155161
overview, 131
pressure regulation with multiple-effect distiller, 182f
screening, 131132
sedimentation, 132154
basin, 146
characteristics, 138146
cumulative frequency distribution plot, 139f
definition, 132
of flocculent particles, 150
and flotation, 132f
 general design considerations, 150154
settling column test, 138f
settling zone design, 149150
types of, 132134
TDS, 181f
TTN (Technology Transfer Network), 436, 447
Tube type precipitator, 404f
Turbulence, 146147
Turbulent pipe flow, 9495
U
Ultra sounds, 455, 458
Uniformity coefficient, 298
Until loop, 17
Urban noise sources, 455
U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments, 361
U.S. EPA dispersion models, 447
User programs (computer), 6
Utility programs (computer), 6
V
VALLEY, 448
Van der Waals equation, 378381, 378t
Vant HoffArrhenius equation, 190
Variables, 14
VB. See Visual Basic (VB) language
VB.NET, 9, 1112
fundamentals of, 1319, 20t
CASE construct, 16
DIM statement, 1718
DOLOOP construct, 17
drawing functions, 17
End statement, 15
FORMAT family of functions, 17
form code and design, 13, 14f
FORTO statement, 16
functions and subroutines, 18
GoTo statement, 15
IFELSE construct, 16
IFTHEN statement construct, 16
intrinsic functions, 1516
MSGBOX and INPUTBOX functions, 18
NEXT statement, 16
objects and their properties, 1819
operators, 15
REM statement, 15
STRING class, 17
variables and constants, 1415
namespaces in, 15
Velocity gradient, 157
Venturi
scrubbers, 408413
wet collector, 409f
Video memory, 4
Virtual printers, 4
Viscosity, 34
Visual Basic (VB) language, 11
mathematical functions in, 16t
Visual Studio (VS), 1213
Volatile memory, 5
The von Neumann model, 2, 2f
VS (Visual Studio), 1213
VS.NET, 1213
W
Waste concentration in estuaries, 287288
Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs), 260266
design, 261266
general, 261
maturation WSP, 263264
mixed conditions, 261262
Wastewater. See also Water and wastewater
attached growth treatment processes, 252260
disposal, 278288
dilution, 278279
DO and BOD of river, 282285
DO sag curves in rivers, 281285
into lakes, 285287
into natural waters, 280285
oxygen renewal and depletion in rivers, 280281
reaeration constants, 280t
river classification patterns, 280t
into stream, 278f
flow rates, sources and evaluation, 236239
preliminary treatment, 241244
secondary treatment, 244252
treatment, 241
unit operations and processes, 241
Water
demand, fluctuations in, 86
distribution, 92118
flow in pipes, 9398
parallel pipes, 102118
pipelines patterns, 92
series pipes, 98102
systems, 92
viscous flow in closed conduits, 9293
fire demand, 7275
footprint, 6768
hydrological cycle, 68f
movement on earth, 67
physical properties, 469
population growth and consumption design rates, 6971
sources, 67
selection, 6869, 68f
storage, 8691
reservoirs, 86
structural design. See Storage tanks, structural design of
tank, 87f
volume, 87
use cycle, 69, 69f
Water and wastewater
biological properties, 5160
BOD, 5360
DO, 5153
chemical characteristics, 4350
hardness, 4550
hydrogen ion concentration, 4345
physical properties, 2343
bulk modulus, 4143
conductivity, 2728
 salinity, 29
solids content, 2930
surface tension and capillary rise, 3641
TDS, 31, 31f
temperature, 2327
properties, 23
Wave length, 458
While loop, 17
Winchester disks, 5
WorrellStessel equation, 328
WSPs. See Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs)
Z
Zeta potential (ZP), 155
Zone settling, 132134