Sand silicate: Quickly cools during formation so theres no preferred way of breaking.

Flint was
first formed as a metamorphic rock. While many sedimentary rocks contain significant
proportions of flint that was weathered and transported, the material of interest in ceramics is
what has remained as the pure mineral.

Feldspar: Feldspars crystallize from magma as veins in

both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and are also present in many types of metamorphic
rock
With aluminosilicates of calcium, potassium and sodium
-alkalis act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture.
Clay
efficient packing of the clay particles in a body dramatically improves plasticity(the
quality of being easily shaped or molded.) of the body. Kaolinite-basic clay material but if 'very
high plasticity is desired, bentonite clays based on montmorillonite are used.

General Manufacturing Steps

1. Clay can be obtained from riversides near the production plant. equipment for transportation
within the plant will be based according to the characteristics of the material conveyed, such as
granularity, resistance to attrition and flowability, temperature, flowrate and the given space.
2. Further preparation is necessary in order to meet the strict technical requirements of
modern ceramic products
Beneficiation-improve physical and chemical properties before firing.
Water soluble impurities can be removed by washing with deionized or distilled water and
filtering, and organic solvents may be used for removing water-insoluble impurities. Acid leaching
sometimes is employed to remove metal contaminants. Magnetic separation is used to extract
magnetic impurities from either dry powders or wet slurries. Froth flotation also is used to
separate undesirable materials.
Calcining: heating a ceramic material to a temperature well below its melting point to liberate
undesirable gases or other material and to bring about structural transformation to produce the
desired composition and phase product.
Granulation- process whereby powder forms are bound together to form aggregates, which are
called as granules
Spray drying is one of the most efficient ways to convert ceramic slurries into a free-flowing
powder. The most common application of spray drying is in producing powders that will
subsequently be pressed and fired, where the unique properties of spray dried products
namely, a narrow particle size distribution and spherical particle shaperesult in excellent flow
characteristics. This form of powder has high flowability, facilitating accurate filling of the press
dies and the subsequent pressing of quite large single tiles.
Binder solution- cellulose, polyacrylates or polyvinyl alcohol
combine the constituents of a ceramic powder to produce a more chemically and physically
homogenous material for forming.
Pug mills often are used for mixing ceramic materials.
Several processing aids/additives may be added to the ceramic mix during the mixing stage.
Binders are polymers or colloids that are used to impart strength to green or unfired ceramic
bodies. Plasticizers increase the flexibility of the ceramic mix. Lubricants lower frictional forces
between particles and reduce wear on equipment. Water is the most commonly used liquid in
plastic and slurry processing. Deflocculants also are used in slurry processing to improve
dispersion and dispersion stability. Surfactants are used in slurry processing to aid dispersion,
and antifoams are used to remove trapped gas bubbles from the slurry. Binders and plasticizers
are used in dry powder and plastic forming
Traditional ceramic products were always shaped from raw materials in the plastic state, and for
several millennia, this was a manual operation. At the present time, the demand is forever more
stringent technical specifications covering such properties as dimensional tolerance, density,
 strength, durability and refractoriness. The method of forming the ware can have a profound
effect on their ultimate properties, and a wide range of shaping techniques has evolved in the
various sectors of the ceramic industry.
Mechanical pressing This method is still employed for the manufacture of bricks
Hydraulic pressing Modern hydraulic presses can provide high compaction force, high
productivity, consistency and easy adjustment. Hydraulic pressing is widely adopted for the
shaping of tiles. The speed in which mechanical presses can be ran are higher than hydraulic
presses. This allows for higher production and efficiency. The reason hydraulic presses are used
for deep draw parts is because the hydraulic power allows for a more consistent source of
pressure in a larger range of the stroke, as compared to a mechanical press.
The HIP process subjects a component to both elevated temperature and isostatic gas pressure
in a high pressure containment vessel. The pressurizing gas most widely used is argon.
An inert gas is used, so that the material does not chemically react. The chamber is heated,
causing the pressure inside the vessel to increase. Many systems use associated gas pumping to
achieve the necessary pressure level. Pressure is applied to the material from all directions
(hence the term "isostatic").
Extrusion is widely employed for the manufacture of clay bricks and blocks, vitrified clay pipes
and ceramic floor and wall tiles. This forming process consists of forcing a plastic mix of a
ceramic powder through a constricting die to produce elongated shapes that have a constant
cross-section.
Slipcasting or slip casting is a technique for the mass-production of pottery and ceramics,
especially for shapes not easily made on a wheel. In slipcasting, a liquid clay body slip (usually
mixed in a blunger) is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to form a layer, the cast, on the
inside walls of the mould. When the desired thickness is achieved, the excess slip is poured from
the mold for reuse. The remaining skin left in the mold is the casting. It will continue to dry,
both by the mold and ambient air, and eventually shrink away from the mold. When the casting
is firm enough to be removed from the mold and stand on its own, take to out of the mold and let
it dry, or assembles it with its corresponding parts. The mold can then be cast again with slip.
Molding is a process of making a CAVITY out of sand by means of a pattern. (OR) molding is the
cavity of the required shape made in molding sand into which molten metal is poured. Its
requires molding box, molding sand, molding tools.
CASTING :casting is the process of forming metallic products by melting the metals, pouring it
into a cavity of the required shape, known as the MOLD and allowing it to solidify.
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material such
as plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw material.[2]The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold,
adopting its shape.
3. Forming produces a "green" part, ready for drying. Green parts are soft, pliable, and over time
will lose shape. Green Machining The methods used to machine green ceramics include
surface grinding to smooth surfaces, blanking and punching to cut the shape and create holes
or cavities, and laminating for multilayer ceramics. Handling the green product will change its
shape. For example, a green brick can be "squeezed", and after squeezing it will stay that
way. Forming involves: Green machining does not damage the material, and does not induce
defects that cannot be corrected during thermal treatment Applicable to all ceramic
materials, this process does not require a specific development of the material for its shaping.
It covers the chip removal of advanced ceramics with a defined as well as an undefined
cutting edge in the green state or the state after debindering and prefiring.
green body is an object whose main constituent is weakly bound ceramic material, usually in
the form of bonded powder or plates before it has been sintered or fired

4. The first ceramics were simply dried outside and then burned in an open fire. Today, there are
many varieties of dryers such as band, batch and tunnel dryers which are used, together with
 electrical, microwave assisted and bottle kilns. Removing the water or other binders from the
formed material is known as drying. The formed materials hold water and binder in its mix
that can in turn cause shrinkage, warping or distortion of the product. convection drying is
the most commonly used method in which heated air is circulated around the ceramic piece
that alleviates the risk of such imperfections in the final product. Air drying often is performed
in tunnel kilns, which typically use heat recovered from the cooling zone of the kiln. Drying
must be carefully controlled to strike a balance between minimizing drying time and avoiding
differential shrinkage, warping, and distortion.

5. Non-Glaze Ceramic Slip or Engobe. A white or colored slip applied to clay as a

coating. The term "slip" is often used interchangeably with this, but we think of slip
more as a decorative material/process. Extruded products can be drag-textured by
scraping the surface of the clay column. Non-glaze slips (engobes) for pottery and
tile decoration have long fostered great fascination. Almost everyone has marveled
at the simple beauty of terra cotta ware decorated with white slip and finished with
a transparent or white glaze. Hand throwing produces especially desirable finishes.
Glazing is most common in the manufacture of ceramic wall and floor tiles,
sanitaryware and tableware. Engobing is mainly employed in the manufacture of
clay roof tiles and ceramic wall and floor tiles. Screen printing is one of the
decorating techniques for tiles Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item.
[1]
Glazing renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding liquids, sealing the
inherent porosity of unglazed biscuit earthenware. It also gives a tougher surface. A glaze will
protect the surface by increasing the scratch resistance and the surface hardness. It also seals
the exterior of the ceramic substrate which prevents water absorption and provides a very
smooth final surface. In addition, glazing increases the overall mechanical strength and the
chemical resistance of the final product.
RUSTIFICATION OR RUSTICATION Recessing the margin or outer edges of cut stone
so that when placed together a channel or strongly emphasized recess is formed
along each joint. The stone face may be smooth, rough or patterned with its outer
edges tooled smooth or beveled.
Ceramic facings are extremely thin and are glued to the previously sanded frontal surface of
the teeth. Ceramic facings or veneers are names for the latest and most modern approaches in
solving aesthetic problems in modern dental medicine.
Screen printing is a popular technique used to reproduce single or multi-color designs for
ceramics and pottery. It has long been used in the sign painting and garment industries. In the
process, a frame having a tightly stretched silk fabric holds an inking blocking stencil and a
squeegee is used to push the ink through the screen onto the surface below. Great detail and
crisp edges are possible using this technique. It was popular for many years among slip casters
but more recently potters have adopted it also. Many art schools also teach it. Of course, it is
possible to screen directly on to tiles and flat surfaces. However be aware that this is only
practical if they are truly flat (like a commercial dust-pressed bisque tile). On irregular surfaces
you must print reverse-reading onto a transfer (e.g. tissue paper) or right-reading onto decal
paper and then transfer that to the ware. Tissue paper transfers can be done on leather hard,
dry or bisque ware; decals are transferred after glaze firing and then burned on in another
firing.

Ceramic glaze, a vitreous coating to a ceramic material whose primary purposes are
decoration or protection
Molded brick wall facing
 The tile industry uses the largest volumes of engobe by far, these are employed as opaque
barriers between less-than-white bodies and their glazes.

6. Firing of Traditional CeramicsHeat treatment process that sinters the ceramic material
Performed in a furnace called a kiln Bonds are developed between the ceramic grains, and
this is accompanied by densification and reduction of porosity Therefore, additional
shrinkage occurs in the polycrystalline material in addition to that which has already occurred
in drying In the firing of traditional ceramics, a glassy phase forms among the crystals which
acts as a binder
Vitrification is the solidification of a melt into a glass rather than a crystalline structure
(crystallization). Glass, clay bodies and glazes vitrify, but in ceramics use of the term focuses
most on clay bodies. Vitrification is a process. As clay is fired hotter and hotter, it reaches a
point where, if cooled from there, it will produce ware of sufficient density and strength as to
be useful for the intended purpose. A clay that has been fired sufficiently dense and strong for
the purpose intended is said to be 'mature'.
Vitrification (noun) is the process of melting that clays and glazes go through as they are fired to
maturity. In a fully matured clay body, the spaces between refractory particles are completely
filled up with glass, fusing the particles together and making the clay body impervious to water.
Vitreous (adjective) is the state of either being or becoming vitrified.
Vitrify (verb) is the activity of becoming vitreous
Vitrification is how "solid", non porous or glass like a piece becomes in firing. A fully vitrified
piece will hold water without glaze. Different types of clay get there at different
temperatures.
Vitrification (from Latin vitreum, "glass" via French vitrifier) is the transformation of a
substance into a glass,[1] that is to say a non-crystalline amorphous solid. In the production
of ceramics, vitrification is responsible for its impermeability to water
Firing is a key process in the manufacture of ceramic products, as it controls many important
properties of the finished ware. This need a very accurate temperature gradient during firing to
make sure that the products obtain the correct treatment. These include mechanical strength,
abrasion resistance, dimensional stability, resistance to water and chemicals, and fire
resistance. Afterwards controlled cooling is necessary, so that the products release their heat
gradually and preserve their ceramic structure. When clay-based ceramic products are fired in a
kiln, any residual moisture is driven off at temperatures of between 100 and 200 C. The most
important changes relating to the development of ceramic properties involve the breakdown of
the lattice structure of the original clay minerals, followed by the formation of new crystalline
compounds and glassy phases. Although clay products never become absolutely vitrified or
glasslike, it is necessary that the clay become hard (or almost vitrified) at a reasonable
temperature. Any substance will melt at some temperature. The strength of fired clay is
increased by the formation of new crystalline growth within the clay body, particularly the
growth of mullite crystals.
Early Stage to Firing
Drying and water-smoking first change completion in drying. This must be done slowly of formation
of 100oC steam will occur within the body and may cause it to burst.
The next change is at 350oC. Chemically combined water begins to be driven off. (This is part of the
molecular structure of clay and is unaffected under 350 oC.) This release of sudden steam must
be done slowly or object will crack.
At 500oC, the clay is completely dehydrated, no longer slake or disintegrate in water, has lost all
plasticity. It may not be reclaimed and used again. An irreversible change has taken place -
dehydration - this is not accompanied by any shrinkage. At 500 oC, the clay is more fragile now
than it was when put into the kiln.
As temperature increases beyond red heat, vitrification occurs. Hardening, tightening and finally,
partial glassification of clay. Vitrification gives the fired clay its characteristic hard, dense,
durable and rocklike properties. It is accompanied by shrinkage in the clay. Vitrification proceeds
 gradually as temperature increases and becomes increasingly hard, up to a point of melting and
deformation. Hardening results from the melting of some of the components in the clay, in part,
those components we consider impurities, iron oxide, etc.(clay has numerous oxides) it tends to
fuse gradually, impurities (as temp) melt in small beads of glass, soaks into surrounding areas,
binding particles like a glue and act as a solvent in promoting further fusion. If firing is carried
on clay would reach a liquid state and when cooled, be glass. We don't do this.
A short firing time results in a product that is porous and has a low density; a short to intermediate
firing time results in fine-grained (i. e., having particles not larger than 0.2 millimeters), high-
strength products; and long firing times result in a coarse-grained products that are more creep
resistant. Applying pressure decreases firing time and makes it possible to fire materials that are
difficult to fire using conventional methods.
dried parts pass through a controlled heating process, and the oxides are chemically changed to
cause bonding and densification. The fired part will be smaller than the dried part. is done at a
temperature below the melting point of the ceramic.
The temperature at which vitrification (glass formation) takes place, varies according to the
mineralogy of the clay.
Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass of material by heat [1] or
pressure[2] without melting it to the point of liquefaction. Because the sintering temperature
does not have to reach the melting point of the material, sintering is often chosen as the
shaping process for materials with extremely high melting points such
as tungsten and molybdenum. Sintering in practice is the control of both densification and grain
growth. Densification is the act of reducing porosity in a sample thereby making it more dense.
Grain growth is the process of grain boundary motion and Ostwald ripening to increase the
average grain size. Many properties (mechanical strength, electrical breakdown strength, etc.)
benefit from both a high relative density and a small grain size. Therefore, being able to control
these properties during processing is of high technical importance. Since densification of
powders requires high temperatures, grain growth naturally occurs during sintering. Reduction
of this process is key for many engineering ceramics. The sintering of liquid-phase materials
involves a fine-grained solid phase to create the needed capillary pressures proportional to its
diameter and the liquid concentration must also create the required capillary pressure within
range, else the process ceases. The vitrification rate is dependent upon the pore size, the
viscosity and amount of liquid phase present leading to the viscosity of the overall composition,
and the surface tension. Temperature dependence for densification controls the process because
at higher temperatures viscosity decreases and increases liquid content. Therefore, when
changes to the composition and processing are made, it will affect the vitrification process. [3]
7. Following firing, some ceramic products are processed further to enhance their characteristics
or to meet dimensional tolerances. Annealing at high temperature, followed by gradual cooling
can relieve internal stresses within the ceramic and surface stresses due to machining. Surface
coatings are applied to traditional clay ceramics to create a stronger, impermeable surface and
for decoration. Coatings also may be applied to improve strength, and resistance to abrasion
and corrosion. Coatings can be applied dry, as slurries, by spraying, or by vapor deposition.

abrasive of a substance or material) capable of polishing or cleaning a hard surface by rubbing

or grinding. Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as
the cutting tool
Annealing occurs by the diffusion of atoms within a solid material, so that the material
progresses towards its equilibrium state. Heat increases the rate of diffusion by providing the
energy needed to break bonds. The movement of atoms has the effect of redistributing and
eradicating the dislocations in metals and (to a lesser extent) in ceramics. This alteration to
existing dislocations allows a metal object to deform more easily, increasing its ductility.
Annealing of glass is a process of slowly cooling hot glass objects after they have been formed,
to relieve residual internal stresses introduced during manufacture.
 One of the most important concepts to learn before working with glass is annealing. The process
of annealing glass is to cool it slowly enough to let the entire thickness cool with very little
difference in temperature from the core to the surface. Since glass insulates very well, this can
take a long (sometimes very long) time.

What we call the annealing point is the temperature just below the freezing point, which is just
under 1000F for most soda-lime soft glass. At this temperature, the glass is cool enough that
it no longer moves or slumps with gravity, and hot enough that it cannot begin to build up stress
in the glass. If glass is held at this temperature long enough (about 1 hour per in. of
thickness), it will relieve any stress, and cooling can begin from there.
ID taper grinding, OD taper grin Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) is a technique which
utilizes both a mechanical abrasive with a chemical surface reactant with the material
surface. ding with diamond wheels, radius grinding, non-round grinding, thread grinding etc for
ceramic parts.
In some cases, particularly involving porcelain tiles, the fired surface is polished to achieve a
shiny, unglazed homogenous tile.
8. Ceramic tiles are individually somewhat fragile, but when tightly packed in cardboard
boxes, prove remarkably robust during handling and transportation. Storage of heavy clay goods
made on a large scale is often outdoors, but products which are bagged or boxed require
warehouse storage, as do certain moisture sensitive refractory products. Regularly shaped
ceramic units such as bricks, blocks, pipes and refractory units are normally strapped into
standard sized packs, which are often subsequently polyethylene-wrapped and may be
palletised. Ceramic products at the top end of the value range, such as table- and
ornamentalware, demandrigorous inspection and sorting followed by sophisticated protective
packaging. In contrast, unshaped refractory products are usually simply weighed into bags and
then palletised.
Risks & Opportunities
The production of glass and ceramics is very energy-intensive.
Energy is used primarily to melt and refine raw materials. In addition, further downstream
processing to form and finish
glass or ceramics also requires a significant amount of energy.
High temperatures, toxic dust, moving machines and falls from heights are the
main health and safety issues.
Heavy machinery is involved in glass and ceramic manufacturing. Production processes
expose workers to high
temperatures and solvents. Risks to the health and lives of workers may be mitigated by
training, protective equipment
and technical measures.
Large amounts of water are used for cooling and production purposes.
Water is used to cool the molten raw material and the tools used in the glass product
manufacturing process.
The gaseous emissions from kilns and furnaces may contain toxic substances.
Emissions to air depend on the choice of fuel used for the kilns and furnaces. Emissions
normally include substances as
NOx, SOx, CO, hydrocarbons and fluorides. Fluorides, in particular, can pose a risk to human
health.
Wastewater may be contaminated with heavy metals.
There are several wastewater

Storage and Display

Ceramics and glass, in general, should be stored and displayed on sturdy, level surfaces that are secure
from bumps and jarring. Objects should be covered or enclosed to protect them from dirt and dust. If
this is not possible for storage, pieces can be wrapped in acid-free, lignin-free tissue and stored in acid-
free cardboard boxes. Newspaper and acidic newsprint paper can cause discoloration and stains and
should not be used for wrapping or long term storage of ceramics and glass. Any box used for storage
should be strong enough to support the weight of the objects inside and should have a secure bottom.
The container should also be large enough to enclose the entire object. Objects should not be allowed
to bump or fall against each other.

Ceramics are often displayed vertically on walls with spring- loaded mounting brackets. These brackets
may exert too much pressure on ceramic plates and often cause cracks and damage. Other vertical
plate racks are made that do not exert undue pressure and are much safer for your prized objects.
Separate prongs can also be used in place of either type of mounting device. It helps to pad the part of
the mount with a synthetic felt to prevent any scratching onto the surface of the object.

Another common problem in the display of ceramic and glass pieces involves the gradual, incremental
movement of objects on surfaces due to underground vibrations. The movement can be caused by any
constant, transmitted vibration source like subways, trains, underground equipment, and normal
building vibration. Objects in museums are often carefully secured to their display surfaces with very
small dots of soft wax to prevent them from walking off their display vitrines. Caution should be used,
however, when using wax. One must take into consideration whether the wax may be safely removed
from the object. There are expert conservators who have researched and studied ways to reduce
earthquake-related damages to displayed objects. If you live in earthquake area and display important
objects, you can get information about these experts and their methods by contacting a local objects
conservator.

Handling Ceramics and Glass

A major source of damage to ceramics and glass can be improper handling and carelessness. A
thoughtless tap of a glass goblet on the storage shelf can result in a chip or complete breakage.
Careless handling can also lead to the formation of internal cracks that weaken the ceramic or glass
structure. It is always best to overestimate the brittleness and underestimate the strength of an
artifact. Of course, anyone who has poured hot water into a cold glass or mug and heard a delicate
chink sound will recall the heartache of breaking a favorite piece.

When moving ceramic and glass objects, always carry one object or one part of an object at a time. It is
best to place your hands around the body of the object rather than using an existing handle, rim, or
spout for support. Be sure you have a level space of adequate size available to place the object, and a
clear path to move, before removing the piece from its original location. Carry objects from room to
room or up and down stairs in a padded basket or box rather than in your hands. If you were to trip or
fall with your hands full, you would crush the object and most likely injure yourself as well. Use soft
padding to prevent ceramic and glass objects from clinking against each other during transport or in
overcrowded conditions.

Glass is a frozen liquid, and acquires its solid appearance because its viscosity increases with cooling

Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin,
although lead and various low melting point alloys were used in the past. This method gives the sheet
uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern windows are made from float glass. Most float glass
is soda-lime glass, but relatively minor quantities of specialty borosilicate[8] and flat panel display glass
are also produced using the float glass process. [9] The float glass process is also known as
the Pilkington process,[10] named after the British glass manufacturer Pilkington, who pioneered the
technique (invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington) in the 1950s.
 Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating molten glass into a bubble (or
parison), with the aid of a blowpipe (or blow tube). A person who blows glass is called
a glassblower, glassmith, or gaffer. A lampworker (often also called a glassblower or glassworker)
manipulates glass with the use of a torch on a smaller scale, such as in producing precision laboratory
glassware out of borosilicate glass.

2. Soda ash plays a vital role by reducing the furnace temperature necessary to melt the silica used,
thus reducing the energy required to produce glass. (1) Sand (SiO2 silica) (main composition) in
its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n; (2) Soda ash (sodium carbonate Na2CO3) - normally
SiO2 softens up to 2000C, where it starts to degrade (at 1713C most of the molecules can
already move freely); (3) Limestone (calcium carbonate or CaCo3) or dolomite (MgCO3) - also
known as lime, calcium carbonate is found naturally as limestone, marble, or chalk. Lime increases
the hardness and chemical durability and providing insolubility of the materials.

3. fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a batch, which flows into
the furnace, which is heated up to 1500 degree Celsius. The above raw materials primarily mixed in
batch helps to make clear glass. If certain metal oxides are mixed to this batch they impart colors
to the glass giving it a body tint. The above raw materials primarily mixed in batch helps to make
clear glass. If certain metal oxides are mixed to this batch they impart colors to the glass giving it a
body tint. Apart from the above basic raw material, broken glass aka cullet, is added to the mixture
to the tune of nearly 25% ~ 30% which acts primarily as flux. The flux in a batch helps in reducing
the melting point of the batch thus reducing the energy consumed to carry out the process.

Chem rxn takes place and results in a liquid state glass. Impurities, glass gal rise to the surface and
are removed. At this stage,

4. The fused mass obtained will be allowed to coll but still in a liquid state. Liquid glass is then poured
into moulds of required shape. Viscosity, a measure of liquid fluidity, varies inversely with
temperature. As the temperature decreases, viscosity increases. As glass cools, it gets "stiffer" or
more viscous.

Glass from the furnace gently flows over the refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten
tin, starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as solid ribbon at 600 deg Celsius.

Float Method- Molten glass is floated over a bath of molten tin before it is solidified in a separate
chamber.

5. Glass obtained by rapid cooling is brittle, as glass cools, it shrinks and solidifies.

Heat then cools in an long narrow chamber by a conveyor belt where it cools slowly giving transparent
glass. Annealing strengthens the glass

6. to ensure the highest quality inspection takes place at every stage. Occasionally a bubble that is
not removed during refining, a sand grain that refuses to melt or a tremor in the tin puts ripples in
the glass ribbon. Automated online inspection does two things. It reveals process faults upstream
that can be corrected. And it enables computers downstream to steer round the flaws. Inspection
technology now allows 100 million inspections per second to be made across the ribbon, locating
flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see.