MODULE 1

Loss of
Biodiversity

Global Environmental Studies (GES) Course

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
a. What are the goals, objectives and teaching methods of the class?

This module aims to provide students with a general understanding of

local, international and global biodiversity as well as its importance and
its links to other environmental, social and cultural aspects. It covers the
notion of an accelerating pace of the destruction of biodiversity and its
effects, but also challenges and encourages students in not simply
understanding biodiversity, but implementing personal or communal
changes for its conservation.

The Biodiversity Module consists of four (4) contact lectures with

participants over a two (2) week period.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
b. What problem set are we going to tackle and how?

Lecture 1 introduces the module and provides a general understanding of

biodiversity.
Lecture 2 focuses on general notions of biodiversity, such as how
biodiversity is generated, the importance of biodiversity, and the rates of
speciation and extinction.
Lecture 3 deals with threats to biodiversity, such as biodiversity loss,
overpopulation, habitat loss and degradation, climate change, pollution,
overharvesting and introduced species.
Lectures 4 concentrates on the state and future of biodiversity in South
Africa as well as globally, and also looks into biodiversity indicators, the
Natural Capital Index (NCI), the effects of biodiversity loss, protecting
biodiversity and the potential contribution humans can make.
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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
c. What is biodiversity?

Biological diversity is referred to in shorter terms as biodiversity and is the

variety of all life on Earth. It is the terminology one uses to describe the
assortment of life on Earth, at all levels, from genes to ecosystems and the
ecological and evolutionary processes that sustains it.

Biodiversity is the foundation of all life on Earth and is crucial for the functioning
of ecosystems which provides us with products and services that we cannot live
without, food, provision of freshwater, clean air.

Biodiversity includes, animals, plants their habitats and their genes. Biodiversity
also includes the number of individuals of a particular species, the number of
different species in an area, the genetic wealth contained by each species, the
interrelationship between them and the natural areas where they occur such as
deserts, rainforests and coral reefs all form part of a biologically diverse Earth
(Shah, 2013).
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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
Biodiversity is all around us or everywhere, on land and in water, from
high latitudes to deep ocean trenches.

There are no price tags added to biodiversity and the ecosystem products
and services it offers.

However, since we have increasingly experienced degradation and loss of

biodiversity, increasingly decision-makers are looking at the economic
value of ecosystems and their services.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GK_vRtHJZu4
Task

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Orange River, South Africa

Richtersveld, Corals on Chumbe

South Africa Island, Zanzibar
A stream through the rainforest at Nosy
Mangabe, Baix d'Antongile, Madagascar6
Fynbos in False Bay, Cape Town, South
Africa

King Protea, South Africa Cape Point Fynbos, South Africa

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Lesser Flamingo, South Africa

Frog, Madagascar Fire coral and anthias fish, Chumbe Island,

Zanzibar 8
Cape Sugar Bird, Chameleon,
South Africa Madagascar

Big 5, South Africa Shellfish, Namaqualand, South Africa

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LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
a. How is biodiversity generated?

There are four types of biodiversity namely, genetic biodiversity,

species diversity, ecosystem diversity and functional diversity.
Genetic diversity is the genetic variation within and between
populations.
Species diversity includes the full range of species on earth, and takes
into account both the number of species in an area, and species
richness.
Ecosystem biodiversity is the variations within biological communities
in which species live, the ecosystem in which communities exists, and
the interactions amongst these levels.
Functional diversity refers to the biological and chemical functions
such as energy flow and nutrient cycling needed for the survival of
species and biological communities.
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Genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
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Functional diversity
LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
The beginning of new life forms are enabled through the key process of
speciation. Biodiversity can be generated by two possible ways:

By a gradual change of an entire lineage or meta-population commonly

referred to as Anagenesis. Anagenesis is the linear evaluation in which
the entire population changes to be different from and to replace the
ancestral population.

As the branching of a lineage into two separate lineages known as

Cladogenesis. Cladogenesis is the branching evolution that creates a
greater diversity of sister organisms each branch is called a clade.

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Patterns of Speciation: Gradualism and Branching
LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
b. Why is biodiversity important?

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species,

regardless of size and functionality, all have an important role to play
(Global Issues, 2015).

Biodiversity is important in that is offers a variety of food for us to eat

and ensures natural sustainability, it also provides other basic conditions
for humans to survive such as the air we breathe, water we drink, and
the means for shelter.

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Relative productivity of various ecosystems
LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
Many of the poor communities relies directly on natural resources for
subsistence and household income, such as subsistence farmers on
their crops and cattle and coastal communities on marine and coastal
resources.

Biodiversity provides us with ecosystem services, biological

resources, and social benefits.

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Community member drying-out fish to Community member harvesting salt of
make bokkoms (a west coast salt pans in Papendorp, South Africa
delicacy) in Papendorp, South Africa

Snoek, West Coast, South Africa Rock lobster and mussel harvesting,
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South Africa
LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem services includes, protection and purification of water resources, soil
formation and protection, nutrient storage and recycling, pollution breakdown
and absorption, contribution to climate stability, maintenance of ecosystems,
and recovery from unpredictable events such as, floods, fires, and droughts
(Global Issues, 2015).

Biological resources includes, food, medicinal resources and pharmaceutical

drugs, wood products, ornamental plants, breeding stocks, population reservoirs,
future resources, and diversity in genes, species and ecosystems (Global Issues,
2015).

Social benefits, includes research, education and monitoring, recreation and

tourism, and cultural values (Global Issues, 2015).

The cost of replacing biological resources (if possible) would be extremely

expensive. It therefore makes economic and development sense to move
towards sustainability (Shah, 2013).
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LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity also has intrinsic aesthetic value, adding to the variety of
life.

Imagine for instance, a library that contains only a few books and
popular magazines, and compare it with a well-stocked library with
all sorts of literature and a wide variety of magazines. Which one
would you prefer?

Or what about two playgrounds, one with just a few options and the
other filled with all sorts of games, activities and options surely you
would choose the latter one.

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Mangroves act as protecting barriers
for Flash Floods and other natural
disasters
Pemba, Zanzibar

Towards sustainability, mangroves

plantation near Lumbo, Mozambique

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LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
c. Rates of Speciation and Extinction

Speciation is a key process in biodiversity and is the form of new and distinct
biological species.

Extinction on the other end, involves the disappearance of a species or a population.

The evolutionary process of speciation involves the genetic differentiation of

populations.

There are three types of speciation namely allopatric which is speciation by

geographical isolation, parapatric which is speciation with no complete geographic
isolation, and sympatric which is speciation without geographic isolation.

The rate of speciation is a measurement of how many new species are born in a
specific interval in time, and in a particular environment (given habitat, ecosystem
and region). 23
LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
Mathematical modelling shows that the smaller a population becomes,
the lower its ratio of births to deaths, and the longer it remains at low
numbers the more vulnerable it is to extinction.

The size of a species range can also have an effect, as the larger the range
the smaller the chance of extinction.

Humans have also contributed to the increased rates of extinction.

Video

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Connection between human population and the current extinction crisis
LECTURE 2: GENERAL NOTIONS OF
BIODIVERSITY
Our planet, Earth, is now in the midst of its sixth extinction of plants and
animals, we are currently experiencing large numbers of species die-offs
since the loss of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago (Centre for Biological
Diversity, 2015).

It is the rates of speciation and extinction that have shaped the

biodiversity we observed on Earth today. Organisms and populations are
constantly evolving, adapting and changing in response to their
environmental parameters. Over geological time a species can have one
of two fates, it can continue, and occasionally divide, evolve so as to
produce other species or it can become extinct.

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 Background extinction rate: is the natural extinction rate of all species.
Rates are estimated by using fossil records.
There are about 5000 mammal species alive today and there background
extinction rate is estimated at 1 per 200 years
The past 400 years has seen 89 mammalian extinctions. Another 169
mammalian species are listed as critically endangered.
E.O. Wilson, a well-known biologist, thinks that the current rate of extinction
is 1000 times the background rate and that is caused by human activities.
The rate is estimated to be at 3 species per hour. The rate is not equally
spread but is worse in certain areas (hotspots)
Most biologists think we are now in the sixth mass extinction, called the
Holocene extinction event. This extinction event started 10 000 years ago
when large mammals such as the woolly mammoth and sabre-tooth tiger
became extinct. But the extinction rate has accelerated in the last 100 years.
This is mostly due to climate change, which is caused by one species,
humans.
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6TH Mass Extinction
 The five major extinction episodes:

Mass Extinction Million years ago Geological Period Estimate of losses

6th Now Holocene Unknown
5th 65 Cretaceous-Tertiary 17% of all families and
all large animals
including dinosaurs
4th 199-214 End Triassic 23% of all families and
some vertebrates
3rd 251 Permian-Triassic 95% of all species and
54% of all families
2nd 364 Devonian 19% of all families
1st 440 Ordovician-Silurian 25% of all families
What makes a species prone to extinction?
The following factors make a species prone to extinction:

Narrow geographical range

Small population size or declining numbers
Low population densities and large territories
Few populations of the species
Large Bodied species
Low reproductive potential
Seasonal migrants
Poor dispersers
Specialized feeders or niche requirements
Hunted for food or sport
Case Histories
Extinct Species: Dodo Raphus cucullatus

Description: Large flightless bird endemic to the island of Mauritius.

Ecological Role: No major predators on Mauritius so dodo had no need to develop flight. Dodo was a ground-
nesting bird.

Pressures: In 1505 Portuguese sailors used discovered Mauritius and used it as a restocking point on their
voyages to get spices from Indonesia. They ate the dodo as a source of red meat. Later the island was used a
penal colony (jail/prison) and rats, pigs and monkeys were introduced. These ate the dodo eggs and humans
killed the dodo for sport and food. Crab-eating macaque monkeys introduced by sailors also seemed to have
an impact as the stole the dodo eggs. The later conversion of forest to plantation also destroyed their habitat.
It was known to be extinct by 1681.

Consequences of disappearance: Island fauna impoverished by its loss.

LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY

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LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
a. What is biodiversity loss?

Biodiversity loss means the loss of biological diversity and biomass in an

environment. There have been substantial irreversible loss in the
diversity of life on Earth over the years. With the many biodiversity
threats we experience today, the biggest threats can be remembered
using the acronym H.I.P.P.O.:

Habitat Loss,
Invasive Species,
Pollution,
Human Population, and
Overharvesting.
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LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
b. Overpopulation

The human population since the 1800s have increased by a few billions.
As populations increased so do the pressure on biodiversity, as it leads to
an increase in the amounts of resources used by humans. Population
growth has led to increasing threats to biodiversity.
Overpopulation means that there are more people than there are
resources to meet their needs and sustain them. With the worlds
population growing at an unsustainably so do demands for water, land,
food, renewable and non-renewable resources, plants and animals.
Overpopulation: leads to the need to accommodate human activities like
agriculture, which is needed to support the human population.

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One of the biggest threats to biodiversity is the rapidly growing population of the world
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Overpopulation and its threat to biodiversity
LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
c. Habitat loss and degradation

Habitat loss is when a habitat has changed or altered in such a way that
usually adversely affects most or all species and the longer term survival
of the species within the habitat.
Habitat degradation is the primary cause of species becoming extinct in
many parts of the world today. Habitat degradation refers to the decline
in habitat quality and its effects can be temporarily or permanently.
Habitat fragmentation is the process whereby large natural areas are
separated by roads, towns, fences, fields, etc...This leads to a decrease in
ecological interactions between species and the isolation of populations.
This also leads to the interaction of wild and domestic species which
could spread diseases between the populations.
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Habitat loss and degradation in terms of land converted for human use
LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
d. Climate Change

Climate change definitely have an important impact on biodiversity.

Climate change impacts environments globally, due to it actually

impacting the ecosystems which forms part of the environment.

Climate change forces biodiversity to adapt to the changes through

shifting habitat, changing life cycles, or the development of new physical
traits. Often this might impact biodiversity negatively, for example if a
species cannot shift to a new habitat fast enough or if it cannot adapt fast
enough to changing climatic conditions which has been seen to be the
case with many species. In this case they might decrease in numbers and
eventually go extinct. 39
LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity can also assist with helping us cope with climate change.

Healthy ecosystems can help mitigate climate change impacts by

absorbing excess flood water or buffering us against coastal erosion or
extreme weather conditions.

Protecting biodiversity can help limit atmospheric greenhouse gas

concentrations because forests and other habitats are major stores of
carbon dioxide.

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Climate change and habitat loss map which poses a threat to biodiversity
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(warming temperatures)
LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
e. Pollution

Human activities are responsible for most of the loss in biodiversity

globally, pollution is one of these anthropogenic activities. All forms of
pollution pose a serious threat to biodiversity. Pollution has become one
of the greatest threats to biodiversity.

Pollution can be seen as a substance which disturbs the surrounding

environment and especially biodiversity. A pollutant is a waste materials
that pollutes air, water or soil. The three main factors that determine the
severity of a pollutant is its chemical nature, the concentration and
persistence.

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LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
Industrialization contributes to pollution. Many species cannot cope with
rapid changes in the physical parameters which are occurring in our
environment.

While some substances stay in the environment for short period of time
while other stay very long and can end up entering the food chain. High
levels of pollution results in toxicity, and the level of occurrence affects
the capacity of organisms to tolerate the substance.

The release of pollutants into the environment can kill organisms

outright, change the biogeochemical conditions and processes occurring
within a system and result in systematic changes that degrade habitats
and make ecological processes dysfunctional.

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Overflowing waste bins on Jomo Kenyatta
Public Beach, Mombasa

Oil in front of the electricity generator

Rubbish in Black River in Cape Town, in Wesha, Pemba, Zanzibar
South Africa 44
LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
f. Overharvesting

Harvesting includes hunting, gathering and or fishing for a particular

species. Overharvesting depletes ecological resources to levels that
makes harvesting of a particular species unsustainable. Overharvesting of
a species leads to endangering or extinction of the species.

Overfishing and the increased levels of poaching is an example of

overharvesting which affects the numbers of fish stocks. Overfishing is
vulnerable to overharvesting, also due to the technology being used that
increases the intensity in harvesting.

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 Deforestation in the Congo Basin
affecting the livelihoods of the
baka pygmies community

Overharvesting and freezing of

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

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LECTURE 3: THREATS TO
BIODIVERSITY
g. Introduced species

Plants and animals can be introduced intentionally or by accident into

areas outside their natural environment. New species can be introduced
into a new area and can affect the local species in a number of ways.
Introduced species can have an impact on local species particularly in
fragile ecosystems, where they are able to disturb and spread rapidly.

New species can also parasitize or predate upon local species, hybridize
with them, compete with them for food, bring unfamiliar diseases,
modify habitats and or disrupt important interactions.

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 Invasive alien species in South Africa
(http://www.capenature.co.za/conserving-water-factories-western-cape/)
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
a. What is the state of biodiversity in the world?

Biodiversity is being lost on an increasingly large scale.

Scientists have begun to call the period we live in as a six mass

extinction in the history of the earth, with the last extinction being the
end of the dinosaurs during the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago.

Scientists estimate that there are more than 100 million species of which
only 1.8 million have been named. While there are millions of species
there is also an unprecedented mass extinction of species on Earth.
Scientists have also estimated that between 150 and 200 species become
extinct each year. Possibly of species we have not even researched yet as
there are so many unknown and or unnamed species. 50
LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
The worlds oceans and forests are particularly threatened. The worlds
coral reefs are being lost due to overfishing, pollution, warming of the
oceans, and other causes. They are already severely damaged and
degraded in many places.

Deforestation is another cause of biodiversity loss as many species occur

in these forests. The global forest cover is shrinking dramatically, and
Africa is particularly hard hit.

Importantly, there is also a relationship between forest destruction and

coral reef degradation. When the forest are destroyed they no longer
hold the topsoil, and when heavy rains come suddenly, as is often the
case in the tropics, the run-off of soil ends up in the ocean and the reefs
are smother by silt.
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
According to the Convention on Biological Diversitys Global Biodiversity
Outlook 3 Report,

we can no longer see the continued loss of biodiversity as an issue

separate from the core of society: to tackle poverty, to improve health,
prosperity and security and future generations, and to deal with climate
change. Each of those objectives is undermined by current trends in the
state of our ecosystems, and each will be greatly strengthened if we finally
give biodiversity the priority it deserves

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 Current global forest distribution
(http://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/blog/why-do-forests-matter-a-call.html)
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 Coral reef global map
(http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v476/n7361/full/476375d.html)
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
The key findings of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) summarizes the state
of our planets biodiversity as the following:

There have always been periods of extinction in the planet's history, but this episode
of species extinction is greater than anything the world has experienced for the
past 65 million years the greatest rate of extinction since the vanishing of the
dinosaurs.

This mass extinction is due, in large measure, to humankind's unsustainable

methods of production and consumption, including the destruction of habitats,
expanding cities, pollution, deforestation, global warming and the introduction of
"invasive species".

"Climate change is forecast to become one of the biggest threats to biodiversity,"

the UN Convention on Biological Diversity said in a statement marking May 22.

"Approximately 20-30 per cent of plant and animal species assessed so far are likely
to be at greater risk of extinction if increases in global average temperature exceed
1.5 to 2.5 Celsius" (2.7 to 4.5 Fahrenheit), according to a report in April 2007 by the
UN climate panel. Beyond that, it said ecosystems would face ever more wrenching 55
changes.
LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity contributes directly or indirectly to many aspects of our well-being,
for instance, by providing raw materials and contributing to health. More than 60
per cent of the world's people depend directly on plants for their medicines.

Over the past century, many people have benefited from the conversion of
natural ecosystems to agricultural land and from the exploitation of
biodiversity. Although many individuals benefit from activities that lead to
biodiversity loss and ecosystem change, the full costs borne by society often
exceed the benefits.

World leaders agreed at a 2002 UN Summit in Johannesburg to "achieve by 2010

a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global,
regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the
benefit of all life on earth.

To achieve greater progress towards biodiversity conservation, it will be

necessary but not sufficient to urgently strengthen actions on the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
b. What is the state of biodiversity in South Africa?

South Africa is truly one of the most biologically diverse countries. The
country consists of terrestrial, marine and aquatic ecosystems. South
Africa also has a number of biodiversity hotspots and a number of
biomes. The biomes includes the Fynbos, Forest, Succulent Karoo, Nama
Karoo, Savanna, Thicket and Grassland. Each of the biomes supports its
own collection of plant and animals species.

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Biomes of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, 2006
(http://bgis.sanbi.org/vegmap/biomes.asp)
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 Biodiversity hotspots in South Africa
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(http://bgis.sanbi.org/nsba/conservationAreas.asp)
LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
The background research paper on biodiversity and environmental health
informed the South African Environment Outlook and was part of the National
State of the Environment Project prepared in 2005, noted the following key facts:

South Africa occupies only 2% of the worlds land surface, yet contains a
disproportionately large share of global biodiversity, being home to nearly 10% of
the planets plant species and 7% of the reptile, bird and mammal species.

The country contains three globally recognized biodiversity hotspots, namely the
Cape Floristic Region, the Succulent Karoo, shared with southern Namibia, and
the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot, shared with Mozambique and
Swaziland. The Cape Floristic Region is the smallest (<90 000km2) and is the only
floral kingdom to occur exclusively within the geographical boundaries of one
country.

Its extraordinary plant diversity helps rank South Africa as the country with the
fifth highest number of plant species in the world. Our seas, which support many
livelihoods, include the Atlantic, Indian and Southern Oceans with a wide range of
habitats from kelp forests to coral reefs. Additionally our coast is home to 15% of
the worlds coastal species. 60
LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
South Africa has numerous protected areas, and it has research institutes
determining the best approaches to conserve our biodiversity.

The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) plays an

important role in the foundations of biodiversity (surveying, classifying
and mapping species), and build on that foundation of knowledge
through assessments and monitoring, and make use of the knowledge to
translate science into policy and action.

We have extremely good environmental policies and legislation, however

we struggle to implement them in practice.

At the end of the day, biodiversity conservation will require the

awareness of its importance in all people, especially those that have a
great impact on it like local communities in rural areas.
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
Some questions to consider:

List what you think the most important actions are that can be taken to
conserve biodiversity in our country would be.

Why, if we have laws and protected areas in place are we still losing
biodiversity?

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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
Our protected area system is recognised as one of the best in Africa. One
of our national parks, the Addo Elephant National Park, contains what is
known as the Big Seven, in one single park!

For more information on the Big Seven, and to see footage of them visit
the following links:

Siyaya come wild with us - Episode 1: https://vimeo.com/95833122

Siyaya come wild with us - Episode 2: https://vimeo.com/97702829
Siyaya come wild with us - Episode 3: https://vimeo.com/97731552
Siyaya come wild with us - Episode 4: https://vimeo.com/97799319

Please use the password Siyaya26 to access these footage. 63

LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
c. Biodiversity indicators:

i) What are biodiversity indicators used for?

Biodiversity indicators are used for quantitative data to measure aspects

of biodiversity, ecosystem condition, services, and drivers of change, as
well as to help understand how biodiversity is changing over time and
space, why it is changing, and what the consequences of the changes are
for ecosystems, their services, and human well-being. Biodiversity
indicators are communication tools that provides a summary of data
often on complex environmental issues.

Indicators can signal key issues to be addressed through policy or

management interventions. More importantly indicators monitor the
status and trends of biodiversity.
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
The crucial issue in developing biodiversity indicators is to be clear on the
specific question about biodiversity that the measuring system is designed
to answer.

Examples of biodiversity indicators includes:

Population trends of species

Extent of different habitats
Trends in the status of threatened species
Coverage of protected areas

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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
ii) What is the Natural Capital Index (NCI)?

Natural Capital can be defined as the worlds stocks of natural resources

or assets such as geology, soil, air and water and all living things. It is
from the Natural Capital that humans derive a wide range of services,
often called ecosystem services which make human life possible.

The NCI is an integrated indicator to measure the condition of

biodiversity. The Natural Capital Index (NCI) is used as a framework,
initially developed as a contribution to the implementation of the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) designed to answer questions
on the status of biodiversity such as:
How much biodiversity remains?
What are the causes of loss?
What can we do about it?

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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
The NCI need to be relevant and appealing for policy development,
quantitative, sensitive, affordable, measurable and universally
acceptable. It was questions like the above and its answers that assisted
with decision-making for policy-makers and the public.

The NCI represents the entire ecosystem and must be associated with
socio-economic scenarios for projections. The NCI equals the product of
the percentage of the remaining are of natural ecosystems with the
quality of the remaining habitat the quality is measured on the basis of
the abundance of a group of selected species relative to baseline level.

NCI = ecosystem quantity (remaining size of ecosystem) (%) x ecosystem

quality (%)

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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
iii) What are the effects of biodiversity loss?

Biological diversity is the web of life, linking all organisms on Earth. All families,
communities, nations and future generations depend on the natural resources
offered by the Earths biological diversity. Earths natural assets are animals,
plants, land, water, the atmosphere and humans.

Loss in biodiversity puts the health of our livelihoods at risk. The loss of
biodiversity can certainly have many consequences, some that we understand
and many that we do not.

Biodiversity depends upon the habitats and ecosystems which support them.
Losses in biodiversity in rainforests for example, cause significant changes in
ecosystem functioning. Loss of biodiversity also affect ecosystems as climate
change, pollution and other major forms of environmental stress. The loss of
biodiversity resulting in species extinctions can have major effects on our plant,
and we need to prepare for it.
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
iv) How can biodiversity be protected?

From an ecological point of view, a first step to protecting biodiversity is

to stem the tide of species loss and to conserve natural resources.
Conserving biodiversity involves addressing three major categories:
species and their sub-populations, genetic diversity, as well as
ecosystems.

From a management point of view, it is important to also recognize that

biodiversity conservation are intertwined with environmental
governance and sustainable development. Legislative frameworks such
as laws, regulations and policies strategically aims to protect biodiversity.
National, provincial and local planning also further protect biodiversity,
however, there are shortcomings in the implementation of these plans
(such as capacity, funding and other resources).
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LECTURE 4: STATE AND FUTURE OF
BIODIVERSITY
v) How can humans contribute?

There is no doubt that the root cause of biodiversity loss is the

consumption of resources, therefore, we should be mindful of what we
consume and prevent wastage thereof. Ecolabels enable consumers to
determine which products are sustainably harvested.

Other ways of also contributing is by:

Encouraging local biodiversity (i.e. diversifying your garden, plant indigenous
trees and shrubs, reduce the use of pesticides)
Advocating for biodiversity (i.e. making connection with local communities are
important in protecting biodiversity, and share important messages)
Helping the environment (i.e. be informed about products, reduce, recycle and
re-use, and reduce your carbon footprint such as use of electricity water recycling
materials and using environmentally friendly products, buy locally produced fruit
and vegetables and organic if possible, and buy sustainably harvested seafood)
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Examples of various ecolabels globally
ASSESSMENT
Assignment Question: Module 1: Loss of Biodiversity

In 2000 3000 words:

Option A: Explore which National Park in South Africa has the Big Seven, describe
the main threats to each one of them, and suggest ways of reducing those threats.
Option B: Identify a conservation issue relating to biodiversity loss, describe its
causes, and discuss what measures are being taken to address the issue. Suggest
ways in which future efforts should be directed.

Make use of academic research and relevant conservation authorities/

organisations project reports.
Reference all sources accordingly (no wikipedia!!)
Marks will be awarded based on: relevance; structure; content; execution.
Assignment due: Friday the 14th of August 2015
Counts 10% of course mark

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