Metal Forming Technology

Module 5: Extrusion

Lecture-1: Types of extrusion and extrusion equipment:

Extrusion is a compressive deformation process in which a block of metal is squeezed through

an orifice or die opening in order to obtain a reduction in diameter and increase in length of
the metal block. The resultant product will have the desired cross-section. Extrusion involves
forming of axisymmetric parts. Dies of circular on non-circular cross-section are used for
extrusion. Generally, extrusion involves greater forming forces. Large hydrostatic stress in
extrusion helps in the process by enhancing the ductility of the material. Metals like aluminium,
which are easily workable, can be extruded at room temperature. Other difficult to work metals
are usually hot extruded or warm extruded. Both circular and non circular parts can be
obtained by extrusion. Channels, angles, rods, window frames, door frames, tubes, aluminium
fins are some of the extruded parts.

Difficult to form materials such as stainless steels, nickel alloys are extruded due to its inherent
advantage, namely, no surface cracking due to reaction between the billet and the extrusion
container. Extrusion results in better grain structure, better accuracy and surface finish of the
components. Less wastage of material in extrusion is another attractive feature of extrusion.

Lead pipes were extruded in late 1700s in England. Later on lead sheathing of electric cables
was done by extrusion.

Types of extrusion:

Extrusion ratio: It is the ratio of area of cross-section of the billet to the area of cross-section of
the extrude.

R = Ao/Af

Another parameter used in extrusion is shape factor, ratio of perimeter to the cross-section of
the part. An extruded rod has the lowest shape factor.

Extrusion is classified in general into four types. They are: Direct extrusion, indirect extrusion,
impact extrusion and hydrostatic extrusion.

In extrusion process, the billet is placed in a container, pushed through the die opening using a
ram and dummy block. Both ram and billet move.

Direct extrusion:
Direct extrusion, also called forward extrusion, is a process in which is the billet moves along
the same direction as the ram and punch do. Sliding of billet is against stationary container wall.
Friction between the container and billet is high. As a result, greater forces are required. A
dummy block of slightly lower diameter than the billet diameter is used in order to prevent
oxidation of the billet in hot extrusion. Hollow sections like tubes can be extruded by direct
method, by using hollow billet and a mandrel attached to the dummy block.

Container
Die

Ram

Billet
Extrude

Dummy block

Direct extrusion process

Breakthrough pressure
Extrusion Pressure

Cylinder friction

Pipe formation

Ram travel
 Variation of extrusion force with ram travel in direct extrusion

Extrusion force, which is the force required for extrusion, in direct extrusion, varies with ram
travel as shown in figure above. Initially the billet gets compressed to the size of container,
before getting extruded. Also, initially static friction exists between billet and container. As a
result the extrusion pressure or force increases steeply as shown. Once the billet starts getting
extruded, it length inside the container is reduced. Friction between billet and container now
starts reducing. Therefore, extrusion pressure reduces. The highest pressure at which extrusion
starts is called breakthrough pressure. At the end of the extrusion, the small amount of material
left in the container gets pulled into the die, making the billet hollow at centre. This is called
pipe. Beyond pipe formation, the extrusion pressure rapidly increases, as the small size billet
present offers higher resistance. As the length of the billet is increased, the corresponding
extrusion pressure is also higher because of friction between container and billet. Therefore,
billet lengths beyond 5 times the diameter are not preferred in direct extrusion.

Direct extrusion can be employed for extruding solid circular or non-circular sections, hollow
sections such as tubes or cups.

Indirect extrusion:

Container
Closure plate

Ram
Billet
 Extrusion Pressure

Indirect extrusion

Begins Ends

Ram travel

Extrusion pressure versus ram travel for indirect and direct extrusion

Indirect extrusion (backward extrusion) is a process in which punch moves opposite to that of
the billet. Here there is no relative motion between container and billet. Hence, there is less
friction and hence reduced forces are required for indirect extrusion. For extruding solid pieces,
hollow punch is required. In hollow extrusion, the material gets forced through the annular
space between the solid punch and the container. The variation of extrusion pressure in
indirect extrusion is shown above. As seen, extrusion pressure for indirect extrusion is lower
than that for direct extrusion. Many components are manufactured by combining direct and
indirect extrusions. Indirect extrusion can not be used for extruding long extrudes.

Hydrostatic extrusion:

In hydrostatic extrusion the container is filled with a fluid. Extrusion pressure is transmitted
through the fluid to the billet. Friction is eliminated in this process because of there is no
contact between billet and container wall. Brittle materials can be extruded by this process.
Highly brittle materials can be extruded into a pressure chamber. Greater reductions are
possible by this method. Pressure involved in the process may be as high as 1700 MPa. Pressure
is limited by the strength of the container, punch and die materials. Vegetable oils such as
castor oil are used. Normally this process is carried out at room temperature. A couple of
disadvantages of the process are: leakage of pressurized oil and uncontrolled speed of
extrusion at exit, due to release of stored energy by the oil. This may result in shock in the
machinery. This problem is overcome by making the punch come into contact with the billet
and reducing the quantity of oil through less clearance between billet and container.
Hydrostatic extrusion is employed for making aluminium or copper wires-especially for
reducing their diameters. Ceramics can be extruded by this process. Cladding is another
application of the process. Extrusion ratios from 20 (for steels) to as high as 200 (for aluminium)
can be achieved in this process.

Impact extrusion: Hollow sections such as cups, toothpaste containers are made by impact
extrusion. It is a variation of indirect extrusion. The punch is made to strike the slug at high
speed by impact load. Tubes of small wall thickness can be produced. Usually metals like
copper, aluminium, lead are impact extruded.

Cold and hot extrusion:

Cold extrusion could produce parts with good surface finish, high strength due to strain
hardening, improved accuracy, high rate of production. However, the process requires higher
pressure and tools are subjected to higher stresses. Proper lubrication is necessary for
preventing seizure of tool and workpiece. Phosphate coated billets are lubricated with soap.

Hot extrusion can be employed for higher extrusion ratios. Inhomogeneous deformation can
occur due to die wall chilling of the billet. Metal may get oxidized. The oxide layer can increase
friction as well as the material flow. Glass is used as lubricant for hot extrusion. Molybdenum
disulfide or graphite are the solid lubricants used in hot extrusion. Canned extrusion using thin
walled cans made of copper or tin is usually used for extruding highly reactive metals and metal
powders.

Tube extrusion:

Employing hollow billet and a mandrel at the end of the ram, hollow sections such as tubes can
be extruded to closer tolerences. The mandrel extends upto the entrance of the die. Clearance
between the mandrel and die wall decides the wall thickness of the tube. The mandrel is made
to travel alongwith the ram in order to make concentric tubes by extrusion.

Tubes can also be made using solid billet and using a piercing mandrel to produce the hollow.
The piercing mandrel is made to move independently with the help of hydraulic press. It moves
along with the ram coaxially. First the ram upsets the billet, keeping the mandrel withdrawn.
Next the mandrel pierces the billet and ejects a plug of material from central. Then the ram and
mandrel together are moved in and extrude the billet.

Plug rolling and Mannesmann processes are also the other methods of producing seamless
tubes.

Port hole extrusion is another method of producing tubes and hollow sections in aluminium,
magnesium etc. In this method, a die with a number of ports and a central mandrel supported
by a bridge is used. The billet is squeezed through the ports and flows in separate streams.
After the die section the extruded streams are joined together by welding in the welding
chamber.

Extrusion presses:

Hydraulic presses of vertical or horizontal type are used for extrusion. Vertical presses are of
capacity ranging from 3 to 20 MN. Horizontal presses occupy less space, but the billets get
nonuniformly cooled. Horizontal presses upto 50 MN capacity are being used. Tubular
extrusions are mostly done in vertical presses, while horizontal presses are used for bar
extrusion.

Quiz:

1. For what type of components vertical extrusion presses are preferred?

For axisymmetric parts such as tubes, thin walled tubes.

2. For aluminium or copper alloys, we employ lower extrusion speed. Why?

High strain rates will lead to hot shortness, which may lead to hot cracks.
3. In indirect extrusion why the extrusion pressure does not vary with ram travel distance?

Because there is no friction due to relative motion between billet and container. Billet remains
stationary with respect to container. Friction is very less.

4. Mention the advantage and application of hydrostatic extrusion.

Hydrostatic extrusion is suitable for extruding brittle materials. Low friction, due to hydrostatic
stress, increase in ductility.

Lecture -2 : Analysis of extrusion:

Material flow in extrusion:

Extrusion pressure depends on the nature of material flow and redundant deformation during
extrusion. Metal flow can be studied by etching square grid on the cross-section of one half of
the billet. The billet is cut across along the length and after making the grid, the two halves are
joined by brazing or simply placed together inside the die. After extrusion the two halves of the
billet are separated and the grid lines are inspected for shape change. The nature of material
flow pattern depends on the friction at the interface, temperature variations in the billet etc.

A frictionless condition at die-billet interface will result in homogeneous deformation, without

formation of dead metal or shear zone. In case of high friction, a region of no-flow or dead
metal zone forms in the corner zones. Near the die exit, shear zones are formed, especially on
the periphery of the billet. Shear deformation-redundant deformation leads to enhanced
extrusion load. Material flow through shear zone may result in defective extrudes. During hot
extrusion, the metal near die wall gets chilled out resulting in enhancement of resistance to
flow. The material at the centre flows freely. This kind of variation across the billet results in
dead metal zone near wall of the die. Under high friction conditions, the shear zone may extend
back into the central part of the billet. Larger dead metal zone may form due to high friction,
leading to defects in extruded parts. Redundant work will be higher.

Material flow in extrusion

Dead metal zone

 Low friction High friction

Redundant work refers to the work done in the redundant shear deformation due to friction. As
friction increases, metal flow becomes highly non-homogeneous, enhancing the shear
deformation.

Extrusion pressure for ideal extrusion:

Consider a cylindrical billet of initial diameter d o, length lo, being subjected to axisymmetric
extrusion without friction and redundant deformation. Let the final diameter be d f.

The ideal plastic work done per unit volume is given by:

w= --------1

Assuming that the stress is equal to average flow stress of the material in compression, we can
write,

w= = -----------------2

We consider the average flow stress here because the material undergoes strain hardening
during extrusion. Therefore its flow stress increases from entrance to exit.

We know that =
And the strain during extrusion is given as:

= ln(Ao/Af), because, AoLo = AfLf for constancy of volume

Extrusion ratio R is defined as R = Ao/Af

Therefore, w = lnR

The total work done during extrusion is given by:

wXVolume = AL lnR -----------3

Also we can write work done = Pressure X Area X Displacement = pAL

From the above expressions for work, we get the extrusion pressure as:

p = lnR ---------4

If redundant work due to friction is assumed, the extrusion pressure is expected to be higher
than that predicted by equation 4.

Extrusion force = F = pAo = p

We define the extrusion efficiency as the ratio of ideal work of deformation to actual work of
deformation.

= and wactual = wideal + wfriction + wredundant

Or, pactual = lnR/ ---------5

Where is the extrusion efficiency.

If one has to consider the friction between the container and the billet alone, then the total
extrusion pressure can be taken to be the sum of the die pressure and the pressure required to
overcome friction in the container.

p = die pressure + friction pressure

The friction pressure is given by:

pf = , (assuming sliding friction)

where L is length of billet in container and D is diameter of billet and is interface shear stress.
Note: As seen from equation 4, as the extrusion ratio increases, the extrusion force also
increases.

Example: A certain material has a strength coefficient of 400 MPa and a strain hardening
exponent of 0.16 . A billet of this material has a diameter of 30 mm and a length of 80 mm. This
billet is extruded to a ratio of 4. Assuming square die, estimate the extrusion force required,
ignoring friction. Use the following formula for extrusion pressure:

p= (a+blnR)+ ], where a = 0.8, b=1.5

Solution:

R = 4 (given), = = 421.64 MPa.

= 1.39

p = 3461 MPa

Extrusion force = 2.45 MN

Direct extrusion - More accurate analysis - Slab analysis:

Slab analysis can be used for determining the extrusion pressure during direct extrusion. In
order to simplify the analysis, we may assume that the die angle is small. Consider an elemental
slab of thickness dx within the deformation zone of extrusion. The radius of the slab reduces
from R+dR to R as a result of extrusion. We can make a force balance on the slab, assuming that
constant sliding friction exists between the billet and die wall. The semi-cone angle of the die is
considered as . Let Ro and Rf be the initial and final radii of the billet.

R+dR

dx R

The slant surface area is given as:

 ( )
= (neglecting small terms) -------6

The force balance equation for the elemental slab along the direction of extrusion may be
written as:
2
( + ) ( + ) =( + ) ---------7

Simplifying, neglecting the terms involving square and product of small quantities, we get

+2 = 2 (1 + ) ----------------8

Applying the Tresca yield criterion:

Treat applied stress as positive and induced stress as negative

That is: p is negative and the applied stress =

Therefore the yield criterion is written in the form:

- +p = Y p = Y+

Substituting for p into equation 8 above, integrating we get:

ln[( ) + (1 + ) ] = 2 + --------------9

applying the boundary condition:

At R = Rf, =0 , Solving for c and simplifying, we get:

= Y[ ][( ) 1] -----------------10

where, B = cot , Y is yield strength of material in compression., is extrusion pressure.

Equation 10 gives the extrusion pressure at any location x along the deformation zone.

The punch pressure to be applied can be obtained by substituting R = R i in equation 10

And also noting that the punch pressure = -

i.e pext = Y[ ][1 ] ----------11

Extrusion force at punch now becomes: F = Ao pext

Effect of redundant deformations on extrusion force:

Due to non-homogeneous deformation as a result of friction, material undergoes shear at entry and exit
sections of the die. Shear deformation consumes some energy. The work to be spent on the shear is
known as redundant work.

It can be shown that the stress due to shear at entry, = ------12

dR

dx
R

Consider a small ring element of length dx at a radius of R, with thickness dR, located at

X from the reference point.

This element gets sheared through an angle of theta as shown above.

Let the yield strength of the material in shear be = Y (From Von-Mises criterion)----13

The volume of the small element is = 2 RdRdx -------14

Shear strain undergone by the element = tan = R/x ----15

Shear Work done on the elemental ring = dW = shear stress X shear strain

dW = Y2 RdRdxR/x ---------16

Total work done on many such elemental rings can be written as:

W= = Y(dx/x ) -------------------17

We know the total volume of the ring of thickness dx =

Work done per unit volume now becomes:

w = Y --------18
We can write tan = R/x

Therefore, shear stress at entry now becomes:

= This is same as equation 12.

Similarly we can obtain shear stress at exit of the conical section of the die as:

= (If no work hardening happens) -----19

Another approximate expression for extrusion can be written assuming that sticking friction exists at
billet-die interface and that the material flows at 45 degrees.

Pext = Y[1.75lnR+2L/Do] ---------20

It can be noted from the above expression that as ram travel increases, L gets reduced and hence
extrusion pressure.

The actual extrusion punch pressure is a function of friction, shear etc.

Therefore, a general expression for extrusion pressure can be written of the form:

Pext = Y(a+blnR) ---------21

Value of a = 0.5 and b = 1.2 to 1.5

Example: For an alloy of aluminium the flow stress at a temperature of 420o C is given by the expression:
= where C = 200 MPa and m = 0.11. This alloy is hot extruded from an initial diameter of 180 mm
to a final diameter of 60 mm. Length of billet is 400 mm. The speed of extrusion is 60 mm/s. Assuming
square die and poor lubrication determine the extrusion force. Consider the friction in the container
also.

Solution:

Assuming the semi-die angle as 45o

Extrusion pressure can be found from the expression:

pext = Y[ ][1 ]

B= = 0.15

Assuming =0.15

R=9
Average Strain rate can be calculated from:

6 / = 4.39

Y = 235.34 MPa

p = 703.67 MPa

Friction pressure in container = 4kL/Do (Assuming sticking friction)

K = Y/3 = 235.34/1.732 = 135.87

Pf = 1207 MPa

Extrusion force = 48.6 MN

Quiz:

1. Define redundant work.

It is the work spent for shear deformation of the billet when it passes through the extrusion die.

2. What is the effect of redundant work on extrusion pressure?

Total extrusion pressure increases due to shear deformation.

3. Define extrusion efficiency.

It is the ratio of ideal extrusion work to actual extrusion work.

Lecture-3: Further analysis and extrusion defects:

Strain rate in hot extrusion:

Strain effects on flow stress and hence on extrusion pressure are predominant for hot extrusion
(due to strain rate sensitivity). Therefore, it is rather difficult to predict extrusion force in hot
extrusion. We can estimate the strain rate at any location x in the billet from the geometrical
considerations.

Let a cylindrical billet has initial radius of Ro and extruded radius of Rf. be semi-cone angle of
the die.

We can write the strain rate at any location x from entry of die as:
 ------------22

The average strain rate undergone by a billet is given by:

= -------23

Vo is velocity of ram

We can say that for hot extrusion, the extrusion pressure,

p is directly proportional to stain rate. As strain rate increases, the extrusion pressure also
increases, almost linearly. As ram speed increases, the extrusion pressure also increases, due to
increasing strain rate. However, the extrusion pressure is reduced with increased working
temperature in hot extrusion.

Further, with higher ram speeds, adiabatic conditions prevail, the billet does not cool fast
enough, causing increase in temperatures rapid enough to cause localized melting. Cracks may
initiate due to this. Hot shortness also can cause cracking. Such cracks are called speed cracks,
as they are caused by high ram speeds.
Extrusion force

Speed of extrusion

A general expression for extrusion pressure in hot extrusion is usually given in the form:

P = klnR, where k is a factor depends on other factors during hot extrusion.

Optimum extrusion die angle:

We have seen in previous lecture that for ideal, frictionless extrusion, the extrusion pressure is
given by:
p = Y lnR, which indicates that the extrusion pressure is independent of the die angle.

However, during extrusion, there is friction, which in turn increases the extrusion pressure.

There is redundant deformation which also demands some work or energy. We have seen that
the extrusion force with friction depends on length of contact between die and billet. See
equation 20.

Variation of extrusion pressure or force with die angle is shown.

Extrusion force

Ideal deformation force

, Die angle

Variation of various forces during extrusion with die angle

As seen from the graph, the force required to overcome friction increases with decrease in die
angle. This is because, with reduced die angle, length of contact increases. Thus extrusion force
increases. See eqn. 20.

On the other hand we observe that the force needed for redundant shear deformation
increases with increase in die angle. This is because as the die angle is increased, there is more
shear of the material, hence more redundant deformation.

The total extrusion force is a minimum at a particular die angle. This angle is called optimum die
angle.
The area reduction r is defined as:

r = (Ao-Af)/Ao = 1-Af/Ao R = 1/(1-r)

In extrusion, the extrusion ratio and also reduction r increase with increase in die angle.
Reductions of 8 are commonly used in extrusion. That is, R = 8 and hence r = 0.875.

Example: Low carbon steel billet of initial diameter of 60 mm and length of 150 mm is extruded
at 1400 K using a square die at a speed of 130 mm/s. Estimate the extrusion force for extruding
the billet to a final diameter of 40 mm. Assume suitable data and assume poor lubrication.

Solution:

We can employ the expression: p = (a+blnR) for estimating extrusion pressure.

The constants a and b are: a=0.8, b=1.5

In hot working the flow stress is strain rate dependent.

We can assume the flow stress as: = =

For low carbon steel, C = 100 MPa and m = 0.1 (Average values)

R = Ao/Af = (Do/Df)2 = 3600/1600 = 2.25

Strain rate is calculated using equation 23: = ( )

lnR= 14.99 s-1

Assume square die, that is, =45 degrees

= 131.09 MPa

p = 264.33 MPa

Extrusion force = p X Area = 0.75 MN

Extrusion die:

Die and punch for extrusion are subjected to severe conditions of stress. Extrusion die are made
from die steel or high carbon high chromium steels. The die is supported in a die holder and
bolster. All these constitute the die head. The container has a liner shrunk into a thick shell in
order to withstand high pressures. The extrusion ram has a follower pad in front so as to
protect it from the hot billet. Usually, extrusion dies are conical in shape. Too small a die angle
will increase friction and too large an angle will increase the friction force. The optimum semi-
die angle for extrusion is usually in the range 45 to 60 o. Square dies, with 90o angle can be used
for aluminium, as it has low flow stress. Special wear resistant coatings can be applied on die
surface for enhancing the life of the die.

Defects in extrusion products:

Defects in extruded products occur predominantly due to friction and non-homogeneous

material flow. Further, temperature variations across the billet during hot extrusion can also
lead to inhomogeneous deformation. Three types of defects are prominent in extrusion. They
are: extrusion defect, surface cracks and internal cracks.

Extrusion defect is basically due to inhomogeneous deformation. Material at the centre of the
billet comes across least resistance compared to the material near the die wall. As a result,
rapid flow happens at center. After one third of the billet is extruded, the material from
periphery gets entrained towards the center and flows rapidly . Oxides present in peripheral
layers are also entrained. Oxides form internal stringers near the center. This defect is known as
pipe or tail pipe or extrusion defect. Die wall chilling of the outer layers of material also leads to
inhomogeneous deformation. Outer layers of material cools rapidly and hence resistance to
flow is higher. By reducing the friction and temperature variation between centre and
periphery, this defect can be reduced. Using a dummy block smaller in diameter than the billet
may form a thin film of metal and protect the billet against oxidation.

Towards the end of the process, rapid flow of material at the centre will result in pipe
formation.

Surface cracks:

Too high extrusion speed, too large a friction too high a temperature may result in formation of
surface cracks. Fir-tree cracks are transverse cracks which often occur in aluminium or
magnesium due to hot shortness. Longitudinal tensile stresses may be induced on the outer
layer, causing the cracks. At lower temperatures, stick-slip phenomenon may cause cracks
especially in hydrostatic extrusion where pressures are very high. Sticking may happen due to
thick viscous oil film.

Internal cracks:

Secondary tensile stress at the centre can cause centre cracks called chevron crack or centre
burst. Such defects are known to occur under low friction conditions and low extrusion ratio.
Additionally, die angle and contact length play major role in centre burst. Larger the die angle,
more the inhomogeneous deformation, thereby causes chevron cracks. The ratio of height of
deformation zone to length of deformation zone, h/L is very important parameter controlling
this defect. Large h/L values cause secondary tensile stress at centre, because the material at
centre has not reached plastic stage due to non-homogeneous deformation. As a result,
centre burst occurs. Large die angle causes larger h/L.

Chevron cracks Fir tree cracks

Temperature of extrusion plays a very vital role on soundness of the extrudes. Multiple factors
are involved in selection of working temperature. Strain rate, temperature of working and
deformation force are inter-related factors affecting the quality of extruded parts. The
following graph illustrates this.

Working pressure Hot shortness

Deformation

Strain rate

Working temperature

When working temperatures are higher, corresponding working pressures are lower. Limiting
temperature is decided by hot shortness. Similarly, strain rates are limited by adiabatic
conditions and retention of more heat in the billet. Excess strain rates at a particular
temperature restricts the extent of deformation due to the possibility of crack formation. Or if
excess strain rates are involved in the process, the working temperature has to be reduced for
avoiding hot shortness. Higher deformation temperatures reduce the pressure required for a
given deformation or for a given pressure, larger deformations can be achieved.

Quiz:

1. What type of extrusion defects form if the extrusion speed is very high?

Surface crack or fir tree crack.

2. What is meant by optimum die angle of extrusion die? What is the range of die angle
normally used?

The die angle corresponding to minimum total extrusion force is called optimum die angle.
Normal range of die angle is 45 to 60o.

3. Centre burst in extruded products is caused by what type of stress?

Tensile stress at the centre of the extrude.

4. What is hot shortness?
A ductile metal becomes brittle above a certain temperature, because of the presence
of some oxide inclusions, which start melting above this temperature.