Data everywhere

Computation What enable

Servers, PCs,
laptops, mobiles,
microprocessors
Data
Bank, e-commerce,
Facebook, WA, 5G..
Communication Storage
Have you heard of
Moores law

1
Semiconductor Devices

In

Intel

2
Technology Scaling

Scale transistor size Faster switching, more

transistors/area

Higher performance, more functionality, lower

supply voltage (mobile applications)

Todays mobile phones can do much more than

yesterdays PCs

Huge reduction in cost / functionality

3
Technology Scaling A Perspective

Likely 1980s iPhone size (imagine the cost)

Scaling enables affordable high

performance electronics

Intel

4
EE207 Schedule (2017)

Evaluation
Quiz-1: 15% (Saturday, 12/08)
Mid-sem: 25% (Per schedule)
Quiz-2: 15% (Saturday, 14/10)
Assignments: 10% (Ok to discuss, but do yourself)
End-sem: 35% (Saturday, 11/11)

Lectures + Tutorials (Office hours: Wed, 3 - 4:30pm)

Extra time slot: Saturday 10am 12 noon (will be

announced as needed)

Pass criterion: 40% or above (relative grading)

5
EE207 Outline
A) Basics of semiconductors

B) PN Junction

C) Bipolar junction transistor

D) MOS Capacitor

E) MOSFET

6
EE207 Outline
A) Basics of semiconductors

I) Crystal structure

II) Quantum mechanics

III) Band structure

IV) Concept of electrons and holes

V) Transport and continuity

7
Semiconductors
Ohms law: I = V / R or J = E
(conductivity) = 1 / ; = R A / L

= 10-4 10-6 -cm (metal)

= 10-4 1012 -cm (semiconductors)

Temperature dependence:
Metals: R increases at higher T
Semiconductors: R reduces at higher T
8
Semiconductors

Group IV
Si, Ge

Group III-V
GaAs, InP, AlAs

Group II-VI
CdTe, ZnS

9
 Introduction to Crystal Structure (2D Example)
Crystal = Lattice + Basis
Lattice: Periodic arrangement of points in space
Basis: Atoms / Molecules

+ = a2 R

a1
Unit cell: Basic building block
Dimensions: a1, a2

R a1.x a2 . y
10
 3D Crystal Lattices
7 Crystal System:
Triclinic, Monoclinic, Orthorhombic, Hexagonal
Rhombohedral, Tetrahedral, Cubic

Cubic: Simple; Body Centered; Face Centered

11
Primitive cell, primitive basis vectors
Unit cell: Structure that reflects the crystal
symmetry, defined by unit basis vectors
Primitive cell: Smallest cell (nearest neighbors), that
can be repeated to build the crystal, defined by
primitive basis vectors
a
z
z
a1 ( x y )
2
a
a2 ( y z )
y 2
y
a1 ax a
x a3 ( z x )
x
a2 ay 2

a3 az 12
Illustration: FCC primitive basis vectors

a
z
a1 ( x y )
2
a
a2 ( y z )
2
y
a
a3 ( z x )
x 2

H.W. Find out primitive basis vectors for BCC 13

Crystal plane & direction: Miller Index
z
To define planes in crystal
1. Note intercept (, , )
2. Take reciprocal (2,2,0)
y
3. Reduce to smallest integer
[100] direction
(1,1,0) x (1,0,0) plane

To define a direction:
H.W. Find out the
Identify a plane perpendicular
(111) direction
to the direction, identify miller
and plane
index (of that plane)
14
Silicon Crystal
2 FCC, Origin shifted by , ,

15
Silicon Crystal

Question: How
electrons move
inside a crystal
under the influence
of an external field?

16
Electron movement inside a crystal
Electron with mass me moving under the influence of
a periodic potential; me: free electron mass

Electron, with a mass m*, moving as a free particle

(no influence of potential); m*: effective mass,
determined by the periodic potential of atomic
configuration
We can apply Newtonian mechanics!!
17
1D Periodic arrangements of atoms
Arrangements of atoms with periodicity a

Approximate by
finite potential
well with
periodicity a

Solution: Kroning-
Penney model (see
Kittels book on Solid
State Physics for
details) 18
Schrdinger wave mechanics
Dynamic system behavior described by wavefunction:
( x, t ) and is determined by (in 1-D):
d d
2 2 System Potential
U
2m dx 2 i dt
d
, finite, continuous, single valued for all x
dx
Probability of finding a particle in space dx: *dx
*dx 1
19
Variables & Operators
Dynamic variable is represented by operator
Expectation value of a variable is obtained by
operating on the wavefunction

x * xdx
x:x
d d
p: p * dx
i dx i dx
d d
E: E * dx
i dt i dt
20
de Broglie hypothesis
All matter has a wave-like nature (wavelength
momentum relation):
h/ p

The momentum of light (photons):

p E/c c = 3.108m/s (speed of light)

E pc hc / h

21
Uncertainty principle of Heisenberg
Conjugate variables:
Position (x) and Linear momentum (p)
Energy (E) and Time (t)

Uncertainty in measurement of a quantity:

x.p / 2
E.t / 2
The measurement of a particular variable disturbs
its conjugate partner

22
 Time independent solution
System with total constant total energy: E

d
E * ( )dx E Const .
i dt
d iEt /
E by inspection; ( x, t ) ( x)e
i dt
Schrdinger equation becomes time independent:

d
2
2m
2
2
[ E U ( x)] 0
dx
23
 Free particle
Particle moving under zero potential

d 2mE
2
2mE
2
2 0; k 2
dx
d
2
iEt /
2
k 0 ( x, t ) ( x)e
2
; E
dx
( x) A e A e
ikx ikx

i ( kx t ) i ( kx t )
( x, t ) A e A e
2
Traveling waves, wave number k
24
 Energy momentum relation (Free particle)

i ( kx t )
( x, t ) A e Free particle traveling in
+x direction

d
p * dx k *dx
i dx
p k h / E

2mE
k
2
<p>
p 2
E
2m
Parabolic relation 25
Effective mass
Electron motion as wave packets
d 1 dE
vg Group velocity
dk dk
2
dvg 1 d dE 1 d E d (k )
( ) 2 Acceleration
dt dt dk dk 2 dt
d (k ) dv g
F m* Newtons law!
dt dt
1
m* 2
Effective mass
1 d E
2 dk 2 Whats the effective mass of a
26
free particle?
 Particle in a box (infinite well)

d 2
2
k 0
2

dx
A sin kx B cos kx
(0) 0, B 0
(a) A sin ka 0; k n a U=0
nx x=0 x=a
n ( x) An sin
a
Box with edges
n 2 2 2 2mE
En 2
;k infinitely high
2ma 2 27
 Energy Quantization

(x)

2 2

2
2ma

x=0 x x=a

Certain discrete energy values (dotted lines) are allowed

28
Energy momentum relation (Particle in a box)

<p>
3 2 2 3

a a a a a a

Only discrete values are allowed

Dots merge as a goes to infinity
29
 Energy levels & Energy bands

Energy levels of an Energy bands of an electron

electron in a single in a 1D atomic crystal
atom

Allowed
energy
Forbidden
levels
energy zone Allowed
energy
bands

30
 Energy momentum relation (1D case)

E E

k (units of /a) k (units of /a)

Electron in a periodic,
Electron in a single, finite, potential well
infinite potential well (Kroning-Penny model) 31
 Energy momentum relation (1D case)

E is non-zero at k=0
E
Solution like free
particle, but with
perturbation at k=n/a

Slope at k=n/a is 0

Region between /a to +/a

is called the First Brillouin k (units of /a)
zone (primitive cell in E-k
space)

32
 Reduced zone representation

E-k solution outside the

E
first Brillouin zone can be
translated (by multiples of
/a) into the first Brillouin
zone

Information of the
crystal can be obtained k (units of /a)
by visualizing the
primitive cell
33
The visualization of energy bands

Allowed energy of an
electron moving k (units of /a)
inside a 1D crystal

34
Band diagram of real semiconductors

1
Recap: Effective mass
Electron motion as wave packets
d 1 dE
vg Group velocity
dk dk
2
dvg 1 d dE 1 d E d (k )
( ) 2 Acceleration
dt dt dk dk 2 dt
d (k ) dv g
F m* Newtons law!
dt dt
1
m* Effective mass
1 d 2E
2 dk 2 2
Calculation of effective mass

E
E
1
m*
dE 1 d 2E
dk 2 dk 2

d 2E -1 0 1

dk 2 k (units of /a)

m*>0 near bottom of band

m*<0 near top of band 3
Negative effective mass?
Particle with positive effective mass:
Moves in +x direction for a given force

Particle with negative effective mass:

Moves in x direction for the same force

m*>0
F
m*<0

4
Electrons in energy band

N atoms, each having 2 non-

core (i.e. valence) electrons
Each band has N allowed
states, separated by k=2/Na
E
T=0OK, 2 bottom most bands
will be full (Pauli principle)

For T>0Ok, few electrons jump

up to empty states in next
higher band (as they gain
energy)

-1 0 1
k (units of /a) 5
Current due to carrier motion

Under applied force, filled state

distribution get skewed
4
Current from a band:
q
I1 vi 0, I 4 0
E
L i ( all)
3
q
I3 vi
L i ( filled )
2
q q
I2 vi vi
L i ( filled ) L i ( empty)
1

-1 0 1
k (units of /a) 6
Electrons and holes

Conduction band: Partially filled

band
Consider filled states (electrons)
in partially filled band
E
Valence band: Partially empty
band CB
Consider empty states (holes) in
EG
partially empty band
VB

Band gap: Minimum E separation

between CB and VB
-1 0 1
k (units of /a) 7
Concept of holes
Electrons moving from one state to other under the
application of a force field
The empty states moving in the opposite direction
negative mass

Holes occupy top of band negative effective mass

Holes: Positive charge particle having positive
effective mass

8
 Parabolic band approximation
As carrier move in the band, their
effective mass changes!

d 2E
dk 2 E

Electrons occupy bottom of CB

Holes occupy top of VB
Approximate E-k diagram as
parabola, having same curvature
as band minima / maxima
-1 0 1
k (units of /a) 9
Electrons and holes in semiconductors
What is the density of electrons
in CB & holes in VB?

Suppose, n(E), p(E) are

electron & hole density at a E
given E in CB & VB Etop

Etop
n n( E )dE EC
Ec
EV
Ev
Ebottom
p p( E )dE
Ebottom -1 0 1
k (units of /a) 10
Calculation of carrier density
Electron density, n (E) at a given E in CB
n( E ) f ( E ).gC ( E )
Hole density, p (E) at a given E in VB

p( E ) [1 f ( E )].gV ( E )

f (E) : Probability of a state filled with electrons

g C ( E ) : Density of states in CB
1 f (E) : Probability of a state empty of electrons

gV ( E ) : Density of states in VB
11
Density of states
No of allowed states for electrons per unit energy, per
unit volume of a crystal
E
CB : E EC
mn * 2mn * ( E EC )
gC ( E )
2 3
EC

VB : E EV EV

m p * 2m p * ( EV E )
gV ( E )
2 3
gC(E), gV(E) 12
 Distribution function Fermi level (EF)
Probability that a given state is filled with an electron

1
f (E) Fermi distribution
1 e( E EF ) / kT

f (E) Fermi Level highest

T=0OK energy of completely filled
1 state at T=0OK
T>0OK

0 E For T>0OK, f (E) = at E=EF
EF

13
Carrier density in CB & VB Impact of EF
1 - f (E)
gC (E) n(E) ~ p(E)
for EF at
center of EG
n (E)
EC EC
EF EF
EV EV
p (E)

gV (E)
f (E)

Carrier density at CB / VB edge = 0, peaks

close to CB & VB and falls 14
Carrier density in CB & VB Impact of EF
1 - f (E)
gC (E) n-type:
n(E) > p(E)
for EF close
n (E) to EC
EC EC
EF EF
EV EV
p (E)

gV (E)
f (E)

15
Carrier density in CB & VB Impact of EF
1 - f (E)
gC (E) p-type:
n(E) < p(E)
for EF close
n (E) to EV
EC EC

EV EF EV EF
p (E)

gV (E)
f (E)

16
Carrier density expressions

( EC EF ) / kT 2me * kT
n NC e ; N C 2( ) 3/ 2
h2
( EF EV ) / kT 2m p * kT
p NV e ; NV 2( 2
) 3/ 2
h

Expression valid for EC EF 3kT, EF EV 3kT

n increases (p decreases) as EF comes close to EC
p increases (n decreases) as EF comes close to EV
NC, NV: Effective carrier density at CB and VB edge
17
 Intrinsic carrier density
For EF = Ei, center of band gap

( EC Ei ) / kT ( EC Ei ) / kT
ni N C e N C ni e
( Ei EV ) / kT ( Ei EV ) / kT
ni NV e NV ni e
( EC EF ) / kT ( EF Ei ) / kT
n NC e ni e
( EF EV ) / kT ( Ei EF ) / kT
p NV e ni e
np ni 2
18
Fermi level & carrier density
( EC EF ) / kT ( EF Ei ) / kT
n NC e ni e
( EF EV ) / kT ( Ei EF ) / kT
p NV e ni e
np ni 2

EC
n > p as EF moves towards EC EF More n type
(up & away from Ei)
More p type Ei
p > n as EF moves towards EV EV
(down & away from Ei)
19
 Intrinsic carrier density effect of EG

( EC Ei ) / kT
ni N C e
( Ei EV ) / kT
ni NV e
EG / 2 kT
ni N C NV e ; EG EC EV

Higher ni for lower EG

ni Slope=0.5EG
Higher ni at higher T
(log)

1/kT 20
Donors and Acceptors n and p type Si
Introduce impurity (dopant) to increase carrier density
As, P: Donor atoms, increase n (n-type Si)
B: Acceptor atoms, increase in p (p-type Si)
T > 0OK
n > ni
Donor states p < ni
Filled at T=0OK np = ni2

T > 0OK
n < ni
Acceptor states p > ni
Empty at T=0OK np = ni2 21
Impact of Temperature

Electron density
Extrinsic Intrinsic

ND

Ionization Temperature

n=ND+ n=ND n=ni

Ionization Extrinsic Intrinsic 22

Impact of Temperature
Ionization: Low T region, electrons from donor states
jump up to CB, fewer electrons from VB also jump up
to CB, carrier density increases with increase in T

Extrinsic: Medium T region, all donors are ionized, few

electrons jump from VB to CB, but if ND is large, overall
carrier density does not vary with T

Intrinsic: High T region, electrons start to jump from

VB to CB in large numbers, n increases with T.

23
Charge neutrality
Ionized (empty) donor level, q. ND > 0
Positive charge due to loss of electrons

Ionized (filled) Acceptor level, q. NA < 0

Negative charge due to electron gain

Total charge in a semiconductor

q.( p n N D N A ) 0

24
Calculation of Intrinsic level
Intrinsic semiconductor (undoped), n = p
( EC E F ) / kT ( E F EV ) / kT
NC e NV e
EF Ei
EC EV kT
Ei ln( NV / N C )
2 2
NV / N C (m p * / mn *) 3/ 2

EC EV 3kT
Ei ln( m p * / mn *)
2 4
25
Calculation of Fermi level (Extrinsic case)
Example: n-type, ND >> NA

n ND
p ni / N D
2

( EF Ei ) / kT
n ni e
EF Ei kT ln( n / ni ) kT ln( p / ni )

26
 Drift of carriers
Electron gets scattered (by atoms, etc.) in its course of
motion under an applied electric field
E
Initial Position after time t
position,
t=0 vd = L / t
L
Mean free time (t): Average time between two successive
scattering events
Thermal velocity (vth): Velocity of electron between two
successive scattering events
Mean free path: l = vth . t
27
Drift velocity (vd): Macroscopic velocity of electron
 Current density due to drift
Electron and hole motion under the influence of an
electric field
+ve X direction
E
Hole motion
Electron motion
Direction of current due to
both electrons and holes
J n qnvd ,n qn n E
Current density (current
J p qpvd , p qp p E / area) due to electrons
and holes
q.t / m *
: Mobility (cm2 / V-s)

28
Velocity Field relationship
Linear relation at low field, saturates at high field

Mobility is defined as
Drift velocity

the linear relationship

of drift velocity to
electric field
Velocity saturation at
high field is taken as
Electric field
reduction in
mobility at high field
i.e., field induced
mobility degradation
29
Mobility
Resistance to carrier motion ~ 1 / Mobility
Resistance due to scattering events due to Phonons
(Lattice vibration), Ionized impurity (Coulomb force)

1 1 1
.... Matthiessens rule
I ,I L
1 Resistance due to lattice
T 3/ 2 scattering increases at higher T
L
1
N I ,I / T 3/ 2 Resistance due to ionized
I ,I impurity decreases at higher T
30
 Carrier drift Band picture
+ve X direction Band bends when E is
E applied
Electron moves
and gains energy Direction of bending:
EC
E = dV/dx = +1/q.dE/dx

EV Note:
E: Energy
Hole moves and V: Potential
E: Electric field
gains energy

Carriers loose energy once they encounter a scattering

event, and falls down (close) to respective band edges31
Diffusion: Concept visualization
? 1D process: After a scattering event,
a carrier can move either direction
with equal probability

For a large ensemble of carriers in a

plane, of them will go either way
after a scattering event

For a concentration gradient, more

carriers will cross a plane from one
direction w.r.t other

Net motion of carriers 32

 Current density due to diffusion
Gradient is -ve Motion Current
Density

Electron
Hole

+ve X direction
dn
Electron diffusion J n qDn
dx
dn/dx, dp/dx <0
dp
Hole diffusion J p qD p
dx
D: Diffusivity
D kT
Einstein relation
q 33
Total current density
Drift + Diffusion
dn
J n qn n E qDn
dx
dp
J p qp p E qD p
dx
q.t / m * Note the ve sign for holes

D kT

q
34
Carrier density expressions
Previous formulation under equilibrium condition
Application of field non equilibrium, equilibrium
expressions not valid

Keep same expressions, but define Quasi-Fermi

levels for electrons (FN) and holes (FP)
FN and FP not related to EF

( FN Ei ) / kT
n ni e
( Ei FP ) / kT
p ni e
35
Gradient in Quasi-Fermi level
dn
J n qnn E qDn
dx
( FN Ei ) / kT 1 dEi D kT
n ni e ; E ;
q dx q

dEi n dFN dEi

J n n n kT n ( )
dx kT dx dx
dFN
J n n n
dx
Non-zero gradient of Quasi-Fermi level indicates total
36
current transport (drift + diffusion)
 Generation Recombination
Majority carriers: Electrons in n-type, Holes in p-type
Minority carriers: Holes in n-type, Electrons in p-type

Question: If we create excess minority carriers in a

semiconductor sample (say, introduce holes in n-type),
how do they decay?

Question: If we create a depletion region, how do

carriers generate?

Once perturbed, mechanisms by which semiconductor

tries to come to equilibrium

1
 Generation
Generation of carriers (from top of VB to bottom of
CB) due to temperature, or light

Thermal
Energy
E

EC
Light EG
EV k

Applied energy must be greater than band gap

Example: Carrier generation in intrinsic semiconductor
2
Recombination (Direct)
For direct band gap semiconductors (GaAs)
Electron from CB falls down into VB and annihilates a
hole, and gives away light

EC
EG
EV k

Conservation of energy
3
Recombination (Trap-assisted)
For indirect band-gap semiconductor (Si, Ge)
Recombination of CB electrons and VB holes occurs
via trap (defect, with energy in the band gap)

EC Trap
EG
EV k

Conservation of both energy and momentum

4
 Net recombination rate (trap-assisted)
Shockley-Read-Hall process (steady state rate):

np ni
2
R G
p (n nt ) n ( p pt ) EC
ET EG
nt ni e( ET Ei ) / kT EV
pt ni e( Ei ET ) / kT
n , p : Carrier lifetime
Equilibrium: np = ni2, R G = 0
Non-equilibrium, steady-state generation: np < ni2, R < G
Non-equilibrium, steady-state recombination: np > ni2, R > G
5
 Observation of R-G rate
Traps position and efficiency of recombination centers:
1: Capture of CB electron in trap
2: Emission of trapped electron in VB
1 3 3: Emission of trapped electron in CB
ET
2
np ni 2
R G
p (n nt ) n ( p pt )
Example: For high ET, nt
is large and R-G is nt ni e( ET Ei ) / kT
small (1 followed by 3) pt ni e( Ei ET ) / kT
Mid-gap traps are most efficient recombination centers
6
(1 followed by 2), nt ~ pt ~ ni
 Low-level injection
Excess carrier density (Dn, Dp) is lower than equilibrium
value (n0, p0); n & p: Non-equilibrium carrier density
Assume ET ~ Ei, nt ~ pt ~ ni

n n0 Dn & p p0 Dp; Dn ~ Dp
np ni 2
n0 Dp p0 Dn
R G
p (n ni ) n ( p ni ) p n0 n p0
Consider n-type, n0 >> p0

Dp Net recombination rate of excess holes

R G
p (minority carriers) in n-type semiconductor
7
Useful for PN junction forward bias analysis
Generation in depletion region
R-G depletion region: n << nt & p << pt
Assume ET ~ Ei, nt ~ pt ~ ni

np ni 2 ni 2
R G
p (n ni ) n ( p ni ) ( p n )ni
ni
R G ; 0 n p
0

Negative net R-G rate signifies generation

Useful for reverse bias PN junction analysis
8
Continuity equation
Rate of change of carrier in a given volume of
semiconductor

R-G

Carrier IN Carrier OUT

Rate of change of carrier density?

dn 1 dJ n
Note the ve ( R G)
sign for holes dt q dx
dp 1 dJ p
( R G)
dt q dx 9
Recap: Total current density
Drift + Diffusion
dn
J n qn n E qDn
dx
dp
J p qp p E qD p
dx
q. / m * Note the ve sign for holes

D kT

q
10
Minority carrier continuity equation
Neglect drift (as density is small for minority carrier),
transport due to diffusion (gradient can be large)

dn
J n qDn ; n n0 Dn For low level condition
dx
dD n d 2
Dn D n
J p qD p
dp
; p p0 Dp dt D
dx
n
dx 2 n

dDn d Dn dD p d 2
D p D p
Dp
2
Dn ( R G ) dt dx 2 p
dt dx 2
dDp d 2 Dp
Dp 2
( R G)
dt dx 11
Einstein relation
Assume equilibrium, Jn = 0, Jp = 0
dn
J n qn n E qDn 0
dx
( E F Ei ) / kT 1 dEi
n ni e ; E
q dx
dEi qn dEF dEi dEF
nn Dn ( ); 0 (see later)
dx kT dx dx dx

D
kT

q
12
Useful equations to handle devices.

A) Poisson (potential ~ charge)

B) Electron transport (drift, diffusion)

C) Hole transport (drift, diffusion)

D) Continuity equation (electrons)

E) Continuity equation (holes)

13
 P-N Junction - Electrostatics
P type: Fixed ionized acceptors (-) & mobile holes (+)
N-type: Fixed ionized donors (+) & mobile electrons (-)
P-type N-type
After joining excess holes
flow from P to N, excess
electrons flow from N to P Before joining

Ionized acceptors (in P) and After joining

ionized donors (in N) are + +
exposed (depletion region), + +
field (E) develops
E
Built-in field in depletion region
Further carrier flow is stopped
1
 Equilibrium
No current flows - Invariance of EF
P-type N-type
EC P-type N-type
EF
EV
Built-in potential in
depletion region
Quadratic
V0 dependence
+ +
+ +
E
E E
Built-in field in depletion region
distance
2
 Forward bias
Apply -ve voltage (V) to N w.r.t P
N side Quasi Fermi level goes up
Reduction of band offset & potential
Reduction of depletion layer width and E
Built-in potential in depletion
region: Decrease
P-type V0 V P-type N-type
FP FN +
N-type +
E E
Built-in field in depletion region: Reduction

FN FP = V 3
 Reverse bias
Apply +ve voltage (V) to N w.r.t P
N side Quasi Fermi level goes down
Increase in band offset & potential
Increase in depletion layer width and E
Built-in potential in depletion
region: Increase N-type
P-type P-type N-type
V0 + V
FP + + +
FN + + +
E
E Built-in field in depletion region: Increase

FP FN = V 4
 Electrostatics of PN junction: Equilibrium
+ +
+ +
r q.N A (p - type)
r
r q.N D (n - type)
dE q.N A
; x p0 x 0
dx si
dE q.N D
; 0 x xn 0
dx si

x = -xp0 x = xn0
x=0
5
 Calculation of Electric Field
+ + x p 0 x 0; E 0 at x x p 0
+ +
q.N A
r E ( x p 0 x)
si
0 x xn 0 ; E 0 at x xn 0
E
q.N D
E ( xn 0 x )
Emax si
q.N A q.N D
Emax x p0 xn 0
si si
x = -xp0 x = xn0
x=0
N A x p 0 N D xn 0
6
Work out the steps
 Calculation of Potential
+ + x p 0 x 0; V 0 at x x p 0
+ +
q.N A
r V ( x p 0 x) 2
2 si
0 x xn 0 ; V V0 at x xn 0
E
q.N D
V V0 ( xn 0 x ) 2
Emax 2 si
V0 x0
V
q.N A q.N D
x p0 xn 0 2 V0
2
x = -xp0 x = xn0
x=0
2 si 2 si
7
Work out the steps
 Calculation of depletion layer
q.N A q.N D
x p0 xn 0 2 V0
2

2 si 2 si
N A x p 0 N D xn 0
2 siV0 ND What happens
x p0 if NA >> ND?
qN A ( N A N D )
2 siV0 NA
xn 0
qN D ( N A N D )

2 siV0 ( N A N D )
W xn 0 x p 0
q N AND Work out the steps 8
 Calculation of built-in potential (V0)
Equilibrium: Both Jn and Jp are individually zero

P-type N-type Excess electrons try to

jump over the barrier get
repelled
Excess holes try to float
over the barrier get
E
repelled
dn
J n qn n E qDn 0
dx
kT nn 0 kT N A N D
V0 nn 0 V0 ln ln
kT dn 2
dV
q np 0 q ni
0
q np0
n Work out the steps 9
 Equilibrium: Carrier density across junction
No net current flow
-xp0 x=0 xn0
kT nn0 kT p p 0 pp0=NA nn0=ND
V0 ln
q n p 0 q pn0
ln
np0=ni2/NA
pn0=ni2/ND
EF + +
+ +
P-type N-type
E E
Built-in field in depletion region

10
 Forward bias: Carrier density across junction
Electron injection from N to P
Hole injection from P to N -xp x=0 xn
Carriers recombine in depletion
and quasi-neutral regions

FP FN +
+
P-type E N-type
E
Built-in field in depletion region: Reduction

FN FP = V 11
 Forward bias: Carrier density across junction

kT nn0 kT p p 0
V0 V ln ln
-xp x=0 xn
q n p q pn

Replace V0 in equilibrium expression np pn

2
ni
n p n p 0e qV / kT
; n p0 +
NA +
P-type E N-type
2
ni
pn pn 0 e qV / kT
; pn 0
ND Work out the steps
12
 Reverse bias: Carrier density across junction
Much larger barrier
Carriers generate in depletion -xp x=0 xn
and quasi neutral region
Injection of holes from N to P
Injection of electrons from P to N

FP + + +
FN + + +
P-type N-type
E
E
FP FN = V 13
 Reverse bias: Carrier density across junction

kT nn0 kT p p 0
V0 V ln
q n p q pn
ln -xp x=0 xn

Replace V0 in equilibrium expression

2
qV / kT ni np pn
n p n p 0e ; n p0 + + +
NA + + +
N-type
2 P-type E
qV / kT ni
pn pn 0 e ; pn 0
ND Work out the steps
14
 Forward bias: Current flow (Full picture)
J (total)
Jp (drift) Jn (drift)

Jn (diffusion) Jp (diffusion)
Carrier density

pp=NA nn=ND
np pn

-xp x=0 xn
P-type N-type
Recombination in Diffusion & Recombination15
depletion region in quasi-neutral region
Forward bias: Current flow (Simple theory)
J (total)

Basic theory

Jp (diffusion) at x=xn
+
Jn (diffusion) at x=-xp
-xp x=0 xn

Ignore recombination in depletion region 16

Minority carrier continuity equation
Neglect drift (as density is small for minority carrier),
transport due to diffusion (gradient can be large)

dn
J n qDn ; n n0 n For low level condition
dx
d n d 2
n n
J p qD p
dp
; p p0 p dt D
dx
n
dx 2 n

dn d n d p d 2
p p
Dp
2
Dn ( R G ) dt dx 2 p
dt dx 2
dp d 2 p
Dp 2
( R G)
dt dx 17
 Contribution from Quasi-Neutral region
Diffusion of holes in n-type (shift origin to xn)

d p p
2
dp
Dp 0; J p (0) qD p x 0
dx 2
p dx
x / Lp
p p(0)e ; L p D p p
Do the steps

Dp D p ni 2 qV / kT
J p (0) q p(0) q (e 1)
Lp Lp N D
2
Dn ni
Similarly, J n (0) q (e qV / kT
1)
Ln N A
18
Total current density (quasi-neutral region)

D p ni 2 Dn ni 2 qV / kT
J q (e 1)
L p N D Ln N A

Conventional current expression, automatically

takes care of current in reverse bias

What is the current

J J 0 (e qV / kT
1) density expression for p+n
junction?

19
 Current flow in Forward bias (Addition)
J (total)

Basic theory

Jp (diffusion) at x=xn
+
Jn (diffusion) at x=-xp
-xp x=0 xn +
Recombination at
Consider additional -xp < x < xn
20
recombination in depletion region
 Forward bias: Current flow (Full picture)
J (total)
Jp (drift) Jn (drift)

Jn (diffusion) Jp (diffusion)
Carrier density

pp=NA nn=ND
np pn

-xp x=0 xn
P-type N-type
Recombination in Diffusion & Recombination 1
depletion region in quasi-neutral region
Forward bias: Current flow (Simple theory)
J (total)

Basic theory

Jp (diffusion) at x=xn
+
Jn (diffusion) at x=-xp
-xp x=0 xn

Ignore recombination in depletion region 2

Minority carrier continuity equation
Neglect drift (as density is small for minority carrier),
transport due to diffusion (gradient can be large)

dn
J n qDn ; n n0 n For low level condition
dx
d n d 2
n n
J p qD p
dp
; p p0 p dt D
dx
n
dx 2 n

dn d n d p d 2
p p
Dp
2
Dn ( R G ) dt dx 2 p
dt dx 2
dp d 2 p
Dp 2
( R G)
dt dx 3
 Contribution from Quasi-Neutral region
Diffusion of holes in n-type (shift origin to xn)

d p p
2
dp
Dp 0; J p (0) qD p x 0
dx 2
p dx
x / Lp
p p(0)e ; L p D p p
Do the steps

Dp D p ni 2 qV / kT
J p (0) q p(0) q (e 1)
Lp Lp N D
2
Dn ni
Similarly, J n (0) q (e qV / kT
1)
Ln N A
4
Total current density (quasi-neutral region)

D p ni 2 Dn ni 2 qV / kT
J q (e 1)
L p N D Ln N A

Conventional current expression, automatically

takes care of current in reverse bias

What is the current

J J 0 (e qV / kT
1) density expression for p+n
junction?

5
 Current flow in Forward bias (Addition)
J (total)

Basic theory

Jp (diffusion) at x=xn
+
Jn (diffusion) at x=-xp
-xp x=0 xn +
Recombination at
Consider additional -xp < x < xn
6
recombination in depletion region
 Carrier density in Forward bias
( FN Ei ) / kT
FN
n ni e
Ei

FP
( Ei FP ) / kT
p ni e
Carrier density

pp=NA nn=ND
np pn

-xp x=0 xn
P-type N-type
Drift & Recombination Diffusion & Recombination 7
in depletion region in quasi-neutral region
 Recap: Net recombination rate (trap-assisted)
Shockley-Read-Hall process (steady state rate):
np ni 2
R G
p (n nt ) n ( p pt ) EC
EG
nt ni e( ET Ei ) / kT ET
EV
pt ni e( Ei ET ) / kT
n , p : Carrier lifetime
Equilibrium: np = ni2, R G = 0
Non-equilibrium, steady-state generation: np < ni2, R < G
Non-equilibrium, steady-state recombination: np > ni2, R > G
8
Net recombination rate in Forward bias
Assume ET at Ei (nt ~ pt ~ ni) and n = p = 0

np ni
2
R G
0 (n p 2ni )
Assume Ei = (FN + FP)/2 in the depletion region
( FN Fp ) / 2 kT
n p ni e ; FN FP qV
2 ( qV / kT ) qV / 2 kT
ni e ni e
R G Carrier density / time
2 0 ni e qV / 2 kT
2 0
9
Generation in Reverse bias
R-G depletion region: n << nt & p << pt
Assume ET ~ Ei, nt ~ pt ~ ni and n = p = 0

np ni 2 ni 2
R G
p (n ni ) n ( p ni ) ( p n )ni
ni
R G Carrier density / time
2 0

10
 Full current density expression
Forward bias: Recombination in depletion & quasi-
neutral regions
Reverse bias: Generation in depletion & quasi-
neutral regions

D p ni 2 Dn ni 2 qV / kT
J q (e 1)
L p N D Ln N A
qniW qV / 2 kT
(e 1) Additional term
2 0
2 si (V0 V ) ( N A N D )
W V<0 for reverse bias
q N A .N D 11
 Full current density expression
Forward bias: Recombination in depletion & quasi-
neutral regions
Reverse bias: Generation in depletion & quasi-
neutral regions

D p ni 2 Dn ni 2 qV / kT
J q (e 1)
L p N D Ln N A
qniW qV / 2 kT
(e 1) Additional term
2 0
2 si (V0 V ) ( N A N D )
W V<0 for reverse bias
q N A .N D 1
 Diode I V characteristics

Slope ~ qV/kT, recombination in

J (log-scale) quasi-neutral region
Slope ~ qV/2kT, recombination
in depletion region
V
Constant current if reverse
generation from quasi-neutral
region dominates
* Current
increase in Increase in current if reverse
reverse generation from depletion
direction (not region dominates ~ W
negative
scale) 2
 Breakdown (High V) in Reverse bias

Junction breaks down at

J (log-scale) high reverse bias
Impact ionization in the
depletion region causes
carrier multiplication
V
Released energy
creates further EHP
Thermal generation
creates EHP
* Current
increase in
reverse High current at
direction (not
negative high reverse bias
scale)
E 3
 Breakdown (Low V) in Reverse bias

Heavily doped junction

J (log-scale) breaks down at low reverse
bias
Small depletion layer width -
Band to band tunneling
V
Tunneling of
electrons from VB of
P to CB of N side

* Current
increase in
reverse High current at
direction (not
negative
high reverse bias
scale)
E 4
 Capacitance in reverse bias
+ + Superimpose small signal AC on
+ + DC, measure out of phase
component of AC current
Time variation of depletion charge
dQ
C ; Q q.N A .x p q.N D .xn
dV
2 si (V0 V ) ND 2 si (V0 V ) NA
xp ; xn
qN A (N A ND ) qN D (N A ND )
N AND
Q 2q si (V0 V )
(N A ND )

si 2 si (V0 V ) ( N A N D )
C ; W xn x p
W q N AND
5
 Capacitance in reverse bias (P+N diode)

1 1
2

C C0 2
2 si (V0 V )
si
C ;W
W qN D
1 1 2V

C 2
C0 2 q si N D V

C0 is capacitance when V=0

ND can be obtained from slope of 1/C2 versus V plot

Discuss: Majority carrier response time 6

 Capacitance in forward bias
+
Superimpose small signal AC
+ on DC, measure out of phase
component of AC current
Time variation of stored charge

dQ p
Cp ; Q p qA p( x)dx
dV 0

0
dQn
-xp xn Cn ; Qn qA n( x)dx
dV

Origin suitably chosen at -xp & xn to calculate Qp and Qn

7
 Capacitance in forward bias (P+N diode)
2
x / Lp ni x / Lp
p( x) p(0)e (e qV / kT
1)e
ND
2
ni qV / kT
Q p qAL p e ; (V kT / q)
ND

q q Qp
Cp Qp I p ; ( I )
kT kT p

I: Current in FB in a P+N diode (due to holes)

Discuss: Minority carrier response time 8

Switching transient from FB to RB

IF = VF/RF

VF
RF
IR = VR/RR

RR
Storage delay time
VR

Current immediately after switching is high takes

9
time to go down to steady state value
Time variation of stored charge
Time for transit from FB -xp xn
to Equilibrium (V drop
across diode is small)

-xp xn

Time for transit from

equilibrium to RB (V
drop across diode
goes up) 10
 Time variation of stored charge (P+N diode)
FB: Current primarily due to injection of holes
Minority carrier continuity equation (holes in n-side
quasi-neutral region)
dp 1 dJ p p
Origin suitably
dt q dx p
chosen at xn

d
qAD dI qAD
1
p(x)dx = - p - p(x)dx
dt 0 0 t p 0

dQ p Qp
I
dt p I=Ip at xn0, neglect contribution
from depletion region
11
 Calculation of storage delay time (td)

dQ p Qp
t=0, charge = Qp0 I R
t=td, charge =0 dt p

dQ p dt
I R p Qp

p
td
ln[ I R p Q p 0 ] ln[ I R p ]
p
IF
td p ln[1 ]; (Q p 0 I F p )
IR

Current remains constant (IR) during storage delay 12

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Two types PNP and NPN

VEB = VE VB VBE = VB VE
VCB = VC VB VBC = VB VC
VEC = VE VC VCE = VC VE
= VEB - VCB = VCB - VEB
1
Current flow direction opposite to electron flow
Circuit Configurations
Common X, where X is the terminal between
input and output

2
 BJT Electrostatics (Refer to PN Junction)

Charge density Ionized donors

Ionized acceptors

3
 BJT Electrostatics (Refer to PN Junction)

Potential

Electric Field

4
 BJT Band Diagram (Equilibrium)
Base: Moderate doping

Emitter: Collector:
Heavy doping Light doping

Neutral base
width

Note: Gap between EF

and band edges
5
Modes of Operation
BJT = 2 PN junctions back-to-back (well, not
exactly as we shall see)

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

p-type n-type p-type

Mode Emitter Junction Collector Junction

CUTOFF reverse bias reverse bias
Forward ACTIVE forward bias reverse bias
Reverse ACTIVE reverse bias forward bias
SATURATION forward bias forward bias
6
 Assignment - 1:
(1) Draw the energy band diagram from Emitter through
Base through Collector for both PNP & NPN transistors in
the following modes of operation.

Mode Emitter Junction Collector Junction

CUTOFF reverse bias reverse bias
Forward ACTIVE forward bias reverse bias
Reverse ACTIVE reverse bias forward bias
SATURATION forward bias forward bias

(2) Solve electrostatics and determine field, potential and

depletion layer widths of EB and CB junctions (PNP
transistor, forward active mode) . Assume FB of 0.5V0, RB of
6V0, doping (E, B, C) of 1018, 1016 and 1015 (cm-3). 7