ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF

URBAN BUILDINGS
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF
URBAN BUILDINGS
An Integrated Approach

Edited by

Mat Santamouris

London Sterling, VA
First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2006
Copyright Mat Santamouris, 2006
Environmental Design of Urban Buildings was supported by the European Commissions SAVE 13 Programme
All rights reserved
ISBN-10: 1-902916-42-5 (hardback)
ISBN-13: 978-1902916-42-2 (hardback)
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Contents

List of Tables viii

List of Figures x
List of Boxes xix
List of Contributors xxi
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii

1 Environmental Urban Design 1

Dana Raydan and Koen Steemers
Introduction: Urban environmental facts today 1
Vernacular urban planning: A lesson from the past? 2
Practical research into urban climatology related to built form 6
Energy consumption and urban spatial structure 7
Energy efficiency and renewable energy potential versus city texture and configuration 19
Research into practice for environmental urban planning and design 24
Energy-efficient urban planning and design versus amenity, equity and aesthetics 27
Overview 29

2 Architectural Design and Passive Environmental and Building Engineering Systems 36

Spyros Amourgis
Introduction 36
The building concept 36
The building design process 37
Passive systems in buildings 38

3 Environmental Issues of Building Design 46

Koen Steemers
Introduction 46
Context 47
Site planning 49
Building plan and section 50
Courtyard and atrium spaces 52
Building-use patterns 53
Construction detail 54
Natural lighting 55
Designing for passive solar gains 55
Strategies for natural ventilation 57
Avoiding overheating and increasing comfort 58
Artificial lighting systems 59
Providing heat 59
Services 60
vi ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

4 Sustainable Design, Construction and Operation 63

Evangelos Evangelinos and Elias Zacharopoulos
Introduction 63
Sustainability and building 63
Sustainable construction techniques and materials 65
Recycling buildings 69
Sustainable construction processes 70

5 Intelligent Controls and Advanced Building Management Systems 75

Saso Medved
Introduction 75
Intelligent buildings 76
Fundamentals of control systems 76
Building management systems 79
Examples of building management systems 86

6 Urban Building Climatology 95

Stavroula Karatasou, Mat Santamouris and Vassilios Geros
Introduction 95
The urban temperature 96
Urban wind field 100
Urban canyon effect 103
How to improve the urban climate 111

7 Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena in Urban Buildings 120

Samuel Hassid and Vassilios Geros
Introduction 120
Physics of heat transfer and rate equations 121
Principles of heat transfer in buildings 123

8 Applied Lighting Technologies for Urban Buildings 146

Saso Medved and Ciril Arkar
Introduction 146
Light 147
Human sight and its characteristics 147
Photometric quantities 148
Sources of light 149
Visual comfort requirements 155
Requests with reference to daylighting and the duration of sun exposure for buildings in urban areas 162
Light pollution 164
Lighting and the use of energy in buildings 167

9 Case Studies 174

Koen Steemers
Introduction 174
Case study 1: Meletikiki office building 176
Case study 2: Avax office building 183
Case study 3: Ampelokipi residential building 189
Case study 4: Bezigrajski dvor: An energy-efficient settlement in Ljubljana 195
Case study 5: Commercial building with a double faade 200
Case study 6: EURO centre commercial building with atrium 206
Case study 7: Potsdamer Platz: Office and residential development, Berlin, Germany 212
 CONTENTS vii

Case study 8: School of Engineering, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK 216

Case study 9: Inland Revenue Office Headquarters, Nottingham, UK 220

10 Guidelines to Integrate Energy Conservation 225

Marc Blake and Spyros Amourgis
Introduction 225
General issues 226
Design guidelines 232

11 Indoor Air Quality 245

Vassilios Geros
Introduction 245
Indoor air quality 246
Sick building syndrome and building-related illness 246
Indoor air quality design 247
Indoor pollutants and pollutant sources 251
International standards of indoor air quality 254
Modelling indoor pollutants 255

12 Applied Energy and Resource Management in the Urban Environment 264

Saso Medved
Introduction 264
Energy sources 265
Energy use in cities 269
Energy efficiency in the urban environment 270
Water resources and management 280
Material flows in cities 283

13 Economic Methodologies 294

Vassilios Geros
Introduction 294
Economic methodologies 294
Discount techniques 295
Non-discount techniques 300

14 Integrated Building Design 310

Koen Steemers
Introduction 310
An integrated building design system 311
Principles of low-energy design 311
Pre-design context 311
Building design 312
Building services 312
The integrated building design system 312
Interrelationships between design parameters 312
Design parameters versus low-energy strategies 314
Design parameters versus environmental systems 315
Design parameters versus energy strategies 315
List of Tables

1.1 Percentage delivered energy by end use in the UK 7

1.2 Site orientation chart 15
1.3 Gasoline use versus urban density according to area types 17
1.4 Impact and commentary for a proposed housing development in Hamilton, Leicester 18
1.5 Main climatic types, major resulting problems and corresponding urban design responses 20
1.6 Cost per hectare of existing layout is almost double the cost of revised layout, with improvements
consisting of major savings in circulation and storm drainage 24
1.7 European cities where interviews and field visits were carried out 26
3.1 Urban microclimate compared with the rural environs 47
4.1 Embodied energy of building materials in kilowatt hours per kilogram (kWh/kg) 68
4.2 Kilograms carbon dioxide per kilowatt hours (kgCO2/kWh) of embodied energy 68
5.1 Review of sensors used in different application in buildings 79
5.2 Data transfer and protocols for different applications in buildings 80
6.1 Heat island effects in some cities 98
6.2 Typical roughness length zo of urbanized terrain 102
6.3 Albedo of typical urban materials and areas 112
6.4 Albedo and emissivity for selected surfaces 112
7.1 Air flow rate due to infiltration according to the number of windows and exterior doors 128
7.2 Thermophysical properties of various building materials 136
7.3 Solar absorptivities 138
8.1 The light effect of sun radiation for various sky conditions; s is presented in Figure 8.5 152
8.2 Recommended level of illuminance for working spaces with artificial illumination according to the
needs of the work 156
8.3 Recommended minimum and average daylight factor and evenness of lighting in different spheres 156
8.4 Typical reflectivity a in b 156
8.5 Thermal and optical properties of the different glasses 157
8.6 Description of the glare perception and the allowed glare index (GI) and daylight glare index (DGI)
according to the different interiors and spaces 160
8.7 Maximum obstruction angle measured 2m above the ground 162
8.8 Minimum sunlight duration stated in the regulations of different countries 164
8.9 Minimum sunlight duration depending on the latitude (L) of the site 164
8.10 Highest obstruction angles in the area between south-eastsouthsouth-west in front of a
solar-heated building 164
8.11 Electricity energy use for artificial lighting in different buildings as a percentage of the end-use energy
consumption 167
8.12 Installed electrical power and the use of electrical energy for artificial illumination of the office building 167
8.13 Energy required for heating and relative electricity consumption for artificial illumination of a typical
office in the building depicted in Figure 8.35 168
8.14 Energy use for heating, cooling and lighting of the shopping centre shown in Figure 8.37 169
9.1 Meletikiki office building 176
9.2 Avax office building 183
9.3 Avax project time scale 183
 LIST OF TABLES ix

9.4 Ampelokipi residential building 185

9.5 Bezigrajski building 195
9.6 HIT Center building 200
9.7 Euro Centre building 206
9.8 Potsdamer Platz building 212
9.9 Climate data for Berlin 212
9.10 School of Engineering building, University of Leicester 216
9.11 Inland Revenue headquarters, Nottingham 220
11.1 CO2 production rate for various activities 253
11.2 International standards for CO2 concentration levels 254
11.3 CO concentration levels for various areas 255
11.4 International standards for CO concentration levels 255
11.5 International standards for NO2 concentration levels 256
11.6 International standards for formaldehyde (HCHO) concentration levels 256
11.7 WHO guideline values for the criteria air pollutants 257
11.8 USEPA national ambient air quality standards for the criteria air pollutants 257
12.1 Energy needed and transportation emissions for passenger and freight transport 272
12.2 Amounts of alcohol produced from different agricultural plants 276
12.3 Possible reduction of energy consumption and pollution by recycling of various materials 285
12.4 Share of the incinerated municipal waste in various countries and the European average share 285
12.5 Impact of waste treatment technologies on the environment 287
13.1 A simple cash flow example that compares two alternative solutions 295
13.2 An example of the use of the discount rate 295
13.3 An example of the life-cycle cost (LCC) method that compares two alternative solutions 296
13.4 An example of the LCC method that compares two alternative solutions 297
13.5 An example of the internal rate of return (IRR) method that compares two alternative solutions 299
13.6 An example of the discounted payback method that compares two alternative solutions 300
13.7 Net cash flows of the two alternatives 301
13.8 An example of the simple payback method that compares two alternative solutions 302
13.9 An example of the unadjusted rate of return (URR) method that compares two alternative solutions 303
13.10 Net cash flow and running total per year 307
13.11 Net cash flow and life cycle cost per year 307
13.12 Results of the alternative scenarios for the unadjusted rate of return method 308
13.13 Results of the alternative scenarios for the net savings method 309
List of Figures

1.1 Relative contributions of greenhouse gases to the greenhouse effect 2

1.2 City of the Dead in Gizeh, Egypt 3
1.3 Sections through old towns 4
1.4 Cit Radieuse by Le Corbusier 4
1.5 Cit Industrielle by Garnier 5
1.6 Pharaonic Egyptian workers village as regular grid 5
1.7 Plan of a Roman fort 5
1.8 Plan of a Greek city 5
1.9 Harlow New Town, illustrating the principle of organic planning 6
1.10 Energy use by sector in the UK 7
1.11 Suburbanization (left) and Counter-urbanization (right) 9
1.12 Travel and transport energy use for different area types in the UK 10
1.13 Urban density versus annual gasoline use per capita 10
1.14 From left to right, gradual decrease in physical separation of activities 11
1.15 Height-to-width ratio (H/W) and length-to-width ratio (L/W) are critical to wind flow in the urban canyon
where L indicates length of building perpendicular to wind direction 12
1.16 Model of the investigated area, showing the relationship between vortices and pollution dispersal 12
1.17 Permeable (bottom) versus impermeable (top) urban layouts 13
1.18 Solar radiation for different H/W ratios 13
1.19 Influence of built form on heating requirement in the UK according to Building Research
Establishment (BRE) data 14
1.20 Attached versus detached dwellings; single-family detached houses seem to cause more loss of valuable
space and privacy than attached houses, where side yards are used more efficiently 15
1.21 Daily variation in surface temperature of various types of pavement finishes, measured in Stuttgart in
July 1978 16
1.22 Compact city 21
1.23 Archipelago layout or nucleated urban sub-units 21
1.24 Linear cruciform layout 22
1.25 Three urban layouts, where (a) illustrates existing situation, (b) optimal equivalent in grid-iron format
and (c) proposed revised layout 23
1.26 Morphology of edges 24
1.27 Diagrammatic plan of Morra Park showing a closed-loop circulation 26
1.28 Experimental work that examines symbiotic relationships between the natural and built form in the
urban landscape; the givens are natural features of the site and the outcome is planning proposals 30
2.1 Row housing in Munich 39
2.2 Example of house incorporating passive systems 39
2.3 Interior of terminal building of the International Airport of Alexandroupolis 40
2.4 Close up of ceiling of terminal building of the International Airport of Alexandroupolis 40
2.5 Interior section of the gallery module 41
2.6 Apartment building on the south coast of Athens 41
2.7 Section of freeway and building 42
3.1 The urban environment (in this example, Chicago) is typified by hard surfaces, a lack of vegetation and
complex patterns of overshadowing and wind. As a result, it is significantly different from a rural climate 47
 LIST OF FIGURES xi

3.2 Vegetation provides a variety of microclimates, including the presence of shade and potentially
evaporative cooling, as shown in this courtyard in Alhambra, Granada 48
3.3 Sun path diagrams for high (53 north left) and low (17 north right) latitude 49
3.4 A haze of pollution covers many urban areas 49
3.5 Example of urban density from southern Spain (Granada), where narrow urban spaces provide shading
from summer sun, but also provide some protection from cold winter winds 50
3.6 An example of a courtyard building, where the courtyard potentially provides protection from the noisier
and more polluted street environment, creating a quiet haven 50
3.7 Vernacular architecture from a temperate climate region clearly expresses the selective potential of a
simple loggia or overhang to provide seasonal solar control 51
3.8 The plan of this office building (IBM Plaza) has service spaces located on the west and east faades to
protect the accommodation from low afternoon and morning sunlight penetration 51
3.9 An atrium environment can provide a range of environmental benefits for a building, particularly in
colder northern climates 52
3.10 A central function of buildings is to provide an appropriate, comfortable and healthy environment that the
occupants can control 53
3.11 Daylight availability and distribution will significantly affect the success of a space, both in technical
and visual terms 55
3.12 Shading and glazing design need to be closely coordinated to optimize control with views 56
3.13 Ventilation stacks are an increasingly common feature in low-energy, naturally ventilated buildings 57
3.14 Glazing ratios (i.e. the percentage of glazing in a faade) has a significant impact on the energy use, as
shown for a south-facing faade on an office building in the UK 58
3.15 The exposure of thermal mass is essential if it is to assist in providing a stable internal environment 59
3.16 A light fitting that has acoustic absorption integrated within the design, and which enables the avoidance
of ceiling tiles and, thus, the exposure of thermal mass 59
4.1 Energy consumed in the life of a building 64
4.2 Retaining wall made out of fragments of concrete slab 67
5.1 Illustration of a loop-control system 76
5.2 Illustration of the controller operation that uses two-position control (left) and P control (right) 77
5.3 Illustration of the operation of the PI and PID controller 78
5.4 Illustration of the operation of the AI controller 79
5.5 Illustration of the linguistic variables and fuzzy sets (actual room temperature is characterized by
75 per cent warm and 25 per cent cool) 79
5.6 Buildings service systems that can be monitored, controlled and optimized by BEMS 81
5.7 Luxmeter (a), movement sensor (b) and valves with the control drive on as an actuator 82
5.8 Review of the building management systems functions at different levels 83
5.9 Illustration of the LAN with outstations 83
5.10 Outstation (left) for fan-coil (top right) control with temperature sensor and window switch as input devices
and valves with control drives on the hot and cool pipeline as output devices (bottom right) 84
5.11 LAN topologies 85
5.12 Instabus EIB control lines 86
5.13 Main entrance, daylit atrium and east faade with movable shading devices 87
5.14 Central heat sub-station LON controller 88
5.15 Fan-coil LON controller 88
5.16 Heating and sanitary water heating systems 89
5.17 Cooling system and its operating scheme with control system (above), and air-conditioning device with
heat recuperator for atrium air conditioning with operating scheme (bottom) 90
5.18 Lighting control is based on illumination level and room presence (sensor C) 91
5.19 Office condition control (left) and scheme of past values of hot water temperatures in the central heating
sub-station in case room temperature decreases during the night (right) 91
5.20 The room thermostat gives users the possibility of correcting the set-point temperature according to
individual indoor environment requirements (left); user interface window for changing set-point values
of indoor environment parameters (right) 91
xii ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

6.1 Surface isotherms showing the heat island phenomenon over the St Louis metropolitan area 96
6.2 Representation of variation in air temperature from a rural to an urban area 97
6.3 Temperature distribution in and around a park in Athens, Greece 97
6.4 Typical temporal variation of urban and rural air temperature 98
6.5 Relation between maximum heat island intensity and population for North American and European cities 99
6.6 Relation between maximum heat island intensity and population for North American, European and
South American cities 99
6.7 Relation between maximum heat island intensity and population for North American, European and
Australasian cities 100
6.8 Schematic representation of a two-layer classification of an urban modification 101
6.9 Vertical wind speeds (percentage of the gradient wind at various heights) over terrain of different roughness 101
6.10 Logarithmic and exponential wind profiles in the surface layer, above and below height 102
6.11 Canyon measurements; surface temperature is measured at five different points in the street: (a) on the
south-west faade and (e) on the north-east faade of the street, with (b), (c) and (d) in between 104
6.12 Infrared thermography of a section of Omonia Square in Athens, Greece 105
6.13 Height, width and length of a canyon 106
6.14 The flow regime associated with airflow over building arrays of increasing height-to-width ratio (H/W) 107
6.15 Threshold lines dividing flow into three regimes as functions of the building (L/H) and canyon (H/W)
geometries 108
6.16 Airflow characteristics along the canyon 109
6.17 Box plot of wind speed inside the canyon for various clusters of ambient wind speed for wind directions
parallel to the canyon 110
6.18 A cork-screw type of flow 110
7.1 Conduction in a single-layer wall 121
7.2 Convection 122
7.3 Radiation 123
7.4 Multilayered wall and electrical analogue 124
7.5 Electrical analogue of one-layer wall (unsteady state) 125
7.6 Stack effect in LBL infiltration model 129
7.7 Grey surface radiation 130
7.8 View factors between parallel and equal rectangles as a function of geometry 130
7.9 View factors between perpendicular rectangles as a function of geometry 131
7.10 Radiative heat transfer between a flat floor and the surfaces of an attic 132
7.11 Solar coordinates (elevation and azimuth ) 133
7.12 Incidence angle on inclined surfaces 135
7.13 Heat transfer balance of a building 147
8.1 Different parts of the electromagnetic wave spectrum 147
8.2 The human eye functions like a camera 148
8.3 Spectral luminous efficiency of a human eye 148
8.4 Field of view and centre of vision 150
8.5 The position of the sun in the sky can be represented by the altitude angle s and its azimuth angle s;
z is the sun zenith angle 150
8.6 Sun-path diagram for Athens (left) and for Nordcap (right); the looped curve represents 12:00 local time
according to the equation of time and difference between standard and local meridian 150
8.7 Clear (left), cloudy (bottom) and overcast (right) skies 151
8.8 Geometrical parameters of point P for a clear-sky luminance determination 151
8.9 Luminance of the sky determined with a model of overcast (top) and clear sky (bottom) for 21 March at
11:00 (sun time) for an urban area 152
8.10 A standard incandescent lamp (left), a halogen lamp with double-sided connection (middle) and a
low-voltage halogen lamp with parabolic reflector (right) 153
8.11 Features of a fluorescent lamp 154
8.12 Compact fluorescent lamp 154
 LIST OF FIGURES xiii

8.13 Lighting efficiencies and lifetimes of different lamps 154

8.14 Lamp with direct light-flux distribution and its photometric diagram 155
8.15 Minimum illuminence of the outdoor horizontal unshaded plane under overcast sky during 70, 80 or
90 per cent of daily working hours (09:00 to 17:00) in different EU regions 157
8.16 Components of the daylight factor (DF) in an urban environment 157
8.17 A typical urban street canyon 158
8.18 The obstruction illuminance multiplier 158
8.19 Input windows of the DF.xls spreadsheet, on the left for entering geometrical data relating to the
surrounding room and the observed point in the room; and on the right for the canyon data input 158
8.20 The uniformity of the daylight illumination inside a living space can be significantly improved by
well-considered arrangement of the windows 159
8.21 The operation of the reflective jalousies, shades and prismatic elements, which divert daylight deep
into the room space, use two basic optical principles: reflection (reflective shades) and refraction
(prismatic elements) 159
8.22 In the office shown, the uniformity of the daylight illumination increased from 1:6 to 1:3.5 after the light
shelf was installed; computer simulations and a photo of the window with and without light shelf are shown 160
8.23 With light pipes it is possible to lead daylight to spaces that are 10m or more below the ground; above is
a system with parabolic tracking mirrors (bottom left), a combination of skylights and optical light pipes
for lighting a corridor 4m below roof level (top right and left) 161
8.24 North-facing windows in a shopping centre ensure quality daylight without causing glare and overheating
problems 162
8.25 The transmittance of solar radiation through common, absorbtive and reflective glass; in the case of
absorbtive glass the transmittivity of the solar radiation decreases, but the heat flux into the interior
is increased by radiation and convection heat transfer 162
8.26 With printed screens the transmittivity of glass is decreased only on the parts where glare is
expected (right) 163
8.27 Fixed shades in the form of louvers on a south-facing faade (8 October; south faade; 13:00;
L = 46 degrees; s = 7 degrees; s = 35 degrees) such devices efficiently shade interiors and still
allow quality daylighting; but at lower altitudes of the sun (s < 30 degrees) they do not prevent glare 163
8.28 Movable shades efficiently decrease the visual discomfort caused by glare 163
8.29 Photometric diagram of a lamp with areas of direct- and reflected-glare zones 164
8.30 Presentation of the obstruction angle 164
8.31 A photo of the internal yard (top), digitized and computer-analysed picture in a spherical mirror
(middle left) and a sun-path diagram with surroundings (bottom) 165
8.32 Area in front of the solar heating building where the obstruction angle should be as minimal as possible 165
8.33 A summary of the criteria of maximum recommended obstruction angles regarding daylighting, sunlight
duration and passive solar heating 166
8.34 World map of night-sky brightness; bright pixels represent the most critical areas 166
8.35 Commercial office with south-oriented double-glazed faade 168
8.36 Iso-luxes calculated for overcast sky and nominal illumination for an office without a double faade (left),
and for an office with a double faade and reflective louvres (right) 168
8.37 Shopping centre with central shopping area with flat roof and skylights: view from the south (left),
construction of skylights (right) 169
9.1 Location of the building (star indicates the location region) 176
9.2 Monthly average global and diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal plane in Athens 176
9.3 Monthly average external temperature and external relative humidity in Athens 177
9.4 Monthly average wind velocity and wind direction in Athens 177
9.5 Meletikiki building 177
9.6 Location of the building and neighbouring buildings 177
9.7 The building complex where the office is located 178
9.8 External views of the building 178
9.9 Section of the building showing the different levels 178
xiv ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

9.10 A section of the building 178

9.11 Plan of the building, showing the levels 3.2 and 4.8 (library, meeting room, drawing boards) 179
9.12 Photo of the interior space of the building 179
9.13 Photo of the clerestory lighting on the roof of the building and the reflective curtains 180
9.14 Comfort zone when ceiling fans are operated 180
9.15 Energy use 180
9.16 Measured (channel 1 and 2), simulated (TRNSYS) and outdoor air temperature (ambient) for level 0.0 of
the building 181
9.17 Coefficient of performance (COP) of the night ventilation 181
9.18 Daylight factors of the 1.63m level of the building 182
9.19 Illuminance on the horizontal level with and without shading 182
9.20 Location of the Avax building (arrow indicates the location region) 183
9.21 The eastern faade of the building when the glass panels are closed 184
9.22 The eastern faade of the building when the glass panels are open 184
9.23 Photos from the interior space of the building 184
9.24 A plan of the Avax building 185
9.25 A section of the Avax building 185
9.26 Location of the workstations 186
9.27 The movable solar fins for outside and inside the building 186
9.28 Daylight factor distribution in a room with opaque and translucent partitioning walls 187
9.29 Monthly average minimum, maximum and mean indoor air temperature 187
9.30 Monthly average minimum, maximum and mean relative humidity 188
9.31 Annual energy consumption per use 189
9.32 Location of the Ampelokipi building (arrow indicates the location region) 189
9.33 Sections of the Ampelokipi building 189
9.34 The southern faade of the building 190
9.35 Photo of the interior space of the building 190
9.36 Floor plans of the building 190
9.37 Axonometric plan of the Ampelokipi building; weather station and sensors location in the building 191
9.38 Interior airflow in winter and summer 191
9.39 Percentage of opaque and transparent building elements in the buildings envelope 193
9.40 Thermal energy consumption 193
9.41 Monthly heating load and passive systems performance in the building 193
9.42 Daily maximum and minimum temperature values in different places in the building 194
9.43 Location of the settlement (map of Slovenia (left) and map of Ljubljana (right)) 195
9.44 Monthly average air temperature and daily solar irradiation in Ljubljana 196
9.45 Floor plan of the Bezigrajski dvor settlement; shades of the building are plotted at a sun altitude of
45 degrees and an azimuth angle of 45o degrees (10 April at 10:00) 196
9.46 Green areas reduce the heat island in the settlement 197
9.47 Picture of the Bezigrajski dvor settlement from the north-east 197
9.48 View of the south and east faade with sunspace, and the east faade with external shading devices and
windows with night insulation 197
9.49 Hot water (black) and steam (grey) network of distant heating system with both heating plants
and the Bezigrajski dvor settlement (black dot) 198
9.50 Average and 24-hour maximum SO2 concentrations in the city centre of Ljubljana 198
9.51 Heat sub-station of the Bezigrajski dvor settlement 199
9.52 LT Method 4.0 worksheet with results for the selected building in the Bezigrajski dvor settlement 199
9.53 Location of the commercial building (map of Slovenia (left) and Nova Gorica (right)) 200
9.54 Building cross-section; the three-storey double faade is on the left 201
9.55 First-floor plan of the building 201
9.56 Commercial buildings south faade 202
9.57 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses of temperature in a double-glazed faade 202
 LIST OF FIGURES xv

9.58 Temperatures and heat gains in a double-glazed faade 203

9.59 Measured temperatures in a double-glazed faade on 22 June 2002; image shows air temperatures in the
faade cavity of each floor and ambient air temperature 203
9.60 Measured and calculated temperatures in a double-glazed faade for one week in June 2001 204
9.61 Energy use for heating each square metre of office floor area calculated on the basis of data from test
reference year and a room temperature of 20 Celsius 204
9.62 Earth gas consumption for office building heating 204
9.63 Natural lighting in a typical office in the HIT Center building (left) office with double faade and reflective
blinds, (middle) office with double faade and white blinds and (right) office without double faade 205
9.64 Location of the EURO Centre commercial building (map of Slovenia (left) and map of Ljubljana (right)) 205
9.65 Monthly average air temperature and daily solar radiation in Ljubljana (left) and hourly values from
test reference year for Ljubljana (right) 207
9.66 EURO buildings cross-section 207
9.67 EURO buildings first-floor plan 207
9.68 EURO buildings north faade 208
9.69 EURO buildings eye-shaped atrium 208
9.70 Part of the atriums artificial lighting that simulates daylighting 208
9.71 Openings on the rim of the atrium before bi-directional fans were installed 209
9.72 Predicted temperatures in the atrium in summer conditions: cross-ventilation on the sixth floor (0.14 cubic
metres per second) and displacement ventilation in the atrium (4 cubic metres per second) 209
9.73 South office ventilation system; concept of ventilation (top), computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
analysis of indoor temperatures on a summer day at solar noon (middle); and part of the system at the
construction phase (bottom) 210
9.74 Temperatures in offices on the sixth floor (top) and temperatures in the atrium at the top level during
selected months (bottom) 210
9.75 Comparison of measured and calculated temperatures in the atrium on the sixth floor for July 2002 211
9.76 South-east faade of the Potsdamer Platz development showing the stepped opening in the elevation 213
9.77 Environmental design strategies for the building form 213
9.78 Environmental design strategies for the atrium 214
9.79 Environmental design strategies for the faade 214
9.80 Environmental design strategies for the interior 214
9.81 Interior view of a typical atrium 215
9.82 View of the De Montfort engineering building in its context 216
9.83 Architects sketch and final view of the faade 217
9.84 The roof profile (left) indicates the strong role that stack ventilation plays, while the section through the
building (right) shows teaching spaces on the left with high glazing ratios facing in to a court, the tall
concourse space in the centre with a stack, and an auditorium space on the right 217
9.85 Exterior, showing perforated brick peers for air inlets, and interior, showing high windows for good
daylight penetration into the double-height mechanical spaces 218
9.86 Overview of the site and views to the castle 220
9.87 Perimeter environmental strategies 221
9.88 The ventilation towers are a key architectural feature 222
9.89 Overall natural ventilation strategy 222
9.90 Percentage of internal temperatures recorded 223
9.91 Comparisons of energy use 223
10.1 Wall section: (a) shows interior plaster; (b) shows internal cavity wall skin (i.e. bricks); (c) shows thermal
insulation material in the cavity; (d) shows external cavity wall skin (i.e. bricks); (e) shows white-washed
plaster (high albedo) 226
10.2 Two building section details which show how thermal bridges can occur if proper insulation is not
provided at tectonic elements 227
10.3 Continuous building system layout of city block 228
xvi ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

10.4 Roof plan of building showing favourable orientation of the major faades to within 15 of northsouth
coordinates 228
10.5 (left) Correct building section showing how equal amounts of cut and fill are created during excavation;
(right) incorrect building section showing how too much soil is exported from the site during excavation 229
10.6 (left) Correct building section showing how building surface and ground are planted to assist in the
absorption of unfavourable heat gains; (right) incorrect building section showing how surfaces and ground
absorb and radiate heat 230
10.7 Building sections showing how a deciduous tree (left) can shade the building in summer, and in winter
(right) lose its leaves to allow the sun to pass through and warm the building 230
10.8 (left) Correct building floor plan showing a low surface to volume ratio; (right) incorrect building floor
plan showing a high surface to volume ratio 231
10.9 Building section showing open pilotis allowing free air flow below the building 231
10.10 Floorplan showing the ideal location of rooms in relation to north and south directions 231
10.11 (left) Correct building floor plan showing free flow of air currents through the space; (right) incorrect
floor plan showing interrupted airflow due to the introduction of a corridor 232
10.12 Section of a building showing a compromise solution; two apartment units with a corridor between them,
allowing for free flow of air in both units 232
10.13 (left) Incorrect building section showing narrow space between two building blocks; (right) correct
building section showing wide space between two buildings, allowing better flow of air and use of
natural daylight 233
10.14 (left) Incorrect building floor plan showing narrow gap; (right) correct building plan showing alternative
arrangement with a wider gap between building blocks in order to allow better airflow and use of
natural light 233
10.15 Two alternative building plans showing the use of the same component in different ways in order to
achieve free flow of air 234
10.16 Building sections showing various ways to place the building in relation to the ground 234
10.17 Building sections showing how overhangs can assist in controlling sunlight 235
10.18 Building sections showing various window types and the circulation of air, (left) pivoting and (right)
double sash 235
10.19 Building section showing a fixed fin and how it assists in controlling sunlight coming into the building
during summer and winter seasons 236
10.20 Vertical section of a trombe wall showing how the suns energy passes through a wall of glass, is stored
in a mass and is slowly radiated to the adjacent room 236
10.21 Vertical section of an attached sun room showing how warm air is trapped in the volume of the glass
structure so it can be transferred to the building 237
10.22 Vertical section of an atrium showing how the suns energy can be trapped in the space and transferred
to the adjacent rooms 237
10.23 Vertical window sections showing how an exterior roller shutter can be used to control sunlight before
it enters the building 237
10.24 Vertical building section showing how vegetation might be used to help absorb the suns energy 237
10.25 (left) Correct placement of openings to assist in the free flow of air in a room; (right) incorrect placement
of openings, hampering the free flow of air 238
10.26 Building section showing the use of a wind tower 238
10.27 Building section showing the use of a solar chimney 238
10.28 Building sections showing various ways to insulate a building; (left) parasol-like roof to block sun and
allow air movement; (right) cavities built in the wall and roof to allow for air movement 239
10.29 Building sections showing (left) clerestory windows and (right) horizontal fins in the building faade 239
10.30 Building section showing how cool air might be pumped into a building from underground pipes 240
10.31 Building section showing the planting of roof surfaces 240
10.32 Building section showing the use of water elements on roof surfaces 241
11.1 Steady-state modelling without return air 258
11.2 Steady-state modelling with return air and filtration device installed in the return air channel 258
 LIST OF FIGURES xvii

11.3 Steady-state modelling with return air and filtration device installed in the supply air channel 258
12.1 Modern cities occupy substantially more surface area than they used to in the past, and 80 per cent of
the population in the EU lives in cities 265
12.2 Energy and mass flows in cities 265
12.3 Renewable sources of energy are solar radiation, the gravity force of the moon and the sun and the heat
within the Earth 266
12.4 Primary and secondary or end-use energy use in the world in 1996 267
12.5 Emissions from households, traffic and a co-generation district heating power plant (DHPP) in a
mid-sized city (300,000 inhabitants) 268
12.6 Emission results from the combustion of fossil fuels, calculated per kWh of heat 269
12.7 With fabric filters, 98 per cent of particles smaller than 1 to 5m are removed 269
12.8 In a thermal power plant with 275 megawatts (MW) power the wet method for de-sulphuration in the
exhaust gases washer and electrostatic filters are used for particle removal 270
12.9 Relative end-use of energy consumption in cities for different sectors (left) and absolute end-use of
energy consumption per capita (right) 270
12.10 Four basic demand-side management (DSM) strategies 271
12.11 Older building with no insulation (left) and thermal picture of the same building (right); the brighter
spots show the thermal bridges, spots where heat loses are particularly large 272
12.12 Major components of a district heating system 272
12.13 Pipelines are, in most cases, pre-insulated and buried in the ground (left) 273
12.14 Heat sub-station of the building, with 40 flats; on the left is a heat exchanger, which connects the district
heating system with the one in the building (right) 273
12.15 District heating and power plant and part of 156km long supply pipelines of district heating system in
mid-sized city; hot water system (130 Celsius/70 Celsius) provide heating for 45,000 residental units (left);
recently the 24,000 cubic metre large hot water storage was built with a thermal capacity of 850 MWh
for peak-load clipping (right) instead of enlarging the thermal capacity of the boilers 274
12.16 Wood pellets (left) and transportation of the baled straw from storage into a boiler in a central plant of a
small-sized district heating system (right) 276
12.17 Vehicles can be supplied with bio-diesel fuel in numerous filling stations 277
12.18 The solar collectors field of the biggest solar system for district heating in the Danish town of Marstal;
the white cylindrical vessel, in the lower left corner next to the solar collectors field, is a 2000m3 large
heat storage, which is sufficient for one days heat accumulation 278
12.19 One of the first solar systems for settlement heating built in Germany operates in Hamburg 278
12.20 Different ways of exploiting geothermal energy: thermal aquifers (left), hot dry rock (middle) and borehole
heat exchanger (right) 278
12.21 Reykjavik is the only capital that provides space heating entirely with geothermal energy 279
12.22 Luminaries with solar cell in the city park 279
12.23 The modules of solar cells can be made in the form of tiles, window glazing and faade panels 279
12.24 Off-shore wind farm 280
12.25 Building-integrated wind turbines 280
12.26 Estimated amount of water within the hydrological cycle in millions of cubic metres (atmosphere,
hydrosphere, arid regions, humid regions, lithosphere, oceans, land) 281
12.27 Increasing water use in Europe during the last 50 years (left) 281
12.28 Daily use of freshwater per capita (right): bottom represents minimum values; top represents
maximum values 281
12.29 Water consumption in households for different needs; all sites provided with rainwater should be marked
with a sign that makes clear that water is not potable 282
12.30 Municipal purifying plant with the capacity of 8000 population equivalents (PE) 283
12.31 Municipal waste generation in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
countries (left); municipal waste generation in relation to gross domestic product (GDP) (right) 284
12.32 Structure of municipal waste in selected European countries 284
12.33 A contemporary waste incinerator in Birmingham, UK 286
xviii ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

12.34 Schematic diagram of a typical municipal waste incinerator with energy recovery 286
12.35 Schematic diagram of a sanitary landfill 287
12.36 Engines and generators where landfill gas is being used for heat and electricity production 287
12.37 European daisy, which is used to label environmentally friendly products; among the criteria there is
also the possibility of recycling and natural decomposition 288
13.1 A graph showing the comparison of two alternative solutions by using the life-cycle cost (LCC) method 296
13.2 A graph showing the comparison of two alternative solutions by using the net savings (NS) method 297
13.3 A graph showing the comparison of two alternative solutions by using the internal rate of return (IRR)
method 299
13.4 A graph showing the comparison of two alternative solutions by using the discounted payback method 300
13.5 A comparison between two alternative solutions by using the net cash flow method 301
13.6 A comparison of two alternative solutions by using the simple payback method 302
13.7 A comparison of two alternative solutions by using the unadjusted rate of return (URR) method 303
13.8 Life cycle cost results of the project 307
13.9 Comparison of the alternative scenarios for the unadjusted rate of return method 308
14.1 Schematic layout of overall integrated building design system (IBDS) stages and relationships 312
14.2 Schematic layout of building design-related issues; the primary sub-categories of each main design
consideration are depicted 313
14.3 Matrix of building design issues showing environmental interrelationships between parameters 313
14.4 Diagram of strength of links, expressed as a percentage of interconnectedness between building
design variables 314
14.5 Matrix of building design issues and related environmental performance parameters 314
14.6 Diagram of interconnectedness between design and low-energy strategies 314
14.7 Strategic relationships between design and services 315
14.8 Schematic of the interrelationships between building design and services 315
14.9 IBDS matrix of key parameters, indicating zones of levels of interaction between building design and
energy strategies 316
14.10 A simplified matrix indicating the hierarchy of interrelationships of the key energy and design parameters 317
14.11 Example of a matrix showing links between form and faade design, and daylighting criteria 318
List of Boxes

11.1 Determining IAQ design targets 249

11.2 Identifying site characteristics related to IAQ 249
11.3 Determining the overall approach related to environmental control 249
11.4 Description of the building 250
11.5 Description of the building materials 250
11.6 Determining ventilation system options and evaluation 250
11.7 Identifying target materials for IAQ evaluation 250
11.8 Identifying the chemical content and emissions of the target materials 250
11.9 Identifying the cleaning and maintenance requirements 250
11.10 Reviewing chemical data for the presence of strong odorants, irritants, acute toxins and genetic toxins 251
11.11 Calculating the concentration of dominant emissions 251
11.12 Comparing the calculated concentrations with IAQ requirements 251
11.13 Selecting products and determining installation requirements 251
11.14 Ventilation system requirements 251
13.1 Source code in C language for performing the necessary calculations, IRR method 298
List of Contributors

Spyros Amourgis is Vice President of the Hellenic Open University (EAP), Professor of Bioclimatic Architecture at
EAP, Professor Emeritus of the California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (CSPU), a former Dean at the College
of Environmental Design (CSPU) and former Secretary of the Board of the Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA).
He has taught design at the Architectural Association (AA) School of Architecture, London, was Professeur Invit at
EPF Lausanne, and a Senior Fellow at the Center of Metropolitan Planning and Research, The Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore.

Ciril Arkar is a teaching assistant at the Faculties of Mechanical Engineering and Architecture, and at the University
College of Health Care of the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. His research areas are renewable energy sources and
heat and mass transfer in buildings. He has cooperated on international projects CEC JOULE II, OPET and SAVE,
and also on national projects.

Marc Blake is a licensed architect in California and Greece. He is currently a partner at AMK Architects and Designers
in Athens, designing for the cruise and hotel industry. His undergraduate work at the California State Polytechnic
University at Pomona included one year of studies in Florence, Italy and Athens, Greece. He won second place in the
annual Paris Prize Competition and then obtained a masters degree in Architecture at UCLA while working with the
Urban Innovations Group and the Architect Panos Koulermos. After graduation he moved to Athens in Greece and
began working for OTOME and then AMK. He is also teaching in the CSPUP Summer Programme in Athens.

Evangelos Evangelinos is a professor at the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA). He holds a Diploma in
Architectural Engineering from NTUA, and a Graduate Diploma in Energy Studies from the AA, London. He currently
teaches courses on architectural technology and design, building construction, bioclimatic and sustainable architecture.
He has participated as a researcher and head researcher in a number of projects on sustainable and bioclimatic archi-
tecture. He is an author on the topics of sustainable building design, as well as bioclimatic architecture for the Greek
Open University.

Vassilios Geros is a research associate at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA). He holds a
physics degree (from NKUA, Greece), a DEA in building design methods (ENTPE-INSA de Lyon, Universit de
Chambry, France) and a PhD on the thermal performance of night ventilation techniques (INSA de Lyon, France). He
has participated in several research and other projects concerning building energy design, building automation and
building regulations. He has also participated in developing educational material and software tools for energy and
environmental design and certification of buildings.

Samuel Hassid has been associate professor in the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Technion
Israel Institute of Technology, in Haifa, Israel since 1990. He has a BSc and an MSc in nuclear engineering from Queen
Mary College of the University of London, and a DSc from the Technion. He is currently teaching climatology of build-
ings, heat transfer and computational fluid dynamics. He has participated in several research projects in passive solar
buildings and energy in buildings in Israel, as well as the Energy Towers Project.

Stavroula Karatasou is a physicist. She graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Athens and holds
an MSc in physics of the environment. She is currently working as a research associate in the Group of Building
Environmental Studies (University of Athens) and has participated in a variety of national and European research, and
xxii ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

in applied projects in energy conservation, integration of renewable energies in buildings, indoor air quality, thermal
comfort and passive cooling.

Saso Medved is an associate professor at the University of Ljubljana. His main research areas are heat and mass trans-
fer in buildings, renewable energy sources and computer simulations of buildings and buildings service systems. He is
Head of the Department of Renewable Energy Sources in the Laboratory for Heating, Sanitary and Solar Technology in
the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. He is author of five books, more then 30 scientific and research articles, and
several software and multimedia tools.

Dana Raydan is a practising project architect within the award-winning multi-disciplinary consultancy RMJM Ltd,
leading a UK10 million new build School of Nursing and Midwifery at the University of East Anglia in Norwich
(completion December 2005). She is a registered architect in the UK as well as in Lebanon where she practised before
moving to the UK in 1998. She received her MPhil in Environmental Design at the Martin Centre for Architectural
and Urban Studies in 1994, where she later returned as a research associate in 1998 to work on an EU-funded project
coordinated by the Martin Centre (Koen Steemers), looking into the potential of renewable energies in the urban
environment. She is the Passive and Low Energy Architecture (PLEA) Board representative for the 22nd international
conference series taking place in Lebanon in 2005, working with the hosting university on the conference organization.
Dana has published numerous papers on environmental architecture and design in international forum proceedings
(REBUILD 99, PLEA 2000 and 2005) and in journals such as Energy and Buildings (vol 31, no 1, January 2003), as well
a book chapter in Courtyard Housing: Past, Present and Future (2006). She is the editor of the PLEA 2005 Conference
Proceedings (2005).

Mat Santamouris is an associate professor of energy physics at the University of Athens. He is associate editor of the
Solar Energy Journal and a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Solar Energy, the Journal of
Energy and Buildings, and the Journal of Ventilation. He is editor of the series of books on Buildings, Energy and Solar
Technologies published by James and James (Science Publishers)/Earthscan in London. He has published nine interna-
tional books on topics related to solar energy and energy conservation in buildings. He has been guest editor of six
special issues of various scientific journals. He has coordinated many international research programmes and he is
author of almost 120 scientific papers published in international scientific journals. He is visiting professor at the
Metropolitan University of London.

Koen Steemers was appointed the Director of the Martin Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies in 2002 (the
Centre was founded by Sir Leslie Martin and Lionel March in 1967 and is the funded research wing of the University
of Cambridge Department of Architecture). He is leading a team undertaking environmental building research projects
in Europe, Australia, China and the US. He has produced over 100 publications, including books such as Environmental
Diversity in Architecture (2004), The Selective Environment (2002), Daylight Design of Buildings (2002) and Energy and
Environment in Architecture (2000). He coordinates a team of research staff and PhDs, and directs the MPhil course in
Environmental Design in Architecture.
He is a registered architect (has practised in the UK, Germany and Holland); an environmental design consultant (as
Director of CAR Ltd); President of PLEA (an international forum of over 2000 members); Fellow of Wolfson College,
Cambridge; and guest professor at Chongqing University, China and Aalborg University, Denmark.

Elias Zacharopoulos is an architect and assistant professor at the NTUA. He studied at the NTUA (Diploma of Architect
Engineer) and the University of Bristol (MSc in Advanced Functional Design Techniques for Buildings). He teaches
courses on architectural technology and design, building construction and bioclimatic architecture.
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACH air changes per hour EMAS Eco-management and Audit Scheme
AI artificial intelligence ETS EIB tool software
AIC acceptable indoor concentration ETS environmental tobacco smoke
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, EU European Union
Refrigerating and Air-conditioning FLN field-level network
Engineers FND Firm Neutral Datatransmission
AST apparent solar time GDP gross domestic product
BACnet Building Automation and Control GI glare index
Network GJ gigajoules
BEMS building energy management systems ha hectares
BMS building management systems H/W height-to-width ratio
bps bits per second HCHO formaldehyde
BRE Building Research Establishment, HVAC heating, ventilation and air conditioning
Watford system
BRI building-related illness HZ hertz
cd candelas IAQ indoor air quality
CEN TC247 European Committee for IBDS integrated building design system
Standardization, Technical Committee IES Illuminating Engineering Society
247 I/O input/output
CFC chlorofluorocarbon IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
CFD computational fluid dynamics Change
CHP combined heat and power IRR internal rate of return
CLN control and automation-level network kg kilograms
cm centimetres KJ kilojoules
CO carbon monoxide km kilometres
CO2 carbon dioxide kWh kilowatt hours
COHb carboxihaemoglobin kWh/kg kilowatt hours per kilogram
COP coefficient of performance LAN local area network
CPU central processing unit LCA life-cycle assessment
dB(A) decibel LCC life-cycle cost
DCHP district heating power plant LG liquefied gas
DDC direct digital control L/H length-to-height ratio
DF daylight factor lm lumens
DGI daylight glare index LON local operating network
DSG double strength glass LSM local standard meridian
DSM demand-side management LST local standard time
dT temperature difference lx lux
EC European Commission L/W length-to-width ratio
EHS European Home System m metres
EIB European Installation Bus MAC maximum allowable concentration
EIBnet European Installation Bus Network Mbps megabits per second
ELA effective leakage area ME maximum environmental value
xxiv ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

MJ megajoules PV photovoltaics
MLN management-level network RME rapeseed oil methyl ester
mm millimeters SA sustainability appraisal
MRT mean radiant temperature SBS sick building syndrome
MW megawatts SC shading coefficient
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards SCADA Supervisory Control and Data
NB net benefits Acquisition
NO2 nitrogen dioxide SHG solar heat gain
NOx nitrogen oxide SHGF solar heat gain factor
NMP Dutch national environmental policy SO2 sulphur dioxide
plan SOx sulphur oxide
NS net savings sr steradian
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation TVOC total volatile organic compound
and Development UBL urban boundary layer
P proportional control action UCL urban canopy layer
Pb lead UK United Kingdom
PB payback period URR unadjusted rate of return
PE population equivalent US United States
PI proportional plus integral control action USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency
PID proportional plus integral plus differen- UTF Urban Task Force
tial control action VAV variable air volume
PLEA passive and low-energy architecture VOC volatile organic compound
ppm parts per million WHO World Health Organization
PROFIBUS Process Field Bus
1
Environmental Urban Design
Dana Raydan and Koen Steemers

Scope of the chapter chapter is not to discuss such studies. Instead, it is to

establish a general background and introduction for this
This chapter describes the wider context of urban handbook, to set it in context and to provide a review of
environmental design issues, and outlines the existing environmental and energy research with respect to urban
related knowledge, research and experience. The empha- building projects.
sis is on the larger scale urban context, with particular The structure of this chapter is broadly that it starts,
reference to vernacular or traditional examples; experi- after this introduction, with an overview of vernacular
ences and issues raised by recent urban design practice; urban planning, followed by a series of sections that focus
and a review of the current technical and social aspects on current research into urban climatology, energy use,
that are related to urban environmental issues. renewable energy and environmental potential related to
building form. The final section raises issues related to
urban planning, such as amenity, equity and aesthetics, in
Learning objectives the context of energy-efficient urban design.
By 1980, it had been estimated that the total area of
When you complete the study of the chapter, you will:
the Earth that had been converted to urban land use was
approximately 1
106 square kilometres (0.2 per cent of
understand the historical, technical and social context
the Earths total area), with an estimated rate of change
of energy-efficient urban building design;
of 2
104 square kilometres per year (4
103 per cent
become aware of the wider sphere related to this
per year) (Oke, 1988). According to 1991 statistics, 45
work.
per cent of the worlds population is living in cities, a
proportion that is rising at the rate of 3 per cent per year
Key words (Sadik, 1991). The Brundtland Report predicted that by
the year 2000, approximately half of the worlds popula-
Key words include: tion would live in urban settlements (WCED, 1987),
compared with 10 per cent of the worlds population
vernacular urban planning; living in cities and towns at the start of the 20th century
urban microclimate; (UNCHS, 1996).
urban energy; Consequently, a constant rise in urban population and
urban design practice. land consumption has led to high demands for energy for
lighting, heating, cooling and transport being concen-
trated in cities. Recent statistics show that 75 per cent of
Introduction: Urban environmental pollution is caused by urban environments roughly 45
facts today per cent from buildings and 30 per cent from transport
(Rogers, 1995). Transport specifically is the cause of 20
Many studies examine the environmental problems that
per cent of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the latter
cities suffer from and how these contribute to the degra-
constituting half of the total effect of global warming (see
dation of the global environment. The purpose of this
Figure 1.1) (H. Barton in Breheny, 1992).
2 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

6%
12%
Nitrous oxides car exhausts and fertilizer
10%
Carbon dioxide coal fired power stations

Carbon dioxide transport

14% Carbon dioxide other coal, gas and oil combustion

9%
Carbon dioxide deforestation, wood/forest burning

Methane ruminants, rice paddies, marshes, biomass burning, waste

CFCs aerosols, refrigerants, air conditioning, plastic foams

11% Ozone (in lower atmosphere) reaction of fossil fuel pollutants

18%

20%
Source: H. Barton in Breheny, 1992

Figure 1.1 Relative contributions of greenhouse gases to the greenhouse effect

The urbanization process has been rapidly progress- costs; environmental damage and related health
ing since the Industrial Revolution, and health, as a problems; and the depletion of non-renewables and,
consequence of the individuals environment and living therefore, the need for alternative non-polluting and
conditions, became the focus of medical attention in a renewable sources.
scientific and modern way as early as the 19th century How realistic is the target of urban sustainability?
(Davies and Kelly, 1993). Owens claims that sustainable urban development is
John T. Lyle (Lyle, 1993) sums up rather effectively arguably a contradiction in terms, as urban areas require
the degradation of the environmental and health condi- the resources of a wider environment for their survival (S.
tions of our urban milieu: Owens in Breheny, 1992). Others maintain that the city
itself as a spatial entity is an embodiment of sustainability
Cities of the industrial era have consciously (as quoted by A. Gillespie in Breheny, 1992):
excluded natural processes, substituting
mechanical devices made possible by inten- It was the demand for ease of communica-
sive use of fossil fuels. Rather than using the tions that first brought men into cities. The
solar energy falling on their streets and time-eliminating properties of long-distance
buildings, they dissipate it as excess heat. At communication and the time-spanning capac-
the same time they import immense quanti- ities of the new communication technologies
ties of concentrated energy in various forms, are combining to concoct a solvent that has
most of it derived from the petroleum coaxed dissolved the core-oriented city in both time
from the ground in distant landscapes and space, creating what some refer to as an
Thus, we might see our overwhelming urban civilization without cities.
problems of depletion and pollution as
largely outgrowths of our ways of shaping
the urban environment.
Vernacular urban planning: A lesson
from the past?
Arising urban sustainability needs Today, sensing the urgent need for more
Urban sustainability has become a pressing task on world- articulate structures, more harmonious
wide environmental agendas due to the rise in fossil fuel landscapes and more agreeable communities,
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 3

we are formulating an approach by which

awareness of environmental factors is once
again inherent in the planning/design
process. The approach instinctive for the
earliest builders has been repeatedly
forgotten and repeatedly rediscovered
(Simmonds, 1994).

The climate-responsive aspect of vernacular settlements

has been highlighted by many scholars. For example,
Morris (1994) compares the prevalence of courtyard
planning in hot-arid climates and the resistance it
received in northerly cool climates when Roman
conquerors tried to introduce it in urban planning. It was
believed that the absence of climatic stresses in moderate
northern latitudes did not necessitate the clustering of
shelters and introversion around a courtyard to filter the
climate. The housing type that prevailed was, rather, Source: Moughtin, 1996
extroverted and often free standing (Morris, 1994).
Cities today unconsciously strive to return to what Figure 1.2 City of the Dead in Gizeh, Egypt
could be perceived as vernacular urban living. Solutions
often consisted of selecting obvious, least resource-
layout of ancient cities in Niger during pre-Islamic
intensive scenarios (such as the location of settlements
periods was ruled by cosmology. The expression of power,
along easy transport routes for example, canals and
seen in Renaissance cities, is symbolized by mathematical
rivers and climate-responsive urban planning princi-
order and unity. Baroque city planning exhibits the power
ples). Examples of such vernacular settlements are the
of the Church, with its use of interconnected axes with
Pueblo Navajos and Anasazis Native American settle-
vistas opening to religious buildings. This principle is also
ments (Golany, 1983), and Middle-Eastern settlements
adopted in other cities as a device to symbolize power
where compact urban planning defied the harshness of
(e.g. LEnfant in Washington and Hausmann in Paris). The
hot-arid climates (Rudofsky, 1964), such as in Ur,
modern city has the tall building typically a financial or
Olynthus and Cordoba (Morris, 1994).
business institution as the city landmark in order to
dominate the city by its size. Since the earliest of times,
Cities today as an inheritance from the past political, religious and other vested interests have been
Most of the cities we live in today have developed by glorified in cities and, often, physically raised (see Figure
incremental growth from a nucleus and an overlay of 1.3) (Morris, 1994).
centuries of civilization. It would thus seem appropriate
to review the origin of our cities in order to understand Sustainable cities today: Lessons from the past
the problems of city design.
In an era where sustainability is becoming an urgent
Cities of the great early civilizations adopted common
priority, Moughtin (1996) believes that a new symbolism
physical features consisting of grids, straight axial streets,
is needed for the role of the sustainable city, which
orientation of main buildings to the path of the sun and
nurtures both man and the environment.
encircling fortifications. Hierarchy, geomancy and
Various schools of thought tried to explain city form
cosmology were also planning concepts that were seen in,
throughout history. Lynch (1960) identified three main
respectively, Egyptian cities, Chinese cities and cities in
metaphors that attempt this task:
Niger. The Egyptian social hierarchy is expressed by
placing the Pharoahs pyramid at the centre of the settle-
The first comprises a magical metaphor, where there
ment, surrounded by tombs of high officials, with less
is an attempt to link the city to the cosmos and the
important tombs at the outskirts (see Figure 1.2)
environment.
(Moughtin, 1996).
The second is the analogy of the city to a machine.
Chinese cities followed intricate geomancy (Feng
This notion existed in earlier civilizations. Modern
Shui) for an environmental layout (Moughtin, 1996). The
examples are Le Corbusiers Cit Radieuse (see
4 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

they were constructed to respect rather than over-

ride the environment. The principle of organic
planning is structuring the city into communities,
each of which is a self-contained unit, where coopera-
tion is emphasized rather than competition (see
Figure 1.9) (Moughtin, 1996).

As explained by Alexander (Alexander et al, 1987), the

most important goal of organic theory is its holistic view
of the city as part of nature, where process and form are
one, where:

the pattern is in the seed, at the point of

origin With the sustainable city, pattern
evolves from the principles used for the
design and linkage of the parts The urban
structure of the organic city is non-geometri-
cal: roads follow a curving path The
limitation, however, of organic cities is that
they are not as their organic natural counter
parts, self-reproducing and self-healing; the
Note: diagrammatic sections through old towns are presented as follows: main element for their change is man
A Sumerian city with ziggurat (Alexander et al, 1987).
B Harappan city with Western citadel
C Ancient Greek city with temple on its acropolis
D Norman castle in 11th-century England, dominant over conquered
Saxon town
E Church in a medieval European village
F Church in a Latin American city
G Royal square with statue
H Royal aggrandizement at Versailles, France
J Democratic aggrandizement in Washington, DC

Source: Morris, 1994

Figure 1.3 Sections through old towns

Figure 1.4) and Garniers Cit Industrielle (see

Figure 1.5). In older times, the city as a machine was
encountered in Pharaonic Egypt, for workers villages
(see Figure 1.6), Greek cities (see Figure 1.8) and
Roman camps (see Figure 1.7) (Moughtin, 1996). The
model of the machine emphasizes the components of
urban form rather than the city as an entity. Hence,
this metaphor for the city is not ideal for the sustain-
able city, which must be holistic.

The third comprises the analogy of a city to an organ-

ism composed of cells, which is thought to be most in
tune with the ethos of sustainable development
(Moughtin, 1996). Early settlements strove for such Source: Moughtin, 1996
an approach where, although designed and planned,
Figure 1.4 Cit Radieuse by Le Corbusier
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 5

Source: Moughtin, 1996

Figure 1.7 Plan of a Roman fort

Source: Moughtin, 1996

Figure 1.5 Cit Industrielle by Garnier

Source: Moughtin, 1996 Source: Moughtin, 1996

Figure 1.6 Pharaonic Egyptian workers village as Figure 1.8 Plan of a Greek city
regular grid
6 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

important role in creating a protected and child-friendly

outdoor space that can be overlooked by the buildings
surrounding it (Mnty, 1988).
In hot-arid climates, the deep courtyards limit solar
excess and provide protection against windblown sand, in
addition to providing a defensive character against attacks
(Morris, 1994). An extension of this concept at the urban
scale is found in ancient cities that were defined and
surrounded by high walls, which satisfied two purposes: a
barrier against enemies, winds and sand, and encourag-
ing high density (thus the narrow, shaded alleys;
Rahamimoff and Bornstein, 1982). Quoting Fathy on the
narrow and organic street patterns (Fathy, 1973):

It is only natural for anybody experiencing

the severe climate of the desert to seek shade
by narrowing and properly orienting the
streets and to avoid the hot desert winds by
making streets winding, with closed vistas.

Practical research into urban

climatology related to built form
Source: Moughtin, 1996 Substantial work initiated and carried out by Oke
provides insight into the interrelationship between urban
Figure 1.9 Harlow New Town, illustrating the form and environmental performance, specifically
principle of organic planning concerning street dimensions and building density (Oke,
1988). Such research, similar to but more theoretical and
Conscious contemporary adoption of narrow than the PRECis project (an EU-funded research
vernacular urban-planning principles project assessing the potential for renewable energy in
cities) (Steemers, 2000), aims at shedding light on the
So far, there has been a conscious adoption of vernacular consequences and implications of various scenarios. Just
principles in urban design and planning in contemporary as Oke demonstrated through his research, general,
cities. In Finland, for example, following the age of isolated recommendations to resolve isolated problems
functionalism where buildings were free standing within often end up conflicting with each other. For example, in
arteries of infrastructure, the courtyard house re- mid- to high-latitude climates (cold):
emerged. The revival of the vernacular south-oriented
courtyard type of planning took place for several reasons. Density and compact urban morphology, which can
In addition to the creation of a pleasant and energy provide protection from high winds, conflicts with
concentrating sun pocket, formed at the corner of two openness, separation and low density, which allow for
buildings, the same configuration acts as a buffer against pollution dispersal.
the wind and street pollution (e.g. traffic, noise, dirt and Warmth through compactness contrasts with solar
particles), as well as providing efficient land use. access through openness.
Instances of courtyard planning can be seen in vernacular
villages in Norway, Sweden and Switzerland (Mnty, As a result, a combination of configurations and scenarios
1988). The shape of courtyard buildings in an urban is more likely in the city, depending upon orientation and
context in such extreme climates was carefully designed prevailing winds (i.e. climate). For example, a northsouth
to allow solar access to the protected courtyard space; urban canyon need not be overly concerned with solar
buildings on the south would be lower than the other access to faades (such as eastwest streets) as the sun is
surrounding buildings. Specific proportions of the court- already low in the sky at sun rise and sun set; for pollu-
yard apply in order to preserve its sheltering effect tion dispersal, prevailing winds should be taken into
(Mnty, 1988). Furthermore, the courtyard plays an
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 7

TOTAL DOMESTIC INDUSTRIAL OFFICES

HOSPITALS
SCHOOLS
100%
Industry Other Other Catering
90
Lighting
80 Lighting
Cooking/lighting
70 Space and water
Transport heating
Water heater
60
Space and water
50
Industrial heating
Space heating
buildings
40
Commercial and
public buildings 30
Domestic buildings
20

10

0
Source: Blowers, 1993

Figure 1.10 Energy use by sector in the UK

account. The choices made in designing cities should aim concise listing of recommendations for an optimal energy-
to fulfil a mix of objectives; but since not all can be accom- efficient urban morphology reached by various research
modated, and could even be conflicting, there is a need to projects is provided at the end of the section.
assess priorities. A zone of compatibility relates to identi-
fying the range of compromises of the various climatic Transport-related energy use and urban
parameters discussed previously to arrive at a satisfactory spatial structure
design solution (i.e. achieving a solution that is good
Transport is one of the major causes of the environmental
enough rather than attempting to reach an impossible
problems in cities; in addition to being the source of
optimum solution (Oke, 1988)).
intensive energy consumption, it causes air pollution,
These observations are among the preliminary, yet
noise and traffic congestion. Therefore, attempting to
most useful, outlooks into the environmental performance
solve the invasive transport-related problems would be a
of various urban-form configurations. More recent and
step towards reducing the environmental strain in cities.
scientifically elaborate work has been carried out within
Warren argues that even with developed technologies in
the framework of worldwide conferences on energy in the
vehicle design (e.g. lighter, ultra-strong, non-fuel depend-
urban context (the Passive and Low-energy Architecture,
ent or less fuel consuming and small) it is foreseen that
or PLEA, conferences in 1998, 1999 and 2000, see
the problems of traffic congestion, parking space require-
www.plea-arch.org).
ments and others will remain, although there will be a
reduction in air pollution (Warren, 1998). Several authors
Energy consumption and urban
spatial structure Table 1.1 Percentage delivered energy by end use
in the UK
Urban environments consume high levels of fossil fuel. In
the developed world and, specifically, the UK, buildings End use Delivered energy %
account for 50 per cent of the total fossil fuel consump- Low-temp heat (<80C) 34.8
tion (see Figure 1.10), with transport consuming as much High-temp heat (>80C) 25.0
as 21.2 per cent of the delivered energy (see Table 1.1). Electricity 4.1
This section deals with energy use in relation to the Transport 21.2
Non-energy uses 11.0
spatial structure of the city, particularly urban geometry
and transport-related urban design configuration. A Source: Owens, 1986
8 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

have dealt extensively with the energy-intensive urban would be to exploit potential attenuating features, as
phenomenon of transport, such as Owens (1986), who summarized below.
looked specifically at the urban spatial relationship
between transport and energy consumption in cities. Distance and ground effects
Banister examines the extent of the role of transport in While the intensity of traffic noise level decreases by 3
resource consumption, trying to assess how urban forms decibels (dB(A)) for each doubling of distance (Egan,
might affect energy use, with respect to, for example, 1988),2 the ground effect involves absorption of sound as
journey length, vehicle occupancy and settlement types well as the acoustic impedance of the ground surface
(Banister in Breheny, 1992). (Attenborough, 1998). The absorption characteristics of
Energy saving in transport could result in both spatial different ground surfaces vary widely and are considered
(representing city form and infrastructure) and non- either acoustically hard (i.e. with low porosity: sound
spatial options (switching to a more efficient car). Building reflective) or soft (i.e. with high porosity: sound absorb-
energy consumption due to transport-inflicted environ- ing).
mental problems and their detrimental effects on health
and well-being is caused by an increase in demand for Effect of barriers
sealed indoor environments that are artificially lit and air Barriers that intercept the line of sight from sound source
conditioned. Mitigating atmospheric and noise pollution to receiver reduce the sound level, bearing in mind that
is therefore a double target that would ensure a healthier screening depends on the frequency of the sound as much
outdoor urban environment and, consequently, a reduc- as the barrier geometry (Alexandre et al, 1975).
tion in relying upon artificial and energy-intensive
means of indoor comfort provision. Owens acknowledges Effect of vegetation
that the extent to which the transport energy market It has been found that a tree-filled park should be at least
would influence or cause a change in the spatial structure 30 metres (m) wide to provide 7 to 11dB of sound attenua-
in response to energy constraints remains unclear tion for frequencies of between 125 to 8000 hertz (Hz),
(Owens, 1986). providing no attenuation to the low frequency content of
traffic noise (Egan, 1988). Height and length of these
Energy use as a consequence of transport- plantings will further determine the attenuation provided.
inflicted environmental problems1
Canyon effect: Reflection and scattering
Traffic noise attenuation, in particular, involves an inter-
The canyon effect on traffic noise propagation is caused
disciplinary approach based on the relationships between
by building faades, which cause multiple sound reflec-
road traffic noise, human response, architectural charac-
tions as well as sound scattering within the urban canyon
teristics of the buildings and urban morphology (Kihlman
between the canyon edges (Wu et al, 1995). In general,
and Kropp, 1998). Traffic noise attenuation through urban
the sound energy absorbed in the canyon ranges between
form is an area of research where little work has been
0 and 35 per cent of the incident energy, depending upon
carried out. The need for such a study is summed up by
the frequency of the incident sound wave and its angle of
Kihlman and Kropp (1998) in their paper presented at the
incidence (Wu et al, 1995).
16th International Congress on Acoustics (1998), in which
they recommend that buildings act as sound barriers by
Effect of the atmospheric conditions
screening noise to create quiet areas. They propose that it
Atmospheric conditions relate to vertical temperature and
is realistic to reach a two-figure target in noise reduction,
wind gradients. The propagation and speed of sound vary
allowing dwellings to have a noisy side as long as they also
with height above the ground due to these gradients
benefit from a quiet side.
which cause sound waves to be refracted (i.e. bent upward
It is important to understand how the propagation
or downward) (Beranek, et al, 1982). Usually, it has been
and transformation of traffic noise is influenced by a
noted that a shadow zone is most commonly encountered
number of environmental and physical factors. Sound is
upwind from a source, while downwind sound is bent
naturally attenuated due to distance; the interaction of the
downward with the absence of a shadow zone (Egan,
propagating wave with the ground surface; screening
1988). As for the effect of temperature gradients on noise
provided by near-ground obstacles, such as noise filters
propagation, warmer air near the ground causes sound to
or barriers (i.e. vegetation and buildings); and, for long-
bend upward; conversely, at times of air temperature
distance propagation, varying weather conditions. An
inversions, sound will tend to bend downwards (Egan,
initial step to mitigate traffic noise in the urban context
1988).
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 9

Urban spatial structure and travel-related (the analysis is based on journey-to-work data). Yet,
energy requirements contradictory results were found in studies of US states
(Owens, 1986). Newman and Kenworthy (1989) also
In the short to medium term, the response of people to
reached the conclusion that little correlation exists
energy constraints would consist of a conscious reduction
between city size and gasoline use.
in energy consumption, with minimal effect on spatial
What seemed probable to Owens was that travel
structure. Concerning long-term adjustments, although
needs and transport energy use are less dependent on the
no factual evidence exists, drastic relocation has been
overall shape of a settlement, defined in terms of its
considered by people in order to minimize travel require-
transport network, than on the internal arrangement and
ments, which, in turn, would affect the spatial structure
physical separation of activities, which are determined by
of the city (Owens, 1986).
density of cities and interspersion of activities (Owens,
A simple consequence of adapting to energy
1986). Banister also noted that travel energy use is a
constraints is re-centralization (as predicted by models
function of density and intensity of land use (Banister in
that often omit social aspects and tend to oversimplify
Breheny, 1992).
problems). However, it has been noted that energy
On density, several studies, factual and theoretical,
constraints in cities did not result in centralization or
suggest that city density is inversely proportional to trans-
suburbanization (autonomy in suburban centres, yet links
port energy consumption, as is illustrated in one of the
maintained with metropolitan centre), but, rather, in
most prominently quoted figures by Newman and
counter-urbanization (loss of people from the whole of
Kenworthy (1989) (see Figure 1.13). Banister also found
the metropolitan area and growth of autonomous smaller
that petroleum use increases when population density
towns = clean break). The latter alternative represents a
reaches below 29 persons per hectare (Banister in
return to smaller place-bounded communities and is a
Breheny, 1992).
more energy-efficient pattern than suburbanization (see
On interspersion of activities or clustering of
Figure 1.11) (Owens, 1986).
functions and activities (residential, employment and
Various studies were carried out investigating the
services), some aspect of decentralization of activities is
relationship between spatial structure and travel/trans-
desirable, achieving a more effective integration at a
port energy requirements, using hypothetical urban forms
smaller geographic scale (see Figure 1.14) (Owens, 1986).
(Owens, 1986). On the relationship between travel needs
It is very difficult for land-use patterns to guide
and urban size, preliminary observations in the UK
energy-efficient planning because of the inevitability of
showed that travel needs increase with a decrease in
non-spatial variables: necessity of travel, choice of jobs
urban size (see Figure 1.12), with the exception of London

Note: Suburbanization is where suburban centres retain some autonomy, maintaining links with the metropolitan centre believed to be energy intensive.
Counter-urbanization is where there is loss of people and jobs from the metropolitan area and growth of autonomous towns believed to be energy
efficient.

Source: Owens, 1986

Figure 1.11 Suburbanization (left) and Counter-urbanization (right)

10 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

400 separation of activities, spread of urban hinterland, lower

350
densities and dispersed employment) (Barton in Breheny,
1992). However, reducing the physical separation of activ-
300 ities is not a sufficient condition for reducing transport
250 energy requirements. It should be accompanied by a
decrease in inclination to travel long distances, in addition
200 to an increase in peoples interest in non-motorized travel
150 (Owens, 1986).
Despite all these uncertainties and the dynamic
100
nature of the variables involved, it is still possible to
50 identify robust urban form options that perform relatively
well within a range of possible future conditions. For
0
Greater Provincial Large urban Small urban Non urban example, a study in Norfolk showing a growth pattern
London conurbations areas areas areas involving the concentration of a new population and some
Transport energy use Travel degree of dispersal of new employment was thought to
(MJ/capita/week) (km/capita/week) be most robust. Furthermore, clustering of certain
Source: Owens, 1986 functions and even dispersed clusters (i.e. relative inter-
spersion of land uses) were revealed to be effective in
Figure 1.12 Travel and transport energy use for
reducing travel needs by making trips multi-purpose
different area types in the UK
(Owens, 1986).

and services, and the extent to which cars are used. Environmental response and urban
Furthermore, ensuring efficient spatial structure in a city physical properties
will not guarantee transport energy savings (Owens,
Research has varied between qualitative and quantitative
1986). As noted by Barton, the reality is that current land-
approaches, and between generalized observations and
use trends are progressively undermining the function of
detailed monitoring of the urban neighbourhood; but
public transport. The reason is that the falling prices of
there has been increasing realization of the importance of
energy and, therefore, the rise in car ownership during
climate specifics. In Erskines comment on the built
the post-war area have transformed cities (e.g. physical
environment in cold climates, there is a conviction that:
80
Houston houses and towns should open like
70 flowers to the sun of spring and summer but,
also like flowers, turn their backs on the
Transport energy use (MJ/capita/week)

60 USA shadows and the cold northern winds, offer-

ing sun warmth and wind protection to their
50 terraces, gardens and streets. They should be
most unlike the colonnaded buildings, the
40 arcaded towns and matte-shadowed streets
Australia of the south Europeans and Arabs, but most
30 similar in the basic function (Erskine in
Mnty, 1988).
Europe
20
In general, it is largely agreed that urban design with
Far East climatic consideration deals with the holistic morphology
10 Hong Kong
of the city, as well as with urban details, such as street
0
width, form, configuration and orientation, building
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 heights, city compactness, or dispersion, urban open
Density (people/hectare) space, integration or segregation of land uses, and other
Source: Newman and Kenworthy, 1989 related physical issues (Golany, 1995). In his 1998 publi-
cation, Givoni acknowledges the effect of urban
Figure 1.13 Urban density versus annual gasoline morphology on the urban microclimate and, therefore, on
use per capita energy consumption. The physical parameters that he was
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 11

Facility control Increase density Increase dispersal

of facilities

Residential density = D Density = 1.5 D Facility decentralised

Source: Owens, 1986

Figure 1.14 From left to right, gradual decrease in physical separation of activities

able to extract were size of city, density of built-up area, Wind is believed to be among the most notorious
land coverage, building height, orientation and width of alterations caused by urbanization. Although there is a
streets, and building-specific design details affecting the good case to be made for designing cities that facilitate
outdoor conditions (Givoni, 1998). He proposes urban dispersion, Oke (1988) warns of the difficulties in design-
design recommendations in different climates. Below is a ing streets purely for the general comfort of their citizens.
review of work conducted on the environmental response There is a subtle trade-off in street design which aims to
of various urban physical characteristics. maximize ventilation, dispersion of pollutants and solar
access, while not compromising shelter and urban
Streets or urban canyons warmth. Oke sets out guidelines based on relationships
between these factors and urban geometry towards
In his book Great Streets, Jacobs (1993) refers the feel of
finding a zone of compatibility. Urban canyons can
an urban street to its capacity in providing comfort and
channel wind and create an acceleration of wind speed,
liveability:
which poses a hazard to pedestrians. These phenomena
can be remedied by adopting appropriate street width and
Is there some point, some proportions or
building design (Landsberg, 1981).
absolute height, at which the buildings are so
In his 1988 paper, Oke stresses that the main concern
high in relation to street that the building
is comfort and safety of pedestrians and heat loss from
wall becomes oppressive?... It may be that
building envelope, and that both are concentrated on the
the upper limit (of the building) is more
sides of the urban canyons not in the centre. He was
appropriately determined by the impact of
able to identify wind flow depending upon the height-to-
height on comfort and liveability of the
width ratio (H/W) of a street canyon (see Figure 1.15).
street, as measured by sunlight, temperature
Oke was able to define wind and turbulence diminution
and wind, than by absolute or proportional
factors as a function of H/W. He discovered that a H/W
height (Jacobs, 1993).
ratio of about 0.65 ensures considerable protection (Oke,
1988).
Jacobs further stresses the importance of the street in the
On pollution dispersion, a small H/W was shown to
urban context: Think of a city and what comes to mind?
be good for an exchange between ground-level air and
Its streets. If the citys streets look interesting, the city
cleaner air above. This stops being the case for H/W
looks interesting; if they look dull, the city looks dull
beyond the threshold for skimming flow (0.65). In his
(Jacobs, 1993).
conclusion to a detailed analysis of wind flow pattern and
Strong correlations have been established between
associated pollution dispersion, Oke notes that a H/W ~ ~
urban street configuration and wind flow and, therefore,
0.65 and a building density of ~ ~ 0.25 may provide an
pollution dispersion.
12 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

0.20 relative carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations and

prevailing wind direction. Simulations showed vortices in
L street canyons for wind directions that are perpendicular.
0.25 H Isolated roughness flow The structure of these vortices was found to depend not
W only on the H/W ratio of canyons, but also on the connec-
0.33 tivity of the street canyons. This indicates that street
canyons should not be considered in isolation (Ni Riain et
H/W

Wake interference al in Jenks et al, 1996).

0.50 Figure 1.16 illustrates where clean air is drawn into
the canyon on the leeward side and back across the road
and up the windward side of the street. For this reason,
1
Skimming when the sensor is on the leeward side it reads clean air,
2 Cube and on the windward side it reads dirty air, caused by
4 Canyon
the pollution blown across the road. Simulation helps to
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 explain why clean air is being recorded at pedestrian
L/W level.
Source: Oke, 1988
The Urban Task Force has praised permeability or
Figure 1.15 Height-to-width ratio (H/W) and interconnectivity of streets within the urban context, as
length-to-width ratio (L/W) are critical to wind flow this provides accessibility and increasing mobility, in
in the urban canyon where L indicates length of contrast to cul-de-sac street configurations (tree-like
building perpendicular to wind direction structures), which are seen as inefficient (see Figure 1.17)
(Urban Task Force, 1999).
On solar access and urban geometry, Oke observes
upper limit to satisfactory dispersion from street canyons tentatively that a H/W of approximately 0.6 seems to be a
(Oke, 1988). suitable upper limit to maintain solar access in a city at a
An interesting case study of London (Croxford et al, latitude of 45 degrees (Oke, 1988). Oke acknowledges
1995; Croxford and Penn, 1995) was carried out with the that this conclusion still needs to be refined a lot on the
main objective of visualizing flows in a street network basis of complete analysis of passive solar energy gain and
where there has been consistent relationship between

Source: Ni Riain et al in Jenks et al, 1996

Figure 1.16 Model of the investigated area, showing the relationship between vortices and pollution dispersal
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 13

SUBURBAN SPRAWL Empirical studies have shown that, due to the heat
island effect, it is possible to save 5 to 7.5 per cent of space
heating costs per 1 degree Celsius increase in mean daily
temperature (from Oke, 1988). Benefits can also be
claimed for outdoor comfort, vegetation growth and pollu-
tion dispersion through thermal turbulence and breezes.
However, such advantages during the cold season can be
outweighed by heat stress and pollution accumulation in
the hot season. Oke defines the following simplified
thresholds under ideal heat island conditions:

one third of the maximum possible intensity is gained

with H/W = 0.4;
one half of the maximum possible intensity is gained
with H/W = 0.7;
two-thirds of the maximum possible intensity are
gained with H/W = 1 (Oke, 1988).

The thermal comfort conditions of street canyons in hot-

arid climates have been studied in order to test and

N
TIO
LA
SO
IN
TRADITIONAL NEIGHBOURHOOD
Source: Urban Task Force, 1999

N
TIO
LA
Figure 1.17 Permeable (bottom) versus impermeable

SO
(top) urban layouts

IN
illumination of the total urban system (Oke, 1988). More
recent and elaborate quantitative work on solar access has
been taking place, taking into account previously
unaccounted for multiple reflections within the urban

N
canyon (Steemers, 2000). LA
TIO
On urban warmth and the urban heat island with
SO
IN

respect to geometry, Oke observes that a city with an

elevated occurrence of high H/W and, therefore, tending
towards compactness promotes the trapping of solar
radiation and urban warmth, especially at night. This is
beneficial in mid-latitude countries as this reduces the
space heating load required during cold seasons. The
same observation was previously made by Ludwig (1970),
whose figure illustrates solar radiation for different H/W
ratios (see Figure 1.18). On the flat plane, most of the
absorbed solar radiation is re-radiated to the sky as long
wave radiation. In a medium density of H/W = 1, most of
the reflected solar radiation hits other buildings, as well
as the ground, until it is absorbed near or at the ground.
For higher densities of H/W = 4, most of the absorption
Source: Ludwig (1970)
takes place at a high level of the canyon, reducing the
amount of radiation that reaches the ground. Figure 1.18 Solar radiation for different H/W ratios
14 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

validate the appropriateness of dense and compact urban tion, suitable for the specifics of hot-arid climates.
configuration (Pearlmutter, 1998). Several authors have However, in hot-humid regions thermal inertia may
drawn attention to the advantages, as well as the disad- result in night-time overheating (Pearlmutter, 1998).
vantages, of compact city configuration (Jenks et al, 1996).
It was, indeed, highlighted by Jenks et al (1996) that a Urban design, building configuration and siting
dense urban fabric may provide solar shading of pedestri-
On the relationship between energy consumption for
ans within deep street canyons. On the other hand, such
heating requirements and built form, correlations have
canyons may become relative heat traps due to multiple
already been established according to a hypothetical
solar reflection and reduced albedo, diminished night sky
study conducted by Building Research Establishment
radiation and substantially restricted ventilation. The
(BRE) (see Figure 1.19). Other empirical work was
innovation in this work lies in taking account of the overall
carried out in the US and UK, although such research
heat balance within the canyon for a body (e.g. a pedes-
does not explicitly indicate the scope of the effect of other
trian) located at a certain point within an arid climate,
variables on domestic energy consumption (e.g. size of
rather than for the urban canyon as a whole. This gives a
dwelling, socio-economic factors and income of
more truthful indication of human/user comfort outdoors.
occupants) (Owens, 1986). However, at the local scale, the
The total rate of thermal energy flux between a pedestrian
case for higher densities is reinforced by the greater
and the urban environment was calculated (Pearlmutter,
energy efficiency of built forms with a low surface area to
1998). On-site measurements showed that, unlike what
volume ratio (Owens, 1986). For urban neighbourhood
theory might suggest, during daytime summer hours,
zones that are disadvantaged (i.e. with unfavourable
pedestrians in the street canyon absorb less thermal
orientation for renewable energy reliance and, therefore,
energy from the environment than when in the open air.
higher energy consumption) guidelines should suggest
This refutes the original assumption that reduced wind
implementing super insulation (Bentley et al, 1985).
speeds and elevated temperatures in the street canyon
Simmonds (1994) praises attached dwellings as
might result in an overheated environment. In winter,
opposed to separate dwellings, which reduce the exposed
heat loss from the body to the surrounding area is reduced
external envelope to the outside environment and, thus,
due to the protection of the body from wind. During
reduce heat loss/heat gain, thereby lowering heating and
summer, the overall energy loss during night hours is
cooling loads. Other advantages include efficient use of
reduced in canyons (Pearlmutter, 1998).
space in the urban context and savings in construction
In conclusion, it was noted that the compact street
cost and maintenance due to shared walls (see Figure
canyon acts as a cool island during summer daylight
1.20).
hours due to the following:

Shading of the canyon by flanking walls, protecting

Intermediate flat
pedestrians from the absorption of short-wave and
reflected radiation during summer daylight periods.
The limited extent of radiant heat gain by a pedestrian Terraced house
in the canyon during daytime hours is due to the
restricted exposure of a pedestrian to the horizontal
ground surface. Of all surfaces, this is the greatest Top flat
source of radiant heat because it intercepts the highest
flux density of solar radiation, and it is often a dark Semi detached house
colour thus maintaining by far the highest surface
temperature during the daytime. At night this relation-
ship changes so that the magnitude of restricted Detached house
radiant heat loss to the sky becomes dominant.
Thermal inertia also plays a role as it tends to be high 0 20 40 60 80
for most urban surfaces. Comfort in a desert environ- Heating requirements (GJ/annum)
ment depends largely upon the stabilization of
Source: Owens, 1986
thermal extremes, diurnally (between day and night)
and seasonally (between winter and summer). With Figure 1.19 Influence of built form on heating require-
proper urban design, the compact urban street ment in the UK according to Building Research
canyon holds great potential in such thermal modera- Establishment (BRE) data
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 15

In general, it is believed that high-rise buildings are

non-energy efficient due to their high weather exposure
and their necessity for heating/cooling. They also involve
an energy-intensive construction industry, and have high
maintenance and operating costs (Owens, 1986). Tall build-
ings were also noted to produce undesirable wind eddies.
Some evidence points to the fact that uniform building
height and uniform distance between buildings create less
flow disturbance (Landsberg, 1981). It is generally agreed
that airflow within the urban context around buildings
depends upon the shapes, sizes and orientations of build-
ings. Although an average decrease in street-level winds is
noticed when compared with wind in the countryside,
increases may occur locally due to jetting down canyons
aligned with the wind and in the vicinity of tall buildings,
which deflect momentum from above (Oke, 1980).
Source: Simmonds, 1994 Building materials and colours have a great influence
Figure 1.20 Attached versus detached dwellings; on the transformation of solar radiation through their
single-family detached houses seem to cause more loss absorptance, reflectance and transmittance, which, in
of valuable space and privacy than attached houses, turn, affects surface temperature and, therefore, outdoor
where side yards are used more efficiently comfort conditions. As demonstrated by Fezer (1982), the
surface temperature of different types of pavements can
vary significantly. Accordingly, recommendations for
Owens suggests that the use of renewable resources different climates could include light-coloured ground
in buildings in cities would require relatively low density, finishes, which are more suitable for hot climates, limit-
maximizing exposure of structures to solar radiation (see ing the absorption of solar radiation; dark-coloured
Table 1.2). Yet, this aspect clashes with one of the conclu- ground finishes are suitable in cold climates, maximizing
sions for energy-efficient transport, as discussed in the solar radiation absorption (see Figure 1.21) (Fezer, 1982).
previous sections; such trade-offs would require careful On mitigating glare caused by solar reflection on
economic feasibility analysis (Owens, 1986). building faades, which causes visual discomfort for

Table 1.2 Site orientation chart

Adaptations Objectives (climate types)
cool temperate hot-humid hot-arid
Position on slope Low for wind shelter Middle-upper for solar High for wind Low for cool air flow
radiation
Orientation on slope South to south-east South to south-east South East to south-east for
afternoon shade
Relation to slope Near large body of water Close to water, but avoid Near any water On lee side of water
coastal fog
Preferred winds Sheltered from north Avoid continental cold Sheltered from north Exposed to prevailing winds
and west winds
Clustering Around sun pockets Around a common sunny Open to wind Along east-west axis
terrace for shade and wind
Building orientation Southeast South to south-east South towards prevailing wind South
Tree forms Deciduous trees near Deciduous trees nearby High canopy trees, deciduous Trees overhanging roof if
building, evergreens for west, no evergreen near trees near building possible
windbreaks south
Road orientation Crosswise to winter wind Crosswise to winter wind Broad channel, eastwest axis Narrow, eastwest axis
Materials colouration Medium to dark Medium Light, especially for roof Light on exposed surfaces,
dark to avoid reflection

Source: Owens, 1986

16 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Red concrete tion of development, the major drawback behind such

Asphalt proposals is the potential loss of urban green spaces and
50
the prevalence of town cramming. These reservations
need to be addressed if urban development and redevel-
48
opment are to be sustainable in the widest sense of the
Grey concrete word. Another important factor affecting the loss of urban
46 green space is the large amount of land currently
demanded by the private car in urban areas (Owens in
44 Jenks et al, 1996). A Norwegian study suggests that if
Concrete/grass dependence upon the car could be reduced, considerable
pavement
42 amounts of land might be released, minimizing potential
conflicts between the need for urban green space and a
more compact pattern of urban development (Naess,
40
1991). Whyte suggests that it is not the size, leafiness and
quietness of urban parks and plazas that ensure their
38 success, but the proximity to people who need them
Air (Whyte, 1990). Landsberg comments more generally on
36 the existing natural flow patterns, such as proximity to
lakes, rivers or mountain valleys, and states that these
34 should be taken advantage of, where appropriate
Lawn (Landsberg, 1981).
32
General recommendations for energy-efficient
urban design
30
13 14 15 16 Based on the brief expos of work carried out to date in
Local time the field of energy and environmental response to urban
form and urban physical properties, recommendations
Source: Fezer, 1982
were formulated by the respective authors. The compila-
Figure 1.21 Daily variation in surface temperature of tion of these recommendations in one section offers the
various types of pavement finishes, measured in opportunity to compare the varying conclusions reached.
Stuttgart in July 1978
On transport
pedestrians, Givoni (1998) gives various urban and build- According to Owens, some of the key characteristics of an
ing design recommendations, such as faade colour (light environment that is inherently energy efficient in terms of
colours), geometric treatment (overhanging projections transport can be summed up as follows. The environment:
that intercept reflections) and vegetal wall cover (reduc- Is compact and mixes land uses, providing a choice of
ing wall reflection). jobs and services, with a clustering of trip destina-
On pollution dispersion and urban geometry, Oke tions. Mixed-use has also been promoted by the
highlights that the urban canopy layer (UCL) and the urban Urban Task Force (Urban Task Force, 1999) as
boundary layer (UBL) are interrelated having a low forming one of the major attractions of urban living,
concentration of pollutants in the latter would be beneficial providing proximity to work, shops and social, educa-
for the former (Oke, 1980, 1988). When air is clean, UBL tional and leisure uses, and offering horizontal as well
provides a clean air source for ventilating urban canyons as vertical mixing (along street and in building).
and buildings to the UCL. The lower the upper-level Careful design should govern this process in order to
concentration, the greater is the vertical concentration exclude noisy industries or industries that require
gradient for upward turbulent diffusion (Oke, 1988). heavy traffic (Owens, 1986).
Urban green space is known to have beneficial effects Avoids dispersed development and facilities that are
with respect to traffic noise, pollution and heat island, as not well served by public transport facilities.
documented by various research studies, to date. Owens Facilitates public transport with the provision of facil-
(1986) acknowledges the fact that although existing urban ities in such a way as to encourage walking and
centres may be revitalized and boosted by a concentra- cycling, and discourages use of cars.
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 17

Features higher densities in certain appropriate Table 1.3 Gasoline use versus urban density
locations, such as along public transport routes according to area types
(Breheny, 1992). Area Gasoline use Urban density
(gallons per capita) (persons per acre)
Yet, political barriers in terms of transport policies are
Outer area 454 5.3
numerous, and they should be overcome before a more Whole urban area 335 8.1
beneficial spatial structure is implemented and for it to Inner area 153 48.3
be effective (Owens, 1986). Central city 90 101.6
Controlling the impact of traffic noise and air pollu-
tion in an urban context, and improving the quality of the Source: Owens, 1992
outdoor environment, consists of two approaches. While
the first involves dealing with the problem at its source,
designing cleaner and quieter transport technologies On optimal general environmental performance
(Urban Task Force, 1999) and controlling traffic flow and Oke notes that for all four goals to be satisfied (pollution
speed, the second entails limiting the spread of noise and dispersal, solar access, shelter and heat island), a H/W of
pollution once generated, and is more remedial than 0.4 to 0.6 offers a compatible range (upper limit for shelter
preventive in nature. This second approach features and urban warmth and lower limit for pollution dispersal
varying scenarios. One scenario, for example, might and solar access) (Oke, 1988).
involve making neighbourhoods more pedestrian friendly, Owenss (1986, 1992) observations on linking energy
even when traffic continues in nearby streets (Warren, use and urban form are summarized as follows:
1998). Road and building design, as well as urban design,
can contribute to attenuating traffic noise and promoting Interspersion of activities can change trip require-
pollution dispersal. Examples are seen in Okes research ments, especially length, bringing energy demand
(Oke, 1980, 1988) where he recommends a certain canyon variations of up to 130 per cent.
H/W ratio for a quicker purging of pollution. Road The shape of the urban area can lead to variations in
surfaces contribute to absorbing traffic noise, as well as energy demand of 20 per cent.
noise barriers and faade design.3 Density or clustering of trip destinations can bring
about energy savings of 20 per cent, mainly by facili-
On renewable energy potential and energy saving tating public transport.
Design ingenuity is required to harness passive solar Dense or mixed-use zones, facilitating combined heat
energy in higher densities (more than 35 dwellings per and power systems, can increase the efficiency or
hectare. Results, in theory, suggest a reduction in energy primary energy use by 100 per cent.
requirement for travel and heating (Owens, 1986). Layout and orientation of buildings can lead to energy
Energy-efficient urban design is feasible, which could savings of 12 per cent through passive solar gain.
result in substantial long-term energy savings (see Table Siting, landscaping, layout and materials can produce
1.3) (Owens, 1992). energy savings of up to 5 per cent through modifying
There have been several government planning microclimates.
policies discussed since the 1960s, particularly for
extreme climatic contexts, such as in arctic settlements, General recommendations, policy-making and
where heat conservation was encouraged through implementation
compact building groups to take advantage of winter As a result of Local Agenda 21 activities, many municipal-
sunlight and to afford the greatest protection in storms ities frequently assess the environmental functioning of
(Mnty, 1988). Further recommendations for energy their own offices, agencies and utilities. Such environ-
savings followed, specifically after the energy crisis mental audits represent attempts to comprehensively
during the early 1970s. Some proposals relate to restruc- study and gauge the ways in which a local governments
turing entire urban environments in the context of winter actions and policies affect the environment. They often
months avoiding north-facing windows, encouraging lead to the preparation of a local state-of-the-environment
south-oriented greenhouses and wind shielding from report and an environmental action plan (Beatley, 2000).
buildings, structures and plants (Mnty, 1988). Within the European Union (EU), municipal govern-
ments now have the ability to participate in the
Eco-management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
18 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

programme, a form of environmental auditing and and architecture must be re-established as part of our
environmental management system formerly available everyday urban culture. In order to achieve this, we must
only to private companies. A number of localities are realize that it is not a question of regulation or manuals
currently in the early stages of EMAS; but only a handful which often failed to provide quality products but a
have completed the certification process. An example, a question of investing in good designers, bearing in mind
sustainability appraisal (SA) was prepared by Leicester that good design is an investment in itself towards the
city, compiling evaluative factors and organizing them long-term sustainability of the city (Urban Task Force,
into a matrix (see Table 1.4). This appraisal methodology 1999). Therefore, it is recommended that concern for
is applied to proposed development sites within a city energy efficiency should be felt by planners, urban
(Beatley, 2000). designers and architects at an urban neighbourhood scale,
In the UK, the Urban Task Force (UTF) has been fully where intervention is made possible rather than enforced.
involved in establishing a framework to deliver a new However:
future to urban England, to use a projected 3.8 million the well-governed city must establish a
households over a 25-year period as an opportunity to clear vision, where all policies and
revitalize our towns and cities (Urban Task Force, 1999). programmes contribute to high-quality
The concept of urban renaissance emerged, to be urban development. In partnership with its
founded on principles of design excellence, economic citizens and its business leaders, the city
strength, environmental responsibility, good governance authorities have a flexible city-wide strategy
and social well-being. Recommendations for this urban which brings together core economic, social
renaissance are aimed to encompass streets, as well as the and environmental objectives. It is, there-
larger scale of town. It is acknowledged that no one single fore, a city characterized by strong political
solution exists. Instead, a framework for change is offered, leadership, a proactive approach to spatial
where different places are given the opportunity to define planning, effective management, and
and interpret their own priorities. On the argument about commitment to improve its skills base
having to redress the quality of life in the urban environ- (Urban Task Force, 1999).
ment, the UTF points out that the quality of urban design
Table 1.4 Impact and commentary for a proposed housing development in Hamilton, Leicester
Sustainability impact criteria Impact Commentary
Quality of Life and Local Environment
1 Open space + Opportunities to provide new public open space within development
2 Health Emissions from new traffic
3 Safety and security Covered by other policies
4 Housing ++ Meeting identified housing needs of city
5 Equity + Range/mix of housing together with ancillary community facilities
6 Accessibility + Urban fringe location currently not well served by public transport. Still transport
choice location
7 Local economy
8 Vitality of centres + Additional housing will support Hamilton District Council facilities
9 Built environment + High-quality design could contribute to appearance of development
10 Cultural heritage
Natural Resources
11 Landscape Loss of open countryside, but structural planting often an important pre-development feature
12 Minerals
13 Waste
14 Water Possible disruption to existing ground water/drainage, etc.
15 Land and soil Loss of agricultural land
Global Sustainability
16 Biodiversity Loss of natural habitats (greenfield site), but new development will create parkland and
water settings
17 Movement Increased use of private car due to peripheral location
18 Transport mode As above
19 Energy ? Depends on detailed layout
20 Air quality

Source: Beatley, 2000

 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 19

According to the UTF, the key principles of urban design Comparisons showed a great diversity within a relatively
are: confined geographical context. The reason for this
phenomenon was attributed to various impacts of norms
site and setting; and building regulations on urban forms. Interesting
context, scale and character; notions, such as building thickness, began to emerge
public realm; from this research, constituting useful urban-form indica-
access and permeability; tors. The textural characteristics of urban neighbourhoods
optimal land use and density; are a result of the accumulation and overlaying of micro-
mixing activities; scale building form characteristics and are therefore
mixing tenures; believed to have strong implications for the energy
building to last; consumption and environmental performance of an urban
sustainable buildings; neighbourhood. However, little attention was given to the
environmental responsibility. relationship between grain size and city texture with
general building use and mean energy use per square
Along with these principles, design recommendations metre of the city (CETAT, 1986).
should advocate flexibility for the changing use of build- According to Golany (1995), there are basic principles
ings and for reducing construction cost in new buildings that can guide the urban designer with climatic consider-
in other words, long-life, loose-fit, low-energy build- ations in mind; the two levels to be considered are the city
ings (Urban Task Force, 1999). site selection and urban configuration. Golany was able to
In conclusion and as Owens pointed out: propose a preferred urban design morphology (compact
form, dispersed form, clustered form and combined form)
It should be stressed again that energy- in response to his categorization of climate in six major
conscious planning is not an exact science, climatic types: hot humid, cold humid, hot dry, cold dry,
especially at the urban and regional scales. seashore strips and mountain slopes. Yet, he stresses that
Because of many intrinsic uncertainties in design solutions may be suitable to more than one type of
urban and energy systems, we are unlikely to climatic area, in spite of distinct climatic differences (see
be able to identify development patterns that Table 1.5).
would be the most energy efficient under all For Owens, the biggest contribution that planning can
possible future circumstances. However, make in reducing energy consumption and pollution is to
research suggests that it is possible to design urban forms that minimize the need to travel,
identify land-use patterns and built forms seeing travel as the major energy-consuming and pollu-
which are robust and flexible (S. Owens, tion-generating aspects of urbanization (Owens, 1986).
1992). Cities can be designed in such a way as to encourage
public transport at the expense of privately owned cars;
therefore, appropriate land-use planning policies can
Energy efficiency and renewable contribute effectively to energy conservation. In addition
energy potential versus city texture to spatial modifications, non-spatial policies could be
and configuration promulgated to encourage and promote public transport
by local authorities in conjunction with central govern-
Urban morphology became a major topic of discussion at
ments (e.g. pedestrianization of areas, cycling paths,
the end of the 1960s, when various comparative studies
car-pooling and parking control) (Owens, 1986). An
demonstrated how, at the same densities, various urban
overview of the research on transport-efficient urban
forms were possible, each providing different qualities
structures as carried out by various scholars highlights
(Martin and March, 1972). Later, Jacobs (1993) compiled
various urban forms:
a wide variety of urban textures from different parts of the
world, showing an amazing diversity through time and
Non-extreme compact city (Dantzig and Saaty,
space. However, his approach was more qualitative than
1973): these cities feature high densities, where
quantitative. Urban texture was analysed in the Swiss
employment and services are centralized, surrounded
context at the University of Geneva, where maps of
by high-density residential development. The limita-
various Swiss cities were gathered and analysed. A
tion is in the use of renewable energy sources (see
typological classification was carried out based on a
Figure 1.22).
purely morphological dimension (CETAT, 1986).
20 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 1.5 Main climatic types, major resulting problems and corresponding urban design responses
Main climate type Major problems/issues Basic urban design response
Hot-humid Excessive heat Ventilation: open ends & dispersed form. Widely open streets to support wind
High humidity movement. Extensive shadow. Dispersion of high rise buildings to support
ventilation. Combined variation of building heights. Wide, yet shadowy open
spaces. Shadowing, planned tree zones
Cold-humid (temperate) Low temperature Heating (passive & active): Mixture of open & enclosure forms. Protected edges
Winter & summer high precipitation at windward side (with structure or trees). Uniformed building heights. Medium
Windy dispersed open space. Circumferential & intersecting tree strips
Hot-dry Excessive dryness combined with high Compact forms: Shadowing. Evaporative cooling. Protected urban edges from
day temperatures hot winds. Windward location near a body of water. Narrow winding
Dusty and stormy neighbourhood roads & alleys. Mix of building height to shadow the city. Small,
dispersed & protected public open spaces. Circumferential & intersecting tree
zones. Use of geospace city concept
Cold-dry Excessive low temperature associated Compact & aggregate forms, clustered forms. Protected urban edges. Narrow
with dryness winding neighbourhood roads & alleys. Uniform city height. Small, dispersed
Stressful wind & protected public open spaces. Circumferential & intersecting tree zones.
Use of geospace city concept
Seashore strips High humidity In humid region: In dry region:
Windy Moderately dispersed form. Open toward the sea, compact and
Open urban edges. Wide streets protected toward the inland. High rise
perpendicular to the shore to buildings mixed with low height. Small
receive breeze. Dispersed high rise protected dispersed public open spaces.
buildings to receive ventilation. Shadowing planned tree zones
Variety of building heights. Wide
public open space. Shadowing
planed tree zones
Mountain slopes Windy Semi-compact form: mix of compact
& dispersed. Horizontal streets &
alleys to enhance the view. Low
height buildings. Small, dispersed
public open spaces. Non-obstructed
protected tree zones. Use of
geospace city concept

Source: Golany, 1995

Archipelago pattern (Magnan and Mathieu, 1975): diverse activities, as well as accessibility to open land.
this entails compact, nucleated urban sub-units This configuration is characterized by high linear
within close cycling or walking distance from each densities; destinations and origins of trips are concen-
other. However, energy efficiency relies on the energy trated along a defined number of routes, which is
efficiency of mobility, where people would take beneficial for public transport and potential renew-
advantage of proximity and not use vehicles. It has able energy due to the holes (see Figure 1.24). Yet,
been found that decentralization of employment and ribbon development could abolish the notion of
services was more energy efficient with regard to place in terms of neighbourhood and liveable
travel requirements than concentration in one centre. environments. Care should be taken not to confuse
The notion of neighbourhood, which was already linear grid and unplanned linear development
advocated during the 1960s by urban planners, has (Owens, 1986).
been revived. The potential disadvantage would be a
reduction in large open areas for recreation and Other schools of thought proposed theoretical forms for
aesthetics (see Figure 1.23). the sustainable city, all based on the notion of reducing
The linear grid structure (Martin and March, 1972), the need for movement by private car and reducing goods
with high development densities and integration of transportation by road. These forms comprise:
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 21

a compact high-density city; Edge of core area when

low-density decentralized urban areas; Aerial view city is at maximum size
an urban form based on policies for decentralized
concentration;
the concept of a sustainable city region (e.g. Howards
Garden City) (Moughtin, 1996). Initial
core area
However, there is little evidence to support the relation- 4420 ft
Initial

30
1500 ft
ship between energy efficiency and city form. On the

00
residential area
shape and size of our existing cities, Owens argues that

ft
they are more a reflection of the nature and availability of
energy resources that influenced the distribution of
human activities and urban form. The clearest illustration
of this observation is during the 20th century, when the
lack of energy constraints and reduced energy prices Vertical
view A
allowed the physical separation of activities and the 240 ft
outward spread of urban areas at lower densities (Owens, 8840 ft
1992). Mumford (1961) has pointed out that the scale of Vertical section of terrace at A
our cities today depends upon mass communication. Even
historically, the scale of the city was conditioned by what 8 levels (platforms)
land for building 240 ft
Mumford termed the range of collective communications homes and facilities
systems:
Source: Dantzig and Saaty, 1973
Early cities did not grow beyond walking
distance or hearing distance. In the Middle Figure 1.22 Compact city
Ages, to be within the sound of Bow Bells
defined the limits of the City of London; and
until other systems of mass communication
were invented in the nineteenth century, they
were among the effective limits to urban
growth. For the city, as it develops, becomes
the centre of a network of communications
the permissive size of the city partly
varies with the velocity and the effective
range of communication (Gillespie in
Breheny, 1992).

For Goethert, energetically optimal urban layouts are

assessed in terms of incurred cost on land subdivision and
the related basic utilities (water supply, sewage disposal,
circulation/storm drainage, electricity/street lighting)
(Goethert, 1978). He compares two models illustrating
extreme conditions of land use, with a site area 400m

400m and a lot area of 100 square metres. The difference
involves building layouts, lot proportions and land-use
patterns. Efficiency in utility use is compared between
both models (water supply, sewage disposal, circu-
lation/storm drainage, electricity/street lighting).
The same type of comparative study was carried out Source: Magnan and Mathieu, 1975
on existing settlements, highlighting deficiency in land
and infrastructure utilization. Evaluation was based on a Figure 1.23 Archipelago layout or nucleated
comparison of three layouts: (a) existing layout; (b) optimal urban sub-units
22 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Rickaby, 1979

Figure 1.24 Linear cruciform layout

equivalent layout in grid-iron format; and (c) proposed and/or uneconomical/inefficient layouts. The results of
revised layout where public land for circulation was the analysis give an indication of utility costs per lot for
reduced (see Figure 1.25). each layout, with the obvious result that costs per lot are
In the equivalent grid-iron layout, optimization is lower when there are more lots per unit area. However, it
achieved through minimizing public circulation by elimi- should be borne in mind that more lots result in smaller
nating small blocks and making larger blocks; gained area or narrower parcels of land (Goethert, 1978).
was pooled into expanding semi-public and private land. In Figure 1.26 the notion of settlement edges is inves-
Based on the equivalent grid-iron plan, a revised plan was tigated specifically, the deterministic role of these edges
designed on the existing site as a remedial proposal. The on architecture and planning in extreme climatic condi-
basic cost of utilities between the existing layout and the tions. Edges should therefore follow careful design,
revised layout (based on equivalent grid iron) is almost responding to topography, wind pattern, humidity,
half (see Table 1.6). temperature, rain and sun. Settlement edges could act as
Among the case studies that follow, a general trend of environmental filters, reducing the harshness of external
minimizing public land for circulation and, therefore, environments. A chart of edge morphology is proposed.
length of infrastructure per area served was adopted Oke (1988) was able to give recommendations on an
(infrastructure comprised electricity; water; sewerage optimal combination of urban density and average H/W
networks; street lights; police protection; and waste urban canyon aspect ratio, satisfying all four goals, which
collection), thus saving on government construction, are pollution dispersal, solar access, shelter and heat
maintenance and operation (Goethert, 1978). island warmth. Concerning density, a range between 0.2
As a general trend, Goethert observes that compact and 0.4 was suggested for an optimal roughness and
shapes are generally more apt for efficient development. absorptance. Although typical central areas in cities in
Irregular, dispersed shapes may result in unusable areas both Europe and North America do not conform to the
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 23

BASIC LAYOUTS
Layout Lot Public Semi-public Private Total Street lengths (m)

no. No % No % No % No IIII IIIIV total

Existing 573 5.97 38 2.32 15 7.47 47 15.76 2506 892 3398

Equivalent 732 4.69 29 2.60 16 8.71 55 16.00 3090 800 3890

Revised 687 5.19 20 2.35 15 10.15 65 15.76 1146 892 2038

Figure 1: TABLE OF LAYOUTS, COMPONENTS AND QUANTITIES

The table shows that the Existing layout devotes more public land to circulation and consequently
offers less private land than the two others. The Revised layout reduces public circulation still
firther by providing cluster lots or condominiums with semi-private courts; in addition, it offers
the option of larger lots in the periphery of the blocks.

Note: Total site area = 15.76ha; lot area = 120 square metres (6m
20m)

Source: Goethert, 1978

Figure 1.25 Three urban layouts, where (a) illustrates existing situation, (b) optimal equivalent in
gridiron format and (c) proposed revised layout

above values (H/W in Europe = 0.751.7; in North compactness and density despite some degree of urban
America, H/W = 1.153.3), European cities are still sprawl (Beatley, 2000). Several factors explain this differ-
closer to these figures than North American cities. This ence in density between US and European cities, such as
leads to the observation that European compact form of historic urban traditions, where several European cities
residential/suburban areas are more likely to conform to evolved from an old centre originally built within histori-
the suggested compatible ranges than the North cal defensive fortifications. Scarcity of land combined
American dense cores and scattered suburbs (Oke, 1988). with population growth explains cautious land use.
Comparing land consumption between US and European Conscious public policies and planning traditions also
cities due to urban growth, Leinsberger (1996) supported explain this trend in controlled urban sprawl in European
this observation. He noted that US cities consume land cities. So, while the reason behind compact cities today
and growth spatially at a much faster rate than population could have originated historically from demographic and
growth. An example of a country with a relatively large political reasons, its consequences are believed to be
population and one of the highest population densities in environmentally positive (Beatley, 2000).
the world is The Netherlands, where percentage of land Urban density has been identified as an urban-form
occupied by cities and developed areas is 13 per cent (Van indicator with environmental repercussions during the
der Brink, 1997). European cities have maintained last few decades.
24 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 1.6 Cost per hectare of existing layout is almost double the cost of revised layout, with improvements consisting of
major savings in circulation and storm drainage
Basic network: Cost per hectare (US dollars)
Utilities Existing layout Equivalent layout in gridiron format Revised layout
Water supply 3809 3680 1995
Sewage disposal 3489 2851 1612
Circulation/storm drainage 42,203 31,132 19,627
Electricity/street lighting 11,222 11,282 8358
Totals 60,723 48,945 31,592

Source: Goethert, 1978

Research into practice for

environmental urban planning
CONTINUITY
and design
Although principles of energy-conscious urban design
continuous broken seem to be well established as an issue for debate, imple-
mentation and dissemination would require, among other
aspects, political will and policy coordination. Focus will
DEPTH
then have to be given to action on building or neighbour-
hood scale, such as siting and the use of passive solar
energy. However, there are limiting measures to applying
sharp bulky these in the current planning and building regulations.
An instance in the UK illustrates this resistance.
Following a request sent out by the House of Commons
DENSITY Energy Committee (CEC, 1990) to the government,
requesting that all planning applications should be
soft inwards cloudy edge
assessed in terms of the consideration given to energy-
efficiency aspects in layout and design, the government
reply was that the energy implications of microclimate or
orientation will seldom be sufficiently weighty to
PREFERENTIAL justify refusing planning permission. In order to counter-
act such bureaucratic obstacles, Owens proposes that
perpendicular illusive energy efficiency becomes an explicit consideration in
urban planning policies (Owens, 1992).

Environmental policy-making
HYBRID
A lot has been said about the relationship between
research and policy, and the translation of knowledge
??? ??? acquired through research into action. As the past has
Source: Rahamimoff and Bornstein, 1982 proven, the path of translating research knowledge into
Figure 1.26 Morphology of edges action is still clumsy and unsystematic. It is generally
agreed that there is a wide gap between the expanding
scope of environmental policy and its effectiveness. The
process of implementing environmental regulations is
therefore unsystematic, and large differences have often
arisen between what is expected and the effect, in reality.
Heavy criticism is particularly targeted at the irrational
manner in which social policy progresses, at a time when
it is commonly assumed that research can direct policy. It
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 25

is a misconception to presume that policy-makers draw promote further compact urban growth pattern were
upon the most convincing and up-to-date findings and taken by the national government. Its national strategy of
evidence on any topic. They tend to remedy current sustainable development explicitly calls for efforts to
rather than future problems, thus working towards short- further promote urban compaction and numerous
term instead of long-term goals, as some have observed guidance documents were issued to encourage further
(see Hunt in Davies and Kelly, 1993). The success of compact growth. The UK national government has also
policy implementation depends upon the close coopera- issued recent policy papers proposing a target that 60 per
tion between various groups of society, and between cent of future residential growth [will] occur on reused
policy-makers and stakeholders; thus, researchcommu- urban land (Breheny, 1997). National government statis-
nity policy interfaces should be highlighted and tics for 1993 show that 49 per cent of residential
encouraged (Landsberg, 1981). development occurred on redeveloped or brownfield
It has been observed by Nijkamp and Perrels (1994) sites, and another 12 per cent on vacant urban land.
that the most adequate institutional level of environmen- Thirty-nine per cent of residential development in the UK
tal policy with regard to the use of renewable resources occurred on rural land (Breheny, 1997; Beatley, 2000).
should remain at a centralized level. The reason is that In the case of health, it is social processes that are of
there may be a danger that the closer the relationship most critical importance in determining the health status
between the decision-maker and the polluter, the more of individuals and communities. This is clearly demon-
sensitive the decision-maker may be to social and strated through the Healthy Cities project that grew as a
economic arguments, and the less inclined he or she will practitioner-led activity, consisting of a series of local
be to take measures which benefit the environment community experiments rather than as a research project.
(Nijkamp et al in Breheny, 1992). However, most impor- The Healthy Cities philosophy is based on the conviction
tantly, all institutional changes must be preceded by that cities should provide a clean and safe physical
changes in attitude, behaviour and values at the level of environment of a high quality, based upon sustainable
the consumer (Blowers in Breheny, 1992). Community ecosystems. In the context of this project, the promotion
involvement and participation when tackling issues of health includes the adaptation and transformation of
relating to the urban context is a crucial requirement. It social structures that create ill health. The improvement
has been proven that decisions made by those concerned of the health conditions of an environment would rely
are far better than decisions made extraneously by others. upon individuals initiative, where people themselves
This was noticed in the Healthy Cities project,4 where must be empowered individually and through their local
inhabitants involved in decision- and policy-making grew communities to take control of their health (Davies and
in confidence (Smithies et al in Davies and Kelly, 1993). Kelly, 1993). Preparing for the project has revealed
This is further supported by the UTF, who found that surprising and unexpected realities, such as the lack of
different models of neighbourhood management bodies conviction that politicians and business leaders have
would be useful, involving local people in the decision- about the impact of urban planning and housing policy, as
making process, relaxing regulations and guidelines to well as traffic and pollution control, and general health in
make it easier to establish devolved arrangements (Urban the urban context (Davies and Kelly, 1993).
Task Force, 1999). Several European cities are cited in environmental
literature as having been engaged in a variety of innova-
Research into practice tive sustainability initiatives, having adopted and
implemented sustainability policies in a wide range of
Despite the past failures of environmental policy imple-
sectoral areas through holistic strategies (see Table 1.7)
mentation, there are instances that prove the opposite
(Beatley, 2000).
concerning certain aspects of policy implementation, such
Among the obvious energy features of green urban
as supporting sustainable land-use patterns in the
European cities are combined heat and power (CHP), sea
European context, which demonstrates the political and
water use for natural cooling and summer air condition-
governmental action-taking ability of national govern-
ing, and solar-assisted district heating networks (where
ments in Europe. For example, in Norway, in 1999, the
solar panels generate much of the heating of water circu-
government banned by royal decree new shopping malls
lated in district networks). In the case of Denmark, solar
located outside of city centres for a five-year period, a
heating provides 12.5 per cent of the annual heating
move seen as necessary to reduce traffic and the economic
needs of the district heating of a town of 5000 people
undermining of downtown areas (Associated Press, 1999;
(Beatley, 2000). Other means of contributing to energy
World Media Foundation, 1999). In the UK, steps to
efficiency include better management of the buildings by
26 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 1.7 European cities where interviews and

field visits were carried out
Austria Graz*, Linz, Vienna
Denmark Albertslund*, Copenhagen, Herning,
Kalundborg, Kolding, Odense
Finland Helsinki, Lahti
France Dunkerque*
Germany Berlin, Freiburg, Heidelburg*, Muenster,
Saarbruecken
Ireland Dublin
Italy Bologna
Switzerland Zuerich
Sweden Stockholm*
The Netherlands Almere, Amersfoort, Amsterdam, Den Haag*,
Groningen, Leiden, Utrecht, Zwolle, others.
United Kingdom Leicester*, London (including boroughs)

Note: * Indicates recipients of the European Sustainable City Award.

Source: Beatley, 2000

Source: Beatley, 2000

trained individuals (building managers and housekeepers
who maintain certain levels of control for example, Figure 1.27 Diagrammatic plan of Morra Park showing
switching on and off heating/cooling/artificial lighting), a closed-loop circulation
and the upgrading of building envelopes (e.g. insulation
of walls and better performing windows and glazing). Ecolonia reached the target in the national environmen-
Therefore, energy efficiency and reduction in energy tal policy plan (NMP) of reducing household energy use
consumption were targeted at the level of each individual by 25 per cent. However, according to the evaluation
building by applying the above measures. One example is studies (carried out by Edwards, 1996), some problems
the city of Saarbrcken, in Germany, where dramatic were identified, such as the necessity for proper ventila-
results were noted. Between 1981 and 1996, consumption tion due to moisture build-up and rotting of insulation,
of heating in the citys properties was reduced by 53 per and the expensive and unreliable nature of photovoltaics
cent. Corresponding reductions in CO2 emissions were (Beatley, 2000).
considerable: from 65,000 tonnes in 1981 to 35,000 tonnes Morra Park (Drachton) is another case study pilot
in 1997. Investment in upgrading and implementation of project, consisting of 125 dwellings. Among the sustain-
the measures discussed above proved to be highly cost able features incorporated in the houses are south
effective, where a yearly investment of 1 million Deutsch orientation, solar panels and conservatories. The
marks gave a return of 10 million Deutsch marks in problems encountered in this project were technical, as
energy savings (Beatley, 2000). well as social. For example, there was a noticeable lack of
Much can be learned from ecological pilot building interaction among neighbours, perhaps due to the linear
and neighbourhood projects on the degree of success, as configuration of the houses, facing south (see Figure 1.27)
well as failure, of environmental strategies. Examples (Beatley, 2000).
from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany show Project Eco-dus (in Delft) is also a first-generation
successful environmental performance and high energy sustainable development scheme. Combining 250
conservation standards, as well as use of renewable dwelling units, the project is built through collaboration
energies. Important experimental projects cited for reach- between the local housing society, the municipality and a
ing these targets are found in The Netherlands private developer. The main sustainable design features
(Ecolonia-Alphen a/d Rijn. Morra Park-Drachton, Eco- consist of south and south-east orientation, solar panels
Dus-Delft). For example, Ecolonia combines a cluster of for hot water usage and high-energy efficiency (high-
101 residential units, designed by several architects, and value insulation and high-insulating glass). In addition to
the whole project is sponsored by the Dutch national this, blocks of flats along the road are designed to act as
government. The design brief clearly advocated ecologi- noise barriers (having bathrooms and kitchens facing the
cal design (energy standard of 200 megajoules (Mj)/m2). street and living quarters and bedrooms located near the
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 27

quieter side; this involves a combination of urban Energy-efficient urban planning and
planning and urban design, with repercussions for the design versus amenity, equity and
internal planning of dwellings). Furthermore, all projects aesthetics
promote reduced dependency on car circulation (i.e.
narrow roads, providing an extensive bicycle network). In Would an energy-efficient environment mean great sacri-
addition, other features include the use of sustainable and fices in terms of amenity, equity or aesthetics?
recycled construction materials, free composting bins, Hypothetically, urban sustainability encompasses
water-saving toilets and showers, and other sustainable environmental concerns and economic viability, as well as
strategies for living. Such a project, completed in 1992, liveability and social equity. It has been demonstrated in
was viewed as a model for future development in the city. examples of environmental pilot projects that it is difficult
In general, solar and energy-efficient strategies to create new settlement quarters that encapsulate the
succeeded; however, problems arose when residents human qualities that older cities have, the latter having
desire to add an additional floor was rejected by the city grown and developed organically and changed incremen-
because it obstructed solar access for other units. This tally over many years (Beatley, 2000).
incident illustrates the problem of how to design afford-
able housing where residents can live throughout the Environment versus human behaviour
different stages of their lives. The fact that those wishing
to live in larger units were forced to move out was seen The environment plays a major and crucial role in the
by some as negating the goals of sustainability (Beatley, behavioural pattern of people. People respond to good
2000). design and desirable environments by choosing to
Several housing projects in the UK have taken frequent them. Good design (should) provide a stimulus
environmental consideration into account, such as the to the senses through choice of materials, architectural
Pennyland housing scheme at Milton Keynes, where form and landscaping (Urban Task Force, 1999). Authors
micro-scale spatial structure was used to enhance energy agree that:
efficiency (Owens, 1986). Another example is the Basildon
housing scheme by Ahrends, Burton and Koralek, where design and policy and decisions should be
through careful design and environmental considera- related where possible to the behavioural
tions microclimate and passive solar energy were sciences Through interdisciplinary collab-
harnessed. Northsouth access roads, with short oration, designers and planners have the
eastwest access cul-de-sacs, made houses benefit from possibility of becoming more socially respon-
south exposure; spacing between buildings was studied to sible. Reciprocally, behavioural scientists
minimize overshadowing; and landscaping was designed and environmental sociologists will have a
to reduce wind speed. In this case, there was a conscious greater opportunity to apply their research
effort to keep energy considerations controlled so as not findings in more practical ways (Mnty,
to dominate social, technical, aesthetic and economic 1988).
factors (Owens, 1986).
The success of certain urban environments is not Correlations have been established between excess heat
necessarily based on the faithful application of planning in cities and incidences of rising criminal activity
regulations. In Barcelona, the average density of 400 (Landsberg, 1981).
dwellings per hectare, compared with a high density of Owens notes that the success of energy-efficient
100 to 200 dwellings per hectare in some of the lively planning considerations relies, ultimately, on their social
inner-city areas in English cities (such as London), acceptance, cultural integration and economical feasibil-
exceeds what is allowed by current planning regulations. ity, and not only on their technical energetic performance
This aspect is actually one of the main features that (Owens, 1986). An example is the frequent failure of
secured its success as a city, providing a positive urban centralized shopping in moderate climates despite the
experience on several levels (e.g. environmental, social cost benefits of centralization. In mild climates, shopping
and economic). It was categorized as the most vibrant and is perceived and better experienced as an outdoor street-
compact city in Europe (Urban Task Force, 1999). The shopping experience, rather than a confined experience.
example of Barcelona illustrates the fact that planning It is therefore virtually impossible to devise general
regulations should be based on relevant precedents and guidelines on the ideal energy-efficient city, bearing in
actual examples so that amendments of them are likely to mind the contextual climatic, socio-economic and cultural
meet the sustainability goals. disparities.
28 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Designing for human comfort: Physiological ance towards policy implementation and the translation
and psychological of research into action, as previously discussed. Several
computer models were devised to simulate city compact-
There was harsh criticism of completely mitigating
ness. The efficient relationships between scale, capacity
environmental stresses, such as noise, radiation, tempera-
and containment were computed to a point where human
ture extremes and wind: some degree of stimulation is
values faded into the background. Although city compact-
required for the average healthy person (Fezer, 1982).
ness might seem appealing to planners in terms of energy
There is charm and character in the buzz of the city,
efficiency, the concept is still regarded with fear for its
involving all senses: audible (e.g. traffic noise, rumbling
risk of causing town cramming. A middle ground should
machinery, street cries and the rustle of foliage), olfactory
be sought, where concern would focus on liveability,
(e.g. odours, plants, exhaust fumes and food) and visual
attractiveness and urban quality, whilst trying to fit them
(e.g. signage, people and changing scenery). As Simmonds
into a policy framework which stresses sustainability and
(1994) points out: Many distinctive and familiar sounds
compactness (Crookston et al in Jenks et al, 1996). For
add much to the pleasure of city living.
this purpose, several interrelated aspects of urban
A set of preliminary recommendations for a pleasant
planning should be addressed simultaneously:
urban environment was put forward by several authors
(Simmonds, 1994; Barton, 1995; Urban Task Force, 1999),
housing density: not wasting space, but not cramming
coinciding with recommendations that relate to a liveable,
either;
positive and environmentally pleasing urban context.
transport: playing to the citys strengths;
These include interconnectivity of streets; a clear hierar-
parks, schools and leisure: quality services and facili-
chy of street networks; and open spaces that are properly
ties;
designed in such a way that they promote circulation and
urban management and safety; and
the gathering of people, as opposed to there being leftover
the housing market: offering range and choice
or negative space between buildings (Urban Task Force,
(Crookston et al in Jenks et al, 1996).
1999). Some authors relied on experience, intuition and
practical, anecdotal evidence through observation to draw
Beatley demonstrates that density in the urban context is
upon these recommendations.
not desirable on its own. Instead, it is the configuration
Tibbalds (1988) went as far as to set out the ten
and design according to which this density is expressed
commandments of urban design, which are primarily and
that is important, and what comes with it as urban design
explicitly related to the human dimension:
effort, greening, and accessibility to transit and amenities
(Beatley, 2000). Several cities clearly illustrate the visual
1 Thou shalt consider places before buildings.
and experiential benefits of fine-grain street patterns and
2 Thou shalt have the humility to learn from the past
urban texture. In Dutch cities such as Groningen, Delft
and respect thy context.
or Leiden, for example, the dense network of streets
3 Thou shalt encourage the mixing of uses in towns and
provides a great variety of routes. In turn, there is a diver-
cities.
sity of sights and sounds in moving through the city as a
4 Thou shalt design on a human scale.
pedestrian or cyclist. In addition to enhancing enjoyment,
5 Thou shalt encourage freedom to walk about.
there is a sense of safety among people when a choice
6 Thou shalt cater for all sections of the community and
exists between several different routes and accesses
consult with them.
(Beatley, 2000). This has been referred to as permeabil-
7 Thou shalt build legible environments.
ity of places, both visual and physical (Bentley, 1995). The
8 Thou shalt build to last and adapt.
conditions of ensuring permeability rely upon eliminating
9 Thou shalt avoid change on too great a scale at the
cul-de-sac and hierarchical street layouts and providing
same time.
finer-grain city configuration (Barton, 1995).
10 Thou shalt, with all the means available, promote
On promoting renewable energy in the urban context,
intricacy, joy and visual delight in the built environ-
there is so much that can be done while preserving the
ment.
quality of outdoor space (i.e. streets). As highlighted by
Beatley (2000), the architecture along the street has much
Energy-efficient planning versus reality: to do with its positive feeling. Buildings could ensure an
Observations and examples attractive organic feeling to the street by providing a
Socio-economic and cultural realities are sometimes diversity of colours, height and detail. A geometrically
overlooked in building design, and there can be resist- articulated street frontage is more pleasing to pedestrians
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 29

than a flat monotonous frontage; although each might been said about hypothetical optimal city morphology for
have a different impact on the environmental perform- efficient energy consumption, few researches thoroughly
ance of the street, the implications of urban geometry on investigated the quantitative possibility and benefits of
the qualitative perception of the street is of prime impor- remedial urban refurbishment for a more sustainable,
tance (Simmonds, 1994). energy-efficient use and improved environmental
Occasionally, however, reality defeats common sense. performance. Even major triggers of research in this field
Town-planning experiments in Greenland demonstrated do not address the problem-solving aspect thoroughly,
that locals have a strong preference for open urban specifically the European Commission (EC) Green Paper
planning, with an interest in living with nature although (CEC, 1990), with its primary concern of reducing the
common sense would dictate that Greenlandic towns energy-intense character of urban neighbourhoods.
should be compact. This phenomenon seems to prevail Although this influential and revolutionary paper tackles
despite numerous socio-economic facts, such as the more possible alternative ways of dealing with the problem (i.e.
economic aspect of compact and high-density planning, densification), the actual practicality and feasibility of
as well as environmental arguments, such as the detri- increasing the density of cities remains vague and incon-
ments of wind-swept open, loose planning (Mnty, 1988). clusive. Breheny (1992) highlights the unresolved flaw in
As has been demonstrated, it seems that there is no the Green Paper in its contradictory recommendations,
simple environmental determinism for urban form. The encouraging simultaneously higher urban densities and
Western city has been shown to consist of a certain an increase of urban space.
number of types or elements, with small variations: At the heart of this document lies the important
street and square; monument and palace; city block principle that both identifies problems and targets easily
(buildings around courtyards). The organization of these implemented solutions to the current energy issue in
items was a result of defensive needs, powerful structure cities at a time when most of the research taking place in
and technology. The urban pattern seems to be deter- this field necessitates long-term and time-consuming
mined in spite of, rather than because of, the climate policy decision-making. The latter encompasses transport
Climate should therefore be regarded as a modifier of policies in relation to pollution emissions and energy
urban form, rather than a determinant(Mnty, 1988). consumption; studies of city shape for optimal energy
performance; road infrastructure and layout for optimal
commuting and, therefore, less energy consumption and
Overview pollution emission; and idealistic city orientation for
solar radiation access and passive solar heating (Davies
Fast progress [towards a sustainable urban
and Kelly, 1993).
form] will not be made in reversing the
There have been individual attempts by researchers,
spread of the city, which appears to embody
planners, architects and academics to investigate and
social aspirations and meet the economic
implement this evolutionary approach to dealing with
imperatives of the time. Perhaps the only
urban refurbishment on a small scale. Nijkamp and
rational course is to treat the urbanized body
Rienstra (Nijkamp et al in Jenks at al, 1996) realize the
as we find it, and not to lament that it was
extent to which the spatial inertia of the built environment
not born to be more beautiful in the first
and of infrastructure networks can act as a powerful
place. Logic might indicate what that form
barrier to adopting modern solutions to the energy-inten-
might be; but rational thought indicates that
sive urban character, such as new transport technologies:
all we can do is improve it (Welbank in
Jenks et al, 1996).
Artefacts following from land use, such as
housing blocks, industrial estates and trans-
The nature of this reasoning implies that, faced with the
port infrastructure, have a long life cycle in
virtual impossibility of revolutionizing the whole built
relation to the capital investment involved.
environment and rebuilding entire cities based on
As a result, different types of land use are
sustainability and energy-efficiency, the most viable alter-
fixed for a number of decades. So, once the
native would be to deal with the existing realities and
infrastructure is built, it will be there for a
address them as best as one can. As noted by the UTF, the
long period (especially in historical city
concrete reality of urban centres is that more than 90 per
areas). As a consequence, technologies which
cent of the existing urban fabric will remain with us in 30
imply step by step (incremental) or small-
years time (Urban Task Force, 1999). While much has
scale change may have a better chance of
30 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

adoption in the urban territory than once unhealthy, and therefore has an optimum size
technologies implying radical change of (Moughtin, 1996).
infrastructure and land use (Nijkamp et al in Much of the current work and approaches to urban
Jenks at al, 1996). planning and design rely heavily upon the use of comput-
ers, thus reducing vast quantities of information to
Ignasi de Sol-Morales, a Spanish architect and professor manageable form. In addition to mapping, storing data
of history and theory at the Barcelona School of and comparative analysis, very important creative contri-
Architecture, introduced the notion of urban micro- butions are being made by computer technology, such as
surgery,5 strongly advocating urban rejuvenation that visual modelling and presentation of schemes in visually
preserves and respects the equilibrium and texture of understandable formats. However, despite the wide appli-
historic urban centres (such as his recently completed cation of the computer in city planning, caution should be
project in the historic centre of Barcelona). Others taken so that it remains as an aid and not a substitute for
strongly acknowledge the importance of rehabilitation the experienced planner and intuitive designer (see
and regeneration in the urban context as opposed to Figure 1.28). In general, planners need to adopt and
comprehensive planning that proved to destroy many devise a set of specifically intra-urban sustainability
vital communities in the process of renewing the physical principles, concerning issues such as public transport,
infrastructure. The organic model for city planning private car restraint, density targets, urban greening,
devised by McKei in 1974, and called Cellular Renewal, development of transport modes, mixed uses, etc
depends upon on-site survey, with each housing unit (Breheny, 1992). Answers to the environmental problems
representing a cell. Although this organic concept of the in the urban context should range from recommendations
neighbourhood caters for slow renewal or rehabilitation, about short-term changes, which are a must for solving
piecemeal development did not disturb the community. pressing problems, to target long-term development and
The organic city is just like an organism though; it dies implementation of processes.

Source: Simmonds, 1994

Figure 1.28 Experimental work that examines symbiotic relationships between the natural and built form in the urban
landscape; the givens are natural features of the site and the outcome is planning proposals
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 31

Synopsis on current research in urban climatology, energy use,

renewable energy and environmental potential related to
This chapter started by providing an overview of vernac- building form. The final section raised issues related to
ular urban planning as a background to the knowledge urban planning, such as amenity, equity and aesthetics, in
that exists in relation to a climate-responsive urban the context of energy-efficient urban design.
design. This was followed by a series of sections focusing

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pp80107 Pearlmutter, D. (1998) Street canyon geometry and microcli-
Lyle, J. T. (1993) Regenerative Design for Sustainable mate, Proceedings of PLEA 1998, Lisbon, Portugal, James
Development, John Wiley and Sons, New York & James Ltd, London
Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City, MIT Press, US Rahamimoff, A. and Bornstein, N. (1982) Edge conditions
Magnan, R. and Mathieu, H. (1975) Orthopoles, Villes en Iles, Climatic considerations in the design of buildings and
Centre de Recherche dUrbanisme, Paris settlements, Energy and Buildings, vol 4, pp4349
Mahdavi, A. (1998) Toward a human ecology of the built Richards, J. M. (1946) The Castles on the Ground,
environment, Journal of South East Asian Architecture, vol Architectural Press, London
5, no 1, pp2330 Rickaby, P. A. (1987) Six settlement patterns compared,
Maldonado, E. and Yannas, S. (1998) Environmentally Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol 14,
friendly cities, Proceedings of PLEA 1998 Conference, pp193223
Lisbon, Portugal, James & James Ltd, London Rogers, R. (1997) Cities for a Small Planet, Faber and Faber,
Mnty, J. (1988) Cities Designed for Winter, Norman London
Pressman, Building Book Ltd, Helsinki Rudofsky, A. (1964) Architecture without Architects, Academy
March, T. A. and Trace, M. (1972) The land use performances Edition, London
of selected arrays of built forms, Land Use and Built Form Sadik, N. (1991) Confronting the challenge of tomorrows
Studies, Working Paper No 2, UK cities today, Development Forum, vol 19(2)
Martin, L. and March, L. (1972) Urban Space and Structures, Simmonds, J. O. (1994) Garden Cities 21: Creating a Livable
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Urban Environment, McGraw-Hill, Inc, US
Morris, A. E. J. (1994) History of Urban Form: Before the Steemers, K. (1992) Energy in Buildings: The Urban Context,
Industrial Revolutions, Longman Scientific and Technical, PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge
Harlow
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 33

Steemers, K. (ed) (2000) PRECIS: Assessing the potential for Van Der Brink, A. (1997) Urbanization and land use planning:
renewable energy in cities, unpublished EU research Dutch policy perspectives and experiences, Unpublished
report, The Martin Centre, University of Cambridge, paper
Cambridge, UK Warren, R. (1998) The Urban Oasis: Guideways and
Steemers, K. and Yannas, S. (eds) (2000) Architecture city Greenways in the Human Environment, McGraw-Hill, US
environment, Proceedings of PLEA 2000 Conference, WCED (World Commission on Environment and
Cambridge, England, James & James Ltd, London Development) (1987) Our Common Future, Oxford
Tibbalds, F. (1988) Urban design: Tibbalds offers the prince University Press, Oxford
his ten commandments, The Planner (mid-month supple- Whyte, W. H. Jr. (1990) Rediscovering the Center City,
ment), vol 74, p1 Doubleday (Anchor), New York
UNCHS (1996) An Urbanising World, Oxford University World Media Foundation (1999) Living Earth, Transcript of
Press, Oxford interview with Jasper Simonsen, Deputy Minister for the
Urban Task Force (1999) Towards an Urban Renaissance, Environment, Norway, 15 January
Crown Copyright, London Wu, S. and Kittinger, E. (1995) On the relevance of sound
scattering to the prediction of traffic noise in urban streets,
Acoustica, vol 81, pp3642

Recommended reading
The list of relevant publications provided in the refer- 3 Rogers, R. (1997) Cities for a Small Planet, Faber and
ences demonstrates not only the wide range and depth of Faber, London
existing knowledge, but also the proliferation of interest A book written by an architect and aimed at identify-
in the field of urban environmental issues. However, ing and addressing the urban design challenges. This
despite this existing expertise, it is hard to identify book is a somewhat emotive expos from the perspec-
documents that successfully cover and integrate the key tive of one of the worlds leading urban architects. It
issues. The following publications achieve a degree of highlights the primary issues and is richly illustrated
success in particular areas of the field: with design proposals. This is a useful primer for
practitioners interested in raising the debate.
1 Breheny, M. (ed) (1992) Sustainable Development and
Urban Form, Pion, London
This collection of essays has become a key text that
Notes
relates the wider aspects of sustainability (not only
1 Taken from A. V. Ruiz (1998) Environmental Design
environmental, but also social and economic) directly
for Cities: Traffic Noise Attenuation through Urban
to urban design. Breheny was a well-respected
Design, MPhil dissertation, The Martin Centre for
academic and expert, and was one of the most impor-
Architectural and Urban Studies, University of
tant researchers in this field. The emphasis of the
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
book is not primarily on the technical aspects.
2 In free-field conditions (i.e. conditions in which
2 Elkin, R. et al (1991) Reviving the City: Towards
reflecting surfaces are absent).
Sustainable Urban Development, Friends of the Earth,
3 Taken from A. V. Ruiz (1998) Environmental Design
London
for Cities: Traffic Noise Attenuation through Urban
This book established the key environmental concerns
Design, MPhil dissertation, The Martin Centre for
and potential strategies for overcoming the perceived
Architectural and Urban Studies, University of
environmental problems of urbanization. It covers a
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
wide range of issues, including energy and pollution,
4 The Healthy Cities project was inaugurated by the
but in a fairly broad-brush manner. There is a
World Health Organization (WHO) to inform policy
campaigning emphasis, with an aim of pushing the
throughout the world.
political agenda forward. As a result, the book perhaps
5 Talk given by Professor I. de Sol Morales, Martin
does not have the objectivity one might wish for.
Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies,
Nevertheless, it is stimulating.
Department of Architecture, University of
Cambridge, 24 May, 2000
34 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 2
Discuss the lessons that todays urban planners may Outline the nature of the urban environment what are
learn from studying vernacular urban plans, drawing on the primary characteristics that distinguish it from a rural
historic examples. Do the pressures on todays urban climate?
environment make the study of historical examples irrel-
evant? Activity 3
What, in your opinion, are the social and technical advan-
tages and disadvantages associated with both evolutionary
and revolutionary urban change?
 ENVIRONMENTAL URBAN DESIGN 35

Answers
Activity 1 buildings, the same configuration acts as a buffer against
the wind and street pollution (traffic, noise, dirt, particles),
The climate-responsive aspect of vernacular settlements
in addition to providing efficient land use.
has been highlighted by many scholars. For example,
Morris (1994) compares the prevalence of courtyard
Activity 2
planning in hot-arid climates and the resistance it
received in northerly cool climates when Roman Givoni (1998) acknowledges the effect of urban morphol-
conquerors tried to introduce it in urban planning. It was ogy on the urban microclimate and, therefore, on energy
believed that the absence of climatic stresses in moderate consumption. The physical parameters that he was able to
northern latitudes did not necessitate the clustering of extract were size of city, density of built-up area, land
shelters and introversion around a courtyard in order to coverage, building height, orientation and width of
filter the climate. The housing type that prevailed was, streets, and building-specific design details that affect the
rather, extroverted and often free standing (Morris, 1994). outdoor conditions. There is a subtle trade-off in street
Examples of such vernacular settlements are the Pueblo design which aims to maximize ventilation, dispersion of
Navajos and Anasazis Native American settlements pollutants and solar access, while not compromising
(Golany, 1983), and Middle-Eastern settlements where shelter and urban warmth. On urban warmth and the
compact urban planning defied the harshness of hot-arid urban heat island with respect to geometry, Oke (1987)
climates (Rudofsky, 1964) such as in Ur, Olynthus and observes that a city with an elevated occurrence of a high
Cordoba (Morris, 1994). Historical examples are still H/W, and therefore tending towards compactness,
relevant today despite the modern factors of urban pollu- promotes the trapping of solar radiation and urban
tion, noise and traffic. In Finland, for example, following warmth, especially at night.
the age of functionalism where buildings were free-stand-
ing within arteries of infrastructure, the courtyard house Activity 3
re-emerged. The revival of the vernacular south-oriented A response to this is elaborated briefly in the Overview
courtyard type of planning took place for several reasons. section.
In addition to the creation of a pleasant and energy-
concentrating sun pocket, formed at the corner of two
2
Architectural Design and
Passive Environmental and
Building Engineering Systems
Spyros Amourgis

Recent examples of green buildings serve to Introduction

remind architects that sustainability rests on
the long-standing basis of smart design The emphasis of this chapter is on the building design
(Snoonian and Gould, 2001, p96). process and not on specific technical information. It
discusses the significance of understanding passive and
Scope of the chapter active systems in making design decisions, as well as the
opportunities to conceive interesting and inventive
This chapter briefly discusses the building design process concepts generated by such factors. This approach to
and the utilization and integration in this process of the design responds to all concerns, including a suitable
opportunities offered by the natural environment. These ambient environment that depends less upon non-renew-
opportunities contribute towards inventing a comprehen- able energy sources (Fry and Drew, 1956, p23).
sive building concept which interacts with the elements In his book Biology and the History of the Future,
of the natural environment. Waddington (1972, p27) characteristically states:

Learning objectives I would not settle for something a little less

than incorporating the total planet in every
After reading this chapter you should be able to integrate analytical small-scale operation. What I
passive and active environmental systems within building think does need to be incorporated is not so
concepts, as well as design processes. These environmen- much an idea about the planet as a whole,
tal systems help to reduce energy consumption and but an idea about the situation as a whole.
improve indoor environmental conditions, generated by
non-renewable sources.
The building concept
Key words Building design is a synthetic process. The key element
of this process is the concept. As a process it relies upon
Key words include: the creativity of the designer to produce a central idea,
which is the concept. This ought to be generated through
building concept; the consideration of, and response to, the following
building design process; factors:
passive and active environmental systems.
 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND PASSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 37

functional requirements of the users; safety of the structure, in general, and specifically
context in which the building is set (natural and man- addressing local natural hazards (e.g. earthquakes,
made environment); floods and winds);
construction method and materials; cost and life expectancy of building (e.g. limited use
initial investment; and as a temporary or a permanent structure);
cost of operation and maintenance. materials available in the local market and skills of
local trades people;
The final design ought to appeal to the user, meet the code appropriateness of materials for certain uses, and with
requirements and professional standards, and satisfy the particular regard to the use of renewable materials,
designer. This process is not as precise as engineering recycled materials and materials that least affect the
methodologies, since the preferences of the users or environment through the manufacturing process.
clients, as, indeed, those of the designer, may be influ-
enced by biases or current trends that may reduce (during Initial investment cost
the decision-making process) the effectiveness of a build-
The initial cost of construction, as an investment, affects
ing design.
almost all other choices. However, even if funding is not a
problem, it is wise to invest in methods that reduce energy
Functional requirements of the users consumption since they also increase the effectiveness and
The requirements of the users are: quality of the interior environment of the building.
From the environmental point of view in urban areas,
appropriate space allocation and layout of spaces, when it is feasible, it is preferable to recycle buildings
accommodating and serving all human activities that instead of demolishing and rebuilding a point widely
are anticipated to take place in a given building; recognized now on both sides of the Atlantic (see
a healthy and comfortable environment, as Ruth Sager Waddington, 1972; Snoonian and Gould, 2001, p94).
(cited in Waddington, 1972, p60) appropriately
described in her proposal for a biological bill of rights Cost of operation and maintenance
for mankind: the right to live in an equitable physi-
Operating costs consist primarily of utilities through the
cal environment [that is] aesthetically attractive and
consumption of:
physiologically healthful;
convenience of movement and use of the building;
water for kitchen, baths, irrigating plants and general
a pleasing environment variable condition since it
cleaning purposes;
depends upon individual perceptions of spaces and
energy sources for lighting, ventilation, heating,
prevailing social influences and trends.
cooling, cooking, hot water, the use of electric appli-
ances and mechanical systems for movements.
Context
The context in which the building is set includes consid- Maintenance costs include the upkeep of interior and
eration of the following: exterior materials that have a limited life span (e.g. paints
and replacing or renewing roofing materials).
general topography of the site and the adjacent
environment;
orientation of the site;
The building design process
climate data;
There is not one precise universal method or system for
land uses of the adjacent sites and vicinity;
designing buildings that is generally acknowledged. The
environmental conditions, in general, and specifically
assimilation and synthesis of information are performed
the access road (e.g. traffic and noise pollution);
by humans whose thinking processes differ; therefore, as
historic, cultural and social environment of the area.
a process, building design varies. For example, some
individuals follow a linear thought process and synthesize
Construction method and materials on the basis of their analysis. Other individuals are
The choice of construction method and materials is based intuitive and quickly reach a decision on a concept, based
on the following: on their experience. While the concept is developed into
an actual building design, both approaches should
respond to the same issues and criteria.
38 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

These two methods of approaching the design process sources ought to be reduced or replaced by alternate
define extremes in the way in which most designers work. means.
What all competent building designers share is that their Today, most of the traditional and empirical knowl-
designs respond to the same list of key issues. edge used in the past to improve the environmental
The emphasis placed by some professionals on some condition of buildings has been substantiated through
of the design issues has not always been equal. science. The alternative to current building design
Advancements in technology and the low cost of energy, practices is the use of passive systems. Such systems have
from the early 1950s until the early 1970s, offered oppor- become more effective through the invention and utiliza-
tunities to control the interior environment of buildings tion of new materials and technological aids.
with mechanical means, and the emphasis on the natural
environment diminished. The result has been that numer- Buildings as elements of the urban fabric
ous buildings are almost totally dependent upon
Urban buildings:
technology with regard to their interior environment and
are excessive energy consumers. This trend has slowly
externally define open and public spaces;
changed since the first major oil crisis of the 1970s.
internally provide sheltered space(s) from the natural
elements.
Environmental approach to building design
The architectural design process is an inventive process. The way in which buildings are located and the form of
It relies on the ingenuity of the designer to use all key buildings affect the immediate external environment. The
issues of a building problem (and interpret them as spatial organization of the interior plan and cross-section of a
elements which are incorporated within the building building determine the relationship of the interior spaces
design). There are numerous fine examples of building to the exterior environment. Furthermore, the way in
designs that illustrate this point, including the develop- which building elements, such as openings, are designed
ment of indigenous housing prototypes in Los Angeles controls the visual and functional relationship of the
during the first half of the 20th century (Amourgis, 1995, interior to the exterior. Finally, the choice of materials and
pp121124). method of construction are equally important in achiev-
Indigenous architecture in all parts of the world ing the best results.
evolved through time to consider the functional needs of In order to be functional, the interiors of buildings
people, the context in which they were built, and locally need light, air for ventilation, and heating or cooling when
available materials and construction methods. The cost temperatures drop or rise to uncomfortable levels.
was measured in human effort and time. The inherited Humidity can also cause discomfort and in extreme condi-
empirical knowledge and wisdom of the local master tions may harm or endanger human life. Ambient
builders and craftsmen have been replaced by formal conditions are very important as they affect the physiol-
education (selective knowledge) and technology ogy and the well-being of humans. It is important,
(machines and industrial products). The ability, in partic- therefore, to remember that the effectiveness of the
ular, to control interior environments has lowered the interior environment also depends upon the way in which
sensitivity of the contemporary building designer towards it has resolved its relationship to the external environ-
nature and natural phenomena. ment.
Consumer trends have caught up with buildings, and
the search for new products has emphasized the image of
a new building, instead of the social and environmental
Passive systems in buildings
values incorporated within the building concept. Several
The term passive implies those methods employed in
architectural critics of the last two decades described this
building design that use renewable energy sources and
formalistic trend as the emphasis on the package,
simple integrated technologies (Santamouris and
meaning that the concept is focused primarily on the
Asimakopoulos, 1996, p75) for heating and cooling, as well
external image, that is, envelope of the building.
as methods that maximize the use of natural light and
The emphasis on the environmental design of build-
ventilation for buildings.
ings and bioclimatic architecture is a step in the right
There are several alternative applications or variations
direction and not a new invention. It simply has gained
of passive systems that have been used in buildings during
ground because of increasing awareness that the global
the last 30 years. Some building designers have success-
environment is in danger, natural resources are not
fully used passive systems to generate a design concept,
abundant, and consumption of non-renewable energy
 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND PASSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 39

Source: Amourgis archive Source: by permission of Professor J. Lang

Figure 2.1 Row housing in Munich Figure 2.2 Example of house incorporating
passive systems
and others have simply applied elements of passive systems
within the building design only, or have compromised two, its overall goal is to produce buildings that take less
other aspects of a building design to ensure environmental from the Earth and give more to people (Lopez Barnett
benefits. An early example of a successful design concept is and Browning, 1995, p2).
the row housing in Munich designed by Tomas Herzog and Building design can minimize or reduce the use of
Bernard Schilling in 1976 (see Figure 2.1). non-renewable energy sources while still providing
Exploring the benefits of solar energy, Herzog and comfortable conditions for human life in buildings. Such
Schilling designed a building section that is environmen- design employs methods that are passive, and incorpo-
tally sustainable, with interesting and pleasant interior rates active environmental building engineering systems.
spaces. It also offers good views and privacy, and the plan When both are employed, they increase the environmen-
of the complex relates well to the urban fabric. tal effectiveness of building design.
Another innovative design using the same principle Active systems utilize mechanical, electrical and
of incorporating passive systems is a house in San electronic equipment in order to increase the effective-
Fernando, near Los Angeles, designed by Jurg Lang ness of passive systems. For example, the use of
(Amourgis, 1991, pp8792) (see Figure 2.2). thermostats in combination with solar powered electric
Building activities undoubtedly alter the natural fans may improve the performance of a passive solar
environment as they are an intrusion on nature. heating system by monitoring and regulating temperature
Therefore, the aim is to minimize the negative impact of conditions. There are many options available through the
buildings in the environment at all levels, from the way in use of technology and software in combination with
which they relate to the topography, to the use of natural passive systems, as described in Chapter 5.
resources, and to the manufacturing method of building Passive systems can be employed to provide:
materials. The accumulative effects of some manufactur-
ing processes and some urban activities are the main natural light to all interior spaces during daytime;
causes of damage to the global environment. natural ventilation;
The environmental approach to building design heating and/or cooling.
should address such issues and utilize methods and means
that serve human needs with the least damage to nature. The use of renewable energy sources and simple
Lopez Barnett and Browning of the Rocky Mountain integrated technologies, such as the Trombe wall (see
Institute refer to this approach in general terms as Chapter 10), can produce positive results.
sustainable design or green development. Although this As mentioned above, when passive systems are
new architecture is difficult to describe in a sentence or combined with mechanical and electrical devices, and
40 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Note: Architects, N. Kalogeras and S. Amourgis (1978) Note: Architects, N. Kalogeras and S. Amourgis (1978)

Source: Amourgis Archive Source: Amourgis Archive

Figure 2.3 Interior of terminal building of the Figure 2.4 Close up of ceiling of terminal building of the
International Airport of Alexandroupolis International Airport of Alexandroupolis

with electronic equipment that coordinate and monitor Texas, by Louis I. Kahn (19661972) is an excellent design
the functions of the various applications, efficiency is where the building concept responds to several key
further increased. Such technological enhancements can issues, including the specific natural lighting require-
be powered by converted solar and/or wind energy into ments for gallery spaces (see Figure 2.5).
electricity. For each space, the design concept must take into
A building concept that is designed to respond to consideration the orientation, position, size and shape of
passive systems may utilize all systems or part of the a window opening facing the exterior (walls or roofs), as
know-how available. The choices depend upon the well as the intensity and type of light (direct or reflected)
environmental opportunities and constraints offered by required to enter the space.
the location, the complexity and function of a building and Of course, the issue of choices is not only a matter of
the available budget. calculations; other factors must be considered, such as
desirability of views, privacy, appearance of openings and
Natural light ventilation. Figure 2.6 shows an apartment building
designed on the south coast of Athens,2 where the
The effective use of natural light directly influences the
optimum resolution of the previously mentioned require-
choice of a building design concept. The configuration of
ments generated the architectural organization and
the plan (as well as the size of the rooms) has to adapt to
character of the building (Amourgis, 1966).
the maximum distance that natural light can travel within
The source of daylight is the sun. The properties of
an interior space, at a particular site and at a given orienta-
sunlight are beneficial to human life in many ways, and
tion. The building sections also have to be conceived of in
it is desirable to have the suns rays enter the interior of
a way that facilitates maximum penetration of natural light.
buildings for health reasons. Sunlight consists of rays of
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 show how a structural module was
various wavelengths. In the short wave range, it is the
designed for the terminal building of the International
infrared rays that heat surfaces and dry the air; while
Airport of Alexandroupolis in order to provide natural light
ultraviolet rays also have the ability to destroy bacteria.
and ventilation in the interior spaces.1
In northern climates, a habitable room is defined by
Different space functions also pose different require-
the amount of time during which direct sunlight enters
ments for intensity or quality of light. For example,
a room on the shortest day of the year (in December).
domestic spaces require different light conditions than an
There is a legal minimum of one hour. The minimum
art gallery does. The Kimball Art Museum at Forth Worth,
area of window openings is also defined in this manner.
 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND PASSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 41

Source: by permission of Professor P. Helmle Source: KalogenesAmourgis archive

Figure 2.5 Interior section of the gallery module Figure 2.6 Apartment building on the
south coast of Athens
Light bounces off reflective materials and highly
polished surfaces in the opposite direction at the same Siting
angle in which the rays hit the surface. On non-reflective In urban areas, zoning dictates the building system. The
or rough surfaces, light bounces off in all directions; this systems most frequently prescribed by planning and
is called diffused reflectivity (Watson, 1992, p83). zoning codes are continuous, detached or free standing,
Reflective properties can be utilized by the designer and semi-detached. The building lines are normally paral-
through appropriate use of horizontal or vertical surfaces lel to the street and the requirements are that all or part of
in order to direct light further inside an interior space, to the front elevation is on, or parallel to, the building line.
block it or create special effects as necessary, such as The siting of a building and positioning of the front eleva-
indirect and diffused natural light. The texture and colour tion in the continuous system is dictated by the city plan,
of materials are also important. Indirect and diffused as is the orientation. The only options are partial set-backs,
natural light are particularly desirable in museums, art bay windows and other architectural projections, as
galleries and spaces with special indirect lighting require- prescribed by the local planning regulations. These limited
ments. options may be used to redirect wind flow from the street
The objective, therefore, is to use natural light to its to the interior of a building, or, in adverse situations, may
maximum potential inside a building during daytime, and be designed to exclude it. The detached or free-standing
to reduce or totally eliminate the use of artificial lighting building system allows options for siting, and the building
during the day. design could evolve by adjusting to advantageous orienta-
tions and harnessing local winds. The position and type of
Natural ventilation, heating and cooling external plants and trees can be designed to contribute
of buildings positively to the interior environment of buildings.
As for natural lighting, the effectiveness of natural venti-
lation and appropriate temperature levels in the interior Plan layout
of a building are, to a large extent, determined by the The interior layout of buildings can be designed to benefit
building design. Choices made at the design stage for from cross-ventilation and air movement, resulting from
siting, plan layout, sections, building form, wall openings, differences in temperature between internal and external
and methods of construction and materials may increase areas. Different room functions require different orienta-
or decrease the comfort conditions of the internal tions with regard to solar exposure. Various sources and
environment for the occupants of a building. activities that generate heat (e.g. boilers, fireplaces and
chimneys) can be placed in key locations in the plan so that
the excessive heat benefits other areas inside the building.
42 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Architectural competition design by S. Amourgis, N. Kalogeras and M. Blake

Figure 2.7 Section of freeway and building

Sections section has less external wall and roof surface. Therefore,
it suffers less heat gains or losses. In warm climates,
The heights of rooms in relation to the size, position and
extensive roofs and eaves protect from heat gains and
shape of openings can trap or facilitate air movement. Air
create different air temperature zones.
stacks or the use of double height-volume spaces for
example, rooms with mezzanines allow air to move.
Wall openings
Buildings on pilotis (sitting on columns or stilts at ground
level), in the continuing building system, allow air to The size and shape of fenestration is also critical for air
circulate between the street and the rear yards. Inventive movement. Windows and doors appropriately positioned
sections may utilize fresh air in-take of buildings from the could improve natural ventilation and internal air
rear yard if there are trees and plants, in situations where movement. High-level windows in warm weather allow
the front street is very noisy or the air is more polluted. hot air to escape; the absence of high-level openings traps
Figure 2.7 shows the section of a building design case the hot air in a space and internal temperatures rise.
study for high-density commercial offices, next to a busy
freeway in Athens (Amourgis, 1993). The curved curtain Methods of construction and building materials
glass wall facing south and west acts as a shield and as an
Methods of construction and building materials can
air stack, venting the hot air as it rises to the top. Cleaner
increase the quality of the ambient environment of a
air enters from the rear of the building, from the north
buildings interior. Different materials have different
and further away from the freeway, and exits through the
insulation or heat absorption and storage properties.
top of the air stack. The designed section provides
Another important factor to consider in the choice of
protection from the freeway pollution to the building
materials is the embodied energy (energy consumed in
interior. Pollution is considerably higher during busy
the process, e.g. in manufacture, transportation, etc), as
hours up to 67m from the edge of a freeway, beyond which
well as the pollution generated through the manufactur-
it decreases to the average levels of a built-up area
ing process of the materials (see Chapter 4).
(Proctor, 1989, p27).
Insulation of external building surfaces helps to
maintain differences of temperatures between the
Building form exterior and interior of a building. If insulation is uneven
The form of the building can be designed to direct local between the different materials used for a buildings
wind movement in and around the building in order to exterior, the insulation effectiveness decreases through
achieve positive effects. A compact building plan and cold or hot bridges. Metal frame windows, for example,
 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND PASSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 43

act as such bridges if the profiles are not properly filled ties, such as passive and active environmental building
with insulating materials. Detailing is also important as systems.
gaps in windows or doors allow undesirable drafts. In dry The early consideration of environmental constraints
construction walls, even the gap between the electric and possibilities will help the creative designer to
switchs plate and the wall allow air droughts, a condition conceive a building whose design draws upon these
that is remedied with insulating flanges placed between factors. There are several contemporary examples of
the plastic cover plate of a switch and the wall fitting. impressive and original architectural designs, where the
Heat absorption and storage by building materials can building concept was generated by ingenious utilization
be advantageous or disadvantageous. For example, of environmental concerns.
materials that store heat, such as stone, offer advantages Finally, it seems appropriate to conclude with Donald
when used as interior flooring that is exposed to the Watsons summary that a designer ought to think of a
winter sun. On the other hand, if the same area is not building in four different ways, each successively more
protected from the summer sun, it becomes disadvanta- complex, but following a logical progression of develop-
geous, for obvious reasons. ment. A building is a:

1 natural heat exchanger;

Synopsis 2 microclimate;
3 biological system;
A buildings design is a product of a synthetic process.
4 ecological niche (Watson, 1991, p103).
The synthesis is based on the analysis of many factors and
considerations regarding the users requirements,
In conclusion, according to Watson (1991, p102), the
context, technology and the economics of a building. Each
paucity of environmentally sound design stems from a
one of those factors must be assessed against qualitative
lack of integration between ecological and architectural
and quantitative environmental constraints and possibili-
principles.

Notes
1 Kalogeras N. and Amourgis S., Architects, 1978, 2 Amourgis S. and N. Kalogeras, Architects, Vouliagmeni
Alexandroupolis Terminal Building. Apartments, 1966.

References
Amourgis, S. (1991) Critical Regionalism, CSPU, Pomona, Santamouris, M. and Asimakopoulos, D. (1996) Design Source
pp8792 Book on Passive Solar Architecture, CIENE, NKUA, Athens
Amourgis, S. (1993) Competition Design of a Commercial Snoonian, D. and Gould, P. E. (2001) Architecture rediscovers
Building Adjacent to Freeways in Athens, CSU, Pomona being green, The Architectural Record, June, pp94, 96
Amourgis, S. (1995) Design of Amenity, Kyushu Institute of Waddington, C. H. (1972) Biology and the History of the
Design, University Press, Fukuoka, pp121124 Future, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp27, 60
Fry, M. and Drew, J. (1956) Tropical Architecture in the Humid Watson, D. (1991) Commentary: Environmental architecture,
Zone, B.T. Batsford Ltd, London, p23 Progressive Architecture, March, pp102, 103
Lopez Barnett, D. and Browning, D. (1995) A Primer on Watson, D. and Labs, K. (1992) Climatic Building Design,
Sustainable Building, Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado, McGraw-Hill, New York, p83
p2
Proctor, G. (1989) Building on the edge of a freeway: Case
study, Glendale, CA, Research Paper, Urban Design Studio,
CSU, p27
44 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Recommended reading
The following publications are recommended for further 2 Dimoudi, A., Panno, G., Santamouris, M., Sciuto, S.
reading as an enhancement to the learning process: and Argiriou, A. (1996) Design Source Book on Passive
Solar Architecture, CIENE (Central Institution for
1 Herzog, T. (ed) (1996) Solar Energy in Architecture Energy Efficiency Education National and
and Urban Planning, Prestel Verlag, Munich and New Kapodistrian University of Athens), Athens
York This is a systematic presentation of the specifics of
This volume comprises very useful examples of energy conservation in buildings for architects,
various energy-conserving design projects. Readers engineers, physicists and other professionals involved
will appreciate the range and variety of concepts in the design, constructions operation and mainte-
generated by considering environmental concerns nance of buildings.
(the text is in English, German and Italian).

Activities
Activity 1 tal conditions that will influence design ideas. List the
main environmental factors that you will consider when
In order to assess your understanding of the terms build-
developing different concepts for the same type of build-
ing concept and building design, write a brief
ing for example, a private house to be located in
description of each and their significance to the design
different climatic zones, and the reasons why in:
process. When you complete this task, compare your
notes with the answer at the end of this chapter. a temperate climate with winters that are not too
severe and warm summers;
Activity 2 a cold climate with long, cold seasons and short
During the early stages of developing a passive systems summers?
building concept, one usually considers key environmen-
 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND PASSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 45

Answers
Activity 1 Natural ventilation during the summer may reduce or
exclude the use of mechanical cooling.
The building concept section deals with these issues, and
Outdoor plants and outdoor materials must be consid-
explains the key factors that must be considered in devel-
ered for cooling.
oping a concept. The building design process section
outlines the development stages of a concept to the build- In a cold climate:
ing design.
The sun is less of a problem during the warm months.
Activity 2 During the cold months, solar heat may be used to
In a temperate climate: substantially enhance (but not replace) the heating
unless active systems are also used.
The sun must be excluded during the warm months Natural light may be used as adjunct to artificial light
and protection from glare and heat gains must be during the cold seasons.
provided. Outdoor plants perform a similar role as in warm
During the other seasons, advantage must be taken of climates, allowing the winter sun into the building
the sun to substantially reduce energy for heating. and protecting it during the summer.
During all seasons, natural light may be used to Building form ought to be compact in order to
exclude almost totally artificial light during daytime. minimize heat losses during cold periods.
3
Environmental Issues of Building Design
Koen Steemers

Scope of the chapter taken to assume that there is a deterministic design

approach to environmentally responsive design. It is
This chapter provides a step-by-step overview of environ- evident that the design process is an iterative develop-
mental design issues, from site analysis and planning to ment of ideas; thus, interaction between various stages of
detailed decisions about building fabric and services. The design development should be taken into account.
chapter is complemented by Chapter 14, which addresses Integrated design is a theme discussed in more detail in
issues of integration and interrelations that are not dealt Chapter 14.
with here. Central to the philosophy of this chapter is the aim of
minimizing environmental impact, while ensuring
comfort conditions. The energy use of buildings in cities
Learning objectives is the key to sustainable urban development (WCED,
1987), but also to comfort and well-being (Bordass et al,
When you complete the study of the chapter, you will be
1995), in terms of how it affects global, local and interior
able to:
environmental conditions. The use of energy in buildings
raises concern not only for the consumption in use, but
understand how the environmental issues impact
also for the embodied energy in materials.1 This intro-
upon design, from initial site explorations to final
duces detailed issues about the choice of materials in
construction detailing;
construction, as discussed previously in this book.
be strategically aware of individual issues.
An aim of this chapter is to encourage, through
design, opportunities to exploit climatic conditions in
Key words order to maintain comfort, minimizing the need for artifi-
cial control that relies upon the consumption of energy.
Key words include: During the last century, particularly since the advent of
air conditioning, designers have tended to focus upon the
design phases; problems associated with climate (e.g. counteracting the
environmental design checklist. effects of hot or cold weather and high solar radiation).
This resulted in strategies to minimize interaction with
the exterior climate and increased artificial environmen-
Introduction tal control. Buildings typically became deep plan and air
conditioned, with high energy use and sometimes low
The purpose of this chapter is to suggest the environmen-
user satisfaction.
tal issues that should be considered during the various
The degree to which a building can selectively
stages of design. It is structured in a way that broadly
exploit the climate depends upon the very first strategic
follows the design process: from overall site considera-
considerations in its design. The step-by-step environ-
tions, built form and orientation, to detailed
mental discussion that follows highlights the issues that
environmental aspects of the faade design, and, finally,
may be considered at the key design stages.
to integration of services. However, this should not be
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 47

Context Table 3.1 Urban microclimate compared with the

rural environs
Synoptic climate data Climatic factor Compared with rural environs
In order to be able to exploit the climatic context, it is Temperature (annual mean) 0.53.0 Celsius more
critical to analyse the climate type within which the site Radiation (total horizontal) 020% less
is located, and to collate relevant data that will inform the Wind speed (annual mean) 2030% less
appropriate strategic design. The worlds climate regions Relative humidity (annual mean) 6% less
are commonly defined in terms of their thermal and Source: Landsberg, 1981
seasonal characteristics (e.g. hot-dry, warm-humid,
composite, moderate and cold). Each requires a distinc-
tive design response, which can be frequently found in created: during the day, the solar radiation increases the
the vernacular architectural traditions of a region temperature of the land above that of water, which
(Rapoport, 1969). (through thermal buoyancy of hot air rising up from the
It is important to note that within a climate zone, a land) creates air flow from water to land. At night this
wide range of climatic characteristics can be found as a effect is reversed.
result of, for example, topography, altitude and urban
density. In order to define a local climate more precisely
than simply according to the generic typologies, more
detailed information is required about the local air
temperatures, wind patterns and humidity.
It is possible to obtain large amounts of very detailed
information from weather stations, based on hour-by-hour
monitoring over periods of decades. However, not all of
the information will be important or relevant. The detail
required depends upon the potential design implication
and the level of environmental analysis to be performed.
For example, the large diurnal temperature variations in
hot-dry climates are as important as the average daily
temperatures because they will influence the design strat-
egy for maintaining comfort (e.g. exploiting the time-lag
characteristics of thermal mass). Conversely, in warm-
humid climates, the diurnal swings are much smaller and
air movement is essential to define comfort. As a result, it
is important to know wind speeds and directions.

Local climatic conditions

The synoptic climatic context is the primary considera-
tion; but local conditions can differ significantly and will
have implications for design. However, it is equally
important to consider that a proposed building will influ-
ence the microclimate. The microclimate is affected by
characteristics of local topography, urbanization and
vegetation.
The topography of the land will result in variations in
microclimate. For example, the orientation of a steeply
sloping site will affect the amount of solar radiation and
the hours of sunshine. The direction of a valley may cause
a funnelling of the wind if it comes up or down the valley, Figure 3.1 The urban environment (in this example,
but may provide a sheltered environment if the wind is Chicago) is typified by hard surfaces, a lack of vegetation
perpendicular to the valley. In a location where land and complex patterns of overshadowing and wind. As a
meets water, certain local diurnal wind patterns are result, it is significantly different from a rural climate
48 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

of trees as a shelterbelt to protect a site from cold winds.

Other benefits may include using vegetation to provide
evaporative cooling, shading, filtering of dust particles,
some noise attenuation and carbon dioxide absorption, as
well as psychological advantages for humans and ecologi-
cal benefits to encourage flora and fauna (Figure 3.2).

Solar geometry
The path of the sun is a key factor in determining energy-
efficient building form, orientation and faade design.
Absorption of solar radiation through building surfaces
with different orientations, particularly transparent
elements, will significantly influence comfort conditions
and energy performance. A relatively simple technique to
assess the availability of sunshine on a building faade is
to use graphic tools, such as the sun path diagram and
shading mask (Goulding, et al, 1992) (Figure 3.3). This
allows the designer to determine the effect of topography,
vegetation and other obstructions (such as buildings or
shading devices) on sunlight availability. The intensity of
solar radiation, in relation to its position in the sky, is
useful information that allows the designer to judge where
to focus the shading or, conversely, the passive solar
elements. In cold climates, the aim may be to maximize
winter solar gains, while in hot climates it is to minimize
gains, particularly in the summer.

Wind and air movement

Figure 3.2 Vegetation provides a variety of microclimates, Wind conditions will have implications for natural venti-
including the presence of shade and potentially lation, which, in turn, has an effect on thermal comfort
evaporative cooling, as shown in this courtyard and on energy use. Natural ventilation can be part of a
in Alhambra, Granada passive cooling strategy in hot seasons, whereas air infil-
tration (unwanted) and ventilation (controlled) accounts
for a significant fraction of the heating load. In all of the
The key effect of urbanization on air temperatures is above cases, it is important to know the prevailing wind
referred to as the heat island effect, where temperatures conditions, either to maximize the advantages or to
in cities can be several degrees Celsius higher than in the minimize the disadvantages by manipulating the building
neighbouring rural area (Landsberg, 1981). This has been design. There are instances where wind may be
discussed in detail in previous chapters. The heat island welcomed from certain directions if it is particularly cool,
is caused by a range of factors, such as the lack of moisture such as prevailing summer breezes. At other times, the
(fast run-off and little vegetation), the production of heat, need is for shelter from cold winds. It is thus necessary
the absorption of solar radiation and lower wind speeds not only to be aware of prevailing wind conditions, but
in cities (see Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1). also of seasonal wind and the temperature of wind from
Another microclimatic consideration of urbanization different directions (as well as any potential pollution,
is air and noise pollution (see Air and noise pollution on dust or sand content).
p49). Both may have significant consequences on the Available data will normally include information about
options for simple natural ventilation strategies through wind conditions measured at specific weather stations and
windows that open, and may, as a result, influence design at a prescribed height (usually 10m). Such data are useful
strategies (see Building plan and section on p50). in order to provide the overall conditions; but closer site
The use of vegetation to improve microclimatic analysis may be necessary, particularly for urban areas
characteristics is well understood for example, the use where the wind pattern is complex and turbulent.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 49

N N

W E W E

S S
Figure 3.3 Sun path diagrams for high (53 north left) and low (17 north right) latitude

Air and noise pollution cold winter wind) they are often not mutually exclusive.
The planning of a site can exploit such conditions by the
Air and noise pollution are factors that are of particular
positioning of buildings and vegetation. Wind effects,
interest with respect to the urban environment, notably
particularly around tall buildings, will need careful consid-
in relation to natural ventilation strategies (Figure 3.4).
eration as wind shadows may cause a lack of air movement
Where possible, it will be useful to monitor (or predict)
or turbulence on the leeward side of buildings.
such pollution levels near to, or on, the site under consid-
Building design is influenced by microclimate consid-
eration in order to establish appropriate building plans
erations, as outlined above; but the design proposed will
and sections, as well as more detailed ventilation design
also influence the resulting microclimate. Thus, the site
solutions.
plan should contribute to improving the context for the

Site planning
The arrangement of buildings on a site should respond to
climatic factors such as solar angles and wind. Where
solar access is beneficial to minimizing the heating loads,
then the spacing and orientation of buildings may be
informed by solar geometry. For example, if the aim is to
limit the obstruction to winter sun, then the low angle will
result in more widely spaced buildings or reduced build-
ing heights. Sunshine is not only of potential benefit to
energy savings in buildings, but is also of importance with
respect to the quality of the spaces created between build-
ings. The typically dense urban fabric of vernacular
southern towns reflects the concern of reducing solar
radiation in outdoor spaces (Figure 3.5).
An analysis of wind speeds, direction and related
temperatures can indicate which winds are welcome (e.g.
cool summer breezes) and which may be detrimental (e.g. Figure 3.4 A haze of pollution covers many urban areas
50 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

entertainment, and will, as a result, consume energy for

such journeys. A dispersed urban plan will typically result
in greater use of private vehicular traffic, compared with
a dense, mixed development (Sherlock, 1991).
Another potential advantage of dense, mixed-use
programmes is that energy supply can be centralized and
more efficient. A heating load in one area may be offset
by a cooling demand in another. Similarly, a combined
heat and power (CHP) plant can efficiently supply the
mixed demands for hot water and electricity. The more
continuous 24-hour energy demand of mixed-use devel-
opments is more easily and efficiently supplied locally,
compared with the intermittent, short-term peaks
required in single-use zones.

Building plan and section

Passive and non-passive zones
Building form is influential in determining the potential
interactions between building environment and climate.
In order to improve energy performance, building form
can be manipulated to exploit those climatic characteris-
tics that are favourable for human comfort. A building that
has a high surface-to-volume ratio interacts more with the
climate, both potentially positively and negatively. A
compact form has less contact with the climate; therefore,
the internal environment will need to be controlled artifi-
cially. In extreme climates it is often perceived that the
less contact with the climate the better; but in terms of
Figure 3.5 Example of urban density from southern Spain
energy efficiency, a number of opportunities are lost. A
(Granada), where narrow urban spaces provide
shading from summer sun, but also provide
some protection from cold winter winds

benefit of the overall environment and, in particular, for

the benefit of the building itself. For example, the
planning of a building site in a noisy, polluted environ-
ment may aim to create a quiet, protected public space so
that parts of the building facing such a space can be
naturally ventilated. This not only reduces the energy use
and emissions, but also creates an amenable environment
(Figure 3.6).

Mixed uses and movement of people

Other non-climatic issues will have an effect upon the
resultant energy consumption levels. The location of uses
on large sites will influence the need for transport
between activities such as housing and offices, or housing Figure 3.6 An example of a courtyard building, where
and retail. Without mixed uses it is inevitable that the the courtyard potentially provides protection from the
inhabitants will need to travel (by car or otherwise) noisier and more polluted street environment,
outside of the development for retail, employment and creating a quiet haven
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 51

simple example of this is the use of controlled natural light

to displace the need for artificial lighting energy.
Perimeter zones can benefit from access to daylight as
well as natural ventilation and possibly solar gains and
thus contribute to reducing electric lighting loads. Such
zones can be called potentially passive zones, and the
aim in low-energy buildings is to maximize passive zones
and minimize non-passive zones (Baker and Steemers,
2000).
A building with a high percentage of passive zones
will have significantly different form characteristics and
will appear elongated, linear, courtyard-like or as a finger
plan, as opposed to cuboid. It is clear here that selective
environmental design tends to enrich the range of formal
possibilities, rather than constrain them. Figure 3.7 Vernacular architecture from a temperate
climate region clearly expresses the selective potential
Orientation of a simple loggia or overhang to provide seasonal
Building orientation with respect to sun path and wind solar control
direction is relevant whether considering hot climates,
where minimizing solar gains and maximizing air zoning of service areas (e.g. circulation, toilets and plant
movement may be the priorities, or cold climates, where rooms) as thermal buffer spaces will help to reduce heat
the reverse effects may be desirable. losses from the non-solar side and possibly protect the
In near-equatorial regions, where the sun path is inhabited accommodation from cold winds. Conversely,
predominantly overhead (Figure 3.3), radiation on south thermal buffer spaces can be used to protect an interior
and north faades can be easily shaded with simple from excessive solar gains so that, for example, the west
overhangs. However, east and west faades will receive
significant direct solar radiation, which is difficult to shade N
due to the low sun angles. The most significant aspect is
the west elevation as this will receive afternoon sun when
air temperatures are at their highest of the day. This
combination of sun and heat will quickly cause overheat-
ing problems if not anticipated. A linear building with a
westeast axis, where west and east faades are minimized 18
17 16 16 17
18

and have minimal openings, is optimum in terms of solar 15 14 12 14 15

13 13
orientation. Wind direction is a secondary issue as faades
can be designed and detailed so as to divert airflow
W 0 20 40 60 80 60 40 20 0 E
through a building. It is not necessary for the wind direc-
tion to be perpendicular, or even near perpendicular, to a
12
faade in order to encourage airflow to the interior. 16 15 14
13 13
14
15 16 17
18
In cold regions, solar gains, particularly during the 17
18

heating season, will be welcome. A linear building with a

westeast axis is thus also beneficial when solar gains are
collected through a solar faade. Shading from high-
altitude summer gains may need to be reduced,
particularly in temperate climates, by the use of appropri-
ate shading devices an overhang being traditional and S
effective (Figure 3.7). Source: Architect, Ken Yeang, 1994

Internal planning Figure 3.8 The plan of this office building (IBM Plaza)
has service spaces located on the west and east faades
The internal planning of buildings will have implications to protect the accommodation from low afternoon
for energy and comfort performance. For example, the and morning sunlight penetration
52 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

or east faades of buildings can be protected from low Thermal buffer

angle afternoon or morning sun (Figure 3.8).
The first advantage of a glazed atrium, over an open court,
Noise-generating areas of the accommodation (e.g.
is that heat losses from the building are reduced. This is
plant rooms, machine rooms and workshops) act as
because the extent of the external envelope directly in
acoustic buffer spaces and allow the rest of the building
contact with the outside is reduced. Heat losses from the
to be protected from a noisy urban context, as well as
building, and solar gains into the atrium, will ensure that
being potentially naturally ventilated.
the atrium temperature is likely to be always higher than
the outside temperature. This means that fabric losses
Courtyard and atrium spaces from the building into the atrium are reduced. This is
known as the thermal buffer effect of atria.
Before the advent of air conditioning and deep-plan
buildings, courtyards and light wells were widely used to Daylight
provide both ventilation and natural light to otherwise
By puncturing an atrium through the plan of a deep build-
deep-plan urban buildings. The benefits in terms of
ing, natural light can reach more of the accommodation.
energy use of reducing the need for fan power and artifi-
The reflectance of the surfaces are under the control of
cial light are self-evident. Further advantages may include
the designer, unlike adjacent street faades, and can
improved occupant well-being and productivity and
therefore be light coloured to maximize daylight penetra-
reduced costs by avoiding air-conditioning systems.
tion. In the case where a court is glazed over, the structure
Typological studies of built form and site densities have
of the glazing system and the glass itself will reduce the
also indicated that courts can improve the plot ratios of
amount of light transmitted. However, in such a case the
developments.
atrium temperatures are higher than outside, and there-
The renewed interest in courts, and particularly in
fore heat loss from the building will be reduced. This, in
glazed courts or atria, provides opportunities for low-
turn, means that glazing ratios can afford to be larger to
energy strategies, briefly outlined below.
improve daylight without a heat loss penalty.

Ventilation
The advantage of court plans is that the cross-section can
be reduced down to a distance where cross-ventilation
becomes possible. Typically, this distance is taken to be in
the order of 12m. Cross-ventilation requires a pressure
difference to exist between the faades, normally
provided by wind. However, in still wind conditions air
movement in buildings is governed by thermal buoyancy.
Where a court is glazed over, the wind effects are likely to
be reduced; but the potential for stack effect (thermal
buoyancy) is increased where stack heights become
significant (e.g. a six-storey or taller atrium). The height
of the atrium assists the stack-driven ventilation, assum-
ing that openings are provided at the top of the atrium for
warm air to escape. This effect induces fresh air to be
introduced from the perimeter of the building, across the
accommodation and into the atrium. The necessary
summer ventilation rate can thus be maintained even
under worst-case conditions of no wind. Opening location
and sizes need to be carefully designed to ensure
adequate and controllable ventilation rates.
Where the main energy use in a building is for space
heating, then an alternative ventilation strategy can be
Figure 3.9 An atrium environment can provide a adopted to minimize winter heating loads. The warm air
range of environmental benefits for a building, in the atrium can be usefully employed as preheated
particularly in colder northern climates
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 53

ventilation air for the adjacent accommodation. The

atrium is kept sealed to the outside, and the warmed air is
encouraged to enter the building. In this way, thermal
losses through ventilation, which in a well-insulated
design account for the largest fraction of heat loss, can be
reduced. Any solar gains made into the atrium space
during the winter become very useful. It is important,
when adopting such a strategy, to consider the ventilation
paths carefully, both in terms of location and sizing.

Building-use patterns
The way in which buildings are used by occupants has a
profound impact upon energy use. It is not simply a direct
relationship between hours of occupancy and resultant
energy use, but relates to the behavioural patterns of
occupants and the thermal mass characteristics of the
building fabric. Occupants can change the energy
performance of identical buildings by a factor of two as a
result of opening windows, misuse of heating or air-condi-
tioning controls, and switching off artificial lighting. Figure 3.10 A central function of buildings is to
Buildings with a continuous occupancy pattern (i.e. 24- provide an appropriate, comfortable and healthy
hour use) may benefit from high-level thermal mass, environment that the occupants can control
depending upon climatic variations. Short-term, intermit-
tent occupancy will demand rapid control of the The environmental requirements of various uses need
environmental conditions, which suggests a lightweight to be established and can have a significanct influence on
structure and a fast response system. design strategy. In buildings with mixed uses, this is
In the design of passive control systems (e.g. windows particularly important. A simple example of this may be
that open, moveable shading and light switching), consid- an office building containing computer rooms, adminis-
eration must be taken of occupant behaviour. A robust trative offices, drawing studios and social spaces. Each of
strategy, where the building performance is supported by the above has differing requirements in terms of light.
likely occupant response, is an important notion. Simple, Computer rooms do not need high levels of natural light,
effective and direct manual control will provide the user but do require careful glare consideration. Drawing
with confidence and increased satisfaction. If control of studios benefit from higher levels of daylight, and social
the environment is obscured, the occupant is likely to feel spaces may benefit from sunlight. The plan organization
less comfortable and is also more likely to interact of such spaces will thus relate to their environmental
inappropriately. In such a case, fully automated control requirements: computer suites on the ground floor,
will provide better performance. For example, consider drawing office top, administration in between, and social
ventilation. In the case where ventilation is provided spaces on the sunny side.
through windows that open, occupants will tend to open Similarly, thermal criteria and noise issues will inform
windows in order to increase ventilation as necessary appropriate planning decisions and the use of buffer
(although they may not turn the heating off, or may leave spaces to protect the more environmentally sensitive
the window open longer than necessary). If, however, areas. The notion of selective design thus has a bearing
fresh air is delivered through a grille in the ceiling and not only on early design decisions of built form, but
controlled via a thermostat, then users may resort to transcends all of the design stages and levels of detail.
turning controls excessively, opening doors or switching Different spaces and activities will require different
on fans to increase air movement. The result may be noise levels of environmental control, ranging from aiming to
and privacy problems and a perceived reduced comfort maintain temperatures at 20 Celsius 1 Celsius for
level. An integrated system where temperature sensors sensitive equipment and materials, to allowing tempera-
open and close windows automatically, but can be tures to swing between 18 Celsius and 27 Celsius for
overridden manually, may prove the most effective. human comfort. Similarly, humidity levels and the need
54 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

for cleaning and filtering air will vary according to build- patterns will benefit from a lightweight fabric. If well
ing use. Such considerations will influence decisions insulated, such a building will have a fast response and
about the level of mechanical services and their specifica- thus will not require a long lead-in time to warm up.
tions. Thermal mass can also be of use to increase the
The level of internal gains relates directly to building temperature usefully during occupancy. For example, in
use and is a function of equipment, occupancy and light- housing in cold climates, solar gains can be absorbed into
ing systems. For example, in an office where computer the mass during the day and be released in the evening.
use is intense, internal gains will be significant. Similarly, Thus, comfort conditions can be maintained for a longer
in spaces that are designed for dense occupancy, such as part of the day before resorting to artificial heating
classrooms, lecture rooms and auditoria, internal gains are sources.
high for certain periods, and such spaces will require high In terms of energy use, thermal mass only has poten-
levels of ventilation air for health and comfort. In spaces tial benefits if the services are designed for it. For
where high light levels are required, heat gains will need example, a fully air-conditioned building may not benefit
to be assessed. Clearly, internal gains will depend upon significantly in energy terms from thermal mass as much
the efficiency of the lighting system, and whether daylight of the energy is required for fan power rather than
can be used to minimize the load. cooling. However, in mixed-mode buildings, where
passive design is integrated with systems, cooling can be
avoided until peak temperatures rise. Thermal mass will
Construction detail delay the need for cooling, shortening the cooling
season.
Insulation and U-values
Where thermal mass is used, the thickness and the
Thermal insulation is a primary way of avoiding heat loss surface area are significant characteristics. The thicker
from buildings. It is thus essential to consider levels of the mass, the longer the time lag. If a large surface area is
insulation where the heating load is a major percentage of available, then the mass will be more effective.
the energy bill. In cases where internal gains are high, it
is likely that the heating load is not significant. Therefore, Embodied energy and toxicity of materials
the emphasis of an energy-efficient strategy will be on
Environmental issues raised with respect to the choice of
avoiding the need for cooling rather than minimizing heat
the building materials include energy use in their
loss. Similarly, in hot climates this will also be the case,
manufacture and transport, as well as health issues of
although thermal insulation can play an important role in
materials and their treatment (e.g. paints and varnishes)
reducing solar gains through the fabric.
after construction.
For example, building regulations recommend
The materials used in construction have gone through
maximum U-values (standard measure of the rate of heat
various processes before being integrated on site. Such
loss conducted through a building component) and
processes consume various amounts of energy that are
maximum glazing ratios in order to minimize fabric heat
embodied in the final building material. High process
losses. This may be appropriate for domestic buildings;
elements, such as aluminium, steel and glass, have more
but the conditions in non-domestic buildings require a
embodied energy than, for instance, concrete or timber,
more sophisticated response to energy efficiency, includ-
per cubic metre. Another aspect that may contribute to
ing considering daylighting, shading and natural
the choice of materials or elements in buildings is the
ventilation. These issues will clearly affect the nature and
transport energy required to deliver the product. Clearly,
composition of the building fabric.
locally made products will require less transport energy
than those products imported from abroad. The embod-
Thermal mass
ied energy in a building in Europe or North America is
The amount and distribution of thermal mass in the build- equivalent to typically five times the amount of annual
ing fabric will affect the thermal response and energy required to operate the building.
performance of the spaces. A heavy-weight building will The choice of materials may also relate to health
respond slowly to heat gains, either from the heating considerations, both in terms of the fabrication processes
system or from other sources, such as solar and internal of products and when installed in buildings. For example,
gains. This can be advantageous in both delaying and the off-gassing of volatile organic compounds into a
reducing the peak temperatures caused by heat gains. space can increase internal pollution levels to ten times
However, some building types with short occupancy that of outside levels. The lower ventilation rates caused
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 55

by modern airtight construction techniques and adopted

to minimize energy loss exacerbate the problem. Dust
collected in carpets and soft furnishings will increase the
population of dust mites, whose faeces can cause irrita-
tion, allergic reactions and generally reduce the
well-being of occupants.

Natural lighting
Lighting goes to the heart of the architectural enterprise.
Electric lighting can also account for the largest single
primary energy load in buildings; thus any reduced
reliance on artificial light can make significant energy
savings. This can be achieved by displacing the need for
artificial light with daylight. Daylight factors of 2 per cent
or more can reduce energy use for lighting by in the order
of 60 per cent, compared with a totally artificially lit
space. However, to achieve daylight levels throughout a
building requires careful planning. Clearly, deep-plan Figure 3.11 Daylight availability and distribution
designs will not achieve daylighting deep into the build- will significantly affect the success of a space, both
ing. Typically, a perimeter depth of 6m, or twice the in technical and visual terms
floor-to-ceiling height, can be potentially day lit. Thus,
buildings that are deeper than 12m may require more
artificial light. However, the darker central areas are often distribution. Shading devices often tend to worsen the
assigned as circulation space, requiring only low levels of light distribution, unless carefully designed (e.g. louvered
light. Other darker plan areas can be occupied by second- and light coloured).
ary spaces, such as services, toilets and storage areas. It is not only the amount of glazing that determines
Innovative devices such as light shelves, light ducts, daylighting conditions in a space. The positioning of
reflectors, holographic films and fibre optics can be windows will influence light distribution. High-level
adopted to increase the penetration of natural light. windows will give a better daylight penetration compared
For daylight strategies to be effective in terms of with low-level windows. Similarly, tall windows will
energy savings, it is essential that automatic switching is throw light deeper into the plan than wide windows of the
adopted to ensure that artificial lights are off when suffi- same area. As a simple rule of thumb, this effect can be
cient daylight is available (see Artificial lighting systems demonstrated by determining the no-sky line. If from
p59). any point the sky cannot be seen, it is likely that daylight
The aim is not only to achieve good levels of light levels will drop quickly. This no-sky line is thus a good
deep in the plan, but the light distribution is also signifi- indication of depth of daylight penetration.
cant in determining visual comfort and how occupants are Window design clearly has to perform a number of
likely to switch lights. An even distribution and high level tasks, including those mentioned here. Resolving all of
of light will tend to make the whole space well lit. these issues is complex; therefore, priorities have to be
However, this is often difficult to achieve as light levels decided on to arrive at a satisfactory compromise. In
tend to drop off quickly further away from windows. If terms of energy use, buildings occupied during the day
the back part of a room appears significantly darker (e.g. and requiring good lighting will be dominated by the
by a factor of five) than the front part of a room, then it need for daylight. However, in housing, for example,
will appear gloomy even if light levels are high. Thus, it is thermal issues (solar gains versus heat loss), as well as
the relative brightness that is important. In conditions of views, will be more important.
poor light distribution, occupants are likely to turn lights
on at the back of the room. Light distribution can be Designing for passive solar gains
improved by devices such as light shelves, which
(although they do not increase light levels at the back) do Where buildings have heating requirements, the thermal
reduce levels near the window, resulting in a more even load can be reduced by designing for solar gains. The
56 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

design of passive solar architecture requires an under-

standing of solar geometry and seasonal heat loads. It is,
for example, most likely that peak loads coincide with low
sun angles. Thus, solar-oriented, vertically glazed
openings may be particularly effective at collecting gains
in the winter, while horizontal openings will collect more
gains when solar altitudes are high (i.e. in the summer)
and air temperatures are high. Passive solar buildings are
typically characterized by large solar-oriented windows
and small openings to the non-solar faade.
On a daily cycle, it becomes important to consider the
suns position in relation to external temperatures.
Morning, easterly sun may be very useful as ambient air
temperatures are low. However, afternoon westerly sun
should be controlled as it will otherwise contribute to
internal gains when outside temperatures are at their
highest. The direct solar gain strategies mentioned above
require careful control. The issue of solar control is
discussed below.
Glazed spaces in the form of conservatories or atria
can be used to collect gains indirectly before those gains
are transferred into the building or ventilated directly out
if unwanted. Thus, indirect solar strategies offer greater
control.
The planning of buildings in relation to orientation is
necessary. The main habitable areas should be oriented to
the solar side, with perhaps the kitchen oriented to
receive morning sun and the living space facing the after-
noon and early evening sun. Secondary spaces such as
circulation space, bathrooms and garages can be situated
on the non-solar side, requiring only small windows and
lower temperatures. Such spaces would thus act as a
thermal buffer.
Once solar gains have been collected in the building, Figure 3.12 Shading and glazing design need to be
either by direct or indirect gains, it is important to distrib- closely coordinated to optimize control with views
ute them efficiently to other spaces to get the greatest
benefit (or solar utilization) from those gains. In a direct
gain design, the distribution of gains from the solar to the Solar control is essential where large areas of glazing
non-solar side can be assisted by ventilation strategies. are adopted. In terms of fixed devices, on solar faades a
For example, the design of a stairwell as a thermal flue on simple overhang will intercept the high-angle summer
the non-solar side will draw warm air across the plan from sun; but on east and west faades, the sun angle is lower
the solar side. Similarly, where mechanical extract is and control becomes more important. A more elaborate
required in kitchens and bathrooms, the negative device, such as egg crates, is appropriate, or in lower
pressure can be used to encourage air movement in latitudes the avoidance of glazing on such orientations
certain directions. may be necessary to minimize overheating risks. On non-
Where solar gains are made indirectly into a solar faades, shading is often minimal in the form of
sunspace, then it is important to link this space to as many vertical fins to intercept oblique sunlight in summer.
of the other spaces in the building via ventilation Often it will be unnecessary to shade non-solar faades,
openings. Double height conservatories are often used to depending upon the level of internal gains and summer
enable this direct link to other floors. Thus, the ventila- peak temperatures.
tion air for the spaces is preheated in the sunspace by It is recommended that moveable devices should be
solar gains and drawn directly from the sunspace. used to allow for greater control. The climate is not totally
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 57

predictable and great fluctuations in temperature and

solar radiation are likely. To ensure that comfort condi-
tions are maintained, louvered systems or retractable
blinds are recommended. A degree of occupant control
over their own environmental conditions will help to
improve their perception of comfort, and their acceptance
of a wider comfort range.

Strategies for natural ventilation

There are three basic levels of requirement with respect
to natural ventilation:

1 To provide fresh air (health).

2 To provide air movement for convective and evapora-
tive cooling from the human body (comfort).
3 To dissipate heat from a building without the need for
air conditioning (energy efficiency).

The first demands only low levels of air infiltration. The

second requires noticeable air movement, carefully
designed to pass across the occupied space. The third
suggests the need for high ventilation rates to remove
accumulated heat and cool the thermal mass of a build-
ing.
The two available mechanisms of providing air
movement are wind and stack induced. Wind is often
unpredictable (see the section on Wind and air
movement on p48), although designs should consider
prevailing directions and opening positions. Wind
pressures are likely to be larger than stack pressures and Figure 3.13 Ventilation stacks are an increasingly
thus can contribute to providing high ventilation rates. common feature in low-energy, naturally
However, during periods of low wind, the stack effect may ventilated buildings
provide the only source of air movement through the
effect of thermal buoyancy. Warm air will rise, and if air flow away from the mass, thus reducing its effective-
stacks are correctly designed, this effect can be exploited ness. The location of openings with respect to thermal
to generate sufficient air movement for comfort cooling. mass is relevant for the same reason. The stack effect can
The stack effect is determined by the stack height often be relied upon to evacuate heat, if night time
between top and lower openings (the higher the stack temperatures are lower than internal temperatures; and
height, the greater the pressure difference), by the in other situations wind may be the main driving force for
opening size (the larger the opening size, the greater the ventilation. Finally, openings should be protected to avoid
air flow) and by the temperature difference between security risks.
inside and outside (the larger the temperature difference, The aim of ventilation to provide fresh air for health
the greater the pressure difference). and comfort can be jeopardized if the source of air is
In order to maximize the benefit of thermal mass, polluted or noisy. These are often quoted as the reasons
night time cooling will purge the heat from the struc- for using air conditioning, particularly in urban environ-
ture, cooling it down in preparation for the next days ments. However, although noise and air pollution impose
occupation. For night time cooling to be effective, the constraints on possible design solutions, there are
ventilation air must have maximum contact with thermal techniques to minimize the problems.
mass. Any obstructions for example, to an exposed mass With respect to noise, the way in which air enters a
ceiling by down stands or light fittings will redirect the building can be manipulated to minimize noise transfer
58 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

0.35 perhaps raised up to the top of the building where any

Total
pollution will be more diluted.
h+l
Heat
0.30 Light Avoiding overheating and increasing
Cool comfort
In order to minimize the risk of overheating from solar
0.25 gains, the area and orientation of glazing needs to respond
to the amount and timing of radiation. In temperate
climates, the aim is to control summer gains, particularly
in buildings with high internal casual gains. Overheating
0.20 in such a case is most likely to occur in the early after-
noon, when external temperatures are highest. If a
MWh/m2

building has west-facing windows, then low-angle after-

noon solar gains will enter the building and add to
0.15 internal gains. East-facing glazing is not such a problem
since air temperatures are generally lower and solar gains
may usefully contribute to warming the building up in the
morning. On solar-oriented windows, only a fraction of
0.10 the solar radiation available will be transmitted to the
interior because of the high solar altitude and the oblique
angle of incidence. The amount of solar radiation on such
faades peaks during spring and autumn months.
0.05 Shading devices are an essential technique of avoid-
ing unwanted solar gains, but need to respond in design
to orientation. Fixed devices are rarely sufficient to
control sunshine and moveable devices are often required
0 not only for thermal control, but also for glare control.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 In order to provide comfort, solar shading must be
% glazing ratio integrated with a ventilation strategy. The design of the
window to perform the functions of solar shading, glare
Figure 3.14 Glazing ratios (i.e. the percentage of
control, provision of natural light and source of ventila-
glazing in a faade) has a significant impact on the
tion air needs careful consideration. Shading systems
energy use, as shown for a south-facing faade
must not interfere with ventilation flow or increase air
on an office building in the UK
temperatures locally. An example of this may be a brise
soleil, which, although it intercepts unwanted solar radia-
tion, ironically heats up incoming air as it flows over the
(e.g. increasing the path length, acoustically lined ducts,
solar warmed device.
acoustic shelves outside windows, and the positioning of
The provision of high- and low-level openings will
acoustic absorbent panels on surfaces inside). It may be
ensure that the stack effect will induce ventilation when
that certain areas of a site require particularly careful
there is no wind. Furthermore, in a situation where cross-
acoustic consideration; but the site can be protected by
ventilation is achieved, then low- and high-level openings
the design of the building form, allowing other areas to be
provide control of ventilation for the three levels
naturally ventilated. Those areas located on the noisy
discussed earlier (i.e. health, comfort and energy
edge may be ones that require mechanical ventilation in
efficiency). A single opening ensures top-up fresh air for
any case, and thus serve to act as a buffer for the rest of
health; low-level openings help to provide air movement
the building.
across the occupied zone; and high-level windows are
The problem of air pollution can be tackled by build-
appropriately located for high rates of ventilation (above
ing form in a similar way as described above. The creation
the occupied zone) for dissipation of heat and for night
of protected courtyards and planting to help settle out and
time cooling. Ventilation strategies are described in more
filter dust particles may be considered. The source of
detail under Strategies for natural ventilation on p57.
incoming air should be removed from the polluted areas,
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 59

in both new and existing buildings.

A simple strategy for reducing lighting loads is to
adopt low-energy lamps, with higher efficacies. This
generally results in the use of fluorescent lamps, both in
the tubular form or as compact lamps suitable for a wider
range of fittings. The choice of fittings will also play a role
in how effectively the light is distributed, and therefore
has implications for energy use.
The choice of efficient lamps and luminaries means
that more light can be obtained for less heat output. The
amount of fittings can thus be reduced, which, in turn,
reduces the level of internal gains. If daylight is relied
upon for a substantial time of the occupied period, inter-
nal gains from lights will be minimal. A consequence will
be a reduced cooling load, or even the avoidance of air
conditioning.
Figure 3.15 The exposure of thermal mass is essential if
it is to assist in providing a stable internal environment Providing heat

Thermal mass, as discussed earlier in Building plan Fuel choice is often limited to what is available, but
and section on p50, assists in reducing peak temperatures should be considered in terms of environmental impact.
and is therefore useful in reducing the likely risk of Thus, in the UK, the use of gas for heating is typically
overheating. Another mechanism at work, apart from three times more energy efficient (both in terms of cost
reducing air temperature, which is more important with and pollutants) than electricity. However, where electric-
respect to comfort, is that the mean radiant temperature ity is generated by, for example, hydropower, the balance
(MRT) is potentially reduced. Comfort depends upon the of this simple comparison will greatly change. The use of
MRT, and the lower surface temperature of thermal mass renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind,
will reduce the MRT and make higher air temperature should be assessed early on in the design to allow full
more tolerable. However, in order for the effect of thermal architectural integration.
mass to be noticeable, it must be exposed. Once the source of energy has been determined, the
nature of the heating plant will play an important role in

Artificial lighting systems

The use of natural light to displace the need for artificial
light can have significant potential energy benefits (see
Natural lighting on p55), but depends upon lamps being
switched off when not required. Manual switching cannot
be relied upon, particularly in open-plan buildings; but
there are alternative switching controls that range in
complexity, including the following:

time switching off/manual on;

photoelectric switching off/manual on;
photoelectric switching on/off;
photoelectric dimming;
occupancy sensors (movement or noise).
Figure 3.16 A light fitting that has acoustic absorption
integrated within the design, and which enables
Each has significant energy saving potential and is appro-
the avoidance of ceiling tiles and, thus, the
priate in different circumstances. Economic appraisals
exposure of thermal mass
have shown that automatic switching can be cost effective
60 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

terms of energy efficiency. Although this guide will not Services

provide detailed comparisons of plant, the location,
zoning and distribution of heat is important. The planning The avoidance of air conditioning can make very signifi-
of a heating plant should reflect the use and occupancy cant energy savings; thus, there is a need to address the
patterns of a building. The first step is to zone the heating question of whether air conditioning is required. Can
system according to use. This will involve considering comfort be achieved by passive means? Often, air condi-
whether the plant should be centralized or decentralized. tioning is seen to be necessary for reasons such as
Furthermore, boilers should not be operating at low guaranteeing temperature conditions of between 19
efficiencies when only a small part of the building is Celsius and 21 Celsius. It is known that comfort condi-
occupied, but should be sized to run at near full capacity. tions range from about 19 Celsius to 27 Celsius, so that
If the load reduces, then banks of boilers can be turned if such criteria are used, cooling may be unnecessary for
off so that even when loads are small, heat can be all or large parts of the building. The use of shading
provided efficiently. devices, thermal mass, shallow plans for daylight and
The choice of heat emitters is important, both in natural ventilation, and planning for noise are all
terms of their efficiency (minimal energy for maximum techniques that reduce and potentially eliminate the need
comfort) and in terms of their integration with the build- for air conditioning.
ing fabric. Comfort is determined by a combination of It may be possible to avoid air conditioning by largely
radiant and convective conditions. Any strong asymmetry passive means, and by only using mechanical ventilation
in these conditions will reduce comfort. Thus, if heat (i.e. no cooling) to provide fresh air for heat dissipation
emitters rely solely on transferring heat by convection, an and evaporative cooling.
improvement of the radiant environment should be Although there may be spaces in the design where
considered (e.g. use of an emitter with a radiant heat internal loads, or other considerations, demand the need
output component, and use of thermal mass or solar for air conditioning, it is unnecessary to air condition the
energy). Most heat emitters combine heat output via whole building. Certain areas may be ideal for natural
convection and radiation. For example, a radiator will ventilation; others will only require some mechanical
radiate 40 per cent of heat, but will cause convection ventilation. Thus, the zoning of such areas and the notion
currents across it which transfer 60 per cent of the heat to of mixed-mode systems design can save significant
the room air. amounts of energy use.
The distribution of thermal energy is again an issue The integration of services, whether hidden or
that will affect energy efficiency and design integration. expressed, is important for successful design. The choice
It may be that a totally decentralized plant is appropriate, of air conditioning system will affect the complexity of
where heat is generated and provided at the location integration. For example, an all-air system requires larger
where needed. However, if systems are centralized, volumes for the integration of ductwork compared with a
efficient control and maintenance become more effective. refrigerant system with its chilled water pipes and local
Heat reclamation may also require a more centralized air handling. Similarly, a centralized plant will require
plant for maximum efficiency so that excess heat from one larger and longer pipe and duct runs, which will need to
area can be reclaimed for an area with high loads. be carefully planned in conjunction with the structure and
In the same way that spaces are planned and linked fabric of the building.
by circulation routes, so a heating system and its emitters
will need to be planned. However, the planning of the
system, and the location of plant, distribution runs and Synopsis
emitters, need to be integrated and sympathetic to the
In this chapter it has been demonstrated that environ-
overall architectural and environmental aims of the
mental issues can inform the full range of building design
design. There are some simple rules. For example, heat
decisions, from site planning to detailed design. At each
emitters should be positioned under windows to
stage of the design process such concerns can play a role
minimize discomfort from downdrafts and to counter-
in developing an appropriate environmental strategy.
balance radiative losses through glazing.
Importantly, the interrelationships between the stages
and the development of a consequential strategy lie at the
root of successful environmental architecture, and are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 14.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF BUILDING DESIGN 61

Note
1 Embodied energy is not easily quantifiable, but can be used to extract and transport raw materials, and to
loosely defined as the amount of energy that has been manufacture and transport building components.

References
Baker, N. and Steemers, K. (2000) Energy and Environment in Landsberg, H. E. (1981) The Urban Climate, Academic Press,
Architecture, E. & F. N. Spon, London London
Bordass, W. T., Bromley, A. K. R. and Leaman, A. J. (1995) Rapoport, A. (1969) House Form and Culture, Prentice Hall,
Comfort, Control and Energy Efficiency in Offices, BRE New York
Information Paper, IP3/95, February Sherlock, H. (1991) Cities Are Good for Us, Paladin, London
Goulding, J. R., Lewis, J. O. and Steemers, T. C. (1992) Energy WCED (World Commission on Environment and
in Architecture: The European Passive Solar Handbook, Development) (1987) Our Common Future, Oxford
Batsford, London University Press, Oxford

Recommended reading
1 Baker, N. and Steemers, K. (2000) Energy and 2 Goulding, J. R., Lewis, J. O. and Steemers, T. C. (1992)
Environment in Architecture, Spon Press, London Energy in Architecture: The European Passive Solar
This fundamental text provides an overview of the Handbook, Batsford, London
key environmental strategies and issues that impinge This text comprises essentially informative design
upon the design process. It also includes a simplified guidelines, based on detailed explanations of energy-
energy assessment tool to link the key design param- related parameters. It thus provides a breadth of
eters such as glazing ration and building form to fundamental building science with a wealth of visual
the energy performance. material that is readily accessible to students and
practitioners alike.

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 3
Outline the potential energy advantages of an atrium: How does orientation influence the energy performance
Why and in which climate type is it most appropriate? of a building?

Activity 2
Describe how and what aspects of the urban context will
impact upon the energy performance of a window?
62 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 The urban heat island effect, urban noise and pollu-
tion will reduce or negate the potential for direct natural
Energy advantages are related to thermal-buffer effect
ventilation and thus increase the reliance on mechanical
reducing heat loss; improved reflected daylight reducing
ventilation and cooling.
reliance on artificial light; and passive ventilation strate-
gies (stack ventilation in summer and ventilation
Activity 3
preheating in winter).
Atria are most appropriate to cold climates where the Orientation will influence solar availability, which could
thermal advantages can be exploited fully and will show reduce winter heating or summer cooling loads.
the greatest benefits. Prevailing wind directions affect the potential for
passive cooling strategies.
Activity 2
Obstructions will reduce the availability of solar gains
(useful or unwanted) and daylight (increasing reliance on
electric lighting).
4
Sustainable Design, Construction
and Operation
Evangelos Evangelinos and Elias Zacharopoulos

Scope of the chapter how the building process affects the natural environment
and suggests environmentally friendly techniques.
This chapter briefly discusses the building construction
process, isolating its effects on the natural environment. Sustainability and building
Sustainable construction techniques and materials are
suggested, as well as the ways in which they can be evalu- Buildings are major consumers of energy and resources
ated according to their environmental qualities. for their construction, maintenance and operation. The
resources are natural or manufactured building materials
Learning objectives that have also consumed energy during processing and
transportation. The principle construction techniques use
This chapter will enable readers to better appreciate how materials that require variable amounts of processing. For
to integrate construction techniques and materials within example, stone may be used for building foundations,
designs, according to their environmental qualities. walls and paving, or may be crushed to produce gravel or
Furthermore, readers will be able to make basic design sand, to be added in concrete mix. Stone is also used as
decisions, taking into consideration environmental crite- the basic material for manufacturing cement.
ria. Energy is consumed at all stages of the construction
process, from the extraction of materials from the natural
environment, to processing and transportation to the
Key words building site, as well as during the construction phase
itself. Large amounts of energy are consumed during the
Key words include:
lifetime of the building. Energy consumption ends with
the demolition and disposal of building materials back to
environmental consumption;
nature.
environmental deterioration;
Buildings, therefore, consume materials and energy
the global environment;
during three distinct periods of their life:
the local environment;
the indoor environment.
The first is the manufacturing-construction period,
during which materials are produced from the natural
Introduction environment, processed or manufactured (energy
used for this process is termed embodied energy),
Contemporary building activities, as most other human and transported to the building site (using grey
activities, affect the natural environment. This chapter energy). This period ends with the construction stage
looks primarily at the environmental effect of the build- of the building (energy used for this process is termed
ing process. It discusses the significance of understanding induced energy).
64 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Demolition and
recycling

Energy consumption (MWh/m2)

Operating
energy

Induced energy
Grey energy
Embodied energy

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (years)
Source: Lloyd Jones, 1998, p36

Figure 4.1 Energy consumed in the life of a building

The second period is the useful life of the building, The second environmental consequence relates to
during which it uses energy (operating energy) for the use of non-renewable energy in buildings and may
its operation. During this period, energy and be described as environmental deterioration. All use of
resources are also used for the maintenance of the non-renewable (or conventional) energy will affect the
building. It should be noted that this is the most environment as a result of pollution. Greenhouse gases,
significant period of a buildings life with regard to its (principally carbon dioxide, or CO2) are produced as a
consumption of energy, and it should equally be a result of burning hydrocarbons. Environmental degra-
period of improving energy consumption. dation also occurs as a result of the manufacturing
The third period is the demolition and recycling, process, which in this case relates to the production of
during which a building has completed its useful life, building materials and the disposal of demolition
and energy will be used for its demolition and products.
recycling or disposal of its materials.
The global, local and indoor environment
Environmental consequences of buildings In order to control the environmental deterioration that
The brief description of a buildings life cycle demon- results from the building process, we have to consider the
strates that the natural environment is affected in two environmental consequences in more detail.
ways. Building materials are defined by their environmen-
The first is the fact that all buildings need and, tal behaviour. A material used in a building may directly
indeed, use natural resources in the form of building affect the health of its inhabitants. The same material
materials and energy. This, as an environmental conse- during its manufacture may have contributed in a number
quence, may be described as the effect of environmental of ways towards the degradation of the environment in
consumption and should be the basic concern of sustain- the area where it was manufactured. Finally, this material
able design. For the construction process, environmental may be responsible for climatic changes due to the large
consumption comprises building materials on the one amounts of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere
hand and non-renewable energy resources on the other. during its manufacture.
 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 65

In order to control all environmental consequences and finishing, and the environmental consequences of
that result from the building cycle, we have to measure extracting them from the natural environment, processing
environmental impacts according to three different scales. them and transporting them to the site. The natural
During the life cycle of buildings, solid waste and air resources, the method used to extract them from the
pollution are produced. The production of pollution such environment, their processing and the way in which they
as CO2 augments the atmospheric content of CO2, were used during construction define the environmental
contributing to the global greenhouse effect. The same consequences of the technique. Obviously, to evaluate
happens with the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and this, we should assess materials and processes that consti-
other gases that escape national borders with the air tute a technique, and try to minimize detrimental
movement around the globe, affect the global climate by environmental impacts. A construction technique, in
depleting the ozone layer and, consequently, cause the order to be sustainable, should minimize environmental
global environment to deteriorate. consumption and deterioration, as discussed earlier. In
The use of materials and energy contributes to local addition, its environmental deterioration should be tested
environmental deterioration, with solid waste and air according to its global, local and indoor impacts upon the
pollution, which affects the local atmosphere of an area, environment. The method of evaluating the techniques
as well as the natural environment. The second scale of and materials available to construction technicians and
control is the local environment. engineers at a given place is quite difficult to perform.
The construction of modern buildings often includes Several references deal with materials and construction
new techniques and materials that have not been methods for specific countries within the European
adequately tested. The extended use of buildings, Union (EU). In particular, the Handbook of Sustainable
combined with inadequate ventilation, brings the inhabi- Building: An Environmental Preference Method for
tants into contact with an atmosphere of dubious quality, Selection of Materials for Use in Construction and
which may contain, besides pathogenic micro-organisms, Refurbishment (Anink et al, 1996) covers techniques and
carcinogenic and toxic substances in high concentrations. materials (encountered primarily in The Netherlands).
The exposure of inhabitants to such an internal atmos- In order to overcome the lack of ready-made evalua-
phere may affect their health. It is imperative, therefore, tion methods, one can use simple rules for selecting
to control the indoor environment of a building. environmentally friendly or sustainable building materi-
As a result, the control of all environmental conse- als. Materials that conform to the majority of the following
quences of the building cycle should be achieved rules are preferable.
according to three environmental scales:
Use local materials
1 The global environment, for environmental conse-
It is possible to minimize transport energy costs by select-
quences on a global scale.
ing local building materials. As most building materials
2 The local environment, for environmental conse-
are heavy to transport and handle, the energy savings are
quences on a local scale.
considerable (conversely, the associated pollution genera-
3 The indoor environment, for environmental conse-
tion of transporting materials long distances is significant).
quences on an indoor scale.
Use materials in abundance
Sustainable construction techniques Although this rule sounds like common sense, it is impor-
and materials tant to determine the extent of what is considered to be
abundant. The use of non-renewable materials has to be
The aim of this section is to define what sustainable
related to the degradation of the extraction site. Problems
construction techniques and materials are and to set forth
usually arise due to large-scale extraction to satisfy global
criteria for their environmental evaluation.
demand, such as in the case of exports.
A construction technique is the entire procedure of
using one or several building materials. In this sense,
stonewall masonry is a technique that uses stone as the
Use naturally renewable materials
principle material during construction; but it also uses The use of materials according to the pace in which they
many kinds of mortars as binding agents and for different are naturally renewed is an important rule for supporting
types of joint finishing. A construction technique, there- sustainability.
fore, consists of the materials used, their joining together
66 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Use materials with low embodied energy internal environment that is affected by them. Therefore,
the highest priority must be placed on the use of materi-
Energy is consumed during all stages of building material
als and techniques that cannot adversely affect the health
production. The amount of energy spent is embodied
of a buildings inhabitants.
within the material. Consequently, reduced overall
Following on from this discussion, it is clear that for
energy consumption can be achieved by selecting materi-
the environmental evaluation and selection of construc-
als with low embodied energy.
tion techniques and materials, several other elements that
have already been mentioned must be considered.
Use materials that are proven not to create
health problems Renewable materials
Sick building syndrome is, to some extent, caused by
Natural renewable materials are beyond doubt the ones
materials that emit odours, gases, chemicals or fibres.
with the best environmental behaviour. They form a
Considering that reduced ventilation rates are needed to
family that, until recently, constituted the main construc-
save energy, it is imperative to select building materials
tion materials. They exist in nature and are used in their
that do not degrade the indoor environment.
natural state, or very near to it. Wood and wooden
products, such as bark, branches and leaves, are the
Reuse building materials principle renewable products that are extracted from
Reusing building materials provides a multitude of forests. The wood industry produces many products that
benefits. Degradation of the material extraction site is entail various degrees of processing and exhibit diverse
reduced, less landfill volume is occupied, and energy for characteristics. Frequently, the objective is to use most of
the production of new materials is saved. The designer the available forest resource with as little waste as possi-
can facilitate the future reuse of a buildings materials by ble. This attitude can lead to the exploitation of the
considering this target during the design stage of the available forest in ways that obstruct it from regenerating
building. naturally. The rate of growth of a forest is defined accord-
ing to local conditions, such as ground composition, local
The most important environmental factor in the above climate and type of forest cultivation. For the forest to
rules is energy: remain sustainable, the rate of its exploitation should not
be greater than that of its growth.
By using local materials, transportation energy costs
are reduced: when building materials are heavy, the Recycling materials
transportation factor becomes very important. The life cycle of a building material starts from its extrac-
The use of natural materials contains, as a criterion, tion from nature and ends with its return, at the end of
the energy factor. In general, natural materials the buildings life, to nature. With the reuse of materials
require less energy for processing than do man-made in more than one building, this cycle acquires longer time
materials. Renewable natural materials are the most scales and the relative environmental consumption
sustainable because they are renewed by natural diminishes. The history of architecture cites many cases
processes. In doing so, they can be employed in of buildings that are constructed with the materials of
quantities proportional to their natural yield. older structures. In vernacular architecture, the recycling
The use of materials with small amounts of embodied of building materials is a common practice. Stone walls
energy reduces the problem of atmospheric pollution were built with old cornerstones and, indeed, with most
produced during their manufacture, and cuts down available stones from nearby ruins. That was made easy
on the burning of hydrocarbons or electrical energy because mortar was very weak and easily removed, facili-
from non-renewable sources. tating recycling.
The recycling of building materials after the demoli- The use of a building material after recycling may not
tion of a building closes the cycle of their use and be the same as its original function (i.e. a brick as a brick
diminishes energy use in the building process. in the construction of a wall), but according to the imagi-
nation of the user may be recycled for a different use
Besides the energy factor that was obvious in the above altogether (i.e. brick as paving material). Such is the case
rules, concern for health and safety is also vital. Certain with a retaining wall in Pelion, Greece, which is made out
materials are either suspected or proven to create health of fragments of a demolished concrete slab (see Figure
problems for those individuals who are exposed to an 4.2).
 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 67

tion technique in this case needs drastic change in relation

to the binding process.
During the recycling process, we should try to reuse
as many original pieces of a building as possible. Reusing
an entire wooden window is preferable to using its wood
in chipboard production. The same applies to reusing
entire metallic elements instead of recycling the metal.
Finally, in order to facilitate recycling, the design of
the buildings construction should be rethought so that
buildings are assembled rather than constructed; and
instead of demolishing, we should be dismantling them.

Manufacturing materials
Energy is used in the form of hydrocarbons and electric-
ity during the manufacture of building materials.
Depending upon the method of production, electrical
energy may be renewable or conventional. Renewable
energy is produced from renewable sources such as the
Figure 4.2 Retaining wall made out of fragments sun, the wind, hydro plants, geothermy and biomass.
of concrete slab Conventional or non-renewable energy is produced
primarily from burning hydrocarbons and from atomic
Modern building construction uses strong binding reactors. The difference between renewable and non-
mortars, usually cement based, that remain on the renewable energy is pointed out here to highlight the
construction element after demolition, making their reuse environmental consequences of using electrical non-
difficult, if not impossible. The same applies to binding renewable or conventional energy.
practices in the majority of construction techniques that The energy intensity of every building material is
render recycling practically impossible. We could give the amount of energy that has been used in the entire
many examples of this practice, from wall construction cycle of the building process and that is embodied
with bricks or cement blocks, to paving using ceramic within it. The evaluation of embodied energy does not
tiles that are universally glued together. end with its calculation (in kilowatt hours, or kWh), but
To facilitate the recycling of building materials, we may proceed to its separation into renewable or non-
have to rethink construction techniques with respect to the renewable energy, and the estimation of CO2 or other
useful life of a material and the possibility of reuse. Timber greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere during
is a construction material that may be used in many appli- its manufacture. Apart from the gases related to energy
cations in a building: as a structural element in the form of use, each material may be responsible for the produc-
a post, beam or truss; as a material for making frames and tion of polluting substances and gases during its
panels for windows and doors; or as material for flooring. manufacture. Evaluating the environmental conse-
The life of wooden elements is generally limited, depend- quences according to the three mentioned scales (global,
ing upon many parameters but mainly that of local and indoor) will evaluate the materials overall
maintenance. Recycling wood is possible, after evaluating environmental performance.
its strength with simple methods of inspection and testing. The method of estimating the embodied energy of
Metallic materials (namely, steel beams, tubes or sheets) building materials is based on the logistics of energy cost.
while they theoretically have a longer expected life For any given industrial method, the sum of the energy
usually have reduced structural strength due to wear and cost of all the inputs (materials and energy) equals the cost
tear. As they cannot be easily evaluated, it is not advisable of the output (Stein and Serber, 1979). In other words, to
to use them structurally again. Natural stone building calculate the embodied energy of a material we use the
materials have a very long useful life, while cement or statistical records of the manufacturer, where materials
ceramic ones have considerable shorter lives. The recycling and energy used for manufacturing are recorded. The
possibility depends upon the way in which they are joined total energy expended in a time period is considered to
together. Stone or ceramic tile material can be recycled if be the amount used for the production of however much
they can be unstuck from the original site. The construc- material is yielded in that time period.
68 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 4.1 Embodied energy of building materials in kilowatt hours per kilogram (kWh/kg)
Author
Material Szokolay, 1980 Wright, 1974 Chapman, 1973 Various researchers Stein, 1977
Sand, gravel 0.01
Stone 0.85
Lime 1.50 1.30
Cement 2.20 1.58 2.30
Concrete 0.20 300kg * 0.305
0.26
200kg * 0.199
Wood 0.10 0.40
Plywood 12,90 kWh/m2
Brickwork 1.20 1.74/brick
Steel 10.00 6.60 13.20 3.78 12.07
Copper 16.00 19.08 20.00
Aluminium 56.00 24.40 85.00 20.16 59.40
Zinc 15.00 10.50 16.20
Lead 14.00 7.14
Gypsum 0.30 McKillop
Glass 6.00 7.20
Plastics 10.00
PVC 19.27 (Smith)
Polyethylene 12.19 (Smith)
Glass wool 3.90

For the environmental evaluation and the selection of Alarmed by cases of people who felt sick indoors,
building materials, embodied energy is an important health professionals investigated the cause to find that
criterion. Table 4.1 gives values in kilowatt hours per some incidents can be attributed to the quality of the
kilogram (kWh/kg) of the basic building materials accord- indoor air. The so-called sick building syndrome is
ing to various authors. The estimation of CO2 according credited to a multitude of factors, such as the following.
to the kind of energy used is given in Table 4.2.
Chemical factors
Healthy materials The most common and therefore the most significant
In our era, people spend a considerable part of their time health hazard factors in the internal atmosphere of build-
indoors, arguably longer than their predecessors. ings related to building materials, furniture and cleaning
Emphasis on the creation of a mechanically controllable, practice are chemical. Chemical factors that influence the
closed thermal environment is widespread, and internal atmosphere of buildings can take the form of gas,
frequently modern materials and appliances are used for steam, particles of dust or fibres. Some of the chemical
designing indoor surroundings. substances that have been traced in the internal atmos-
phere of buildings are toxic, carcinogenic, are suspected
Table 4.2 Kilograms carbon dioxide per kilowatt hours of mutative action, and are irritating or allergy inducing,
(kg CO2/kWh) of embodied energy whereas others just smell bad. Important categories are
Bibliographic source the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and fibres.
Type of energy kg CO2/kWh1 (2) kg CO2/kWh2 VOCs are usually diluting agents for various
All types of energy 0.24
substances, such as paints, varnishes and cleaning agents,
Electrical energy 0.22 0.832 or may be included in glues, plasterboards, particleboards
Natural gas 0.19 0.198 and foam insulation. VOCs are emitted from these materi-
Coal 0.31 0.331 als in diminishing rates from the time of application, and
Oil 0.28 0.302 their concentration in the atmosphere is inversely propor-
Note: 1 Baker, N. V. and Steemers, K. (1994) The LT 3.0 Method, The
tional to the available ventilation. As a result, care must
European Commission, Brussels
be taken during the application of paints and varnishes to
2 British Research Establishment (BRE)
protect workers and to allow time for fumes to dissipate
before the space is offered for use.
 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 69

VOCs are also found in substantial quantities in In order to protect inhabitants from dangerous
synthetic carpets that are used for floor coverings. These materials, directives have been drawn setting accepted
emissions are from the glues that adhere carpet fibres to limits for the concentration values of various substances
their bedding or that fix the carpet to the floor. Research in the internal atmosphere of buildings. The verification
has shown that the most persistent concentrations of of those limits in real conditions is a complex task
VOCs are those emitted from carpets, and a period of 61 demanding specialized personnel and equipment. To
to 98 months is needed for indoor air quality to fall within overcome this difficulty, specialized organizations (such
the accepted limits. as the American Society for the Testing of Materials, the
An equally important hazard is presented by the British Research Establishment and the German Institute
emissions of formaldehyde, which is present in glues used for Quality Assurance and Certification) have come
for the production of wood products, such as particle- forward with quality certification programmes, along with
board, plywood and block board, as well as thermal the control of VOCs and other noxious emissions, and the
insulating boards that are produced from resins of urea placement of a quality tab on the materials that comply.
formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is a proven carcinogen for The International Commission on Radiological
workers in the chemical and timber industries. Protection and the European Council has set limiting
Another category of materials that may pose risks for values for radon emissions in buildings, as well as values
human health are those capable of releasing fibres and for radiation emissions of building materials.
dust into the internal atmosphere of a building. An Besides the various efforts for certification, manufac-
example points to fibrous insulating materials without turers voluntarily try to replace potentially hazardous
appropriate surface sealing, which can release dust and materials with healthy ones. An interesting case is that of
fibres into the air through simple friction or usual wear many paint industries that have substituted VOCs with
and tear. Extensive research has been carried out on the water as a diluting agent, creating products with high-
damage to lungs caused by fibres, and the danger factors quality characteristics and competitive prices.
(Brownie, 1992, p45).

Radiation factors Recycling buildings

Natural factors with long-term impacts on the health of This section discusses the environmental benefits of
inhabitants exist in buildings, such as the non-ionizing recycling entire buildings. The building shell requires the
electromagnetic radiation from electric and communica- largest amount of building materials. By using an existing
tion appliances and ionizing radiation from radioactive building, or at least its shell, one can economize on natural
materials or gases most commonly, radon. Radon is a gas resources in the form of materials and energy. Obviously,
that is generated by the decomposition of uranium, in order to reuse an old building, a lot of work has to be
present in the ground in various concentrations. It is also done to bring it up to date. The economic burden of its
present in building materials and is related to their origin budget sometimes reaches or, in some cases, surpasses
and composition. The radon traced in the atmosphere of a new building costs. This is because repair techniques are
building comes primarily from the ground due to infiltra- more costly, mainly because they are labour intensive and
tion through cracks in the walls or the floor of the need higher skills.
basement, or is exhaled from building materials used in There are two main categories of recycling buildings.
its construction. Radon affects the respiratory system and, The first is that of retrofitting old buildings without alter-
consequently, increases the risk of lung cancer. ing the use for which they were originally designed. In
the process of retrofitting, we are extending their life and
Bacterial contamination bringing them up to date. The second is that of bringing
old buildings up to date while altering the function for
The concept of a sealed building, which aimed to
which they were originally designed. In this category a
minimize heat losses, led to a mechanically ventilated
major part of the success of the endeavour lies in the
internal environment that had to be continuously
choice of function that will be housed in the shell of the
controlled for temperature and humidity. Unfortunately,
old building.
controlling the quality of the air is not an easy task, as was
proven by the most serious problem associated with this
Retrofitting buildings
practice: the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms in the
air-conditioning system and their subsequent introduc- The aim in retrofitting buildings is to bring them up to
tion to the indoor environment (Legionnaires disease). date in all respects, saving them from demolition. The
70 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

environmental profit from such an undertaking is substan- should, in all its stages, be sustainable. Such an undertak-
tial, not only because of the natural resources saved, but ing is not an easy task. It should be set as a target for a
because of avoiding the trauma of demolition. Demolition gradual and progressive attainment.
is a process that expends large amounts of energy in From the above description it is obvious that we have
tearing down a building, at the same time creating great to consider sustainability according to:
environmental disturbance. Transporting the products of
a demolition is an additional expenditure of energy and the materials used;
causes disturbance in the vicinity, while disposing of construction energy.
disused products within the natural environment is
responsible for substantial environmental degradation. Earlier, we covered the topic of sustainable materials, in
In the process of retrofitting, great care should be general. This section provides some information on the
taken in trying to upgrade buildings in matters of struc- conditions of use of natural materials, either renewable or
tural adequacy, safety and energy saving. In matters of non-renewable. Regarding construction energy, it is
energy saving, a complete evaluation of the energy obvious that sustainability is labour intensive. We do not
systems and performance of the building in terms of heat propose here to return to the sole use of manpower, but
losses and solar gains, heat gains from interior sources and suggest the use of environmentally friendly machinery for
lighting should be made in order to decide on the upgrad- the tasks required. In general, labour-intensive construc-
ing of its building fabric and electromechanical tion techniques are more sustainable than machine-
installations. A successful retrofitting should result in a intensive ones, and it is true that the most sustainable of
building with a smaller consumption of energy; as in the all energies is the energy of the human mind.
upgrading process, all energy-saving techniques should
be used. Using renewable natural materials
The use of natural materials is paramount to sustainable
New functions in old building shells design. This section elaborates upon the conditions of
The previous section established the environmental processing that natural materials should meet in order to
benefits of reusing or recycling buildings. The question be sustainable.
that remains is what happens to a building that cannot By definition, natural as opposed to manufactured
keep its original function, either because it is obsolete or materials have the least embodied energy. Nevertheless,
because it is no longer needed. In such cases, the old we do not disregard the fact that most natural materials
buildings can house new or different functions provided require a variable amount of processing in order to reach
that they can adequately fit into the old shell. We have the conditions acceptable in a modern building. This
many examples of such cases, not only of isolated build- processing is the factor that weighs against their sustain-
ings but also of whole areas that have changed function, ability by the embodied energy and other added
creating new and very interesting focal points that have substances (e.g. glue in plywood). The first condition,
proved successful. therefore, is to minimize processing or use the material as
close to its natural state as possible.
In order to qualify as being renewable, natural
Sustainable construction processes materials should be certified to indicate that the speed of
their exploitation equals the speed of their cultivation.
The construction process is the first period in the life of a
This is a condition that is very hard to certify unless certi-
building during which materials are produced from the
fication is made by a reliable international organization. If
natural environment, processed or manufactured, and
there is no such organization, the question of being
transported to the building site where the actual construc-
renewable lies with the reliability and knowledge of the
tion of the building takes place. In order to ensure that
supplier. The second condition, therefore, is to use certi-
this process is sustainable, we should try to minimize all
fied renewable materials.
non-renewable energy used, in all of its stages.
Additionally, we should try to use as much renewable
natural material as possible, trying to rely less upon
Conditions for using non-renewable
manufactured or processed materials. The general idea is
natural materials
to build with as little non-renewable energy as possible, Non-renewable natural materials should be used
whether this energy was expended in manufacturing or sparingly so that they continue to exist. Materials that
building methods. A sustainable construction process exist in large quantities in the natural environment may
 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 71

be harnessed under the condition that their extraction through the maintenance of skills and jobs that are essen-
does not alter and distort to a large extent the landscapes tial for small communities is also important.
image. In cases of organized mining, the natural environ-
ment should be restored and the native fauna and flora of Manage quarry sites
the area should be preserved.
Managing quarry sites is a difficult task, not only because
As in most cases of environmental abuse, the exploita-
their physical extent is usually not defined from the start
tion of natural resources is a question of scale. The use of
(with precise planning and responsibilities), but primarily
local materials usually does not create environmental
because the task of restoring the natural environment
problems of a large magnitude. In contrast, a resource
begins after full exploitation of the site. In this way the
which is to be exported in large unspecified quantities
picture of environmental degradation lingers for a long
usually creates environmental problems that are difficult
time during the working years of a quarry.
to manage. Such is the case with cement factories that
exploit huge amounts of rock, altering the natural environ-
ment of a site.
Introduce environmental taxes
In sum, the conditions for using non-renewable The discussion of environmental economics is beyond the
natural materials are as follows. scope of this chapter. Nevertheless, according to the
polluter pays principle, environmental taxation is a possi-
Use as little as possible bility. The proposed tax should be proportional to the
environmental consequence of each material. Two materi-
All non-renewable natural resources are finite. This
als of the same economic value but with different
means that in order to continue to exist, they should be
environmental consequences will appear priced differ-
used sparingly. In this sense, techniques that use large
ently because they are taxed differently, according to their
amounts of resources should be discarded in favour of less
environmental behaviour. Such a tax should give incen-
wasteful ones. An example may be the use of terrazzo
tives to use environmental friendly materials and should
flooring instead of stone or marble. The amount of stone
signify that nature is not a free commodity. Finally, the
used in the terrazzo technique is a small fraction of that
income from such taxation should be spent on managing
for marble flooring. Additionally, the quality of the
and restoring the environment so that the long-term
terrazzo gravel may be produced from lower-quality
effects of human intrusions are minimized.
marble than marble slabs.

Recycle Synopsis
The technique of recycling has been discussed elsewhere
In this chapter we have discussed the issues that define
in this chapter. Here, we isolate the conditions that will
sustainability in the building process. Our discussion
facilitate the use of non-renewable natural materials. As
began with the question of sustainability and building,
discussed above, natural resources are finite. This means
and defined the environmental consequences of the
that by reusing them, we economize on the actual finite
building process on a global, local and indoor basis. Next,
resource. Recycling is a technique that has been practised
we briefly investigated sustainable construction
extensively in the past. We could easily adapt our present
techniques and materials, giving general information on
building practices to facilitate the use of recycling in the
the use of renewable materials, ways of recycling materi-
future.
als, and details on the process of manufacturing materials
and the related energy content. The practice of recycling
Use local materials buildings, by retrofitting them, or allocating new uses for
The use of local building materials economizes on trans- old shells was highlighted. The question of how to achieve
port energy, which for heavy objects is considerable. sustainable construction processes was attempted, with
Moreover, using locally quarried material creates a the proposal that managed natural, renewable materials
smaller excavation site and, therefore, lessens environ- should be used and that stringent conditions should apply
mental degradation, provided that local needs are small. to the use of non-renewable materials. Finally, based on
A very important factor is linking architecture aestheti- the issues discussed here, an attempt was made to isolate
cally to the local environment by using local substrates. a few principles that are based on solid environmental
Frank Lloyd Wright terms this aesthetic continuity as reasoning and are easily supported. These six sustainable
plasticity. Finally, the support of the local economy design axioms are as follows:
72 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

1 Use an existing building: using an existing building ical movement), considerable energy can be saved.
shell, with the necessary alterations and improve- 4 Use bioclimatic design: when designing a building it
ments of its structure and installations, can be a very is necessary to use bioclimatic design principles,
costly undertaking. Nevertheless, the environmental which highlight the use of renewable energies, such
benefit is substantial due to the saving of natural as the sun and wind, for heating and cooling.
resources from the building shell and avoiding 5 Design for longevity: a building should be designed
energy-intensive demolition, and consequent and constructed with longevity in mind. Materials
environmental deterioration. that last longer are not always more expensive. It is
2 Optimize needs in a buildings design brief: by reduc- important to note that occasionally, design or
ing the size of a building environmental impacts are aesthetic choices may contribute to the sense of a
also reduced. A smaller building will use less energy buildings ephemeral nature (what in industrial
in its operation and fewer resources in its construc- design is termed planned obsolescence).
tion. A designer should try throughout the design 6 Use environmentally friendly or sustainable construc-
period to reduce the size of a building by rationaliz- tion techniques: this chapter has highlighted the
ing and optimizing the original requirements. importance of selecting appropriate and environmen-
3 Reduce energy-intensive mechanical movement: often tally friendly construction techniques. We believe
the designer can choose whether a building will be that when selecting a material for use, three scales of
high or low rise. It is possible for a designer to choose environmental control should be considered. In
a compact design that reduces movement needs. By addition, techniques should comply with as many
reducing the need for movement (especially mechan- other criteria put forward as possible.

References
Anink, D., Boonstra, C. and Mak, J. (1996) Handbook of Sustainable Building, Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado
Sustainable Building: An Environmental Preference Method Lloyd Jones, D. (1998) Architecture and the Environment:
for Selection of Materials for Use in Construction and Bioclimatic Building Design, Laurence King Publishing,
Refurbishment, James & James, London London
Boonstra, C. (1995) Choice of building materials: The Marshal, H. and Ruegg, R., (1979) Life-cycle costing guide
environmental preference method in Lewis, O. and for energy conservation in buildings, in Watson, D. (ed)
Goulding, J. (eds) European Directory of Sustainable and Energy Conservation through Building Design, McGraw-
Energy Efficient Building, James & James, London Hill, New York
Boonstra, C. (1996) Sustainable choice of building materials, Stein, R. (1977) Architecture and Energy, Anchor Press, New
in Lewis, O. and Goulding, J. (eds) European Directory of York
Sustainable and Energy Efficient Building, James & James, Stein, R. and Serber, D. (1979) Energy required for building
London construction, in Watson, D. (ed) Energy Conservation
Brownie, K. (1992) Health check: Fibers in the lungs, The through Building Design, McGraw-Hill, New York
Architects Journal, 19 February, pp4548 Szokolay, S. (1980) Environmental Science Handbook, The
Chapman, P. F. (1973) The Energy Costs of Producing Copper Construction Press, London
and Aluminium from Primary Sources, Open University Vale, B. and Vale, R. (1975) The Autonomous House, Thames
Report and Hudson, London
Curwell, S. (1996) Specifying for greener buildings, The Vale, R. (1995) Selecting materials for construction, in Lewis,
Architects Journal, 1 November, pp3840 O. and Goulding, J. (eds) European Directory of
Fox, A. and Murrell, R. (1989) Green Design: A Guide to the Sustainable and Energy Efficient Building, James & James,
Environmental Impact of Building Materials, Architecture London
Design and Technology Press, London Wright, D. (1974) Goods and services: An inputoutput
Holliman, J. (1974) Consumers Guide to the Protection of the analysis. Energy Policy, December, pp307315
Environment, Pan/Ballantine, London Yates, A., Prior, J. and Bartlett, P. (1995) Environmental
Kwisthout, H. (1996) Choosing the right timber, in Lewis, O. assessment of industrial buildings using BREEAM, in
and Goulding, J. (eds) European Directory of Sustainable Lewis, O. and Goulding, J. (eds) European Directory of
and Energy Efficient Building, James & James, London Sustainable and Energy Efficient Building, James & James,
Lopez Barnett, D. and Browning, W. (1995) A Primer on London
 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 73

Recommended reading
1. Anink, D., Boonstra, C. and Mak, J. (1996) Handbook This handbook is considered essential reading for
of Sustainable Building: An Environmental Preference anyone concerned with sustainable design and
Method for Selection of Materials for Use in construction.
Construction and Refurbishment, James & James, 2. Fox, A. and Murrell, R. (1989) Green Design: A Guide
London to the Environmental Impact of Building Materials,
This volume highlights the environmental prefer- Architecture Design and Technology Press, London
ence method, which was developed as a tool for This is an A to Z guide of building materials, with
selecting building materials according to their comments on their environmental performance. The
environmental performance. It also covers building introduction touches on issues of environmental
techniques that are used for the construction of degradation and factors that influence this. As a guide,
dwellings in The Netherlands. it is considered useful for any investigation into build-
ing sustainability.

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 2
Classify, in order of magnitude, the possible environmen- In order to appreciate the benefits of retrofitting build-
tal effects of constructing the frame of a small building ings instead of demolishing them and constructing new
that is made alternatively of: ones, we propose a rough calculation of the amount of
embodied energy and corresponding CO2 released into
concrete; the atmosphere with the new construction. In order to
steel; simplify the calculation, consider the benefits from the
timber. construction of the concrete frame alone, supposing that
the area of the one-storey building is 100 square metres,
Comment (in no more than 150 words) on the possible the amount of concrete needed is 50 cubic metres and the
environmental consequences of each technique according energy used for its manufacture is 50 per cent coal and 50
to the three environmental scales of: per cent oil. Provide a short answer with no more than 50
words and your calculations.
the global environment;
the local environment; Activity 3
the indoor environment.
Using the simple rules discussed in Conditions for using
non-renewable natural materials on p70, consider (in less
Consider that all material was produced locally and that
than 50 words) the alternative improvements resulting
the aggregate of concrete is granite with a high radon
from specifying environmentally friendlier materials for a
content.
housing project in the construction of:

walls (clay bricks);

flooring (PVC tiles);
thermal insulation (polystyrene).
74 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 Activity 2
Steel is the material with the highest embodied energy, According to Table 4.1, 50 cubic metres of concrete of
with concrete second and timber (by far) third on the list. 300kg cement content will have an energy content of 50
The possible environmental consequences of each
0.305
2200 = 33,550kWh.
technique according to the three environmental scales are To calculate the CO2 released into the atmosphere:
as follows:
50%
33,550
0.31 = 5200.25kg
The global environment: since steel has the highest 50%
33,550
0.28 = 4697.00kg
embodied energy, it will contribute the most to CO2
emissions, while concrete will be second and timber The total sum being:
third.
The local environment: steel (being manufactured 5200.25 + 4697.00 = 9897.25kg
locally) will degrade the local environment the most.
Concrete also will contribute to environmental degra- Activity 3
dation due to emissions from its manufacture. Timber In terms of specifying environmentally friendlier materi-
is by far the least polluting and most environmentally als for a housing project:
beneficial material, contributing to the cleaning of
the local atmosphere during its growth. Walls: instead of clay bricks, which are energy inten-
The indoor environment: timber is a material that has sive, use stone, if available, or cement bricks.
been used for years with no ill effects on the quality Flooring: instead of PVC tiles, use natural, renewable
of the indoor environment. Nevertheless, the treat- material, such as cork tiles or linoleum tiles.
ment of wood to withstand infestations, either from Thermal insulation: instead of polystyrene, use a
insects or moulds, may be noxious for humans and natural renewable material, such as cellulose or cork.
animals, at least during the early stages of its applica-
tion. Steel is a material that, by itself, does not pose
any problems; but like wood its treatment can cause
the indoor environment to deteriorate. Concrete, on
the other hand, relies upon the aggregate being used,
as well as the qualities of cement. Radon content
should be considered seriously. If used, additional
building ventilation should be specified.
5
Intelligent Controls and Advanced Building
Management Systems
Saso Medved

Scope of the chapter Key words

The main task of architects is to design a building that Key words include:
provides safety, comfort, pleasure and an optimal living
environment for its occupants. These demands should be control systems;
met with the least possible amount of energy consumed, control algorithms;
and should affect the environment as little as possible. hardware;
This is why all of the buildings technological systems software;
must be well controlled and synchronized. In contempo- building management systems;
rary buildings this rather complicated task can be fulfilled building management system standards.
by using microelectronic-based building management
systems. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the
fundamentals of microelectronic control systems, and to
Introduction
explain what building management systems are and how
Conditions in nature and in buildings are continuously
they operate. The chapter is divided into two parts. The
changing because of variable meteorological conditions,
first part deals with the basics of control systems; the
air pollution, the occupancy behaviour and appliances
possibilities, advantages and configurations of building
used within them. Therefore, building indoor conditions
management systems are presented in the second part.
are dynamic and quite unpredictable. This is why energy
and material flows in buildings change constantly. In
Learning objectives theory, sustainable buildings should regulate energy
flows. In practice, we need building service systems to
At the end of the chapter, readers will be able to: control energy and materials flows.
The efficient operation of building service systems
understand the basic principles of microelectronic can be achieved only with efficient controls and manage-
controls; ment systems. Such systems reduce energy and material
identify the concepts of building management flows, while improving the indoor environmental quality.
systems; Because different occupants perceive the same indoor
compare different building management system environment very differently, intelligent controls should
standards. provide individuals with the possibility of adjusting
indoor parameters according to their needs.
In modern society, information exchange is as impor-
tant as energy or materials supply. Up-to-date building
management systems transfer information flows in order
to provide supervision and a safe indoor environment.
76 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Only a decade ago these intelligent controls and building 20 Celsius in the winter). This is termed set-point
management systems were only economical for large temperature. If there is a difference between actual and
buildings. However, over the last few years these systems desired physical quantities, a controller mediates the
have become more cost effective for individual residen- corresponding information to the controlled device in the
tial premises due to a broader number of producers and system (for instance, to the heater switch).
new technology solutions, which have given rise to a A controller uses different kinds of control actions,
growing number of operating functions. using the feedback from the sensor, and sending informa-
The aim of this chapter is to describe intelligent tion to the controlled device in order to equalize actual
controls and building management systems, to explain and desired values. There are various control actions;
their functioning and to provide some examples. however, the best known are:

two positions (on/off) that regulate action;

Intelligent buildings proportional (P);
proportional plus integral (PI);
The term intelligent building arose during the beginning
proportional plus integral plus differential (PID);
of the 1980s. In the beginning, definitions of intelligent
artificial intelligence (AI).
buildings were linked to innovative construction
technologies and to automation of mechanical systems,
Two-positions or on/off control is the most simple. The
with an emphasis on greater energy efficiency. At present,
controlled device is either turned on or shut off.
intelligent buildings are defined as those that have been
Oscillations of the actual value of the controlled variable
built using the latest techniques and technologies in order
are therefore periodic and large. For example, the room is
to optimize their service systems and improve the
heated by an electric heater to 20 Celsius. This tempera-
efficiency of their maintenance and management.
ture is the so-called set-point temperature. The gap
Intelligent buildings provide a high degree of comfort,
between the temperature that would cause the controller
safety and economy to their owners, managers and users.
to transmit switch-on information (e.g. 19 Celsius) and
By considering that the true cost of the edifice comprises
the temperature that causes the heater to receive switch-
more than its construction cost, the overall value of the
off information (e.g.) 21 Celsius) is called the control
building during its life cycle must be taken into account.
differential or hysteresis. The actual temperature in the
Intelligent buildings of the future will continuously
room differs more than hysteresis due to the heat accumu-
and independently respond to the changes within them
lation in the heater, which is emitted into the room after
and in their surrounding environment by using informa-
switching off the heater. Likewise, when switched on, the
tion and communication technologies. Intelligent
heater first warms up only after it starts to emit the heat
materials such as glazing with variable optical proper-
into the room. The temperature interval between the
ties, materials with temperature recollection, dynamic
lower and upper temperatures in the room is known as
thermal insulation, intelligent devices with microchips
the operating differential. Lower thermal comfort and
that communicate with users, as well as intelligent
greater energy consumption is the result of the larger
control, supervision and communication systems will be
temperature oscillation in this case.
installed in buildings. The first steps towards intelligent
The heat flow that is emitted from the electric heater
buildings of the future, however, involve the digitally
when turned on is most likely constant no matter what the
managed control and supervision processes of technologi-
actual temperature difference between the actual and
cal systems, which are discussed later in this chapter.
desired temperature in the room. A more detailed analy-
sis of the operation would also show that the operating
Fundamentals of control systems
Set point
Control algorithms Controller System

Control systems ensure that building service systems will

automatically adapt to internal and external environments
without the intervention of users. They function in such a
Sensor
way that the actual value of a physical quantity, which is
measured with a sensor (for example, the room tempera-
ture), is compared with the expected or desired value (e.g.
Figure 5.1 Illustration of a loop-control system
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 77

Temperature

Temperature
OFF OFF

Operating differential
Offset

Control differential

Throttling range
Set point Set point

ON ON

Time Time
Temperature

Temperature
ON NULL

OFF MAXI

Time LOW HIGH

limit of the throttling range limit of the throttling range

Figure 5.2 Illustration of the controller operation that uses two-position control (left) and P control (right)

differential is greater when a smaller heat flow for heating setting the controller. It remains constant during the
a room is required or in the case of lower system loading. whole operation period of the controller. Controllers of
This disadvantage of the two-position control action can this type are usually used for regulating heating and air-
be improved if the controller uses proportional control conditioning systems in the buildings.
action. In such a case, the controller sends the propor- With an additional function that changes the intervals
tional action signal to the controlled system. In this case, amidst individual resets, PI controllers can be upgraded
the signal will change the electric power of the heater to proportional plus integral plus differential (or PID)
proportionally (linearly) in the range between minimum controllers. Mathematical correction of the reset intervals
and maximum value. This range is called the throttling is described with the factor of derivative gain, Kd. With
range. The proportional action can be mathematically the common controllers, the factors Kp, Ki, Kd are the
described with the factor of proportional gain Kp. The constant characteristics of the controller; with the
difference between the actual and desired temperature adaptive or self-adaptable controllers, on the other hand,
within the monitored time interval is much smaller than the constants Kp, Ki, and Kd are changing automatically
it is in the case when an on/off controller is used. The and constantly in relation to the characteristics of the
difference between actual and desired value is called system.
offset. The functioning of adaptive controllers is based upon
Proportional controllers can be improved by adjust- artificial intelligence (AI). These are special algorithms that
ing proportional gain factor, Kp, to the established imitate peoples thinking and decisions through their
differences, between measured and desired temperature. operation. From the sytems operations past experiences,
The differences can be integrated and averaged over a they learn to anticipate the course of events in the future
pre-selected period of time. This process is called reset; in the same manner as people learn. For instance, we have
such control action is known as proportional plus integral learned from past experience that on a hot summers day
action (PI). This correction can be mathematically it is much cooler under a trees shade than it is in an
described with the factor of integral gain Ki. We choose adjacent open space. We have learned this without actually
the integration time or the time between two resets when measuring the temperature in each individual case.
78 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

PID
Temperature

Temperature
PI

Throttling range

Throttling range
Set point Set point

Time Time

Figure 5.3 Illustration of the operation of the PI and PID controller

When making decisions, we analyse several parameters hardware devised from direct digital control (DDC)
simultaneously, which are then classified according to technology. A DDC process is designed on digital signals
their future importance. Finally, we compare the final that are processed by a microprocessor or a central
effect of each selected combination of the relative parame- processing unit (CPU). A microprocessor exchanges data
ters value. The algorithm by which modern controllers with the outside world through the input/output (I/O) unit
imitate this human process is called the neuron network. or/and stores them into data memory. The operation of a
In case of multiple parameters the yes or no answer microprocessor is prescribed through a code, which is
is not easy and fuzzy logic can be used for approximate saved in the programme memory. The listed elements,
reasoning. In the case of fuzzy logic operating controllers, also named microchips (CPU, I/O device, clock, data and
linguistic instead of physical variables (for example, room programme memory) comprise a microcomputer. The
temperature) are introduced as shown in Figure 5.5. The signals are translated from microcomputer to switches and
linguistic variables (e.g. cold or cool) refer to the overlap- driving mechanisms, which are installed in the systems
ping values. These triangular values are called (actuators, valves, drive on heaters, switches, etc.) in order
membership functions. Therefore, the value of each to maintain set values in the indoor environment.
linguistic variable is between 0 and 1. The fuzzy Control systems can be integrated within specific
controller calculates output information for example, for intelligent devices. On the other hand, one microcom-
a room heater according to the degree of truth of each puter can be connected to several devices and act as a
fuzzy sets value. Using the so-called centre of gravity remote control. In this case, the devices must be
method, the power of a room heater is adjusted continu- connected via a central microcomputer. The data
ously. exchange between the devices and the microcomputer
can be organized using different protocols. The selection
The design of control systems of the communication protocol is based on the quantity of
data that can be transferred in a unit of time.
Control systems capture data from the outer world with
Software in the control systems enables the function-
sensors, (e.g. temperature sensors, photosensors, CO2
ing of individual controllers to be monitored, facilitates
concentration sensors and occupancy sensors) in the form
information flow through the network connecting the
of analogue signals. Table 5.1 depicts various sensors that
controllers and optimizes operation. In contrast to classic
are used in different applications as they appear in build-
electric, mechanical or pneumatic controllers, the opera-
ing management systems. The sensors can be chosen, for
tion in building management systems (BMS) can be
example, according to their sensitivity characteristics,
changed with the installation of a new programme
integration compatibility, geometrical dimensions and
algorithm, which is sent to the controller via the network.
price.
Software is also designed for the communication between
The signal is then transformed to a digital one using
the BMS and users.
the converters. Digital signals can be analysed by
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 79

Temperature

Temperature

Temperature
Temperature
AI AI

Throttling range
Set point
OFF
hot hot

Set warm warm MIN

temperature

Time

Figure 5.4 Illustration of the operation of the

cool cool MID
AI controller

Building management systems

cold cold MAX
A characteristic of big structures and building complexes
is a very branched-out system of installations. These
installations include heating, ventilating and air-condi-
tioning systems, as well as electric grids, lighting, sanitary
and transport installations, information and communica- Linguistic variables Fuzzy sets Heater power
tion systems, safety systems and others. These systems
have to be constantly controlled and managed. At first, Figure 5.5 Illustration of the linguistic variables
monitoring the functioning of these systems was only and fuzzy sets (actual room temperature is characterized
limited to monitoring operating mistakes and problems; by 75 per cent warm and 25 per cent cool)
however, the supervisory systems have grown into
management systems. Furthermore, the supervision of Managing and supervising energy consumption and
energy consumption has been installed within the opera- other resources:
tion, resulting in cost benefits. This is how modern switching on/off of devices according to time and
building management systems (BMS) or building energy occupancy;
management systems (BEMS) came into existence. Beside limiting electricity demand peaks;
surveillance, these systems take care of the lowest possi- ensuring the optimal operation of the heating,
ble energy consumption in the building. BMS tasks can ventilating and air-conditioning systems;
be divided into the following: regulating shading and electric lighting.
Table 5.1 Review of sensors used in different application in buildings
Application Lighting HVAC Presence Gas Fire Device
burglary detection recognition Supervision
Sensors for:
Temperature   
Humidity  
Brightness 
Infrared radiation  
Ultrasound waves 
Gases  
Microwaves 
Electricity 
Note: HVAC, heating, ventilation and air conditioning system.
80 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 5.2 Data transfer and protocols for different in a building), occupants can switch on the devices and
applications in buildings check on their status from a distance. Therefore, one of
Application Transfer data rate Protocol the advantages of a BMS is also communication. Through
a distant control, one person can simultaneously operate
Measure, control, define 1kb/s10kB/s EIB, EHS, LON the systems in several structures. Therefore, BMS can
Voice transfer up to 1Mb/s ISDN, DECT
Video transfer > 10Mb/s Fire Wire/IEEE1394
enable manpower savings or the formation of single seat
Computer net 1Mb/s to 100Mb/s TCP/IP surveillance stations. Since BMS can also indicate when a
problem has occurred, problems are discovered and
Note: Kb/s, kilobits per second; Mb/s, megabits per second; EIB, European remedied sooner than would occur through site visits.
Installation Bus; EHS European Home System; LON, Local Operating However, through permanent monitoring of the discrep-
Network; ISDN, Integrated Services Digital Network; DECT, Digital ancies, the possible problem can be discovered before it
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications; IEEE 1394, Institute of Electrical actually happens. The same is also true with the energetic
and Electronics Engineers Standard 1394; TCP/IP, Transmission Control flows in BEMS. This is why maintenance of building
Protocol/Internet Protocol. services is better, more thorough and cheaper. One of the
possible applications of a BMS is also commissioning. In
Safeguarding, which involves: big structures, the inspections conducted by the
diminishing the human factor; designer/installer and the commissioner, are long and
personal identification with electronic cards; expensive. Many of the appliances and systems have to be
image surveillance; checked out and regulated (for example, there is a need
hierarchically restricted access to rooms; to hydraulically balance the pipes, to set the inflow grid
anti-burglar alarms; and to set the control valves).
fire alarms;
gas detection; Designing building management systems
simulations of the virtual occupancy of the build- Hierarchy and compatibility have to be ensured in order
ings. to make the operation of the BMS possible. In relation to
Managing informatics: todays technological development, hierarchy is achieved
internal phone and video connection; through the three operation levels:
video conferencing;
satellite communications; 1 management level;
electronic mail; 2 control and automation level;
access to the internet. 3 field level.
Providing automation of working places:
central data processing; The field level is designed for capturing and transmitting
electronic documents transfer; (input/output) data from the single systems within a build-
data transfer through computer-aided design ing. This level is therefore intended for managing the
among experts; systems in the room (e.g. control over heating and cooling,
notifying and informing. lighting, position of the shading devices, etc.).
Information between the sensors and BMS (inputs
Advantages of building management systems from the building service system) interchange in the form
A system that involves the complete surveillance of the of signals (binary numbers), measured values of the quanti-
systems operation within a building enables constant ties (analogical values) or impulses (sensors transmit an
monitoring. All the measured values can be monitored on impulse according to the physical unit of the measured
line or stored. This allows permanent analyses of the quantity for instance, 1 impulse = kilowatt hours (kWh),
system function and optimization resulting in better 1 impulse = kilograms per second (kg/s). BMSs, however,
energy efficiency in real conditions. The meteorological output switching or control commands to the building
conditions, the quality and realization of the systems and services system or to the control mechanisms installed in
the habits of the users can all significantly contribute to a the system. Systems on this level also have the hand-
discrepancy between the predicted and the actual system control option. Communication among the BMS elements
response. Information that is gathered by a BMS can be on the field level runs either between the individual sensor
followed and controlled from a distance, thus making and controller or through the communication network.
visits to each building unnecessary. In smaller BMSs (e.g. This is termed a field-level network (FLN).
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 81

Source: Gunter G. Seip, Electrical Installations Handbook, Publocis MCD, Munchen

Figure 5.6 Buildings service systems that can be monitored, controlled and optimized by BEMS

On the control and automation level, BMS monitor, volume of data that are processed and transferred
control and optimize the building services systems. between the field and management levels, CLN has to be
Application-specific controllers (ASC) or modular capable of faster data transfer than is the case with the
controllers are used for these tasks. On this level, build- network in the field level.
ing management systems become aware of the problems Management is at the top of the hierarchy in a BMS.
in the building systems operation, display the measured It comprises all the data needed for the statistical data
values and ensure that they stay within the allowed processing from the field, as well as control and automa-
margins. The continual monitoring of the appliances and tion levels, together with the displayed and out-printed
their functioning ensures that timely maintenance is quantities values and events. Moreover, graphic review
carried out, thus increasing the life span of the system and of the building, systems condition and the values of the
devices. Furthermore, they take care of the information measured quantities in the single systems and rooms of
transfer about the system in digital form between levels. the building are included. Simultaneous monitoring of the
Controllers are interconnected with the control and data at the management level allows system operation
automation-level network (CLN). Due to the great mistakes to be detected and provides an integral survey
82 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 5.7 Luxmeter (left), movement sensor (right) and valves with the control drive on as an actuator

of energy consumption, as well as an estimation of the in Germany, where it was developed. EIBnet is a widened
costs. BMS elements at the management level are linked field-level protocol for EIB. Siemens developed
up in a management-level network (MLN), which makes PROFIBUS for the automation of systems in buildings.
communication with outside systems possible. The wide WorldFIP was developed in France, above all for the
dissemination of information and access to the internet as control and automation of processes. France also devel-
a global network opens up new possibilities of surveil- oped BatiBUS, which was devised for the automation of
lance and the control of distant systems. systems in residential buildings. EHS was made on the
initiative of the European Commission within the
Networks and protocols ESPRIT programme, and its purpose is the automation of
systems in residential buildings. It could connect various
Information transfer on the different levels of the BMS
electric and electronic appliances based on plug-and-play
has to be managed through protocols. Interconnection of
technology. EIB was developed by Siemens and is a
the different BMS components from different manufac-
widespread protocol that is used by many of the manufac-
turers occurs through the use of the same protocol.
turers of the various electric appliances. LON was
Therefore, the protocols have to be standardized. The
developed in the US and is a very common system for the
following protocols have been suggested as draft
control and survey of heating, ventilating and air-condi-
standards by the European Committee for
tioning systems (HVACs). The EIB and LON systems are
Standardization, Technical Committee 247 (CEN TC247),
presented in more detail further on.
Working group 4 group experts:
The appliances on the single BMS levels are linked
with networks. Smaller networks are called local area
Building Automation and Control Network (BACnet)
networks (LANs). Through a LAN, a central processing
and Firm Neutral Datatransmission (FND) at the
unit (e.g. a personal computer) communicates with the
management level;
individual intelligent controllers (termed outstations),
BACnet (Local Operating Network, or LON),
which are equipped with their own microprocessors and
European Installation Bus Network (EIBnet), Process
which communicate with sensors and control devices.
Field Bus (PROFIBUS) and WorldFIP at the control
The number of the in-LAN linked controllers can be quite
and automation level;
large. The communication time between the central unit
BatiBUS, European Home System (EHS), European
and the single controller is usually short due to the fact
Installation Bus (EIB) and LONTalk at the field level.
that most of the jobs are already executed by the outsta-
tion. However, smart sensors and actuators are also
BACnet was designed in the US and is the most
installed within the microprocessors, which allow them to
widespread protocol at the management level. It is
communicate independently with the central unit
accepted as an American standard and is proposed for a
through a connection to the LAN.
European one. The FND protocol is especially common
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 83

Management Printer Inputs from

level Networking Data analysis
temperature,
pressure,
Keyboard illumination,
Planning and
Maintenance design sensors,
Screen meters,
Inputs counters
Documentation Help Outputs
Micro-
Central station computer
Operating Micro-computer
Paging Outstation Outputs to
actuators,
valves,
Remote
Alarms Printouts relays,
connection via
motors
telephone,
internet

Stand-by network Peak load Time Operating Figure 5.9 Illustration of the LAN with outstations
operation limiting hours
Control and
automation Every outstation has its own identifying mark; the
level Monitoring Control Regulation Optimization spread of a network is executed in a simple way by
annexing new outstations to the LAN. Communic-
ations are transmitted in both directions; therefore,
the protocol must also contain a part that takes care of
Monitoring Control Regulation the correct order of precedence of the received and
sent information.
Ring topology: here, outstations are linked so that
Signaling Measuring Counting information travels very fast and in one direction only.
The protocol has a part added through which an
Field level outstation recognizes whether the information is
Switching Positioning Manual control
meant for it; if not, the information is sent to the next
Source: Gunter G. Seip, Electrical Installations Handbook, Publocis MCD, outstation.
Munchen Tree or hierarchical topology: the LAN connects
outstations which exchange information in the verti-
Figure 5.8 Review of the building management systems
cal direction of influence without a central unit.
functions at different levels
Data transfer in a LAN is carried out through the conduc-
The number of bits sent per second, which is also tors. The selection of a conductor is conditional upon the
termed baud rate, measures the speed of the data transfer distance of data transfer and upon its capacity, which
into the LAN. Through the modern DDC systems, which increases along the length of a conductor. In most cases,
are connected into a LAN, the characteristic speed of the twisted-pair wiring and co-axial and fibre-optic cables are
data transfer is between 300 and 1,250,000 bauds or, to used as conductors. Twisted-pair wiring is combined with
put it differently, 300 bits per second (bps) and 1.25 two cables in a bandage. They are interlaced in order to
megabits per second (Mbps). reduce the electromagnetic induction. They represent the
Networks differ in topology based upon the way in least expensive choice of conductor; however, they must
which a central unit is linked to the other devices. The not be put in the vicinity of high-voltage conductors. The
most commonly used topologies are as follows: electromagnetic induction in a conductor is reduced by
metal armour in the co-axial cable. In the fibre-optic
Point-to-point topology is the simplest, and directly conductors, information is transferred by a coherent light,
connects a central computer with only one outstation. which reflects within a flexible fibreglass. These are the
Star topology is similar to point-to-point topology, but most efficient conductors; however, they are also the most
more outstations are connected in the same manner. expensive ones. LANs in which different protocols or
Bus topology: outstations can communicate indep- BMSs of different manufacturers are used can be inter-
endently among themselves and with a central unit. connected through a protocol compiler, termed a gateway.
84 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 5.10 Outstation (left) for fan-coil (top right)

control with temperature sensor and window switch as
input devices and valves with control drives on the hot
and cool pipeline as output devices (bottom right)

Selecting a building management system menting BMSs is the relatively large number of manufac-
turers, whose systems, as a rule, are not compatible with
The advantages of BMSs have already been outlined;
others. The choice of a system therefore dictates the
however, there are also shortcomings. It should be
choice of all components by the same producer, which
emphasized that these systems are rather expensive and
means additional expense. That is why a better way to
for this reason they are economical, as a rule, only in
choose the right BMS is to use and follow these method-
larger buildings, settlements or towns. If a decade ago it
ological steps:
held true that BMSs were used mostly as controlling
systems within a building (a questionnaire among 50
Become aware of the advantages that are offered by
energy managers has shown that buildings, which are
BMSs in terms of energy-consumption reduction,
being monitored, are in 82 per cent of cases equipped
improved comfort of living, building protection, fire
with a BMS; however, only 1 per cent of them compare
alarming and monitoring of the building from a
gathered data with anticipated outcomes), then today the
distance. However, not even the perfect BMS enables
role of a BMS is to maximize building performance. With
effective control over the operation of badly
the development of microelectronics, telecommunication
maintained or even broken systems within a building.
and more user-friendly applications, however, BMS are
Choose the tasks that the BMS in your building
also moving into smaller buildings as a first step towards
should carry out; carefully investigate what service
realizing intelligent buildings. One obstacle in imple-
systems are already installed in the structure, and
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 85

Point-to-point Star

Bus Ring

Tree

Central station
Outstation
Information flows

Figure 5.11 LAN topologies

how you can reduce the operation costs through their Go through the entire functioning of the BMS; incom-
management. Furthermore, determine whether it is plete testing after the system has been installed is one
appropriate to install the additional service systems of the most frequent errors. With the designer, check
through which building performance can be out the functioning of every sensor, every command
improved. A small building management system and the entire software; after the test, sign the notes
cannot be upgraded later on; a large system may not about the commissioning of the system.
be fully exploited, may be complicated to manage and Ensure that the people who will handle the BMS on
is expensive to run. all levels are well trained. Use of a BMS calls for
Study the tenders of more manufacturers; check on additional education, in order to ensure that managers
the professional reputation and references of the understand the numerous functions and jobs which
tendering firms or BMS manufacturers; find out how can be performed by the system.
many systems the bidder has already implemented. During the operation of the system, take care of the
Your starting choice will affect the success of the regular monitoring of the operation and the simulta-
operation of the whole life cycle of the system. Within neous registration of the quantities values, such as
this time, the system will require maintenance and temperature conditions in rooms and energy con-
upgrading of software. In the future, you will most sumption. This makes maintenance and problem-
probably expand the systems in your building; there- solving substantially easier.
fore, check out the expansion capabilities for the
doubled number of control points.
86 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Local Operating Networks (LONWorks) and connected to both the power supply line and the control
the European Installation (EI) building line. Sensors, switches, communication modules and
management systems computers, on the other hand, are connected to the
control line only.
Among numerous BMS standards, two are presented
Devices exchange information, termed telegrams,
below: the first is frequently used in HVAC systems and
through a network with bus topology. Every device has
the second is the leading European standard.
its own intelligence and identification number. All of the
bus devices can exchange information with each other.
LONWorks (Local Operating Networks) The distance between two devices is limited to 700m; the
The US Company Echelon has developed LONWorks length of the bus line is a maximum of 100m. Parameter
building management systems. They are composed of four entry is achieved through a personal computer, which is
main elements: a microprocessor termed Neuron; connected to EIB bus with the ETS (EIB tool software)
network conductors with equipment; the LONTalk proto- standardized equipment. Up to 15 lines with 256 appli-
col and management; and application software. Neuron is ances can be connected to one area. Fifteen areas can be
a microprocessor that is built into every device supported linked to an EIB system (see Figure 5.12).
by LONWorks BMS. A 48-bit address Neuron ID is
installed in it by the manufacturer. It is composed of three
integrated circuits; one circuit is designed to operate the
Examples of building management
device into which it is built. The other two, however,
systems
communicate with the network. There are many different The design and operation of a BMS in a modern commer-
LONWorks devices on the market, such as sensors, actua- cial building is presented below. The VO-KA building is a
tors and controllers. An application programme is already three-storey structure with a south and east wing (its
registered in a device installed Neuron; however, it can be architect is Mlakar&Berg and the investor is Vodovod
changed through the network if desired. Every appliance kanalizacija Ltd). The BMS controls air conditioning,
with input and output variables through the Neuron and heating and ventilation, lighting, water supply, vehicle
the LONTalk protocol communicates with the network access heating in winter, security video surveillance, and
(LAN), which is called a channel. The channel typology fire surveillance.
enables information exchange between devices, therefore
all output information can be used as input information for System settings
other devices. The typical speed of data transfer is
78 kbauds (78kbps). Appliances from different manufac- Description of the BMS system
turers that can be built into LONWorks have a LONMark Systems on the field level are controlled with LON
label that indicates compatibility. Manufacturers of controllers (see Chapter 4), which operate as an individ-
LONMark appliances (there are more than 200 world-
wide) are members of the LONWorks Association.
Devices are connected with channels into groups.
Each group can include up to 64 appliances. 256 groups
are linked into a domain. A domain is then linked into the
control and automation level through a network driver,
the LONWorks/RS232 interface and a personal computer,
which is equipped with a Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) software package.

EIBA (European Installation Bus Association)

Many of the European manufacturers of electric equip-
ment take part in the European Installation Bus
Association (EIBA). Their products are compatible with
one another and with the EIB system. This system is
divided into two constituent complexes: power supply and
control part. Energy is supplied to the consumers or to a
group of consumers through the EIB system. Devices are
Figure 5.12 Instabus EIB control lines
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 87

Figure 5.13 Main entrance, daylit atrium and east faade with movable shading devices

ual unit and control appliance or sub-system, for example, Besides managing and controlling heating, air condi-
the central heating sub-station or each of the four-pipe tioning and ventilating systems, the BMS also controls
fan-coil units. All of the devices or sub-systems are illumination in offices by adjusting electrical lighting (see
equipped with LON controllers input/output modules Figure 5.18a) and the position of shading devices (see
and the modules are connected via a local network. The Figure 5.13) in relation to daylight. The BMS also controls
controllers are connected via a local network. They safety lighting (see Figure 5.18b) and notifies the users in
communicate with the LONTalk protocol. case of potential danger.
The building is heated via a district heating system. After the system has been installed, the entire
Heat is supplied through a heat exchanger, which functioning of the BMS is commissioned. Representatives
connects the district heating system with building instal- of the designers and owners test the functioning of
lations. This heat is used for air conditioning, two-zone sensors, commands and the entire software on the
(south and east wing) office heating with fan-coils and management level. After testing is complete, the certifica-
sanitary hot-water preparation. There is additional heat tion is signed. Designers also train staff who handle the
storage in a sanitary water pipelines system. BMS on all levels.
88 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 5.14 Central heat sub-station LON controller Figure 5.15 Fan-coil LON controller

Operation of the system adjusting shading devices;

by setting point temperature correction (3 to +3; see
The LON network is configured as an individual system
Figure 5.20) on the room thermostat;
that connects independent LON controllers. The LON
by changing the parameters settings with authorized
network is connected with management level by commu-
access on the management level; previous set-point
nication cards and hardware lines. The management-level
values can be changed in a user friendly way (see
computer is equipped by iFix software (a product of
Figure 5.20);
Intellution) to depict all processes and their conditions in
the user can also monitor the office from a distance
graphical form. The operators can control the status of
via the pcAnywhere system.
building systems and building services systems. In this
way, current and past systems operation states and values
of heat flow, energy use, temperatures, etc. are available. Synopsis
During operation of the system, regular monitoring
occurs, as well as simultaneous registration of the quantity The maintenance of a high quality of living in buildings
values. Therefore, maintenance and problem-solving are and the rational use of energy are tasks that can be
more efficient. fulfilled in the process of planning and operating build-
ings. In modern buildings, where indoor environmental
Possibilities for the individual user quality and a secure residence are provided by numerous
installations, devices and systems must be controlled
Individual users can adjust their local indoor environment
simultaneously and with a quick response to outside
parameters according to different levels:
conditions and occupancy behaviour. BMSs can be very
effective for this purpose.
by manually switching on/off the fan in
heating/cooling units as well as the lights, and by
Note: Central heating sub-station, which is located in the building
basement (above right), together with hot water storage (above
left); on the bottom the system and operating conditions of the hot
water network are illustrated (separate for two-zone office heating
and for three air-conditioning devices) (lower left); the scheme and
operating conditions of the heat sub-station (lower right) on the
screen of the operators computer are also presented.

Figure 5.16 Heating and sanitary water heating

systems
INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 89
 90
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 5.17 Cooling system and its operating

scheme with control system (above), and
air-conditioning device with heat recuperator for
atrium air conditioning with operating scheme
(bottom)
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 91

B
C

Figure 5.18 (above) Lighting control is

based on illumination level and room
presence (sensor C)

Note: A comparison of the set-point value of the supply water

temperature with actual value is also shown. The proportional
plus integral control action (PI) algorithm is used for control-
ling all heating sand air-conditioning systems.

Figure 5.19 (right) Office condition control

(top) and scheme of past values of hot water
temperatures in the central heating sub-station
in case room temperature decreases during the
night (bottom)

Figure 5.20 (below) The room thermostat gives

users the possibility of correcting the set-point
temperature according to individual indoor
environmental requirements (left); user interface
window for changing set-point values of indoor
environment parameters (right)
92 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

References
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-condi- Mandas, D. (1995) A Manual for Conscious Design and
tioning Engineering (1995) ASHRAE Handbook, HVAC Operation of A/C Systems, Save Publication, Atene
Applications, SI Edition, ASHRAE, Atlanta Moult, R. (2000) Fundamentals of DDC, ASHRAE Journal,
Avtomatika (2001) Metronikova izdaja revije o avtomatizaciji November, pp1923
procesov, June, Metronik, Ljubljana Piper, J. (2002) Riding hard on energy costs,
Brambley, M. R., Chassin, D. P., Gowri, K., Kammers, B. and www.facilities.com
Branson, D. J. (2000) DDC and the web, ASHRAE Seip, G. G. (2000) Electrical Installations Handbook, John
Journal, December, pp3850 Wiley and Sons, Munchen
Coffin, M. J. (1998) Direct Dogotal Control for Building Trankler, H. R. and Schneider, F. (2001) Das Intelligente
HVAC Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Hause, Richard Pflaum Verlag GmbH & Co, Munchen
The Netherlands Wilkinson, R. J. (2001) Commissioning inoperable system,
Coggan, D. A. (2002) Smart buildings, www.coggan.com ASHRAE Journal, March, pp4453
Levermore, G. J. (1992) Building Energy Management www.europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/atlas, accessed
Systems: An Application to Heating and Cooling, E& FN November 2002
SPON, London

Recommended reading
1 Trankler, H. R. and Schneider, F. (2001) Das stations, central units and basics of control algorithms.
Intelligente Hause, Richard Pflaum Verlag GmbH & A wide range of analytical solutions are presented,
Co, Munchen dealing with sensors and their responses, dead time
This book starts by describing the technological and distance velocity lag, preheated time and
aspects of the intelligent building. The introduction is optimizer control. A separate chapter is devoted to
followed by a detailed description of micro-system unsteady building heat loss and heating. This is a
technology and integration of this system within useful source of knowledge for all of those interested
buildings. The most interesting chapters provide in numerically modelling the heat transfer in building
descriptions of different sensor technologies, such as and in controlling HVAC systems, including BMS.
passive and active sensors, gas sensors, microwave 3 Seip, G. G. (2000) Electrical Installations Handbook,
and ultrasound sensors, as well as multi-chip modules John Wiley and Sons, Munchen
with integrated sensors. Readers will find descriptions This handbook offers a basic introduction to the
of research projects in Europe, Japan and the US. construction and dimensioning of electrical distribu-
2 Levermore, G. J. (1992) Building Energy Management tion systems, with particular reference to building
Systems: An Application to Heating and Cooling, E& services automation and building system engineering
FN SPON, London for residential and functional buildings. One of the
This book is intended as both a student text on the focal points of the book is communication installation
control of a building services plant and a practitioners equipment, particularly networks with Instabus EIB.
guide to the basics of practical control. The book starts All topics are presented on the basis of international
by detailing the development of building management and European standards. The book provides an excel-
systems, and outlines the advantages and disadvan- lent foundation for buildings designers involved in
tages of BMS from case studies. The following planning, erecting or operating buildings manage-
chapters are devoted to a description of the out- ment systems.

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 4
Describe the term intelligent buildings. Analyse the possibilities and advantages of a building
management system in a low-energy house.
Activity 2
Explain loop-control systems. Activity 5
Activity 3 Describe the functional levels in building management
systems.
Compare control algorithms that can be used in building
management systems for controlling HVAC systems.
 INTELLIGENT CONTROLS AND ADVANCED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 93

Answers
Activity 1 Activity 3
The term intelligent building arose during the beginning There are various control actions; however, the best
of the 1980s. In the beginning, definitions of intelligent known include:
buildings were linked to innovative construction
technologies and to automation of mechanical systems, two positions (on/off) that regulate action;
with an emphasis on greater energy efficiency. At present, proportional (P);
the term intelligent building is connected with proportional plus integral (PI);
techniques and technologies for optimizing the operation, proportional plus integral plus differential (PID);
maintenance and management of building services artificial intelligence (AI).
systems. Intelligent buildings provide a high degree of
comfort, safety and economy to their owners, managers For a complete answer, one should describe the basics of
and users. By considering that the true cost of the edifice each control action.
comprises more than its construction, and encompasses
its operation and maintenance over its lifespan, the Activity 4
complete value of the building is put into the foreground
In your new building, the building management system
during the design phase.
can undertake the following tasks:
Intelligent buildings of the future will continuously
and independently respond to the changes within them
Managing and supervising energy consumption and
and in their surrounding environment by using informa-
other resources:
tion and communication technologies. Intelligent
switching on/off of devices according to time and
materials such as glazing with adaptive optical proper-
occupancy;
ties, materials with temperature recollection, dynamic
limiting electricity peaks;
thermal insulation, intelligent devices with microchips
ensuring the optimal operation of the heating,
that communicate with users, as well as intelligent
ventilating and air-conditioning systems;
control, supervision and communication systems will be
regulating shading and electric lighting.
installed in buildings. The first steps towards intelligent
Safeguarding, which involves:
buildings of the future, however, involve the digitally
diminishing the human factor;
managed control and supervision processes of technologi-
personal identification with electronic cards;
cal systems.
image surveillance;
hierarchically restricted access to rooms;
Activity 2 anti-burglar alarms;
Control systems allow the buildings operation to automat- fire alarms;
ically adapt to internal and external environments without gas detection;
user intervention. They function in such a way that the simulations of the virtual occupancy of the
actual value of a physical quantity, which is measured with buildings.
a sensor (e.g. the room temperature), is compared with the Managing informatics:
expected or desired value (e.g. 20 Celsius in the winter). internal phone and video connection;
This is termed set-point temperature. If there is a differ- video conferencing;
ence between actual and desired physical quantities, a satellite communications;
controller mediates the corresponding information to the electronic mail;
controlled device in the system (for instance, a heat access to the internet.
exchangers valve). Providing automation of working places:
A controller uses different kinds of control actions, central data processing
which use information based on the feedback of the electronic documents transfer
sensor, and sends information to the controlled device in data transfer through computer-aided design
the system in order to achieve the quickest possible equal- among experts;
ization between actual and desired values. notifying and informing.
94 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Activity 5 controllers are used for these tasks. On this level, BMSs
become aware of the problems in the building systems
Hierarchy and compatibility have to be ensured in order
operation, display the measured values and ensure that
to make the operation of the BMS possible. In relation to
they stay within the allowed margins. Furthermore, they
todays technological development, hierarchy is achieved
take care of the information transfer around the system in
through the three operation levels:
digital form amidst single levels. Controllers are intercon-
1 management level; nected with the control and automation-level network
2 control and automation level; (CLN). Due to the large amounts of data processed and
3 field level. transferred between the field and management levels,
CLN has to be capable of faster data transfer than is the
Information between the sensors and BMS (inputs from case with the network in the field level.
the building service system) interchange in the form of Management is at the top of the hierarchy in a BMS.
signals (binary numbers), measured values of the quanti- It comprises all of the data needed for the statistical data
ties (analogical values) or impulses (sensors transmit an processing from the field, as well as control and automa-
impulse according to the physical unit of the measured tion levels, together with the displayed and out-printed
quantity). Systems on this level also have the hand-control quantities values and events. Moreover, graphic review
option. Communication among the BMS elements on the of the building, systems condition and the values of the
field level runs either between the individual sensor and measured quantities in the single systems and rooms of
controller or through the communication network. This is the building are included. Simultaneous monitoring of the
termed field-level network (FLN). data at the management level allows system operation
On the control and automation level, BMSs monitor, mistakes to be detected and provides an integral survey
control and optimize the building services systems. of energy consumption, as well as an estimation of the
Application-specific controllers (ASC) or modular costs.
6
Urban Building Climatology
Stavroula Karatasou, Mat Santamouris and Vassilios Geros

Scope of the chapter Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to study urban climatic The urban environment is dynamically related to urban-
environments in order to make use of them in evaluating ization and industrialization. In particular, urban and
design options and determining design strategies. Urban industrial growth and their implied environmental
areas are characterized by complex urban microclimates, changes have caused the urban environment to deterio-
modulated by a complex set of meteorological, morpho- rate and have modified the urban climate.
logical, topographical and other factors. The scope of this This modification is highly variable and depends
chapter is to clarify how and why the urban climatic upon the local climate, particular topography, regional
conditions are modified compared with the surrounding wind speeds, urban morphology, human activity and other
rural areas. factors. However, in general, urban climates are warmer
and less windy than rural areas. All inadvertent climatic
changes are briefed by the concept of urban heat island
Learning objectives effect and urban canyon effect.
Consequently, urban areas use more energy for air
Upon finishing this chapter, readers will be able to
conditioning in summer, less energy for heating during
describe:
winter and even more electricity for lighting. Moreover,
how and why the urban climate differs from the discomfort and inconvenience to the urban population
climatic conditions of the surrounding rural areas; due to high temperatures, wind tunnel effects in streets
the main characteristics of the heat island and the and unusual wind turbulence due to badly designed high-
canyon effect, and their impact upon the urban rise buildings are very common.
climate; This chapter is divided into four main parts. The first
the role of construction materials and the effect of three parts look at the analytical presentation of the heat
green spaces. island effect, the urban wind field and the canyon effect,
while the last part looks at the impact of construction
materials and the green effect (the impact of green
Key words spaces), and their potential to improve the urban climate.
Key words include:
The urban temperature
heat island effect;
canyon effect; Heat island effect
microclimate;
The diurnal temperature in almost every city in the world
urban climate;
today is warmer than in the surrounding open (rural)
wind profile;
countryside. In most cases, the highest differences
air flow;
between urban and rural temperatures occur during clear
green space;
nights with light winds, and temperature elevations are
construction materials.
96 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

warmer surfaces replace the cold sky hemisphere.

These surfaces receive a high proportion of the
infrared radiation emitted from the ground and
radiate back an even greater amount (canyon radia-
tive geometry).
Greater daytime storage of perceptible heat (Hs) due
to the thermal properties of urban materials and heat
release at night time.
Addition of anthropogenic heat (Ha) in the urban area
by the combustion of fuels from both mobile and
stationary sources (transportation, heating/cooling,
industrial operations).
Decreased evaporation and, hence, latent heat flux
(HL): the reduction of evaporating surfaces and the
surface waterproofing of the city puts more energy
into perceptible heat and less into latent heat.

As shown in Figure 6.2, ambient temperature varies with

the distance between the rural area and the city centre.
For a large city, during a clear day with light winds, just
after sunset, the boundary between rural and urban areas
presents a steep temperature gradient to the urban heat
Source: adapted from Byun, 1987
island, while the rest of the urban area is characterized by
Figure 6.1 Surface isotherms showing the heat island a weak gradient of increasing temperatures, with a final
phenomenon over the St Louis metropolitan area peak at the city centre where the urban maximum
temperature is found. The temperature difference
commonly about 14 Celsius, although elevations of between the maximum urban temperature and the
810 Celsius are also observed. This difference between background rural temperature is defined as the urban
urban and rural temperatures is called the urban heat- heat island intensity (Tu-r) (Oke, 1987).
island effect. Drawing the isotherms for an urban area The heat island intensity depends upon meteorologi-
and the surrounding rural area, one can observe that the cal factors, such as the cloud cover, the humidity and the
closed isotherms separate the urban area like the contour wind speed. Furthermore, many aspects of the urban
of elevation for small, isolated islands in the ocean structure, such as the size of cities, the density of the
hence, the use of the term heat island. Figure 6.1 shows built-up areas and the ratio of buildings heights to the
the surface isotherm curves over St Louis City during a distances between them can have a strong effect on the
summer evening under clear sky conditions, which magnitude of the urban heat island. Therefore, morphol-
indicate the heat island phenomenon over the city. ogy is strongly affected by the particular character of
The urban temperature is affected by several each city and presents an important spatial and temporal
independent factors, especially near the ground, which variation.
contribute to the development of the urban heat island. Over large urban areas, and under clear and calm
Oke (1982) lists a number of factors, including altered conditions, the heat island near the surface is likely to
energy balance terms that lead to a positive thermal display a complex spatial structure and isotherms that
anomaly: follow the built form of the city: the sharp urbanrural
boundaries exhibit a steep temperature gradient, while in
Increased incoming long-wave radiation (RL
) due to the greater urban area one can observe many small-scale
air pollution: the outgoing long-wave radiation is variations in response to distinct intra-urban land uses,
absorbed and then re-emitted by the polluted urban such as parks or recreation areas and industrial units, as
atmosphere (urban green house effect). well as topographical characteristics such as hills, lakes or
Decreased outgoing long-wave radiation loss (RL ) rivers. Figure 6.3 shows a small part of the Athens heat
from street canyons: as long-wave radiation is emitted island, where the geographic centre is occupied by a cool
from the various buildings and streets surfaces within area, about 2 Celcius cooler than the surrounding
the canyon, their sky view factor is reduced and much temperature due to the presence of a large park.
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 97

92F
33C
Late afternoon temperature

32

31

30
85

Rural Suburban Commercial Urban Suburban Rural

residential residential

Source: Heat Island Group, http://eetd.lbl.gov/heatisland/

Figure 6.2 Representation of variation in air temperature from a rural to an urban area

With regard to the temporal variation of the heat

island, a simplified diurnal picture arises for constant
weather conditions. The heat island phenomenon may
occur during the day and/or the night (see Figure 6.4). In
cold climates during winter, the greatest temperature
differences are observed at night since the heat island is
attributed mainly to urbanrural cooling, rather than to
heating differences, especially during the period around
sunset. Hence Tu-r grows rapidly around, and just after,
sunset, reaching its maximum three to five hours later,
while during the rest of the night it declines slightly.
Changes in weather conditions can considerably modify
this diurnal picture, as Tu-r is inversely related to wind
speed and cloud cover.
The heat island phenomenon has been intensifying
throughout this century. Scientific data from many cities
shows that Julys maximum temperatures during the last
30 to 80 years have been steadily increasing, ranging from
0.1 to 0.5 Celsius per decade.
Data from various cities have been compiled by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC,
1990) in order to assess the impact of the heat island. The
data show that the effect is quite strong in large cities. The Source: Santamouris, 2001
temperature increase due to heat island varies between Figure 6.3 Temperature distribution in and around a
1.1 and 6.5 Celsius (see Table 6.1). park in Athens, Greece
98 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

20 trate on night heat islands during the winter period, and

few analyse the daytime temperature field and summer
heat islands. As discussed above, some of the factors that
affect the urban heat island are meteorological, such as
15 wind speed and cloudiness, while other factors arise from
urban features, such as the size of the city, the density of
Urban the buildings and the type of activities. Therefore, exist-
ing urban models can be separated into the following two
T (C)

10
categories.

Rural Meteorological nocturnal urban heat-island

5 models
Existing meteorological urban models deal with the
nocturnal heat-island intensity. They express the temper-
ature difference as a function of meteorological factors,
0
12 18 0 6 12
such as wind speed, cloud cover and specific humidity.
Local time (h)
Ludwig (1970) has suggested a formula that predicts
the heat island as a function of the lapse rate, based on the
Source: Oke, 1982 statistical analysis of measurements of the urbanrural
Figure 6.4 Typical temporal variation of urban and temperature differences (dT) and the corresponding lapse
rural air temperature rate (in degrees Celsius per millibar) over the rural area (Y):

dT = 1.85 7.4 Y (1)

Higher urban temperatures have a serious impact
upon energy consumption for heating or cooling buildings.
Note that the lapse rate is negative: temperature
This impact is quite different in different climatic regions,
decreases with height. The lapse rate is very sensitive to
and it is also different during different seasons for a given
the cloudiness conditions; thus, the model expresses
region. In cold climates where winters are cold and
indirectly the effect of cloudiness on the heat island.
summers are comfortable, the effect of higher urban
Different statistical models relating various meteoro-
temperatures is beneficial. Of course, in summer the
logical parameters, which vary according to location, have
phenomenon of the heat island always increases the
also been suggested.
energy consumption and aggravates thermal discomfort.
Sundborg (1950) has suggested a model that relates
Beyond this, heat island increases smog production, while
the nocturnal heat island of Uppsala, Sweden, with the
it contributes to an increase in emissions of pollutants from
following meteorological parameters: cloudiness (N),
power plants, including sulphur dioxide, carbon monox-
wind speed (V), temperature (T) and specific humidity (q).
ide, nitrous oxides and suspended particulates. Thus, the
The equation, developed by Sundborg, is:
heat island phenomenon has a negative connotation.
dT = 2.8 0.1N 0.38V 0.02T + 0.03q (2)
Heat island models
Numerous studies have been carried out to analyse and Summers (1964), using data from Montreal, has correlated
understand the heat island. Most of the studies concen- wind speed with the heat island intensity and proposed
the following equation:
Table 6.1 Heat island effects in some cities
T
City Temperature increase 2r Qu
(degrees Celsius) z (3)
DT =
cpu
30 US cities 1.1
New York 2.9
Moscow 33.5 where r is the upwind edge of the city to the centre, T/z
Tokyo 3.0 is the potential temperature increase with height z, Qu is
Shanghai 6.5 the urban excessive heat per unit area, is the air density,
cp is the specific heat and u is the wind speed.
Source: IPCC, 1990
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 99

All of these equations are useful in predicting the 14

variations of the heat island intensity for various meteoro-
logical conditions. As meteorological models do not deal 12
with factors that are influenced by urban design, they are
of limited interest to urban designers. Furthermore, since 10
they primarily deal with the maximum urban temperature

Tur [max] (C)

elevation on a given night, these models cannot be 8
applied when estimating the heat island effect on energy
use for heating or cooling, which is related to the diurnal 6
average temperature instead of nocturnal conditions.
Estimations for summer cooling energy consumption and
4
peak load demand knowledge of the daytime average and
maximum temperatures, rather than the extreme condi- US cities
2
tions during the night. European cities
Thus, meteorological models are primarily of interest
in order to understand how these factors affect the heat 0
1000 10,000 100,000 1000,000 10,000,000
island. To have an applicable value to urban design, the
Population
urban heat island should also be expressed as a function
of urban design factors. A brief analysis of urban heat Source: adapted from Oke, 1982
island models follows. Figure 6.5 Relation between maximum heat island
intensity and population for North American and
Urban design-oriented heat-island models European cities
There are few heat island models that correlate the heat
island with a number of characteristics of the urban struc- cities. Jauregui suggests that this phenomenon can be
ture. Usually, such models include only very general attributed, in part, to the difference in morphology (physi-
urban characteristics. cal structure) between the South American and European
Oke (1982) has correlated urban heat island to the size cities.
of the urban population (P). The heat island intensity is Another model of Okes (1981) correlates the
found to be proportional to logP, and under calm winds
and clear sky it is very well related to logP for many North 16
American and European cities (see Figure 6.5). As shown,
the expected heat island intensity for a city of 1 million 14
Maximum heat island intensity (C)

inhabitants is close to 8 and 12 Celsius in Europe and

the US, respectively. Oke has developed two different 12 ica
er
regression lines for the two sets of data. He attributed this Am
10 e
discrepancy to the fact that the centres of North American op
Eur
cities have taller buildings and higher densities than
8
typical European cities.
Furthermore, by taking into account the wind effect, 6
Oke suggests the following for the calculation of the heat
island intensity near sunset and under cloudless skies: 4 Other
countries
dT = P0.25/(4 x V)0.5 (4) 2

where dT is the heat island intensity in degrees Celsius, P 0

is the population and V is the regional non-urban wind 0 1000 10,000 100,000 1000,000 10,000,000
speed at a height of 10m in metres per second. Population
Jauregui (1986) added a number of cities located in Source: adapted from Jauregui, 1986)
low latitudes in South America and India to Okes data
(Figure 6.6). As can be seen from this figure, the heat Figure 6.6 Relation between maximum heat island
island in these cities is weaker even than in the European intensity and population for North American,
European and South American cities
100 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

maximum heat island intensity with the geometry of the to the restricted view of the sky. Figure 6.7 shows the
urban canyon, as expressed by the relationship between relationship between the sky view factor and the urban
building height (H) and the distance between them (W) heat island intensity for North America, Europe and
namely, the ratio (H/W). The formula suggested is: Australasia.

dT = 7.54 + 3.97 ln (H/W) (5)

Urban wind field
Alternatively, the urban hemispheric height-to-distance
The process of urbanization has a notable effect upon the
ratio, as seen from a given point, can be expressed by the
speed and direction of near-surface winds. This effect is
sky view factor. For an unobstructed horizontal area the
mainly attributed to the change of surface roughness and
sky view factor is equal to 1.0. For a point surrounded by
the heat island, and this results in a complicated wind
close, very high buildings, or for a very narrow street, it
field in urban areas. Even under the least complicated
may be about 0.1. Oke has also suggested a formula using
synoptic conditions (e.g. with a clear sky and light winds
the sky view factor of the middle of the canyon floor, Ysky:
in the centre of an extended area), irregular air flows can
be brought about by some of the many local factors that
dT = 115.27 13.88 Ysky (6)
influence wind distribution.
Wind distribution in the boundary layer is influenced
These formulae express the concept that the urban heat
by many factors, such as horizontal pressure and temper-
island is caused by reduced radiant heat loss to the sky
ature gradients, the diurnal cycle of heating and cooling
from the ground level of densely built urban centres due
of the surface (which determines the thermal stratifica-
tion of the boundary layer) and surface topographical
H/W features (which can provoke local or meso-scale circula-
10 5 3 2 1 0.5 0.25 tion); but it is mainly controlled by the frictional drag
imposed on the flow by the underlying rigid surface. The
air, flowing from the rural to the urban environment, must
12 adjust to the new and totally different set of boundary
conditions defined by cities. Thus, an internal boundary
layer develops downwind from the leading edge of the
10
city (see Figure 6.8). According to Oke (1976), the air
space above a city may be divided into the urban bound-
ary layer and the urban canopy, which is the space
beneath the roof level and is produced by micro-scale
8 processes operating in the street canyons between the
buildings.
Some general characteristics of airflow in the urban
T (C)

6 boundary layer are presented in the following section.

Particular airflow patterns in urban streets within urban
canyons are discussed in detail in the section on Urban
4 canyon effect.

Wind profile in urban areas

2 North America As has already been mentioned, surface roughness influ-
Europe ences wind speed. The drag decelerates motion close to _
Australasia the ground, and thus the mean horizontal wind speed (u)
0 is decreased as the surface is approached (see Figure 6.9).
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 The profiles in Equation 7 are based on measure-
ments in strong winds (i.e. in the absence of strong
Source: adapted from Oke, 1981 thermal effects). In this case, the depth of the frictional
Figure 6.7 Relation between maximum heat island influence depends only upon the roughness of the surface.
intensity and population for North American, The height that defines the top of the boundary layer (e.g.
European and Australasian cities the height above which the drag is negligible and the
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 101

Regional wind
Urban
plume
Urban
boundary layer

Urban
canopy Rural
boundary layer

Rural Suburban Urban Suburban Rural

Source: adapted from Oke, 1976

Figure 6.8 Schematic representation of a two-layer classification of an urban modification

mean wind velocity is constant) increases with roughness. roof tops, the vertical wind structure is described by a
In light winds the depth of the boundary layer also logarithmic decay curve, which is known as the logarith-
depends upon the amount of thermal convection gener- mic wind profile:
ated at the surface. With strong surface heating, this
height is greater than in Equation 7, and with surface u* z + d + z0
uz = ln (7)
cooling it is less. k z0
Summarizing the previous characteristics, the wind _
variation with height depends upon the surface roughness where uz is the mean wind speed at the height z, k is the
and the atmospheric stability conditions. Under neutral von Karman constant (= 0.40), d is the zero-plane
stability (e.g. with strong winds to homogenize the displacement, zo is the roughness length and u* is the
temperature structure), in the free surface layer above
600
Level country Suburban Urban
Gradient wind
500
U
94
Gradient wind 90
400
Height (metres)

98 85

300 95 80
Gradient wind
90 75

200 95 84 68

91 77 61

100 86 68

78 56
65
0

Source: adapted from Davenport, 1965)

Figure 6.9 Vertical wind speeds (percentage of the gradient wind at various heights) over terrain of different roughness
102 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 6.2 Typical roughness length zo of where Uo is a constant reference speed, and Zo is the
urbanized terrain roughness length of the obstructed sub-layer calculated
Terrain zo (metres) by the expression:
Rural Zo = hb D*/zo (10)
Scattered settlement (farms, villages, trees, hedges) 0.20.6
Suburban where D* is an effective diameter of air space between
Low-density residences and gardens 0.41.2 obstacles and can be tentatively approximated for the city
High density 0.81.8 by D* = 0.1 hb.
Urban Typical values of zo are given by Oke (1987) (see Table
High density, < five-storey row and block buildings 1.52.5 6.2).
Urban high-density plus multistorey blocks 2.510 The zero-plane displacement parameter d is calcu-
Source: adapted from Oke, 1987 lated by the following expression:

d = zo x (hb + zo) (11)

friction velocity and is given by the equation:
where:
u* = (8)

x ln x = 0.1 (hb)2/(zo)2 (12)
where is the surface shearing stress and is the atmos-
Both d in equation (11) and Uo in equation (9) are deter-
pheric density.
mined by the requirement that the log law _ and the
In the obstructed sub-layer, the variation of wind with
exponential law must give the same u and uz at height
height is described by the exponential low used to
z = hb.
describe airflow beneath forest canopies (Cionco, 1965,
Both the logarithmic and exponential profiles are
1971; Inoue, 1963):
mathematical idealizations and do not hold at a particular
point in the city. Instead, they represent an average over
u = Uo ez/Zo (9)
the entire city or city sector (see Figure 6.10).

u* z + d + z0
u (z) = ln
h* z k z0

u (z) = U0 ez/Z0

Buildings Buildings

hb

u0
Source: adapted from Nicholson, 1975

Figure 6.10 Logarithmic and exponential wind profiles in the surface layer, above and below height
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 103

Estimations of the wind speed in a city are of vital cal walls of buildings, while only a relatively small part
importance for passive cooling applications, especially in reaches ground level. Furthermore, the intensity of the
the design of naturally ventilated buildings. This section emitted radiation depends upon the view factor of the
has indicated that wind speeds measured above buildings surface regarding the sky. The geometry of the urban
or at airports differ considerably from the speed at an environment reduces the sky view factor of the vertical
urban monitoring site. Roughness length, zo is greater in (e.g. building walls), horizontal (e.g. street surface) or
an urban area than in the surrounding countryside, and other declination surfaces, and thus the long-wave radiant
the wind speed u at any height z is lower in the urban exchange does not really result in significant losses.
area, and much lower within the obstructed area. The net balance between solar gains and heat loss as
a result of emitted long-wave radiation determines the
thermal balance of urban areas. Because the radiant heat
Urban canyon effect loss is slower in urban areas, the net balance is more
positive than in the surrounding rural areas; thus, higher
Urban canyon climate
temperatures occur.
The air space above a city, according to Oke (1987), may
be divided into the boundary layer over the city space, Surface temperature
the urban air dome and the urban air canopy. The urban
The thermal balance of a surface in a canyon determines
air canopy is the space bounded by the urban buildings
its temperature. It can be expressed as follows (Mills,
up to their roofs. The air dome layer is the portion of the
1993):
planetary boundary layer whose characteristics are
affected by the presence of an urban area at its lower
Q* = QH + QG (13)
boundary, and is more homogeneous in its properties over
the urban area at large. Beneath roof level, micro-scale
where Q* is the net radiation, QH comprises the convec-
processes operate in the streets between the buildings
tive heat exchanges and QG represents the conductive
(i.e. the street canyons produce the urban canopy layer).
heat exchanges with the substrate. Net radiation is the
Various urban configurations result in an unlimited
balance of the received beam, diffuse and reflected solar
number of microclimates. The specific climatic conditions
radiation (K), as well as the received and emitted long-
at any given point within the canyon are determined by
wave radiation (L):
the nature of the immediate surroundings and, in particu-
lar, by the landscapes geometry, the materials and their
Q*= K
S + K
T + Kr + L
S + L
T + Le (14)
properties.
In the preceding sections, urban effects on the urban
where the arrows represent directions to (
) and from
dome have been discussed. However, the local environ-
() the surface, and subscriptions T and S represents the
ment that encompasses the streets around buildings
sky and surrounding terrain sources, respectively, r the
canyons is more important as temperature distribution
reflected radiation and e the emitted radiation.
and air circulation within urban canyons directly affect
The urban canyon surfaces (i.e. walls, roofs and
the energy consumption of buildings, as well as pollutant
streets) absorb solar radiation as a function of their
dispersion and human comfort. Thus, it is important to
absorptivity and their exposure to solar radiation. They
understand the thermal and airflow conditions that
also absorb long-wave radiation emitted by surrounding
predominate within such urban structural forms.
surfaces and emit long-wave radiation to the sky as a
function of their temperature, emissivity and view factor.
Thermal conditions
Finally, they transfer heat to or from the surrounding air
The energy balance of an urban canyon is very important and exchange heat via conduction procedures with the
as it determines the temperature distribution in its lower material layers.
elements (i.e. the buildings and street surfaces and the Within an urban canyon, two categories of surfaces
air). Surface temperatures are very important, primarily are usually considered: the surfaces of buildings and the
because they dominate the thermal exchanges with the surfaces of streets. The optical and thermal characteris-
air. Urban surfaces absorb the incident solar radiation, tics of materials used in the construction of these
which is then transformed to sensible heat, and emit long- elements, especially the albedo-to-solar radiation and the
wave radiation to the sky and other surfaces. A large emissivity-to-long-wave radiation, are the factors that
amount of solar radiation impinges on roofs and the verti- determine their thermal condition.
104 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

60 60
a b
40 40

20 20

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60

60 60
c d
40 40

20 20

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60

60
50
e f
40
40

20
30

0
0 20 40 60 1 2 3 4 5
Column number

Note: The measurement points are close together. For all points, the material is dark slab.

Source: Santamouris, 2001

Figure 6.11 Canyon measurements; surface temperature is measured at five different points in the street:
(a) on the south-west faade and (e) on the north-east faade of the street, with (b), (c) and (d) in between

Surface temperature measurements have been Extensive measurements of the surface temperature
performed in different canyons all over the world, for both distribution of pavements and roads have been performed
the surfaces of buildings and of streets. For the surfaces of in seven different canyons, during the summer period, in
streets, experiments indicate that construction materials Athens, Greece, on an hourly basis and for a period of two
that are ordinarily used have a significant impact. During to three days (Santamouris et al, 1997). Asphalt tempera-
the day, the variation of surface temperature depends tures during the day reach peak temperatures up to 57
principally upon the solar radiation that reaches the Celsius (see Figure 6.11), while the corresponding
ground. Thus, temperature distribution along the street is maximum temperatures for white and dark slab
determined by the accessibility of solar radiation. During pavements are close to 45 and 52 Celsius, respectively.
the night, street surface temperature is determined by the The mean temperature of all the materials during the
heat transfer via radiation and convection, as well as via night is close to 2325 Celsius.
conduction procedures with lower layers. In addition to the type of materials used, the
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 105

Note: The picture was taken at 16:00, September 1998

Source: Santamouris et al, 1997

Figure 6.12 Infrared thermography of a section of Omonia Square in Athens, Greece

orientation of the streets as well as the H/W (height-to- emitted thermal radiation. Factors that also have an
width ratio of the canyon), directly affect the surface important impact are building orientation, relative
temperature of the materials. The impact of the absorbed position of faades and the view factor.
solar radiation on the temperature increase of the materials During the day, south-facing faades reach higher
used in pavements and roads is found to be very important. temperatures than north-facing faades. The temperature
Furthermore, Santamouris et al (1997), using infrared profile indicates that the temperature increases with
thermography, assessed the temperature of the materials height and that this is because the lower faades receive
used in pavements and streets in Omonia Square in much less radiation than the upper ones. However, the
Athens during the summer. A typical picture is shown in maximum temperature is not always observed on the top
Figure 6.12, where the temperature of non-shaded and of the canyon. This is due to the geometrical characteris-
shaded asphalt was close to 52 Celsius and 35 Celsius, tics of the canyon; lower parts of building faades can
respectively. The temperature of shaded white slabs used absorb the same amounts of solar radiation as higher
in pavements was between 28 and 31 Celsius. During parts, but due to urban canyon geometry the former parts
the experiment the ambient temperature was around 31 absorb a greater amount of thermal radiation than the
Celsius. more elevated areas. At night, the temperature of faades
Similarly, the surface temperature of building faades is governed by the radiative balance. The temperature
is determined by the absorbed solar radiation and the decreases with height, as lower surfaces have lower sky
106 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

view factors and higher view factors for the other canyon canyon, while significant air temperature differences are
buildings. Under normal conditions, maximum tempera- not observed between the air temperature close to the
tures are observed during the day, while minimum south, south-west or south-east faades and the north,
temperatures occur at night. north-west or north-east faades. In general, the south,
south-west or south-east faades featured a higher air
Air temperature temperature; but the temperature difference rarely
exceeded 0.5 Celsius, (Santamouris et al, 1997). The
The mechanisms that determine the distribution of air
temperature of the air in the middle of the canyon is
temperature in the urban canyon are complex. In general,
higher than that of the air film close to the faades of the
the air temperature in urban canyons is influenced by the
canyon.
temperatures of canyon surfaces and the flux divergence
For some canyons, higher air temperatures were
per unit volume of air.
recorded than surface temperatures. In these canyons, the
The air temperature near construction materials is
temperature of the asphalt on the ground was always
influenced by the surface temperature as energy is trans-
higher by approximately 1 Celsius than the air tempera-
ferred through convective processes. It has been
ture. Thus, there was a convective flow from the street
observed that close to the faade of the buildings an air
surface to the adjacent air that contributed to increased
film governed by the temperature of the building surface
temperature.
and the vertical air transport is developed. Lower temper-
atures are measured near ground level and the
temperature increases as a function of the canyon height.
Air flow conditions
The air temperature close to the south, south-west or The geometry of urban canyons is characterized by three
south-east faades of a canyon is usually higher. The main dimensions, as shown in Figure 6.13: the mean
difference between opposite faades varies according to height of the buildings (H); the canyon width (W); and the
the canyon layout and the surface characteristics. canyon length (L). Given these dimensions, the geometri-
In the middle of the canyon and at ground level, air cal description is determined by three simple parameters.
temperature depends more upon the flux divergence per These are the ratio H/W, the aspect ratio L/H and the
unit volume of air, including the effects of the horizontal building density j = Ar/A1, where Ar is the plan of roof
transport. Thus, air temperature at the middle of the area of the average building and A1 is the lot area or unit
canyon is very different from the average temperatures of ground area occupied by each building.
the two air films that have developed close to the faades Due to the inherent difficulty in field experiments
of the buildings since they are, in most cases, lower than within cities, much of our knowledge and understanding
the corresponding air-film temperature. of wind flows within and around urban canyons comes
Measurements of surface and air temperatures during from numerical wind tunnels simulations. Most of the
the summer period show clearly that, in most cases, existing studies focus on pollution characteristics within
surface temperatures are higher. As would be expected, the canyon and emphasize situations where the ambient
the temperature differences are up to 13 Celsius higher flow is perpendicular to the canyon long axis, when the
for south, south-west or south-east faades, while the highest pollutant concentration occurs in the canyon.
greatest differences that have been observed for north,
north-west or north-east faades were up to 10 Celsius.
In all cases, the air temperature inside the canyon was
higher than the undisturbed temperature measured above
the canyon.
The temperature distribution in a canyon during the
night is low. During the summer period, the maximum
temperature difference between the different canyon
levels never exceeds 1.5 Celsius. (Santamouris et al,
1997). In agreement with the distribution of the surface
temperature in the canyon during the night period, higher
temperatures are measured at ground level, and tempera-
ture is found to decrease as a function of height. The
temperature of the air in the middle of the canyon is
higher than that of the air film close to the faades of the Figure 6.13 Height, width and length of a canyon
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 107

Source: adapted from Oke, 1988

Figure 6.14 The flow regime associated with airflow over building arrays of increasing height-to-width ratio (H/W)

The following sections outline current knowledge of Figure 6.14b). This flow regime is referred to as wake
airflow in urban canyons when the flow is perpendicular, interference flow and is characterized by secondary flows
parallel or oblique to the canyon axis. in the canyon space, where the downward flow of the
cavity eddy is reinforced by the deflection down the
Perpendicular wind speed windward face of the next building downstream. At even
closer spacing (i.e. greater H/W and density), a stable
The flow over arrays of buildings depends upon the circulatory vortex is established in the canyon because of
geometry of the array and, in particular, upon the canyon the transfer of momentum across a shear layer of roof
height-to-width ratio (H/W). When the predominant height, and transition to a skimming flow regime occurs
direction of the airflow is approximately normal (30) to where the bulk of the flow does not enter the canyon (see
the long axis of the street canyon, three type of airflow Figure 14c). The existence of the vortex flow within the
regimes are observed as a function of the this ratio (H/W) urban canyon was first measured by Albrecht (1933), and
(Oke, 1988; Hussain and Lee, 1980) (see Figure 6.14). has been confirmed through numerous wind tunnel and
When the buildings are well apart (H/W>0.05), their field studies.
flow fields do not interact. The transitions between these three regimes occur at
When the buildings are relatively widely spaced critical combinations of H/W and length-to-width ratio
(H/W<0.4 for cubic and <0.3 for row buildings), their (L/W). Oke (1988) has proposed threshold lines that
flow pattern appears almost the same and the flow regime divide flow into three regimes as a function of the build-
is known as isolated roughness flow (see Figure 14a). At ing (L/H) and canyon (H/W) geometry. The proposed
closer spacing (H/W of up to about 0.7 for cubic and 0.65 threshold lines are given in Figure 6.15.
for row buildings), the flow pattern appears more compli- In most cities, building arrays are commonly charac-
cated as a result of the interference of building waves (see terized by high H/W ratios; thus, skimming airflow regime
108 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

0.20 The vortex direction near the ground is opposite to

the wind direction outside of the canyon. This is what is
L expected by a flow normal to the canyon, which is driven
0.25 H Isolated roughness flow by a downward transfer of momentum across the roof-
W level shear zone. For the case of a symmetrical and a
step-up canyon configuration, this is verified by
0.33
Nakamura and Oke (1988), and Hoydysh and Dabbert
H/W

Wake interference
(1988), and Arnfield and Mills (1994) report that in a step-
0.50 up asymmetric canyon, the vortex direction is also
consistent with the mechanism described above, although
a reversed vortex was detected in some cases with wind
1 speeds below the threshold value of 2 metres per second.
Skimming
2 Cube Furthermore, the vertical and horizontal components
4 Canyon of wind speed in the canyon have been examined.
Downdraft vertical velocities are a strong function of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
L/H height and reach a maximum close to 95 per cent of the
Source: Oke, 1988 ambient horizontal velocity, at heights of near three-
quarters, while at the centre of the canyon they have been
Figure 6.15 Threshold lines dividing flow into measured close to zero. Updraft vertical velocities are
three regimes as functions of the building (L/H) and relatively independent of height and had a maximum
canyon (H/W) geometries close to 55 per cent of the ambient velocity at a height of
one half of the height of the upwind field. Respectively,
has been extensively studied, both with wind tunnel and horizontal velocities varied from 0 up to 55 per cent of the
field experiments. free-stream wind speed and reach their maximum at the
Since the airflow in the canyon is a secondary circula- bottom and higher parts of the canyon.
tion driven by the above roof-imposed flow, the wind
speed out of the canyon is a crucial parameter. If that Flow along the canyon
speed is below some threshold value, the coupling It has become clear that the airflow in the canyon has to
between the upper and secondary flow is lost (Nakamura be seen as a secondary circulation, driven by the above
and Oke, 1988), and the relation between wind speeds roof-imposed flow. As in the case of perpendicular wind
above the roof and within the canyon is characterized by speeds, there is a threshold value below which a consid-
considerable scatter. If the wind speed is higher than the erable scatter characterizes the relation between the two
threshold value, a stable vortex is produced within the wind speeds. For wind speeds higher than the threshold,
canyon. The threshold value for symmetrical canyons with the parallel ambient flow generates a mean wind along
a H/W ratio of between 1.0 and 1.5 is from 1.52 metres the canyon axis (Wedding et al, 1977; Nakamura and Oke,
per second. 1988).
The vortex velocity increases with the speed of the The flow is characterized by a velocity along the
cross-canyon flow. Within symmetrical canyons, and for canyon that is almost always parallel to the axis of the
wind speeds normal to the canyon axis and up to 5 metres canyon and that has a downward angle of incidence
per second, the relation between velocity in and out of relative to the canyon floor of between 0 and 30.
the canyon appears to be linear, uin = puout (Nakamura Retardation of the airflow due to the friction from the
and Oke, 1989), where p varies between 0.66 and 0.75 building walls and the street surface can cause uplift along
under the condition that winds in and out are measured the canyon walls (see Figure 6.16).
at 0.06H and 1.2H, respectively. Furthermore, it has been This is verified by the fact that with no winds along
reported that the transverse vortex speed inside the the canyon, the mean vertical canyon velocity is close to
canyon is proportional to the above-roof transverse 0m sec1.
component and independent of the longitudinal compo- Regarding the relationship between the above-roof
nent. But no evidence of such dependence between the free-stream wind speed out of the canyon, U, and the
vortex speed and the horizontal or total wind velocity has corresponding component of the wind velocity within the
been found in asymmetric canyons with a H/W ratio close canyon, v, Yamartino and Wiegand (1986) reported that
to 1.52. they are directly proportional. The constant state of
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 109

where H is the height of the lower canyon wall, x is the

along-canyon coordinate, and v is the along canyon
component of motion within the canyon averaged over
time and the canyon cross-section. A linear relationship
between the in-canyon wind gradient v/x and the along-
canyon wind speed has also be found by Arnfield and
Mills (1994), as well as by Nunez and Oke (1976)
According to Arnfield and Mills, the value of v/x varies
between 6.8 102 and 1.7 102 sec1, while according to
Nunez and Oke, v/x varies between 7.1 102 and
0 sec1.
In deep canyons, the situation is more complicated.
Measurements performed in a canyon of H/W = 2.5
(Santamouris et al, 1999) have not shown any clear thresh-
old value where coupling is lost. Furthermore, the
correlation between the ambient wind speed and the
Source: Santamouris, 2001 along-canyon wind speed inside the canyon was not clear,
primarily because most of the data corresponded to
Figure 6.16 Airflow characteristics along the canyon ambient wind speeds lower than 4 metres per second,
where the relation between the two wind speeds is not
proportionality is a function of the approach-flow clear. However, statistical analysis of the data has shown
azimuth, and the proposed relation, at least to first order, that there is a statistical correlation. Figure 6.17 shows
is v = Ucos, where is the incidence angle. Nakamura the variation of the median, upper and lower quartile, as
and Oke (1988) report that for wind speeds of up to 5 well as the outliers of the along-canyon wind speed inside
metres per second, the general relation between the two the canyon for four classes of increasing ambient wind
wind speeds appear to be linear: v = p U. The value of p speed and, in particular:
varies between 0.37 and 0.68 under the condition that the
winds inside and outside the canyon are measured at 0<Vx<1 metres per second;
about 0.06H and 1.2H, respectively, of asymmetrical 1<Vx<2 metres per second;
canyon with H/W = 1. The lower p values are ascribed to 2<Vx<3 metres per second;
the deflection of the flow by a side canyon. 3<Vx<6 metres per second.
The vertical wind speeds at the canyon top and the
along-canyon free-stream wind speed are also related. As shown, both the median and the quartiles increase as
Arnfield and Mills (1994) report that the vertical wind ambient wind speed increases. The existence of high wind
increases with the along-canyon free-stream velocity. The speed outliers inside the canyon, but low ambient wind
relationship between the two wind speeds is almost linear, speeds, does not permit such a conclusion to be derived
while the free-stream wind travels down only a short from Figure 6.17.
section of the canyon and is still actively decelerating in With regard to the vertical wind speed within the
response to the sudden imposition with the canyon facets. same deep canyon, an important downward flow has been
When a partial equilibrium with the frictional effect on observed. Downward air movement close to the canyon
the surfaces is attained, a positive association between the walls could be the result of finite length canyon effects
two wind speeds still exists but is characterized as much associated with intermittent vortices. These vortices shed
more scattered. on the building corners and are responsible for the
The mean vertical velocity at the canyon top, w, mechanism of a downward advection flow from the build-
resulting from mass convergence or divergence in the ing corners to the mid-block position in the canyon
along-canyon component of flow, can be expressed as (Yamartino and Wiegand, 1986; Hoydysh and Dabberdt,
follows (Arnfield and Mills, 1994): 1988).

w = H v/x (15) Flow at an angle to the canyon axis

The preceding flow types are found when the wind is
normal or parallel to the long axis of the canyon street,
110 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

In case studies (Lee et al, 1994), the wind speed

1.4 inside the canyon, in a canyon with H/W = 1 and a free-
stream wind speed equal to 5 metres per second, flowing
1.2 at 45 degrees relative to the long axis of the canyon, was
less than the wind speed above the roof level by about an
1.0 order of magnitude. Maximum across-canyon air speed
inside the canyon was 0.6 metres per second and occurred
0.8 at the highest part of the canyon. The vortex was centered
at the upper middle part of the cavity and, in particular,
0.6 to about 0.65H. The maximum along-canyon wind speeds
were close to 0.8 metres per second. Much higher along-
0.4 canyon wind speeds are reported for the downward
faade (0.6 to 0.8 metres per second) than for the upward
0.2 faade (0.2 metres per second). The maximum vertical
wind speed inside the canyon was close to 1.0 metre per
0 second. Much higher vertical velocities are reported for
1<Vx 1<Vx<2 2<Vx<3 3<Vx<6
the downward faade, (0.8 to 1.0 metres per second) than
for the upward faade (0.6 metres per second). Results by
Source: Santamouris et al, 1999
Santamouris et al (1999) have shown that an increase of
the ambient wind speed corresponds almost always to an
Figure 6.17 Box plot of wind speed inside the canyon increase of the along-canyon wind speed, for both the
for various clusters of ambient wind speed for wind median and the lower and upper quartiles of the speed.
directions parallel to the canyon Wind tunnel experiments have also been performed
by Hoydysh and Daberdt (1988) for symmetrical, even,
although the most common case is when airflows at some step-down and step-up canyons, in order to study the
other relative angle. Unfortunately, research on this type distribution of pollutant concentration. The wind angle
of flow is considerably limited compared with the perpen- for which the minimum of the concentration occurs has
dicular and along-canyon flows, and the actual level of been found for different configurations. For the step-
knowledge arises primarily from wind-tunnel experi- down configuration, the minimum of the concentration
ments and numerical calculations. occurs for along-canyon winds (the incidence angle equals
When the flow above the roof is oriented at some 90). For the symmetrical, even configuration, the
other angle to the canyon axis, a spiral vortex is induced minimum on the leeward faade occurs for an incidence
along the length of the canyon a cork-screw motion angle of 30, while on the windward the minimum is
within an elongation to the street (see Figure, 6.18) achieved for angles of between 20 and 70. Finally, for
(Nakamura and Oke, 1988).
Results from wind tunnel experiments have also
shown that a helical flow pattern develops in the canyon.
For intermediate angles of incidence to the canyon long
axis, the canyon airflow is the product of both the trans-
verse and parallel components of the ambient wind,
where the former drives the canyon vortex and the later
determines the along-canyon stretching of the vortex. As
far as the direction of this flow is concerned, it has been
reported that, in a first approximation, the angle of
incidence on the windward wall is the same as the angle
of reflection of the wall, which forms the return flow of
the spiral vortex across the canyon floor (Nakamura and
Oke, 1988). However, some evidence was found that the
angle of incidence is greater than that of reflection, and
this could be caused by the along-wind entrainment in Source: Nakamura and Oke, 1988
the canyon.
Figure 6.18 A cork-screw type of flow
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 111

step-up canyon configurations, the minimum on the tively. In order to find an average albedo, an additional
leeward faade occurs at incidence angles of between 0 to integral time should be added to Equation 16.
40, while for the windward faade the minimum is found Urban areas and cities are characterized, in general,
for incidence angles of between 0 to 60. by a relatively reduced effective albedo. This is due to the
greater absorption of solar radiation by urban construc-
tion materials and multiple reflections inside urban
How to improve the urban climate canyons. Thus, the optical characteristics of used materi-
als have an important impact their albedo-to-solar
It is evident that urbanization, due to its increased
radiation and emissivity of long-wave radiation being the
thermal capacity, lack of water for evapotranspiration and
key parameters.
the canyon effect, has aggravated the negative effects of
High albedo materials reduce the amount of solar
climate. The question is how can these negative effects
radiation absorbed through building envelopes and urban
be sufficiently reduced in order to improve the urban
structures, and in this way keep their surfaces cooler.
climate?
Respectively, materials with high emissivities are good
Urban heat islands increase cooling energy use and
emitters of long-wave energy and release the energy that
contribute to the formation of urban smog. Among the
has been absorbed as short-wave radiation. In this way
factors that have already been mentioned, those that
their surface temperature is lower and contributes to the
primarily determine summer heat islands are high solar
reduction of ambient temperature through the mecha-
radiation absorption by urban surfaces, lack of vegetation
nism of heat convection.
and lower urban wind speeds. Thus, the main methods of
Tables 6.3 and 6.4 give the albedo of various typical
reducing the urban heat island comprise the surface
urban materials and areas, their emissivity, and the albedo
albedo and local winds; urban trees and high albedo
for selected materials.
surfaces can modify the urban environment by altering
The use of appropriate materials to reduce the heat
energy balance and cooling requirements.
island and improve the urban environment has gained
increasing interest during the last few years. Much
The impact of materials
research has been carried out to identify the possible
In order to reduce heat island intensity, the first method energy and environmental gains when light-coloured
is to design the external environment in order to minimize surfaces are used.
solar heat gains. In general, this can be achieved by
increasing the solar reflectivity of construction material The impact of green spaces
surfaces and reducing the insulation of susceptible struc-
Trees and green spaces contribute significantly to cooling
tures. During this procedure, the albedo of the various
our cities and saving energy. Trees can provide solar protec-
materials and surfaces is a crucial factor.
tion to individual houses during the summer period, while
The albedo of a surface is defined as the reflected
evapotranspiration from trees can reduce urban tempera-
solar radiation divided by the incident solar radiation. On
tures. In parallel, trees absorb sound and block
a spherical coordinate system, the albedo is given by the
erosion-causing rainfall, filter dangerous pollutants, reduce
following equation:
wind speed, and stabilize soil and prevent erosion.
2 2 The major mechanism through which trees contribute
I  cosdd to decrease urban temperatures is evapotranspiration,
1 0 which is defined as the combined loss of water to the
a= 2 2 (16) atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.
Evaporation is the process by which a liquid is trans-
I
cosdd formed into gas (Oke, 1987), and in the atmosphere
1 0
usually water changes to water vapour. Transpiration is
where I is the radiant intensity (W/m2), and is the zenith the process by which water in plants is transferred as
angle defined as the angle between the normal to a water vapour in the atmosphere. The energy transfer to
surface and the incident beam. Furthermore, is the the latent heat from plants is very high, at 2324 kilojoules
wavelength and is the solid angle defined as the ratio of (KJ) per kilogram of water evaporated (Montgomery,
a partial spherical area of interest to the square of the 1987). Moffat and Schiller (1981) report that an average
sphere radius. The upward and downward pointing tree evaporates 1460kg of water during a sunny summer
arrows indicate reflected and incident radiation, respec- day, which consumes about 860 megajoules (MJ) of
112 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 6.3 Albedo of typical urban materials and areas Table 6.4 Albedo and emissivity for selected surfaces
Surface Albedo Material Albedo Emissivity
Streets Concrete 0.3 0.94
Asphalt (fresh 0.05, aged 0.2) 0.050.2 Red Brick 0.3 0.90
Building brick 0.45
Walls
Concrete tiles 0.63
Concrete 0.100.35
Wood (freshly planed) 0.4 0.90
Brick/stone 0.200.40
White paper 0.75 0.95
Whitewashed stone 0.80
Tar paper 0.05 0.93
White marble chips 0.55
White plaster 0.93 0.91
Light-coloured brick 0.300.50
Bright galvanized iron 0.35 0.13
Red brick 0.200.30
Bright aluminium foil 0.85 0.04
Dark brick and slate 0.20
White pigment 0.85 0.96
Limestone 0.300.45
Grey pigment 0.03 0.87
Roofs Green pigment 0.73 0.95
Smooth-surface asphalt (weathered) 0.07 White paint on aluminium 0.80 0.91
Asphalt 0.100.15 Black paint on aluminium 0.04 0.88
Tar and gravel 0.080.18 Aluminium paint 0.80 0.270.67
Tile 0.100.35 Gravel 0.72 0.28
Slate 0.10 Sand 0.24 0.76
Thatch 0.150.20
Source: Bretz et al, 1992; Edwards, 1981
Corrugated iron 0.100.16
Highly reflective roof after weathering 0.60.7
Paints as the oasis phenomenon. The magnitude of the temper-
White, whitewash 0.500.90 ature reduction is related to the overall energy balance of
Red, brown, green 0.200.35 the area; but, in general, such oases are characterized by
Black 0.020.15 the Bowen ratio, which is the ratio of the sensible-to-
Urban areas latent heat fluxes. Taha (1997) reports that, under average
Range 0.100.27 oasis conditions, Bowen ratios in vegetative canopies are
Average 0.15 within 0.5 to 2.0. A Bowen ratio equal to 2.0 was
Other measured in a pine forest in England in July during
Light-coloured sand 0.400.60 noontime, (Gay and Stewart, 1974), and corresponded to
Dry grass 0.30 a 400 and 200 Watts (W) square metres sensible and latent
Average soil 0.30 flux, respectively. Furthermore, in a Douglas fir stand in
Dry sand 0.200.30
British Columbia, the Bowen ratio was equal to 0.66, with
Deciduous plants 0.200.30
Deciduous forests 0.150.20
a 200W and 300W per square metres sensible and latent
Cultivated soil 0.20 flux, respectively (McNaughton and Black, 1973). Slso
Wet sand 0.100.20 reported by Taha (1997) the Bowen ratio is typically
Coniferous forests 0.100.15 around 5 in urban areas; in a desert it is close to 110; and
Wood (oak) 0.10 over tropical oceans it is about 0.1.
Dark cultivated soils 0.070.10 The positive impact of trees on energy savings has
Artificial turf 0.050.10
Grass and leaf mulch 0.05
gained an increasing acceptance during the last few years.
For example, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District is
Source: Bretz et al, 1992; Baker, 1980; Oke, 1987; Martin et al, 1989 supporting and funding tree-planting to offset the
projected need for a new power plant in the next decade
(Summit and Sommer, 1998). As reported by Akbari et al
energy, a cooling effect outside a home equal to five (1992):
average air conditioners. The same authors report that
the latent heat transfer from wet grass can result in Field measurements have shown that
temperatures of 6 to 8 Celsius cooler than over exposed through shading, trees and shrubs strategi-
soil, and that 1m2 of grass can transfer more than 12MJ cally planted next to buildings can reduce
on a sunny day. summer air-conditioning costs typically by
Evapotranspiration contributes to lower temperature 15 to 35 per cent, and by as much as 50 per
spaces in an urban environment, a phenomenon known cent or more in certain specific situations.
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 113

Simply shading the air conditioner by using cover on the heating and cooling energy use of existing
shrubs or a vine a covered trellis can save houses, for various US cities, and found that for all
up to 10 per cent in annual cooling energy locations the heating load was significantly reduced.
costs. Studies by DeWalle (1983), dealing with the role of
windbreaks of height H on the infiltration and heating
As a result, several communities and non-profit organiza- energy needs of a mobile house, have shown that at
tions, primarily in the US, have initiated and coordinated distances of 1 to 4H from the wind break the air speed
tree-planting efforts and encourage residents to plant was reduced by 40 to 50 per cent of the undisturbed wind.
trees. There was a 55 per cent reduction of the infiltration at 1H,
Trees also help to mitigate the greenhouse effect, and a 30 per cent reduction at 4H and 8H. The correspon-
filter pollutants, mask noise, prevent erosion and calm ding heating energy was reduced by about 20 per cent at
human observers. As pointed out by Akbari et al (1992): 1H to about 10 per cent at 4H.
The effectiveness of vegetation depends on its intensity, In summary, the use of appropriate materials in
shape, dimensions and placement. But, in general, any combination with planting new trees can reduce the heat
tree, even one bereft of leaves, can have a noticeable island and improve the urban environment. Since
impact on energy use. Trees in paved urban areas inter- measuring the indirect energy savings from large-scale
cept both the advected sensible heat and the long-wave changes in the urban albedo is almost impossible, the
radiation from high-temperature paved materials, such as possible change of urban climate conditions is usually
asphalt (Halvorson and Potts, 1981; Heilman et al, 1989). evaluated using computer simulations. Many research
Trees absorb gaseous pollutants through leaf stomata studies have been carried out in this field. Taha et al
and can dissolve or bind water-soluble pollutants onto (1988) have shown that localized afternoon air tempera-
moist leaf surfaces, while tree canopies intercept particu- tures on summer days can be lowered by as much as 4
lates. Trees also reduce ambient air ozone concentrations, Celsius by changing the surface albedo from 0.25 to 0.40
either by absorbing them or other pollutants as nitrogen in a typical mid-latitude warm climate. Taha (1988)
dioxide (NO2), directly, or by reducing air temperatures, reports simulation results for Davis, California, using the
which reduces hydrocarbon emission and ozone forma- URBMET PBL model. Results of the simulations show
tion rates (Cardelino and Chameides, 1990; McPherson that a vegetative cover of 30 per cent could produce a
et al, 1998). Bernatsky (1978) reports that a street lined noontime oasis of up to 6 Celsius in favourable condi-
with healthy trees can reduce airborne dust particles by tions, and a night-time heat island of 2 Celsius. Huang
as much as 7000 particles per litre of air. Trees also et al (1987), report that computer simulations predict that
remove atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and store it as increasing the tree cover by 25 per cent in Sacramento
a woody biomass. However, biogenic hydrocarbon and Phoenix, US, would decrease air temperatures at
emissions from trees may play a role in ozone formation 14.00 in July by 6 to 10 Fahrenheit. Rosenfeld et al
(Winer at al, 1983; Chameides et al, 1988). (1998) show that white roofs and shade trees in Los
In addition, trees reduce and filter urban noise. As Angeles, US, would lower the need for air conditioning
pointed out by Akbari et al (1992), leaves, twigs and by 18 per cent or 1.04 billion kilowatt-hours, equivalent
branches absorb high-frequency sounds that are more to a financial gain close US$100 million per year. These
bothersome to humans. The same authors report that a results are valid for southern climates with significant
belt of trees 33m wide and 15m tall reduces highway cooling problems.
noise by 6 to 10 decibels (dB) a sound reduction of close
to 50 per cent. Data on the attenuation effect of vegeta- Synopsis
tion as a function of vegetation are given by Broban
(1990). He reports that in order to obtain significant Urban areas have particular climatic conditions as a result
reductions in noise level, in the order of 110dB, at least of complex urban microclimates, where many factors
100m-deep dense vegetation is required. come into play. It is important to describe how and why
Reduction of wind speeds by trees is important and the urban climate differs from the climatic conditions of
may contribute to important energy savings. Heisler the surrounding rural areas.
(1989) reports that an increase by 10 per cent of the tree Urban and industrial growth has caused significant
cover in a residential area can reduce wind speeds by 10 changes in the radiant balance of the urban space, the
to 20 per cent, while an added 30 per cent cover can convective heat exchange between the ground and its
reduce it by 15 to 35 per cent. Huang et al (1990) buildings, the air flowing above the urban area and the
simulated the effect of wind shielding by 30 per cent tree heat generation within the city. The main consequence is
114 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

differences in values of air temperature and in wind urban areas, such as the heat island, the obstacle effect
conditions between urban and rural areas. Furthermore, and polluting elements, which contribute to cloud forma-
as the thermal structure over cities changes, many other tion and change the drop-size spectra. The exact effect of
climatological parameters are affected. these factors is not always clear; furthermore, it is compli-
Air temperatures in dense urban areas are higher than cated by the topographic influence and the relative place
temperatures in the surrounding countryside. This differ- of a specific city in relation to the general atmospheric
ence is known as the urban heat-island effect and circulation Yet, there is enough evidence to suggest that
characterizes almost every city or town in the world. The precipitation is higher over urban areas when compared
heat that is absorbed during the day by all urban construc- with rural environments near cities. For example,
tions (buildings, roads, etc.) is re-emitted after sunset, and Escourrou (1991b) mentions that urbanization causes a
the greatest temperature differences are observed during proportional increase in precipitation in cities, which,
the night. Furthermore, additional heat is given by all because of their geographic location, are more often in a
human heat sources. perturbation zone.
Wind speeds, in general, usually decrease in urban Thus, in winter, most urban microclimates are more
areas compared with rural winds at the same height. This moderate than those found in suburban or rural areas.
is mainly due to changes in surface roughness, but also to They are characterized by slightly higher temperatures
the heat island effect and the channelling effects through and, away from tall buildings, weaker winds. During the
canyons. However, the urban wind field can be very day, wide streets, squares and non-planted areas are the
complicated as it is affected by many local parameters. warmest parts of a town. At night, the narrow streets have
Such parameters include topography, building geometry higher temperatures than the rest of the city. In summer,
and dimensions, streets or trees. Small differences in any during the hot months the heat island creates consider-
of these parameters continuously modify the boundary able discomfort and stress, with waves of blistering heat
conditions in which the flowing air must be adjusted, and emanating from roads and dark buildings. During night-
therefore can cause irregular flows. fall, the streets are still radiating heat, while surrounding
Global solar radiation is seriously reduced because of rural areas are rapidly cooling.
increased scattering and absorption by urban pollutants, Evidently, the two most effective methods of reduc-
especially by particulates. Sunshine duration in many ing the inadvertent effects of urbanization are by
industrial cities can be reduced by 10 to 20 per cent in increasing the amount of vegetation in cities and using
comparison with the surrounding countryside, and similar light-coloured faades and appropriate construction
losses are observed in energy received. materials. These techniques can be implemented in whole
Precipitation and cloud cover are also affected by urban areas or in individual locations such as pedestrian
urbanization. There are a number of factors that could streets.
cause an increment of cloud cover and precipitation in

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Oke, T. R. and East, C. (1971) The urban boundary layer in Taha, H., Douglas, S. and Haney, J. (1997) Mesoscale meteor-
Montreal, Boundary Layer Meteorology, vol 1, pp411437 ological and air quality impacts of increased urban albedo
Oke, T. R., Johnson, G. T., Steyn, D. G. and Watson, I. D. and vegetation, Energy and Buildings, vol 25, pp169177
(1991) Simulation of surface urban heat islands under Taha, H., Sailor, D. and Akbari, H. (1992) High Albedo
ideal conditions at night Part 2: Diagnosis and causa- Materials for Reducing Cooling Energy Use, Lawrence
tion, Boundary Layer Meteorology, vol 56, pp339358 Berkeley Lab Report 31721, UC-350, Berkeley, CA
Park, H. S. (1987) City size and urban heat island intensity for Wanner, H. and Hertig, J. A. (1983) Temperature and
Japanese and Korean cities, Geographical Review Japan, Ventilation of Small Cities in Complex Terrain (Switzerland),
September A, vol 60, pp238250 Study supported by Swiss National Science Foundation,
Rosenfeld, A., Romm, J., Akbari, H. and Lloyd, A. (1998) Berne
Painting the town white and green, paper available Wedding, J. B., Lombardi, D. J. and Cermak, J. E. (1977) A
through the website of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, wind tunnel study of gaseous pollutants in city street
www.lbl.gov canyons, Journal of Air Pollution Control Assessment, vol
Sham, S. (1990/1991) Urban climatology in Malaysia: An 27, pp557566
overview, Energy and Buildings, vol 1516, pp105117 Winer, A. M., Fitz, D. R. and Miller P. R. (1983) Investigation
Santamouris, M. (ed) (2001) Energy and Climate in the Urban of the Role of Natural Hydrocarbons in Photochemical Smog
Built Environment, James & James, London Formation in California, Final Report, Contract No AO-
Santamouris, M. and Assimakopoulos, D. (eds) (1996) Passive 056-32, California Air Resources Board. Sacramento, CA
Cooling of Buildings, James & James Science Publishers, WMO (World Meteorological Organization) (1986) Urban
London Climatology and its Applications with Special Regard to
Santamouris, M., Argiriou, A. and Papanikolaou, N. (1996) Tropical Areas, Proceedings of the Technical Conference in
Meteorological Stations for Microclimatic Measurements, Mexico City, WMO, No 652, Mexico City
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 117

WMO (1994) Report of the Technical Conference on Tropical Yamashita S., Sekine, K., Shoda, M., Yamashita, K. and Hara,
Urban Climates, WMO, Dhaka Y. On the relationships between heat island and sky view
Yamartino, R. J. and Wiegand G. (1986) Development and factor in the cities of Tama River Basin, Japan, Atmospheric
evaluation of simple models for the flow, turbulence and Environment, vol 20, no 4, pp681686
pollution concentration fields within an urban street
canyon, Atmospheric Environment, vol 20, pp21372156

Recommended Reading
1 Oke, T. R. (1987) Boundary Layer Climates, mended for a quick check of each topic of interest and
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge its historical review.
This is a classic book, which covers (at a comprehen- 3 Santamouris, M. (ed) (2001) Energy and Climate in the
sive level for non-meteorological specialists) Urban Built Environment, James & James, London
important topics in geography, agriculture, forestry, This is a book that treats the built environment and
ecology, engineering and planning. It is recom- urban influence in an integrated way, covering all of
mended for its discussion of the atmospheric layers. the important theoretical, experimental and practical
2 Landsberg, H. (1981) The Urban Climate, Academic aspects of urban design.
Press, New York
This book analyses the topic of urban climatology and
features detailed illustrations and figures. It is recom-

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 4
Heat island effect Airflow conditions
Give a description of the heat island effect and mention Describe the three main airflow patterns inside a canyon
some of the main factors that contribute to this phenome- according to the angle of incidence of the wind to the
non. canyon axis.

Activity 2 Activity 5
Heat island effect Improving the urban climate
Provide a short description of some of the heat island Some of the improvements that reduce the heat island
models and discuss the main factors that should be taken effect concern the materials that form urban exterior
into account. surfaces and green spaces. Give a short summary of how
these elements affect the urban microclimate.
Activity 3
Urban canyon effect
Give a short description of the thermal phenomena that
occur inside urban canyons during the day and at night.
118 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 Oke (1973) suggests a simple equation that calculates
the heat island intensity near sunset and under a cloud-
Heat island effect is related to the fact that the centre of
less sky by taking into account the population and the
cities is warmer than surrounding rural areas. This
regional non-urban wind speed at the height of 10m.
phenomenon is observed in diurnal temperature profiles
Other models of Oke correlate the temperature difference
and primarily during the night period. In most situations
between urban and rural areas by using the H/W ratio (H
there is a difference of between 1 to 4 Celsius (in extreme
= height of the canyon; W = width of the canyon) or take
situations a difference of between 8 to 10 Celsius can be
into account the sky view factor in the middle of the
observed). Heat island intensity depends upon meteoro-
canyon.
logical factors, as well as upon many aspects of the urban
structure (e.g. size of cities, the density of built-up areas
Activity 3
and urban geometry); therefore, this phenomenon is
characterized by the character of each city. The geometry and the orientation of an urban canyon play
Some of the main factors that contribute to the heat an important role in its energy balance. This balance
island effect can be summarized as follows: determines the temperature distribution of the canyons
elements, which can be divided into three component
increased incoming long-wave radiation due to air categories: the canyon vertical surfaces (building faades),
pollution; the canyon horizontal surfaces (street surfaces) and the
decreased outgoing long-wave radiation loss from air. During the daytime period, the urban surfaces absorb
street canyons; the incident solar radiation and emit long-wave radiation
greater daytime storage of sensible heat due to the to the sky and to other surfaces. The absorption of solar
thermal properties of urban materials and heat release radiation is transformed to sensible heat that can affect
at night time; the cooling and heating requirements of the canyon build-
anthropogenic heat in urban areas; ings. There is a greater frequency of solar radiation
decreased evaporation and, hence, latent heat flux. incidents on building roofs and vertical walls, and only a
relatively small part reaches ground level. Part of the
Activity 2 long-wave radiation that is emitted by the opaque
elements of the canyon is lost in the sky according to the
There are three main models that concern the heat island
sky view factor, while another part is emitted to other
effect during the night period. In general, these models
surfaces and remains trapped inside the canyon.
take into account meteorological factors such as wind
Therefore, the long-wave radiant exchange does not really
speed, cloud cover and specific humidity. Furthermore,
result in significant losses, especially when the canyon is
these models do not use factors that are influenced by
narrow and high. Additionally, the high temperature
urban design.
canyon surfaces heat the air close to the surfaces by
The Ludwig model is based on statistical analysis of
convection and increase its temperature. Furthermore,
urbanrural temperature differences and takes into
during the daytime, the temperature inside the canyon
account the lapse rate that describes how temperature
increases with height and this is because the lower
decreases with height.
faades receive much less radiation than the upper ones.
The Sundborg model concerns a specific location in
However the maximum temperature is not always
Uppsala, Sweden, and calculates the temperature differ-
observed on the top of the canyon, as the geometrical
ence between urban and rural areas by using the
characteristics of the canyon determine this maximum.
following meteorological parameters: cloudiness, wind
During the night-time period, the missing energy
speed, temperature and specific humidity.
source is the sun; therefore, solar radiation does not
Finally, the Summers model is based on data collected
contribute to the energy balance of the canyon. This gives
in Montreal and correlates wind speed with the heat
a dominant role, from the heat transfer point of view, to
island intensity.
the radiative exchange between the canyon surfaces, as
Another category of heat island models concerns the
well as the surfaces and the sky (the radiation that is
urban design-oriented model, which correlates the heat
emitted to the sky according to the sky view factor of each
island with a number of characteristics of the urban
surface). The temperature of the faades decreases with
structure.
height, as lower surfaces have lower sky view factors and
 URBAN BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY 119

higher view factors for the other canyon buildings. Under case. In general, when the flow above the roof is oriented
normal conditions, maximum temperatures are observed at some other angle to the canyon axis, a spiral vortex is
during the day, while minimum temperatures are induced along the length of the canyon a cork-screw
observed during the night. motion within an elongation along the street.

Activity 4 Activity 5
In general, there are three situations that concern the During the daytime, the absorption of solar radiation by
airflow patterns inside the canyons. the urban exteriors surface materials is one of the major
The first situation assumes that the wind is perpendi- reasons for increased temperatures in the urban areas.
cular to the long axis of the urban canyon (30 Celsius). This also affects the nocturnal time period due to the
For this condition, four airflow regimes are observed (see thermal storage of the solar radiation in urban materials.
Figure 6.14): If one can decrease the amount of the absorbed solar
radiation, the surface temperature of the exterior
1 When the buildings are well apart (H/W>0.05), their construction elements can be reduced; and heat storage
flow fields do not interact. can be also be minimized. The simplest solution to reduce
2 When the buildings are relatively widely spaced the absorption of the solar radiation is to use high albedo
(H/W<0.4 for cubic and <0.3 for row buildings), their materials in order to keep their surfaces cool.
flow pattern appears almost the same and the flow Furthermore, as the long-wave radiation changes are very
regime is known as isolated roughness flow. high inside the canyons, it is important to use materials
3 At closer spacing (H/W up to about 0.7 for cubic and with high emissivities. As a result, these materials are
0.65 for rows building), the flow pattern appears more good emitters of long-wave energy and release the energy
complicated as a result of the interference of building that has been absorbed as short-wave radiation. In this
waves (wake interference flow), and this flow is way their surface temperatures are lower and contribute
characterized by secondary flows in the canyon space. to the reduction of ambient temperature through the
4 At even closer spacing (greater H/W and density), a mechanism of heat convection.
stable circulatory vortex is established in the canyon, The contribution of trees and green spaces can be
presenting a skimming flow regime that occurs significant in cooling urban areas and therefore can save
where the bulk of the flow does not enter the on energy (e.g. by decreasing the cooling requirements of
canyon. urban buildings). Trees can provide solar protection to
individual houses during the summer period, while
The second situation concerns the airflow patterns when evapotranspiration from trees can reduce urban tempera-
the wind flows parallel to the urban canyon long axis tures (the major mechanism related to trees that
(angle of between 0 and 30). In this case, the retarda- decreases urban temperatures, otherwise known as the
tion of the airflow due to the friction along the building oasis phenomenon). In addition, trees absorb sound and
walls and the street surface can cause a vertical motion of block erosion-causing rainfall, filter dangerous pollutants,
the air along the canyon walls. It is also important to reduce wind speed, stabilize the soil and prevent erosion.
underline that the relationship between the above-roof For example, the latent heat transfer from wet grass can
free-stream wind speed out of the canyon and the corre- result in temperatures 6 to 8 Celsius cooler than over
sponding component of the wind velocity within the exposed soil. In addition, trees and shrubs strategically
canyon, is reported to be directly proportional under planted next to buildings can reduce summer air-condi-
certain conditions. tioning costs by 15 to 35 per cent and, in certain
The third situation concerns the airflow patterns situations, by 50 per cent. Simply shading the air condi-
when the wind direction outside the canyon forms an tioner by using shrubs or a vine-covered trellis can
angle with the canyon long axis; this is the most common save up to 10 per cent in annual cooling energy costs.
7
Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena in
Urban Buildings
Samuel Hassid and Vassilios Geros

Scope of the chapter solar radiation;

heat transfer coefficients;
The scope of this chapter is to understand the main heat time constant of opaque elements;
transfer processes that take place in buildings, as well as effusivity;
to become familiarized with the notions and the parame- free convection;
ters that concern heat transfer procedures. Since these forced convection;
processes are quite complex and of various kinds, the infiltration;
purpose of this chapter is to make clear the differences ventilation;
between the various heat transfer phenomena that heat gains;
contribute to the thermal balance of buildings. energy balance.

Learning objectives Introduction

After completing this chapter, readers will able to under- In order to understand heat transfer processes in the
stand: urban environment, an understanding of the heat transfer
processes in individual buildings is required.
the principles of the various heat transfer processes There are many kinds of heat and mass transfer
that occur in buildings; processes in buildings: conduction through walls; solar
how and why heat transfer processes affect the energy energy transmission through windows or absorption in
balance of buildings; the external surfaces of the envelope; radiation from
which are the main parameters that influence the heat surfaces into the upper atmosphere; heat and moisture
and mass transfer phenomena in urban buildings; transfer by infiltration through cracks; and natural venti-
how to perform simplified calculations for the various lation through openings and mechanical ventilation using
heat transfer processes. fans. All of these processes contribute to the thermal
balance of the building and interact with each other. In
addition, heat transfer in buildings is affected by thermal
Key words storage in the different building elements. It is the
purpose of this chapter to apply heat and mass transfer
Key words include:
analysis to buildings in order to calculate the different
heat transfer rates for the different modes.
heat transfer;
This chapter is divided into two main parts. The first
conduction;
part concerns the physics of the heat transfer and rate
convection;
equations, while the second part presents the principles
radiation;
of heat transfer phenomena in buildings.
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 121

Physics of heat transfer and rate T

equations
An understanding of the physical mechanisms that under-
lie the different heat transfer modes is important so that T2
rate equations quantifying the amount of energy trans-
ferred can be established. The main heat transfer modes
(i.e. conduction, convection and radiation) will be consid-
ered. q

Conduction T1

Conduction is the mode of heat transfer that is related to

activities in the atomic or molecular level. The processes
in the atomic or molecular level depend upon the phase
(solid, liquid or gas) of the material and the form of the L x
material (metal, ceramic, etc.); on the microscopic level,
Figure 7.1 Conduction in a single-layer wall
they are, indeed, very different.
In liquids and gases, heat transfer by conduction is
related to collisions between free molecules: higher where: L is the thickness of a slab; T2 and T1 are the
temperatures are associated with higher molecular temperatures at each side (see Figure 7.1).
energies. In ceramic materials, the molecules are not free
to collide, but are, rather, vibrating nodes of crystal The negative sign in both Equations 1 and 2 is a conse-
lattices. In metals, heat transfer is related to electrons quence of heat being transferred in the direction of
shared by the metallic lattice being transferred between decreasing temperatures.
atoms. In all cases a transfer of energy is taking place from
the hotter (more energetic) parts to the colder (less Convection
energetic) ones. However, since the heat transfer scientist
Convection is the mechanism whereby energy is trans-
or engineer is not really interested in the molecular and
ferred by bulk macroscopic motion of fluids (liquids or
the atomic level, but in giving a macroscopic description
gases), as opposed to the random motion of individual
of heat transfer, these differences are not really important.
molecules, which characterizes conduction. Convection
The rate equation associated with conduction heat
is associated with large numbers of molecules moving as
transfer is Fouriers law:
aggregates.
For heat transfer by convection to occur, two condi-
dT tions are necessary (see Figure 7.2): fluid motion is taking
qx'' = (1)
dx place and there is a temperature gradient.
When the fluid motion itself is caused by the temper-
where: qx'' is the heat flux defined as the heat transfer rate
ature gradient, then one speaks of free or natural
per unit area perpendicular to the direction of heat trans-
convection. Free (natural) convection is caused when
fer (W/m2); dT/dx is the temperature gradient in this
buoyancy forces result in the upward movement of lighter,
direction and the constant of proportionality; and is a
hotter fluid, whose place is taken by heavier, cooler fluid.
property known as the thermal conductivity of the
Convective heat transfer occurs simultaneously with
material (W/m.K) (see Table 7.2).
conductive heat transfer. However, in most cases, convec-
tion is a much more efficient way of transferring heat than
Under steady state conditions and uni-directional heat
conduction. Fluid flow can be laminar (i.e. in a regular
transfer, the temperature distribution is linear and the
pattern constant, or changing only slowly with time), or
heat flux can be expressed as:
turbulent (i.e. with strong fluctuations of velocity around
a mean value). In the first case, heat transfer in the direc-
T2 T1 tion of the fluid flow is mainly (in most cases, exclusively)
qx'' = (2)
L by convection; but heat transfer in direction perpendicu-
lar to it is by conduction. In the latter case convection is
122 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

U Radiation differs from the other two mechanisms of

T00
heat transfer in two ways:

1 Conduction and convection require the presence of

matter as a medium. Radiation requires no material
medium and, in fact, occurs most efficiently in a
vacuum.
2 In conduction and convection, heat transfer is propor-
tional to a temperature difference. In radiation, it is
also dependent on the absolute temperature T,
measured in Kelvin (temperature in Celsius plus
273.15).

The basic law of radiation is the one governing the rate at

Ts which energy is released from a surface per unit area or
emissive power Eb:
q
Eb = T4 (4)
Figure 7.2 Convection
where: is a universal constant called the Stefan
Boltzmann constant
the heat transfer mechanism both in the direction of the
flow and perpendicular to it. (= 5.67 x 108 W/m2.K)
Regardless of the particular nature of convection heat
transfer process (free or forced, laminar or turbulent) the is a radiative property of the surface called emissivity
appropriate rate equation is usually of the form: (0 1)
q'' = hc (Ts T) (3) When the emissivity is equal to 1, emissive power is at
maximum and the emitting surface is called a blackbody.
where: q'' is the convective heat flux (presumed positive Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its
when away from the surface and negative when into the surroundings. The radiation may originate from a special
surface, although nothing prevents it from being defined source, such as the sun or a lighting device, or it may
the other way round) originate from other surfaces to which the surface of inter-
Ts is the surface temperature est is exposed. We designate the rate at which such
T is the fluid temperature radiation is incident on a unit surface as the irradiation G.
hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient Since radiation is transmitted by electromagnetic
(W/m2.K). waves, it has a wavelength and a frequency in fact, a
whole range of wavelengths. The wavelength of radiation
The hc coefficient depends upon the fluid velocity or wind with which one is concerned in buildings varies between
speed in the case of forced convection, on the tempera- some tenths of a micron (micrometer) to approximately
ture difference itself in the case of free convection, and, 100 microns. The wavelength of radiated energy depends
of course, on the physical parameters of the fluid. Being upon the temperature of the emitting surface: the charac-
proportional to the density, it is much higher for liquids teristic wavelength (at which the spectre of emissive
than for gases. power is maximum) is given by Wienns law:

Radiation max T = 2898m.K (5)

Radiation is emitted by matter and transported by electro-
magnetic waves (although in the alternative description, The two particular radiation kinds one is most interested
one considers photons rather than waves). The emission in buildings is solar (short-wave) radiation, characterized
results from changes in the energy levels of electrons in by a wavelength of approximately 0.5m (microns or
the atoms of matter. micrometers) and terrestrial (long-wave) radiation, charac-
terized by a wavelength of approximately 10m. The part
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 123

of the spectrum associated with solar radiation is subdi- Tmrt

vided into visible (wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.76m
accounting for 44 per cent of the energy), ultra-violet
(wavelengths lower than 0.4m, accounting for 3 per cent
of the energy) and infrared (wavelengths higher than
0.6m, accounting for 53 per cent of the energy).
Incident radiation may be absorbed, reflected or
transmitted. The coefficients governing these processes
are the absorptivity () (see Table 7.3), the reflexivity ()
and the transmissivity () all those coefficients varying
between 0 and 1. A material with non-zero transmissivity
is called transparent. Whereas absorption and emission Ts
increase and reduce, respectively, the thermal energy of
matter, transmission and reflection have no effect upon it. Figure 7.3 Radiation
The above properties depend upon the characteristic
wavelength of the radiation and are often very much Equations 3 and 7 are often combined to form an
different for solar and for long-wave radiation: glass trans- equation giving the thermal balance from a surface:
parent to solar radiation is usually opaque to long-wave
radiation and a wall is white (i.e. reflective) to solar radia- q'' = h(Ts To) (9)
tion, but almost black (absorptive) to long-wave radiation.
One is usually interested in the net radiative heat where:
transfer from a surface, which is equal to the difference
between the emitted and absorbed energy: h = hc + hr (10)
q''rad = Ts4 G = (Ts4 T4mrt) (6)
hcT + hrTmrt
T0 = (11)
where: Ts is the absolute temperature of a surface (in K); h
Tmrt is the mean radiant absolute temperature of the
surroundings (see Figure 7.3). Principles of heat transfer in buildings

The mean radiant temperature will be defined later, but Conduction

in Equation 6 it is shown that net radiative heat transfer Uni-directional steady-state conduction
is proportional to the difference of the fourth power of heat transfer
absolute temperatures.
In many cases it is convenient to express net radia- Conduction heat transfer in building elements (walls and
tion exchange terms of a temperature difference: roofs) is usually considered uni-directional, since the
dimensions of walls in the direction of heat transfer are
qrad'' = hr(Ts Tmrt) (7) much larger than the ones perpendicular to it. These
temperature gradients are usually much larger in that
where hr can be derived from Equation 6: direction (see Equation 2).
There are some limited regions where two building
hr = (Ts + Tmrt)(Ts2 + Tmrt2) 4[(Ts + Tmrt)/2]3 elements border each other or in the corners of buildings,
(8) where gradients in the direction perpendicular to the
main flow are appreciable. These are called thermal
Here radiation is modelled in a manner similar to convec- bridges and are usually treated separately, their effect
tion and made proportional to a linearized difference. being relatively small, although by no means negligible
Note, however, that there are several differences between (and will be summarily treated further on).
the two expressions. In Equation 8, the mean radiant Conduction in walls, on the other hand, is not usually
temperature Tmrt replaces the fluid temperature, and hr is steady state for the time constants of meteorological
much more dependent on temperature than hc. phenomena: it involves storing and releasing energy.
However, steady-state heat transfer is relevant in two
cases:
124 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

1 When one deals with long-term, averaged quantities, Equation 13 can be used in conjunction with Equation 12
as opposed to instantaneous quantities. to relate the steady-state heat flux through a multilayered
2 When one deals with light-weight elements. wall to the temperature difference between the internal
and the external surface temperatures.
The reason that conduction steady-state heat transfer is Usually one needs to relate the heat flux through a
so important is because, in many countries, in the insula- wall to the difference between the internal and external
tion standards and in other regulations connected to air temperatures (rather than the surface temperatures).
energy consumption in buildings much attention is given To this end, one needs to account for heat transfer
to the conduction steady-state properties of building between the surface and the air, by convection, and to
elements for the reasons stated above. other surfaces by radiation. This is usually done by using
Equation 2 can be rewritten in several forms: a film resistance for each surface, defining a total thermal
resistance R (m2.K/W) and a total thermal conductance U
T2 T1 (W/m2.K), also called the U-value in several US or UK
qx'' = (12)
r references:

where: r is the thermal resistance of the building element. To Ti

qx'' = = U (To Ti) (14)
R
This last term is based on the analogy between thermal
and electrical resistance. Equation 12 is effectively similar 1 1
to Ohms law, with the heat flux replacing the electric and R= +r+ (15)
ho hi
the temperature difference replacing the potential differ-
ence (voltage).
where: To is the internal air temperature; Ti is the exter-
Using the electrical analogy, one can use Equation 12
nal air temperature; ho is the external heat film
for multilayered walls, as well and most walls consist of
conductance; hi is the internal heat film conductance.
more than one layer:
L1 L2 L3 In Equation 14, the heat flux is positive when it is from
r = r1 + r2 + r3 + = + + + (13) inside the house in the external direction.
1 2 3
Equation 14 is often used; but one should clarify that
it is correct only in the case that the outside air tempera-
where: r is the total thermal resistance of the wall (or roof);
ture is equal to the mean radiant temperature and does
r1, r2, r3, etc are the resistances of each individual layer
not account well for radiative heat transfer. This can be
(see Figure 7.4).
done by using the sol-air temperature, to be defined later.
L1 L2 L3
Uni-directional unsteady-state conduction
heat transfer
As stated above, conductive heat transfer in building
elements is seldom steady state: the time constants
involved are of the same order of magnitude as the time
constants of climatic change. Therefore, conductive heat
1 2 3
transfer in walls is accompanied by heat storage. In this
section, we will consider one-dimensional heat transfer in
building elements and the ways of accounting for varia-
tion of temperature with time concentrating on heat
transfer in buildings.

Heat conduction (diffusion) differential equation

The heat diffusion equation runs:
L1 L2 L3
T
1 2 3 cp
t
=
x ( Tx ) (16)
Figure 7.4 Multilayered wall and electrical analogue
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 125

Where is the density of the material (kg/m3); cp is the L L

specific heat of the material (for gases, the specific heat at 2 2
constant pressure), measured in J/kg.K (although
Wh/kg.K is sometimes used) (see Table 7.2 for values
concerning various materials).

Equation 16 is sometimes presented as a diffusion

equation, using the thermal diffusivity (m2/s):
T
t
=
x ( Tx ) (17)
p.cp.L

where:

= / cp (18)
Ground
The conduction equation has several kinds of boundary
conditions. In building analysis, one usually focuses on
simplified solutions that can easily be applied to building Figure 7.5 Electrical analogue of one-layer wall
applications, involving some kind of lumping of the (unsteady state)
conductance.
Note that since many building elements (especially

t
concrete) have a specific heat of approximately 1kJ/kg.K Ti(t) Ti(0)exp(t/Tc) = To(t')exp[(t t')/Tc]dt'/Tc
(0.24kWh/kg.K) thermal diffusivity is dependent on 0 (22)
density only.
Equation 21 is a special case of Equation 22, in which the
Lumping of thermal mass in building elements: Thermal initial value of Ti and a continuous variation of To with
time constant time are taken into account. Both equations being linear,
The easiest way of analysing the unsteady-state thermal one can measure the temperature above an arbitrary level
behaviour of a slab of thickness L is by lumping all its (say, 0 Celsius or 20 Celsius).
thermal capacitance C in the middle:
Time constant of multilayer constructions
C = cpL (19) It is possible to generalize the thermal time constant of
Equation 20 for multilayer constructions. For such
In the electric analogue, this is equivalent to connecting constructions, the thermal time constant can be defined
an earthed capacitance C to the middle of the resistance as the energy stored per unit area in the construction per
(see Figure 7.5). Thus, an element is formed whose time unit change in heat flux and is equal to:
constant is: n i1

Tc =
L2
=
1 L
( )( )
L cp = CR / 2 (20)
Tc =
i=1
i cpi Li (
1
+ Lj Li
+ )
ho j = 1 j 2i
(23)
2 2
In Equation 23, the layers are numbered from the outside
Thus, considering a single layer wall, the response of the inwards. Equation 23, strictly speaking, gives the external
internal temperature Ti(t) to a step change T in the thermal time constant and an internal one can be defined
outside temperature (the initial temperature in the slab by applying the equation with the terms being numbered
being uniform and equal to the outside temperature To(0) from the inside outwards; but such a time constant is
before the change) is given by: seldom used.
Equation 23 can be used in conjunction with
Ti(t) = T[1 exp(t/Tc)] + To(0) (21) Equations 21 and 22 when the internal temperature
response to external temperature variations is required.
More generally, the response of the internal temperature A major characteristic of Equation 23 is the impor-
to changes in external temperature is given by: tance of the relative position of the layers. If a concrete
126 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

slab is insulated using an insulating material, the thermal Other solutions of the transient uni-directional
resistance, describing the steady state properties of the conduction equation
construction, is the same whether the insulating material As already stated, the uni-directional transient conduc-
is placed inside, outside or in the middle of the slab. The tive heat transfer equations mentioned above are
time constant, on the other hand, describing the non- approximate the reason for the approximation being the
steady state properties of the construction, is completely desire to keep a physical insight into the interplay of
different. It is very large when the insulating material is conductive heat transfer and storage.
placed outside and much smaller when the insulating There are several cases where the above equations
material is placed inside. This shows that two building fail to adequately describe heat transfer, and alternative
elements may have the same steady-state heat transfer methods can be used. These methods are as follows:
properties, but a completely different transient behaviour.
Methods based on a numerical solution of a difference
Limitations of the thermal time constant method: equation based on the conduction Equation 16, with
Effusivity appropriate boundary conditions on each side of the
The thermal time constant method is an approximate wall and at the interface between two elements.
method and is based on the lumping of the thermal capac- Usually, the layers are subdivided into two or three
ity of a building element in a single node. The thermal parts for an adequate solution to be obtained.
storage capacity in real elements is not lumped, but Methods based on response factors, giving the heat
distributed along the element, and the lumping may intro- flux in terms of not only the temperature, but also the
duce an error which might become appreciable. It works temperature and heat flux history of the construction.
reasonably well for that time constant, but is not appro- The response factors are a series of numbers calcu-
priate for describing the thermal behaviour for times lated by solving Equation 16 using Laplace and
shorter than that time constant. In particular, it is not Fourier analysis and are mainly used in the US
appropriate for describing the thermal response to solar (ASHRAE Fundamentals, 1985).
energy incident inside the thermal element. The admittance method, based on Fourier analysis,
For such problems, the effusivity method is more used in the UK.
appropriate.
Consider Equation 16, with an initially uniform Convective heat transfer
temperature distribution and a step change qo in the The study of convective heat transfer is linked to that of
thermal flux. The expression for the temperature for an fluid flow. The equations describing fluid flow are essen-
infinite slab, which can be found using an integral tially non-linear and their closed solution is possible only
method, is: in some special cases. Engineering calculations are
usually based on a combination of theory, experiment and
T(t) = qo t/ (24) dimensional analysis.
For heat transfer calculations in buildings, the main
where: is the effusivity, is defined as: formulae used are the ones of Newtons Law of Cooling,
describing heat transfer between a solid surface and a
= cp (25) fluid in contact with it (see Equation 9), as well as the
equation describing bulk heat transfer between two fluids
As already stated, the effusivity method, consistent with a with different temperatures, used in calculations of infil-
variation with time which is proportional to t, is valid tration and ventilation heat transfer:
for relatively short times, when the heat wave has not
reached the other side of the slab. For longer times, the Q = cp U (Tu Td) (26)
influence of the boundary conditions on the other side of
the slab is felt. Effusivity represents the response of the where: Q is the bulk heat transfer; U is the bulk velocity;
surface temperature to the heat flow changes on the wall Tu is the temperature upstream; Td the temperature
surface. The lower the effusivity, the higher the sensitiv- downstream
ity of the surface temperature to the heat flow changes.
In what follows, the emphasis is on heat transfer to air
(density of the order of 1.1 to 1.2 kilograms per cubic
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 127

metre, specific heat of 1000J/kg.K, viscosity 1.6 x 105, hc= 1.42 (T sin /L)1/4 for laminar flow (L3 T 1)
volumetric expansion coefficient equal to 1/T). hc= 1.31 (T sin )1/3 for turbulent flow (L3 T > 1)
(30)
Convection coefficients from infinite plates:
Free convection In Equations 27 to 30, the heat transfer coefficient is in
As already stated, in free or natural convection the motive W/m2.K and the other parameters are in SI units.
force of the movement of the fluid is the temperature
difference itself and the ensuing buoyancy forces created Convection coefficients from infinite plates:
by the density differences. Thus, one expects the convec- Forced convection
tive film heat transfer coefficient to depend upon the In forced convection, the fluid movement is independent
temperature differences. of the thermal gradients and therefore is independent of
Of particular importance in building heat transfer are the orientation of the plane (horizontal or vertical). For
the convective heat transfer coefficients from horizontal laminar flow over plates, the convective heat transfer
plates. These are influenced by two factors: coefficient in air is approximately:
1 Whether the heat transfer flow is upwards (for hc= 2 (U/L)1/2 (31)
example, from a hot floor or roof to the air above it or
from a cold ceiling to the air below it) or downwards where: L is the length of the surface in the direction of
(from a hot ceiling to the air below it or from a cold the flow; U the velocity away from the plate (the wind
floor or roof to the air above it). In the former case, speed in metres per second).
the heat transfer is more intense than in the latter case
because of the direction of the buoyant forces. However, air flow around buildings is very seldom
2 Whether the heat transfer is turbulent or laminar, laminar, and Equation 31 applies only if UL < 1.4 square
which is the determining criterion for this case. metres per second. For turbulent flow (UL 1.4 square
metres per second), the convection coefficient is given by:
A characteristic geometric parameter that is important for
estimation of the convective heat transfer coefficients is hc= 6.2 (U4/L)1/5 (32)
the length (L) of the plate in the direction of the
buoyancy-driven flow (e.g. in a vertical wall, L is the Equations 31 and 32 are applicable for flows in open
height of the wall). For heat flow upwards, the heat spaces. Equation 32 is applicable for smooth surfaces
convection coefficient is given by: (such as glass) and the coefficient can be twice as big for
rough ones (such as stucco walls). It has to be modified
hc= 1.32 (T/L)1/4 for laminar flow (L3 T 1) for buildings in urban spaces.
hc= 1.52 (T)1/3 for turbulent flow (L3 T > 1) (27)
Convective heat transfer: Infiltration and
For heat flow downwards, only laminar flow is possible ventilation of buildings
since the stabilizing buoyant forces dampen turbulence:
Heat transfer in buildings may also be due to infiltration
hc= 0.59 (T/L)1/4 (28) and ventilation. In both cases, heat transfer comes as a
result of airflow into and out of buildings. In the case of
Correlations similar to Equation 27, with slightly differ- infiltration, the movement is uncontrolled and involun-
ent coefficients, are valid for horizontal heat flow, from tary and is through cracks in the building walls and
vertical plates (walls): around openings. In the case of ventilation the airflow is
desirable in order to maintain indoor air quality and
hc= 1.42 (T/L)1/4 for laminar flow (L3 T 1) occasionally for thermal comfort reasons, by lowering the
hc= 1.31 (T)1/3 for turbulent flow (L3 T > 1) (29) internal temperature or increasing wind speed.
Ventilation may be natural (i.e. through opened windows)
Equation 29 can be generalized to cover flow from or forced through fans and air-conditioning systems.
inclined surfaces with tilt between 30 and 90 from the In both cases, the heat loss/gain (depending upon
horizontal plane: whether the internal temperature is higher/lower than the
external one) Qinf is given by:
128 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

. Table 7.1 Airflow rate due to infiltration according to

Qinf = cpV (Tin To) (33) the number of windows and exterior doors
. Type of room Air changes per hour
where: V is the volumetric flow rate of air.
No windows or exterior doors 0.5
Windows or exterior doors on one side 1.0
The volumetric flow rate of air is expressed in cubic Windows or exterior doors on two sides 1.5
metres per second; but often one sees it in air changes per Windows or exterior doors on three sides 2.0
hour (ACH), which are obtained by dividing the volumet- Entrance halls 2.0
ric flow rate by the volume V of the building and then
multiplying by 3600 (number of seconds in an hour): Note: for windows with weather stripping or storm sash, use two-thirds of
these values.
.
ACH = 3600V /V (34)
conditions.
Both infiltration and ventilation are governed by two main A method applicable for detached houses is the LBL
physical mechanisms: method, in which the air-tightness of a building is charac-
terized by the effective leakage area (ELA), which is
1 The stack effect or buoyancy forces: this results from defined as the area of a perfect orifice that at a pressure
the density difference between the internal and the difference of 4 Pascales (Pa) between inside and outside
external air and is proportional to gHL, being the house gives the same airflow rate Q4 (in cubic metres
the difference between the internal and external air per second) as in the house. One can picture the ELA as
density and HL the difference in height between the concentrating the area of all the cracks of a house in a
uppermost and lowermost opening. single orifice:
2 The wind forces, resulting from differences in static
pressure over the building envelope due to the wind. ELA(m2) = Q4 (8 / )
These forces are proportional to V2 and depend air
(35)
upon the relative position of the building in relation
to the wind direction. The effective leakage area is determined experimentally
by the blower-door method although the airflow rate at
The wind forces are usually the dominant ones, with the 4Pa is not actually measured since it is too unreliable.
stack effect being important only for very low wind speeds Usually, measurements are performed between 10Pa and
(less than 1 metre per second) or in cases of very high 50Pa and the result extrapolated to 4Pa. Alternatively, the
multistorey buildings. Although the two forces may ELA can be estimated from the length of the cracks on
theoretically oppose each other, they usually enhance the surface of the building.
each other. However, their combined effect cannot be Once the ELA is known, the infiltration can be
described by adding the airflow rate one calculates by estimated by calculating first the contribution of the stack
each one separately. effect Qst and then the contribution of the wind forces Qw
The airflow rate across an opening is proportional to (see Figure 7.6):
Pn, n being an exponent with typical values two-thirds
for tight cracks to one-half for larger cracks and for Qst = 0.25 ELA gHL T / T (36)
openings.

b Hbb
Estimating infiltration rate Qw = C ELA U (37)
s Hs s
Different approaches are used in estimating infiltration,
with varying degrees of complexity. The simplest one is
the air exchange method, in which the airflow rate where: T is the difference between the internal and the
depends only upon the number of openings in each room external temperature; C is a coefficient dependent on the
and the volume of the room (see Table 7.1). terrain of the house (varying between 0.3 for open terrain
This method is easy to use, but fails to take into to 0.1 for city centres); U is the wind speed (in metres per
account the dynamics of airflow in buildings. It would second); H is the height of the building (in metres); HL is
give the same flow rate in a windy and in a calm region, the difference in height between the highest and the
and for the same house it would imply that the air flow lowest cracks (in metres).
rate is constant independent of the external and internal
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 129

and depend on the surroundings and vary between 1 building). These models require the geometrical descrip-
(for open spaces) to 0.5 (to city centres) for and between tion of the space and of the external environment when
0.5 (for open spaces) and 0.1 (for city centres) for . The natural ventilation is studied. This representation is
subscripts b and s refer to the building and the weather performed by using a grid that divides the model into
station in which the measurements were taken corre- basic volumes (cells).
spondingly. Finally, a third category of models comprises the zonal
models. These models are based on an approach that is
Once Qst and Qw are calculated, the total infiltration may intermediate between network models, which give no
be estimated: information about airflow patterns, and CFD models,
which give detailed temperature and flow distributions
Q = Qst2 + Qw2 + Qvent
2
(38) but are computationally intensive. Such intermediate
models execute much faster than CFD calculations, yet
where: Qvent is the forced ventilation rate, if applicable. model heat and mass transfer in greater detail than the
network approach and provide temperature, concentra-
In more sophisticated models, a mass flow balance of the tion and flow distributions that are detailed enough to
flows in each room is solved in conjunction with the evaluate parameters such as infiltration and ventilation.
equations relating the pressure difference across each
opening. The equation is non-linear and therefore the use Radiation heat transfer in buildings
of an iterative procedure is required. These are network
Radiation is a very important mechanism of heat transfer.
and modal models, such as COMIS, AIRNET, AIOLOS
In buildings, there are two different radiation applica-
and others.
tions:
In addition, the use of more analytical models such as
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models can facilitate
1 Radiation between surfaces at terrestrial tempera-
a more detailed study of ventilation and infiltration. CFDs
tures (or long-wave radiation), as is the case between
are based on the solution of Navier-Stokes equations by
two walls or a wall and neighbouring buildings or the
using numerical methods. More precisely, these models
sky. This particular form of radiation is usually treated
use the conservation equations of mass, of momentum and
using the grey surface methodology.
of energy, as well as the transport equations for the turbu-
2 Solar radiation, transmitted, reflected or absorbed by
lent velocity. One can use these numerical models in
different surfaces.
order to determine the air velocity and temperature
profiles, as well as pressure, in a limited space (e.g. a
Grey surfaces
In principle, the radiation properties of matter (emissiv-
ity, transmissivity, absorptivity, reflexivity) depend upon
the wavelength of incident radiation. For monochromatic
(i.e. single wavelength) radiation, it can be proved on the
basis of thermodynamic equilibrium considerations that
the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity:

(A) = () (39)
T1 T2
H However, given that the radiation spectrum is usually
different for the radiation emitted by a surface and the one
T = T1 = T2 absorbed by it, which originates from surfaces with
HL temperatures different from the one of the absorbing
temperature, the energy-spectrum weighted-mean
emissivity is different from the mean absorptivity:

(40)

However, if the temperature difference between the

Figure 7.6 Stack effect in LBL infiltration model surfaces that exchange energy by radiation is relatively
130 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

small, one can ignore the dependence of the emissivity 1.0 Ratio Y/D=10
X
(and absorptivity) on the spectrum and use the grey 5.0
3.0
Y A2 2.0
surface theory, in which the emissivity is assumed to be 0.5 D 1.5
independent of the spectrum. Therefore, Equation 39 1.0
A1 0.8
gives: 0.6
0.2 0.4
= (41)
0.3
F12 0.1
A corollary of Equation 41 for non-transmissive surfaces 0.2
is:
0.03 0.1
+=1 (42)

Where is the reflectivity when Equation 42 is valid, the 0.02

radiosity J of the surface is related to its irradiation G and
its emissive power Eb (see Figure 7.7): 0.01
0.1 1.0 10 20
J = Eb + G = T4 + (1 ) G (43) Ratio X/D
Source: Kreider and Rabl, 1994
The irradiation Gi is related to the radiosity of surfaces Jj Figure 7.8 View factors between parallel and
with which surface i exchanges heat by radiation through equal rectangles as a function of geometry
the radiation shape factors Fji, a quantity that is strictly
geometric and depends upon the relative position and
n

F =1
orientation of surfaces i and j. Fji does not depend upon
the emissivity and temperature of the surfaces. ji (47)
Gi is related to the radiosity of the surfaces through i=1

the following linear relation:

Fji is 0 for plane and convex surfaces, but has a finite value
n

1 for concave surfaces, in which some of the energy radiated
Gj = AF J (44) by the surface is incident upon it. The shape factor
Aj i = 1 i ji i
algebra applies for diffusely emitting and reflecting
A basic property of the shape factor is the reciprocity surfaces.
relation: 0.7
X
Z
Ai Fij = Aj Fji (45) 0.6 A2
Y
which simplifies Equation 44: A1
0.5
n Ratio Y/X=0.1
Gj =
i=1
Fji Ji (46)
F12
0.4 0.2
0.4
0.3 0.6
Another relationship that can be derived from the first law
of thermodynamics states that the sum of the shape factors 1.0
1.5
for a given surface is equal to unity: 0.2
2
4
G .G .Eb = ..T4 0.1 6
10
20
0
0.1 1.0 10
Ratio Z/X
Source: Kreider and Rabl, 1994

Figure 7.7 Grey surface radiation Figure 7.9 View factors between perpendicular
rectangles as a function of geometry
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 131

For radiative heat transfer between adjacent rectan- assuming that they have the same temperature (see
gular walls (or between vertical walls and ceilings) and Figure 7.10):
heat transfer between opposing planes of a rectangular
room, the shape factors as a function of the ratios of the (T24 T14 )
q1 = (50)
edges (see Figures 7.8 and 7.9). A special case is the faces (1 1) / 1 + (1 2)A1 / 2A2 + 1
of a cube, in which both the shape factor between
adjacent surfaces and between opposing surfaces is equal Radiative heat transfer coefficients
to 0.2.
Radiative heat transfer is often presented in terms of a
heat transfer coefficient similar to the convective heat
Radiative exchange transfer coefficient. For example, the heat transfer coeffi-
The simplest case of radiative heat transfer is between cient characterizing the radiative heat transfer between
opposing parallel infinite surfaces. Using the methodol- two infinite plates is equal to:
ogy developed in the previous section, with the shape
factors equal to 1, one can obtain an equation for the heat 4 [(T1 + T2 ) / 2]3
hr (51)
transfer by radiation between two parallel surfaces, which 1 / 1 + 1 / 2 1
is used to calculate the heat transfer rate by radiation in
gaps, which are parts of walls and double-glazed windows For 1 = 2 = 0.8 and mean temperature equal to 300K,
(see Figure 7.10): the heat transfer coefficient is approximately equal to
4.1W/m2.K.
(T24 T14 ) Another convenient transformation is to express the
q1 = (48) heat transfer from a surface in terms of the mean radiant
1 / 1 + 1 / 2 1
temperature Tmr, defined as the temperature of a black
enclosure exchanging heat by radiation with the given
Equation 48 is a special case of heat transfer between two surface at the same rate as the actual surroundings. Thus,
surfaces, which are configured so that one closes the radiative heat exchange with a surface with tempera-
completely on the other: ture Ts and emissivity s is equal to:
(T24 T14 ) Q/A = s (Ts4 Tmr4) hr (Ts Tmr) (52)
q1 = (49)
(1 1) / 1 + (1 2)A1 / 2A2 + 1/F12
The mean radiant temperature is a convenient way of
A special case in Equation 49 is when one of the two lumping all of the temperatures of the surfaces with which
surfaces is flat, which can be used to calculate heat trans- radiative exchange occurs into a single temperature
fer between the attic floor and the surfaces of an attic, equivalent to a delta-star transformation in electrical
networks.

Solar radiation
Solar radiation has a major contribution to the energy
A2, 2, T2 balance of buildings, both during the winter, when this
contribution is desirable, and during the summer, when it
may be a major component of the cooling load.
Solar radiation calculations feature three stages:

1 calculation of the solar coordinates;

2 calculation of radiation intensity at a particular
surface;
3 calculation of solar heat gain.
A1, 1, T1

Figure 7.10 Radiative heat transfer between a flat floor

and the surfaces of an attic
132 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Solar coordinates The factor 4 is used to convert degrees of latitude into

minutes of time.
The position of the sun in the sky is defined by the two
ET is a function of the day of the year n (varying from 1 to
solar coordinates (see Figure 7.11):
365) and is usually given in minutes:
1 the solar elevation or solar height (i.e. the angle n 81 n 81
between the suns rays and the horizontal plane); ET = 9.87 sin(4 ) 7.53 cos(2 )
364 364
2 the solar azimuth (i.e. the angle between the projec-
tion of the solar rays on the horizontal surface and the n 81
south, in the Northern hemisphere). 1.5 sin(2 ) (55)
364
Both angles are functions of:
ET varies from +16 minutes at the end of October to 14
the solar hour angle H; minutes in mid-February.
the latitude L; The local standard meridian (LSM) characterizes the
the declination angle . standard time of a certain place and is usually a multiple
of 15: 0 for the UK and Ireland, 15 for Western Europe
The solar hour angle H can be derived from the apparent and 30 for Eastern Europe (Finland and Greece). During
solar time (AST): daylight savings time, the LSM is pushed 15 eastwards.
Note that in textbooks applicable to the US, the sign in
H (in degrees) = (AST 12)/15 (53) front of LSM LON term in Equation 54 is positive, since
Western latitudes are considered positive there.
It is negative before solar noon and positive thereafter.
The apparent solar time can be derived from the local Solar height and azimuth
standard time (LST):
The solar height and the azimuth are given by:
AST = LST + ET 4(LSM LON) (54)
sin = cos H cos L cos + sin sin L (57)
where ET is the equation of time, expressing the non- sin sinL sin
uniformity of the sun movement in the sky; LSM is the cos = (58)
Local Standard Meridian characterizing the time of a cos cosL
given place (in degrees east of the Greenwich meridian);
LON is the Local Longitude of that place. The equation for the azimuth should be used with the
proviso that the azimuth is negative (east of south) in the
morning and positive (west of south) in the afternoon.

Intensity of solar radiation

The solar constant Io gives the intensity of solar radiation
outside of the Earths atmosphere (normal to the solar
rays):
n1
Io (W / m2) = 1353 (1 + 0.033 cos 2( 365 )) (59)

There is an almost 7 per cent difference between the

highest value, on 2 January, when the sun is nearest to the
Earth, and the lowest value in June.
Satellite measurements during the time period of
19781998 report a mean value of daily averages for the
solar constant equal to 1366.1W/m2, having a
minimummaximum range of 13631368W/m2.
Figure 7.11 Solar coordinates (elevation and azimuth ) Adjustments yielded a solar constant calculated as
1366.22W/m2.
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 133

Once in the atmosphere, some of the solar radiation Radiation on inclined surfaces
reaches the ground as direct normal radiation IDN (or
Solar radiation on an inclined surface is given by:
beam radiation), some is reflected back to space by clouds,
some is absorbed and some is scattered (by clouds and I = IDN cos + Idif + Igr
particles) and reaches the ground as diffuse radiation, with
1 + cos 1 cos (62)
little or no directionality. = IDN cos + Idif,h + grIhor
2 2
Solar radiation on clear days where IDN is the direct normal radiation intensity; Idif is
The solar beam radiation on clear days is related to the the diffuse radiation intensity; Idif,h is the diffuse radiation
solar constant through a correlation dependent upon the intensity on a horizontal plane; Ihor is the total radiation
solar elevation: on a horizontal plane; Igr is the ground reflected radiation
intensity; is the angle of incidence of the sun rays on the
IDN = Io[ao + a1 exp(k/sin )] (60) plane; is the slope of the plane in relation to the horizon-
tal; gr is the reflectivity of the ground in front of the plane
The coefficients ao, a1 and k are functions of the visibility (taken usually as 0.2 for Earth, but can reach values of 0.7
and the altitude A (in kilometres) of the site and are given for sand and 0.9 for fresh snow).
by:
Equation 62 implies that both the diffuse radiation and
For visibility 23km the ground reflected radiation is perfectly diffuse.
ao = ro[0.4237 0.00821 (6 A)2 Although there are more sophisticated models for the
a1 = r1[0.5055 0.00821 (6.5 A)2] diffuse radiation, this is still the model most commonly
k = rk[0.2711 0.01858 (2.5 A)2] used.
The incidence angle is given by the following
For visibility 5km equation (see Figure 7.12):
ro[0.2538 0.0063 (6 A)2]
r1[0.7678 0.0010 (6.5 A)2] cos = cos cos()sin + sin cos (63)
rk[0.2490 0.0810 (2.5 A)2]
where: is the azimuth of the plane (i.e. the angle
Values of ro, r1 and rk subtended between the horizontal projection of the
normal to the plane and the south).
Climate type ro r1 rk
Visibility
23km 5km
Tropical 0.95 0.92 0.98 1.02
Mid-latitude
summer 0.97 0.96 0.99 1.02
Sub-arctic
summer 0.99 0.98 0.99 1.01 Normal
Mid-latitude

winter 1.03 1.04 1.01 1.00

Under the same conditions, the diffuse radiation on a
horizontal surface is given by: South

Idif = (0.2711Io 0.2939IDN)sin (61)

Figure 7.12 Incidence angle on inclined surfaces
The equations above are based on the Hottel (1976)
model accepted by ASHRAE (1985).
134 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Two special cases with regard to Equation 63 are the For glass whose properties are different from DSG,
horizontal and vertical planes: one has to multiply SHGF by the shading coefficient (SC),
which is the ratio of solar heat gain to the corresponding
cos hor = sin (64) quantity for DSG at normal incidence (contrary to what
its name implies, it is not related to shading and is a
cos ver = cos cos ( ) (65) function of the optical properties of glass):

The estimation of hourly and daily solar radiation values (0) + (0)U/ho (0) + (0)U/ho
SC = (68)
on inclined or horizontal surfaces can also be performed DSG(0) + DSG(0)U/ho 0.86
by using more detailed atmospheric models in order to
calculate solar radiation in places where there are no In Equation 68, one assumes that although the values of
available measurements. These models are capable of the optical properties of the glass are different from DSG,
estimating solar radiation by using available meteorologi- their variation with the angle of incidence is the same.
cal data as inputs, such as air temperature, relative Similar expressions can be used for double glazing,
humidity, barometric pressure and sunshine duration. characterized by a heat transfer coefficient for the gap
Atmospheric models examine the propagation of solar between the two glazings hg:
radiation through the atmosphere by taking into account,
in most cases, the optical transmittances due to various
atmospheric phenomena (e.g. Mie and Rayleigh scatter-
SC = ( 1
i o

io oi
+ (oo+
oiooi U
) +
1 io oi ho
ing) and various absorption processes (e.g. due to ozone,
ooi 1 1
water vapour and mixed gases). Most atmospheric models
are capable of working efficiently under various sky
+
1 io oi
)U( + )
ho hg ) 0.861 (69)
conditions (clear, overcast, partly cloudy skies).

Solar heat gains through windows where the subscripts i and o refer to the inner and the
outer glazing, whereas oo refers to the external surface of
As already stated, solar radiation interaction with trans- the external glazing, oi to the internal surface of the exter-
parent surfaces is characterized by the transmissivity , nal glazing, and io to the external surface of the inner
the absorptivity and the reflexivity , all three functions glazing (all the properties are at normal incidence).
of the incidence angle and the refractive index: In Equations 68 and 69, the resistance of the glazing
itself has been neglected.
() + () + () = 1 (66)
Heat transfer coefficients used in building
The transmissivity decreases with the angle of incidence, calculations
whereas the reflexivity and absorptivity increase; but their
value is nearly constant for angles of incidence of up to In building heat transfer calculations, Equations 27 and
50. 31 are seldom used. The convective and the radiative heat
The solar heat gain (SHG) can be divided into two transfer coefficient are lumped together and are taken as
parts: the solar energy transmitted through the glass and constant. The values usually employed differ from country
the solar energy absorbed by the glass and transferred to country; however, these are approximately equal to:
inward by conduction, convection and long-wave radia-
tion: Outside film conductance:

U ho 25W/m2.K (70)
SHG = ( + )I (67)
ho
Inside film conductance:
ASHRAE has prepared tables of the solar heat gain for
double strength glass (DSG), for which transmissivity and Vertical surface hi 8.3W/m2.K (71)
absorptivity at normal incidence are 0.86 and 0.06,
respectively. The solar heat gain for double strength glass Horizontal surface: heat flow upwards
is the solar heat gain factor (SHGF). SHGF is given as a
function of latitude, month and solar time for various hi 8.3W/m2.K (72)
directions of vertical windows.
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 135

Horizontal surface: heat flow downwards For external surfaces, the second term results in a sol-
air temperature higher than the air temperature during
hi 6W/m2.K (73) the daytime. The third term usually results in lowering
the sol-air temperature, which becomes lower than the
In the US, different values for ho are used for the summer external temperature during night time. The effect of the
and the winter, reflecting the different wind speeds second term is highest for horizontal roofs during cloud-
between the two periods. A more appropriate differentia- less summer nights. It is lower for urban buildings than
tion would be between day and night in sites where the for buildings in the countryside since long-wave radiation
wind speed is much smaller during the night than during is shielded by the neighbouring buildings.
the day. It might also be appropriate to use different
values in urban and rural surroundings. Thermal balance of a building
The approximations involved are valid for most build-
The heat transfer processes that contribute to the thermal
ing materials that are characterized by a rather high
balance of a building can be seen in Figure 7.13.
emissivity ( > 0.8). This makes the dominant part of the
The heat transfer processes involve:
film resistance the radiative part and the dependence of
the film resistance on temperature difference might be
1 heat conduction through walls, roofs and other
neglected. Thus, the approximation might be inappropri-
elements;
ate when low-emissivity materials (such as aluminium foil
2 heat conduction into the ground from slab-on-grade
or special property films) are used. In this case, closer
elements;
approximations of the previous sections might be neces-
3 solar radiation gains through glazing elements by
sary.
transmission through, and/or absorption by, the glass;
4 internal heat gains from people, lighting and equip-
Sol-air temperature ment;
Equation 14, which describes heat steady-state conduc- 5 latent internal heat gains (losses) through evaporation
tion heat transfer through a wall, implies that the heat flux (condensation) of water involving the latent heat of
is proportional to the temperature difference between the humidity;
internal and external temperature. This, however, is true 6 convective heat transfer from the building envelope
only if there are no gains or losses by radiation, whether to the air and long-wave radiative heat transfer to the
short wave (solar) or long wave. To correct for radiation, it upper atmosphere (sky) and clouds;
is customary to replace the external temperature with the 7 convective heat transfer from internal surfaces of
sol-air temperature. Sol-air temperature is defined as the building elements to indoor air, and radiative heat
temperature of air with which (in the absence of solar and
terrestrial radiation) the heat transfer is equal as in the 1
given element (or surface) when environmental condi-
tions are normal. The sol-air temperature at a given
surface is equal to:
6
I qir
Tsolair = Tair + + (74)
hr + hc hr + hc
6
where Tair is the air temperature; is the absorptivity of 7
the surface (for solar radiation); I is the solar radiation
intensity incident on the surface; qir is the correction to 1 7 3
infrared radiation transfer between surface and environ-
ment if sky temperature is different from Tair.

In practice, the third term varies from 0 for vertical

surfaces to 3.9 K for upward-facing surfaces (the sky
overhead is colder than the rest of the environment).
2

Figure 7.13 Heat transfer balance of a building

136 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

transfer between the internal surfaces of building components of the building. Understanding how these
elements, or absorption of solar radiation and light mechanisms work allows the designer to have a clear view
radiation by internal surfaces; of how the involved parameters affect the indoor environ-
8 heat transfer by convection due to infiltration through ment and how the control of these parameters can lead to
cracks to natural ventilation through openings and an appropriate building design.
forced ventilation using fans; The main purpose of this chapter is to present the
9 storage in different building elements, both external principle mechanisms of heat and mass transfer that occur
(walls, roofs, floors) and internal (structures and inter- in buildings. Three primary heat transfer processes are
nal walls), resulting in the attenuation of internal described (conduction, convection and radiation), in
temperature swing; general, in the first part of this chapter. A more detailed
10 artificial heating and cooling by HVAC equipment. analysis is provided in the second part of the chapter. For
each one of these mechanisms, various calculations are
presented depending upon the situation and the desired
Synopsis accuracy. In addition to these main mechanisms, empha-
sis is also placed on the infiltration and ventilation of
The energy needs for cooling and heating in buildings are
buildings (both of which are parts of the connective heat-
determined by the energy balance. The heat transfer
transfer process), as well as on solar radiation and the
phenomena that take place in buildings refer to a variety
movement of the sun (which is part of the radioactive heat
of mechanisms which concern the transfer of heat
transfer). At the end of this chapter, the thermal balance
between the outdoor and the indoor environment,
of a building is presented in order to explain the contri-
through the envelope, as well as between the various
bution of each of the heat transfer processes.

Table 7.2 Thermophysical properties of various building materials

Material name Density (kg/m3) Conductivity (W/(m.C)) Specific heat (J/(kg.C)

Asbestos cement 1501 0.36 1050
Asbestos cement sheet 700 0.36 1050
Asbestos insulation 577 0.16 833
Asphalt 1907 0.62 833
Felt/bitumen layers 1700 0.5 1014
Bitumen composition for floors 2400 0.85 1014
Bitumen impregnated paper 1090 0.06 1014
Roofing felt 960 0.19 833
Concrete 2400 1.75 920
Flooring (Wilton carpets) 186 0.06 1376
Flooring (simulated sheeps wool carpet) 198 0.06 1376
Flooring (wool felt underlay) 160 0.04 1376
Flooring (cellural rubber underlay) 400 0.1 1376
Flooring (cork tiles) 530 0.08 1810
Flooring (rubber tiles) 1600 0.3 2027
Flooring (timber flooring) 650 0.14 1195
Flooring (wood block) 650 0.14 1195
Window glass 2500 1.05 833
Cork insulation 105 0.045 1810
Thatch (reed) insulation 270 0.09 1810
Thatch (straw) insulation 240 0.07 1810
Wood fibre insulation 300 0.06 1014
Bitumen impregnated fibreboard insulation 430 0.07 1014
Woodwool insulation 500 0.1 1014
Expanded polystyrene(EPS) insulation 25 0.034 1014
Polystyrene beads insulation 7 0.04 1014
Extruded expanded polystyrene insulation 32 0.03 1412
Foamed polyurethane (aged) insulation 30 0.026 1014
Foamed urea formaldehyde (UF) insulation 30 0.032 1520
Expanded PVC insulation 55 0.04 1014
Mineral fibres insulation 112 0.042 760
Glass fibres insulation 81 0.04 833
Foamed glass insulation 125 0.045 833
Foamed concrete insulation 550 0.3 1014
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 137

Table 7.2 continued

Material name Density (kg/m3) Conductivity (W/(m.C)) Specific heat (J/(kg.C)
Air cavity 1.1 0.026 1000
Brickwork outer leaf (5 per cent mc) 1700 0.84 796
Brickwork outer leaf (5 per cent mc) 1800 0.96 941
Brickwork inner leaf (1 per cent mc) 1700 0.82 796
Brickwork inner leaf (1 per cent mc) 1800 0.71 941
Vermiculite insulating brick 700 0.27 833
Concrete dense 2000 1.13 1014
Concrete dense 2100 1.4 833
Concrete lightweight 1200 0.38 1014
No fines concrete 1800 0.96 833
Foamed slug concrete 1040 0.25 977
Aerated concrete outer leaf (5 per cent mc) 500 0.18 1014
Aerated concrete outer leaf (5 per cent mc) 800 0.26 1014
Aerated concrete inner leaf (3 per cent mc) 500 0.16 1014
Aerated concrete inner leaf (3 per cent mc) 800 0.23 1014
Concrete block inner leaf (3 per cent mc) 2300 1.63 1014
Concrete block inner leaf (3 per cent mc) 1400 0.51 1014
Concrete block inner leaf (3 per cent mc) 600 0.19 1014
Foamed concrete block inner leaf (3 per cent mc) 600 0.16 1014
Foamed concrete block outer leaf (5 per cent mc) 600 0.17 1014
Vermiculite aggregate 450 0.17 833
Glass-reinforced cement 1700 0.5 833
Glass-reinforced cement 2200 1.3 833
Sandstone 2000 1.3 724
Granite 2600 2.5 905
Marble 2500 2 796
Limestone 2180 1.5 724
Slate 2700 2 760
Gravel (general) 1840 0.36 833
Aluminium 2800 160 905
Copper 8900 200 434
Steel 7800 50 507
Dense plaster 1300 0.5 1014
Lightweight plaster 600 0.5 1014
Gypsum plasterboard 950 0.16 833
Perlite plasterboard 800 0.18 833
Gypsum plastering 1200 0.42 833
Perlite plastering 400 0.08 833
Vermiculite plastering 720 0.2 833
Clay roof 1900 0.85 833
Concrete roof 2100 1.1 833
Slate roof 2700 2 760
Asphalt/asbestos roof 1900 0.55 833
PVC/asbestos roof 2000 0.85 833
Tile hanging roof 1900 0.84 796
Concrete screed 2100 1.28 1014
Concrete lightweight 1200 0.41 833
Granolithic 2085 0.87 833
Rendering dry 1300 0.5 1014
Rendering (1 per cent mc) 1431 1.13 1014
Rendering (8 per cent mc) 1329 0.79 1014
Soil density1 1280 0.7 1846
Soil density2 1900 1.4 1701
Timber softwood 630 0.13 2787
Timber hardwood 700 0.15 1412
Timber plywood 530 0.14 2787
Timber hardboard (standard) 900 0.13 2027
Timber hardboard (medium) 600 0.08 2027
Timber chip board 800 0.15 2100
Timber soft board 350 0.55 1014

Note: mc = moisture content

138 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 7.3 Solar absorptivities

Asbestos Tiles
Cement 0.60 Clay 0.60
Concrete 0.65
Concrete
Slate 0.85
Heavy/light 0.65
Plastic 0.40
Aerated concrete/block 0.65
Rubber 0.82
Refractory insulation 0.65
Cork 0.60
Vermiculite aggregate 0.65
Asphalt/asbestos 0.70
Insulation PVC/asbestos 0.60
Fibreboard 0.50
Wood
Woodwool 0.50
Block 0.65
Glasswool 0.30
Flooring 0.65
Urea formaldehyde 0.50
Hardboard 0.70
Thermalite 0.70
Cork board 0.60
Polyurethane board 0.50
Chip board 0.65
Polystyrene 0.30
Oak (radial) 0.65
Siporex 0.40
Weatherboard 0.65
Asphalt/Bitumen Fir (20 per cent moist) 0.65
Asphalt/Asphalt mastic 0.90
Metal
Bitumen felt 0.90
Copper 0.65
Roofing felt 0.90
Aluminium 0.20
Brick Steel 0.20
Outer/inner leaf 0.70
Plaster
Insulating 0.70
Dense/light 0.50
Carpet Gypsum/gypsum board 0.50
Wilton 0.60 Perlite 0.50
Felt underlay 0.65 Vermiculite 0.50
Rubber underlay 0.65 Perlite board 0.60

Screeds/Renders Stone
Light concrete 0.80 Sandstone 0.60
Cast concrete 0.65 Red granite 0.55
Granolithic 0.65 White marble 0.45
White render 0.50

References
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air- Kreider, J. F. and Rabl, A. (1994) Heating and Cooling of
Conditioning Engineers) (1985, 1989) ASHRAE Buildings: Design for Efficiency, McGraw-Hill
Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia International, New York
Clarke, J. A. (1985) ESP-r: Energy Simulation in Building Santamouris, M. and Assimakopoulos, D. (eds) (1996) Passive
Design, Adam Hilger Ltd, Bristol Cooling of Buildings, James & James, London
Hottel, H. C. (1976) A simple model for estimating the trans- Santamouris M., Geros V., Klitsikas N. and Argiriou A. (1995)
missivity of the direct solar radiation through clear SUMMER: A computer tool for passive cooling applica-
atmosphere Solar Energy, vol 18, p129 tions, Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P. (1996) Fundamentals of Heat Passive Cooling of Buildings, Athens, June 1995
and Mass Transfer, fourth edition, John Wiley and Sons,
New York
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 139

Recommended reading
1 Kreider, J. F. and Rabl, A. (1994) Heating and Cooling 2 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P. (1996) Fundamentals
of Buildings: Design for Efficiency, McGraw-Hill of Heat and Mass Transfer, fourth edition, John Wiley
International, New York and Sons, New York
This book covers technologies (dealing with materials The Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer provides
to computers) that exert a profound effect on the a complete introduction to the physical origins of heat
design and operation of buildings today. Various and mass transfer. It gives a clear presentation of the
examples are presented and are solved in order to subject and presents various problems that are solved.
reinforce important concepts, and software applica- It may be described as an essential tool for thermal
tions are integrated throughout. The new edition analysis.
covers the concepts of refrigeration and air condition- 3 Santamouris, M. and Assimakopoulos, D. (eds) (1996)
ing in the context of practical design. The emphasis is Passive Cooling of Buildings, James & James, London
on economic and design factors, so one can see the This book is compiled under the SAVE European
relevance of the technologies covered and the trade- Research Programme and describes the fundamentals
offs that a design engineer must make. Design is of passive cooling, together with the principles and
further reinforced with the HCB software on a CD- formulae necessary for its successful implementation.
ROM found in the book. It provides a wealth of This publication will be of interest to building design-
informational resources for HVAC design. ers, building engineers (including mechanical and
electrical engineers), building scientists (especially
those involved with building physics) and indoor air
specialists.

Activities
Activity 1 For each case, find the internal temperature 12 hours after
a 10 Celsius rise in external temperature, the initial inter-
R-value of a concrete wall with insulation nal and external temperature being 20 Celsius.
The outside wall in a home consists essentially of a 10cm
layer of concrete ( = 1.4W/m.K) with 5cm of polystyrene Activity 3
insulation ( = 0.03W/m.K). What is the thermal resist-
Internal convective heat transfer coefficient
ance of the wall r (excluding film resistance), the total
thermal resistance R, the heat flux per unit area Q, and Find the convective heat transfer coefficient of the floor
the internal and external surface temperature, given that in a room 3m high, when the floor temperature is:
the external air temperature is 5 Celsius, the internal one
is 20 Celsius and there is no radiation? (a) 2K higher than the air above;
(b) 2K lower than the air above;
Activity 2
Find also:
Thermal time constant and temperature response
to a step change the heat transfer coefficient of a vertical wall in the
Find the thermal time constant of a 15cm concrete ( = same room.
1.4W/m.K, = 2100kg/m3, cp = 653J/kg.K) wall, with
5cm polystyrene ( = 0.03W/m.K, = 25kg/m3, cp = Activity 4
1000J/kg.K) insulation if:
External convective heat transfer coefficient
(a) the polystyrene is placed externally; Find the external convective heat transfer coefficient:
(b) the polystyrene is placed internally;
(c) the polystyrene is placed in the middle of the (a) for a wall 2m long, when the wind speed is 0.5 metres
concrete. per second;
(b) for a wall 10m long, when the wind speed is 5 metres
per second.
140 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Activity 5 Activity 10
Effective leakage area Radiative heat transfer coefficient and radiative
The blower door test in a single house whose volume is
heat flux
500 cubic metres gives 3 air changes per hour (ACH) for Find the radiative heat transfer coefficient and the radia-
a pressure difference of 50Pa and 1 ACH for a pressure tive flux from a 10m x 10m surface whose emissivity is 0.9
difference of 10Pa. Find the effective leakage area of the and whose temperature 40 Celsius to a parallel surface
building. whose emissivity is 0.22 (aluminium foil) and whose
temperature is 20 Celsius.
Activity 6
Infiltration rate Activity 11
The building above is 6m high, whereas the height differ-
Solar time
ence between the lowest and the highest crack is 4m. It is Find the apparent solar time in Athens, Greece (longitude
situated in the countryside. Calculate the infiltration rate: 24 east, LSM 30 east) at 14:00 on 15 November.

(a) when the internal temperature is 20 Celsius, the Activity 12

external one is 30 Celsius and the wind speed
(measured in a station 10m high situated in the
Solar time
countryside) is 0.5 metres per second; Calculate the solar time at sunrise on 21 December in
(b) when the wind speed is 5 metres per second; Athens, Greece (latitude 38 north), as well as the azimuth
(c) when the wind speed is 5 metres per second and of the sun at sunrise on that day.
there is an additional artificial ventilation of 2 air
changes per hour (ACH). Activity 13
Solar position
Activity 7
Find the time that the sun is due west on the 21 June, as
Shape factors well as the solar height at that time.
Find the shape factors in a rectangular room of 5m x 10m
x 3m (height), from the floor to the ceiling and from the Activity 14
floor to each wall.
Solar radiation
Activity 8 Find the direct normal solar radiation intensity, as well as
the diffuse solar radiation intensity on a horizontal
Radiative heat flux surface, on 21 June in Athens (altitude 0) when the sun is
Find the radiative heat flux from a 10m x 10m surface due west on a day with low visibility.
whose emissivity is 0.9 and whose temperature 40
Celsius to a parallel surface whose emissivity is 0.22 Activity 15
(aluminium foil) and whose temperature is 20 Celsius.
Solar radiation
Activity 9 Find the direct solar radiation intensity on a south-west
(45 west of south) facing vertical wall in Athens, Greece,
Radiative heat flux when the sun is facing west.
Find the radiative heat flux from the 10m x 10m floor of
an attic made of equilateral triangles. The floor is covered Activity 16
by aluminium foil and its temperature is 20 Celsius,
Solar radiation
whereas the ceilings uniform temperature is 40 Celsius.
Find the total solar intensity on the plane of the previous
example, assuming diffuse solar radiation intensity of
150W/m2 and ground reflectivity of 0.25.
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 141

Activity 17 Activity 19
Shading coefficient Sol-air temperature
Find the shading coefficient: Find the sol-air temperature of a horizontal roof when the
solar intensity on a horizontal surface is 800W/m2, the air
(a) for a reflective one-pane window ((0) = 0.4, (0 )= temperature is 32 Celsius and the mean radiant temper-
0.1); ature of the sky is 20 Celsius lower than the air
(b) for an absorptive one-pane window ((0) = 0.1, (0) temperature:
= 0.4).
(a) when the roof is white ( = 0.25);
Activity 18 (b) when the roof is dark ( = 0.7).
Shading coefficient The radiative heat transfer coefficient can be considered
Find the shading coefficient of a double-glass window equal to 5W/m2.K and the convective one 20W/m2.K.
whose external pane is the absorptive glass described
above and whose internal pane is double-strength glass.
Assume that the internal and external properties of both
windows are the same and that the thermal resistance of
the gap 1/hg is equal to 0.16m2.K/W.
142 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 0.15 0.15
L L 0.1 0.05 = (0.04 + ) 21006530.15 + (0.04 + +
r = r1 + r2 = 1 + 2 = + = 1.74m2.K/W 21.4 1.4
1 2 1.4 0.03
0.05
1 1 + ) 2510000.05 = 12,245s = 3.4h
R = + r + = 0.04 + 1.74 + 0.12 = 1.90m2.K/W 20.03
ho hi
U = 1/R = 1/1.90 = 0.52W/m2 K Ti (12h) = 20 + 10[1 exp(12/3.4)] = 29.7 C

Q = U (To Ti) = 0.52 (20 5) = 7.8W/m2 (c) Insulation in the middle:

1 L 1 L L
Tis = Ti +
Q
= 20 + (7.8)(0.12) = 19.1 Celsius Tc = ( + 1 ) 1cp1L1 + ( + 1 + 2 ) 2cp2L2 =
hi ho 21 ho 1 22

Q 1 L L L
Tos = To = 5 (7.8)(0.04) = 5.3 Celsius ( + 1 + 2 + 3 ) 3cp3L3 =
hi ho 1 2 23
Note that: 0.075 0.075
(0.04 + ) 21006530.075 + (0.04 + +
Most thermal resistance is due to the insulation. 21.4 1.4
Without the insulation, the U-value would be 0.05 0.075 0.05
4.32W/m2.K, the flux 64.8W/m2, the internal surface + ) 2510000.05 + (0.04 + + +
20.03 1.4 0.03
temperature 12.3 Celsius, and the external one 7.6
Celsius illustrating that the insulation is necessary 0.075
not only to reduce the heat flux, but also to reduce the ) 21006530.075
21.4
difference between the air and the surface tempera-
ture. = 188,284s = 52.3h
Activity 2 Ti (Ti(12h) = 20 + 10[1 exp(12/50.4)] = 22.1 C
(a) Insulation external:
Note that after 12 hours, when the insulation is on the
1 L 1 L L
Tc = ( + 1 ) 1cp1L1 + ( + 1 + 2 ) 2cp2L2 = internal part, the internal temperature is almost equal to
ho 21 ho 1 22 the external one. In the two other cases, it has hardly
0.05 0.05 moved from the initial temperature of 20 Celsius.
= (0.04 + ) 2510000.05 (0.04 + +
2 0.03 0.03 2 Activity 3
0.15 (a) Floor hotter than the air: L3T = 54m3.K (i.e. the flow
) 21006530.15 =
2 1.4 is turbulent).
= 363,114 seconds = 100.9 hours
hc = 1.52 (2)1/3 = 1.92W/m2.K
Ti (12h) = 20 + 10[1 exp(12/100.9)] = 21.1 C
(b) Floor colder than the air:
(b) Insulation internal:
hc = 0.59 (2/3)1/4 = 0.53W/m2.K
1 L 1 L L
Tc = ( + 1 ) 1cp1L1 + ( + 1 + 2 ) 2cp2L2 =
ho 21 ho 1 22 (c) Vertical wall: flow is turbulent according to the crite-
rion,

hc = 1.31 (2)1/3 = 1.66W/m2.K

 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 143

Activity 4 Activity 7
(a) U
L= 2
0.5 = 1m2/s
(i.e. the flow is laminar). The Floor to ceiling: from Figure 8, setting X/D = 3.33 and
heat transfer coefficient is 2 (0.5/2)1/2 = 1W/m2.K. Note Y/D = 1.67, one finds after interpolation that the shape
that in that case, the contribution from free convection factor Ffloorceiling 0.45.
might be appreciable and should be calculated from the
equations of the previous section. From Figure 7.9, for the shape factor between the floor
and the 5m
3m wall, setting Y/X = 2, Z/X = 0.6, one
(b) U
L = 5
10 = 50m2/s (i.e. the flow is turbulent) obtains that the shape factor Ffloor5
3wall 0.09.

U = 6.2 (54/10)1/5 = 14.2W/m2.K From Figure 7.9, for the shape factor between the floor
and the 10m
3m wall, setting Y/X = 0.5, Z/X = 0.3, one
Activity 5 obtains that the shape factor Ffloor10
3wall 0.185.
The air flow Q, being proportional to Pn, n can be found Note that:
from the data above:
Ffloorceiling + 2 (Ffloor5
3wall + Ffloor10
3wall) = 1,
n = ln(Q50/Q10)/ln(50/10) = 0.68 n

Extrapolating to P = 4Pa, one obtains that:

in accordance with Equation 47 (
F J = 1 ).
i=1
ji i

Activity 8
Q4 = 1 (4/10)0.68 = 0.53 ACH or 0.53
500/3600 =
0.074m3/s. Using Equation 48:

From Equation 35, the effective leakage area can be (T24 T14 )
calculated: q1 = = 10
10
5.68
108

1 / 1 + 1 / 2 1

ELA = (0.074/(8/1.2))1/2 = 0.105m2

[(273.15 + 40)4(273.15 + 20)4]/(1/0.9 + 1/0.22 1) =
Activity 6
2727W
(a) From Equation 36 the stack ventilation is:
Qst = 0.25 ELA gHL T / T = 0.25
0.105

Activity 9
The area of the floor is 100 square metres, whereas the
(4
10/298
9.8) = 0.03 m3/s area of the four equilateral triangles is 4
(10
10

The wind effect ventilation is: 0.866/2) = 173m2. Thus, applying Equation 48 one
obtains:
0.3
0.105
0.5
(6/10)0.5 = 0.012m3/s. 10
10
5.6
10
8
[(273.15 + 40)4 (273.15 + 20)4]
Q=
(1 0.22) / 0.22 + (1 0.9) / 0.9(100/173) + 1
Q = Qst2 + Qw2 + Qvent
2
= 0.032 m3/s
= 2748W
From Equation 38:
Note that without the aluminium foil on the floor, the flux
The total ventilation is 0.032m3/s or 0.23 ACH. would have been:
10
10
5.6
108
[(273.15 + 40)4 (273.15 + 20)4]
(b) For that case, the wind effect ventilation is 0.12m3/s. Q=
(1 0.9) / 0.9 + (1 0.9) / 0.9(100/173) + 1
Again, from Equation 38, the total ventilation is
0.125m3/s, or 0.9 ACH. = 10,780W

(c) From Equation 38, with the additional 2 ACH, one (i.e. four times larger).
finds that the total ventilation and infiltration rate is 2.2
ACH (0.305m3/s).
144 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Activity 10 AST = 12 + H/360 = 7:20

Using Equation 51:
= acos(sin/cosL) = 60
hr = 4
5.68
108
[273.15 + (20 + 40)/2)]3
(again the minus sign means east of south)
/(1/0.22 + 1/0.9 1) = 1.36W/m2.K
Activity 13
Q = 1.36
(40 20)
10
10 = 2720W/m2, which is From Equation 58, setting cos =0, one finds that:
very close to the result of the exact method used in the
previous section. Sin = sin/sinL = 0.6465, = 40

Note that without the aluminium foil the radiative heat From Equation 57:
transfer coefficient would have been:
H = acos([0.6465 sin(23.45)sin(38)]/
hr = 4
5.68
108
[273.15 + (20 + 40)/2)]3 cos(23.45)cos(38)) = +56

/(1/0.9 + 1/0.9 1) = 5.18W/m2.K AST = 12 + H/360 = 15:45

Note, however, that one is usually more interested in the Activity 14

total heat transfer coefficient by both radiation and From the values presented in the section entitled Solar
convection, which is affected less by the use of aluminium radiation on clear days, for mid-latitude summer, ro =
foil since the convective heat transfer coefficient is 0.96, r1 = 0.99 and rk = 1.02.
unaffected by it.
From these values and with A = 0, ao = 0.026, a1 = 0.81
Activity 11 and k = 0.755, from Equation 59, the solar constant is
The equation of time is +15min (Equation 55): 1308W/m2. From Equation 60, with sin=0.6465 (as
calculated in the previous section), the direct normal solar
AST = LST + ET 4(LSM LON) = 14:00 + 0:15 radiation intensity is 440W/m2 and from Equation 61 the
diffuse radiation on the horizontal plane is 277W/m2.
4(24 30) = 14:39.
Note that for the high visibility, the ratio between direct
The declination, , is defined as the angle between the normal and diffuse is completely different: the direct
rays of the sun and the plane of the equator and is given normal radiation intensity would be 750W/m2 and the
by: diffuse 86W/m2.
n + 284 Activity 15
= 23.45 sin(2 ) (56)
365
From Equation 65 and using the solar height calculated
in the previous section:
It is 0 on the spring and autumn equinox days (21 March
and 21 September), minimum (23.45) on the winter ( = 56 C) cos = cos(56)cos(90 45) = 0.395
solstice (21 December) and maximum (23.45) on the
summer solstice (21 of June). Thus, the direct solar intensity on that wall is: 440
0.395
= 174W/m2.
Activity 12
Setting = 0 and = 23.45 from Equation 57: Activity 16
Using Equation 64, the total horizontal radiation is:
H=acos(tan(23.45)tan(38))=70
440
sin56 + 277 = 717W/m2.
(the minus sign because one refers to the morning)
From Equation 62: Itot = 174 + 277
(1/2) + 0.25
717

(1/2) = 402W/m2.
 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENA IN URBAN BUILDINGS 145

Activity 17 Activity 19
By applying Equation 68 with U/ho=1/4, one obtains for For the first case, Equation 74 gives 32 + 0.25
800/25
the reflective window SC = 0.61 and for the absorptive + 5
(20)/25 = 36 Celsius.
window SC = 0.70. The difference is relatively small,
since in both cases (0) = 0.5. For the second case, the same equation gives 50.4
Celsius.
Activity 18
From Equation 69:

0.5
0.86 0.5
0.08
0.4 1
SC = [ + (0.4 + ) +
1 0.4
0.08 1 0.4
0.08 8
0.5
0.06 5
] / 0.86 = 0.6
1 0.4
0.08 8
8
Applied Lighting Technologies for
Urban Buildings
Saso Medved and Ciril Arkar

Scope of the chapter Key words

People tend to receive information about their surround- Key words include:
ings through visual means. The way in which the form and
the surface of an object appear in our surroundings human sight;
depends upon the way in which these objects are illumi- photometric quantities;
nated and how our eyes perceive the light that is reflected light sources;
from their surface. Visual comfort defines the quality of daylighting;
this process. Besides ensuring better working conditions, artificial lighting;
light also affects the natural level of peoples health. The visual comfort;
scope of this chapter is to introduce the importance of lighting requests for buildings in the urban environ-
quality natural and artificial lighting in ensuring visual ment;
comfort with respect to urban buildings, and the interac- light pollution;
tion between lighting and energy use in these buildings. energy use in buildings.

Learning objectives Introduction

During the study of this chapter, readers will be We can define two basic types of light: daylight, which is
acquainted with: emitted by the sun and reaches the Earth either directly
from the surface of the sun, or indirectly due to its diffu-
the physical basics of our perception of light and the sion in the atmosphere; and artificial light, which is
physical and physiological values that are used in produced by luminaries. Contemporary illumination
lighting techniques; devices transform electrical energy into light; therefore,
sources of natural light and numerical models for their use affects a buildings energy consumption.
evaluating these sources; Because daylight does not provide permanent and even
the basics of artificial lighting and lighting efficiency illumination in a building, it is always combined with
of different types of lamps; artificial lighting. Nevertheless, the provision of sufficient
the requirements for lighting comfort and natural suitable natural illumination and exposure to sunlight is
lighting in the living area, together with architectonic one of the most important considerations when planning
and technological measures for lighting comfort a building. Added to this, we must ensure that artificial
improvement; lighting is not too expensive in terms of the energy it
the importance of efficient lighting with regard to consumes. The urban environment is different from the
sustainable energy use in buildings. rural environment in a number of respects. Typically,
cities have a wide variety of building types residential,
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 147

business and public. Because of this, the demands in 450 560 780
380 520 600
terms of light comfort vary as well. Buildings are built in
a wide variety of shapes in which lighting conditions can
differ. The enormous consumption of energy and high
traffic density in cities causes a substantial amount of IR-radiation
pollution in the atmosphere. A consequence of this is that X rays
the direct and indirect light flux from the suns radiation UV
is reduced, and with it the quality of daylight. Microwaves
This chapter begins by describing the fundamentals radiation
Thermal radiation
of human light perception, followed by a section on
photometric quantities used in planning a lighting
environment. Next, the demands that have to be fulfilled
Light
in the course of planning are presented. The chapter ends
by emphasizing the correlation between lighting and 102 101 1 10 100 103 104 105 106 nm
energy use in buildings. For further assistance, some
computer tools have been added to the CD accompany- Figure 8.1 Different parts of the electromagnetic
ing this book. wave spectrum

Light factor for an eye adjusted to bright surroundings

compared with one adjusted to living in the dark.
Ionized bodies or bodies heated above their local temper- Measured from the centre of vision, the field of view
ature transmit energy to their surroundings. We can is seen as approximately 180 wide in the horizontal direc-
consider this energy in terms of electromagnetic waves tion. The eyebrows and cheekbones limit the field of
with different wavelengths, or as energy packages without peripheral vision to about 130, and because of the
mass, known as photons. In either case, no substance is retinas characteristics we see objects in this area differ-
required for the transfer of energy, so this energy transfer ently. Sharp (foveal) vision occurs in a 2 cone around the
can also take place in a vacuum. The way in which people centre of vision; but visibility is still quite high in the
perceive electromagnetic waves depends very much upon foveal surround, which is within a 30 cone around the
the wavelength of the radiation and the senses used for centre of vision. The location and the brightness of the
the perception. For example, we see radiation with our objects in this field of vision are very important.
eyes but also feel it with our skin. Electromagnetic waves
with wavelengths of between 380 and 770 nanometres
(nm) can be seen by the eyes, and this type of radiation is Iris
called light. Object

Human sight and its characteristics

The human eye can be compared to a camera. The lens, Film
the iris and the film of the camera, are, in the human eye, Lens
replaced by the lens, the iris and the retina. By contract-
ing the lens (accommodation), the eye adapts to be able to
see objects at different distances, and by expanding or
Iris
narrowing of the pupil (adaptation) the eye regulates the
light flux falling on the retina. The human eye is, however, Object Retina
not equally sensitive to the different wavelengths of light.
To get the impression of equivalent luminance from a
surface, the eye must expand to allow a bigger light flux if
the surface is coloured red or violet-blue than it would if
the surface were coloured green or yellow. This charac- Lens
teristic of our eyes is called the spectral luminous
efficiency V(). Figure 8.3 shows the relative visibility Figure 8.2 The human eye functions like a camera
148 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

1.0 the geometry (spherical aberration) and colour

0.9 (chromatic aberration) of the picture of the object we
are observing (this is a consequence of the suns rays
0.8 refracting as they pass through the eyes lens).
0.7
0.6 Photometric quantities
V()

0.5
Night Day In order to evaluate light sources and the visual environ-
0.4 ment, we use scotopical and photo-optical quantities. We
0.3 can express the first of these with units of energy;
however, with the second, we also consider the effect of
0.2
light on the human eye or on our light perception. For
0.1 both quantities the systems are related by the spectral
0 luminous efficiency V().
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 Before examining the basic photometric quantities,
(nm) we should determine the space solid angle. This angle is
expressed in terms of the ratio of a spheres surface area
violet blue green yellow orange red to the square of its diameter. The unit of solid angle is the
steradian (sr). The steradian represents the solid angle of
Figure 8.3 Spectral luminous efficiency of a human eye a sector from a sphere with a radius of 1m that occupies
1m2 of the spheres surface. If the light source is a point,
The most important factors for our quality perception it emits light into the entire solid angle, which measures
of our surroundings are: 4 or 12.5sr; but if the light source is a plane, it emits light
into half of the solid angle, which is 2 or 6.25sr.
the sharpness of sight; The spectral luminous efficiency value of the eye is at
the speed of sight perception, which is related to the a maximum when illuminated with light with a 555nm
time between the appearance of the object and its wavelength (for normal vision). It has been experimen-
recognition; tally determined that at this wavelength the radiation flux
depth distinction (we can see a 0.4mm divergence emitted by a surface is the same as a light flux of 683
between two objects at a distance of less than 1m; at a lumens (lm). This value is the maximum value of the
distance of 1000m, we can only discern if the two luminous efficiency of radiation Km for this monochro-
objects are separated by more than 275m; at a matic radiation. But because light sources normally emit
distance of 1300m the ability to distinguish depth light in the visible spectrum, we define the entire lumina-
does not exist any more); tion flux using the following expression:

Total field of sight (120)

Peripheral field of sight (90)

Central field of sight (30)
Field of the highest sharpness
Object of view (1 to 2)
Object
Vertical section
through
field of sight
Horizontal section through
field of sight

Source: Lechner, 1991

Figure 8.4 Field of view and centre of vision

 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 149

=760 where dA is the infinitesimal surface receiving an infini-

d .
= Km . V . d (lm) tesimal light flux (square metres).
d
=380
Therefore, a black sheet and a white sheet of paper on our
work plane will both be equally illuminated; however,
where Km is the luminous efficiency of the radiation
their luminance will not be equal. The illumination of the
(lm/W) and d/d is the spectral distribution of the
surfaces can also be expressed as a relative value. This
radiant flux (W/nm).
method is normally used when referring to space illumi-
nation by daylight. As a result, we call it the daylight
Light flux is emitted by an illuminating device into the
factor (DF). It is determined by the expression:
entire solid angle. The light flux emitted by an illuminat-
ing device into a unit of solid angle is called the light Ep,i
intensity, which is measured in candelas (cd). Therefore, DF = . 100 (%)
Eh,e
the light intensity of a certain source is equal to:

d lm where Ep,i is the illuminance of a selected point in space

I=
d ( sr
= cd ) (lx); Eh,e is the illuminance of a horizontal unshaded
outdoor surface (lx).
where: d is the infinitesimal light flux (lm); d is the
The suns radiation entering a space is not just important
infinitesimal solid angle (sr).
for visible comfort, it also affects peoples health and their
general feeling of well-being. Therefore, the time a
If we observe the light source with a certain light inten-
certain space is exposed to solar radiation in the course of
sity from different distances, we discover that its
a year is also important. This time period of direct solar
luminance reduces in proportion to the square of the
radiation is called the sunlight duration. It can only be
distance between the eye and the source. Luminance is
determined on the basis of geometrical relations, which
the only photometric quantity that our eye can perceive.
are linked to the position of the sun, any obstacles in the
The luminance of a source with an unchanged light inten-
surroundings, and the solid angle in which the window
sity also reduces if the centre of vision does not coincide
on a faade can receive direct radiation from the sun. We
with the normal to the illuminants surface. Luminance is
can, therefore, assume that the meteorological parame-
then defined by the following expression:
ters of the environment do not affect the sunlight
duration.
I.cos
L=
r2 ( mcd )2
Sources of light
where is the angle between the normal to the illuminant
and the direction of the beam (degrees); r is the distance Daylighting
between the light source and the point of observation In the world that surrounds us, the most powerful source
(metres). of light is the sun. As the Earth rotates every 24 hours,
dividing the day into periods of light and dark, we also
Let us suppose that two different large planes receive name this source daylight. The position of the sun at any
equal light flux. Because the surfaces are not equal, the given time is determined by the altitude of the sun and its
density of the light flux will depend upon the surfaces of azimuth. The altitude of the sun is determined from the
each plane. The value of the light-flux density is called angle between the suns rays and the horizon. The
the illuminance and is measured in lux (lx). Determining maximum height of the sun is at noon, and at sunrise and
the quality of the illuminated environments, the illumi- sunset the height is equal to zero. The azimuth of the sun
nance of the surface for instance, a work plane is one is the angle between a sunray projection on the horizon-
of the basic parameters of visual comfort. Illuminance also tal plane and the southerly direction. By general
depends upon the angle between the light-flux beam and agreement, the azimuth of the sun is negative before
the normal to the surface: noon, positive in the afternoon, and equal to zero when
d . cos the sun is shining from the south. Besides the time of the
E=
dA ( lmm = lx )
2 day, the declination of the Earths rotation axis and
latitude of the place (L) from which the sun is observed
150 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Zenith ozone, carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and aerosols.

This is how diffuse radiation originates. In nature, the
Sun
magnitude of the radiation and the relationship between
direct and diffuse radiation constantly change, and there-
fore certain points in the sky have periodically variable
Sun path light intensities, which represent a major obstacle to
W daylight planning. In order to deal with this, three typical
Horizon sky conditions that are characteristic for a particular place
z
s and time of year have been determined overcast, clear
s and real sky. A certain type of sky is chosen as representa-
S N tive, depending upon the engineering problem we are
solving. For instance, by dimensioning daily illuminations
of an interior, we are able to predict that the sky is
overcast. We determine the light intensity of the daylight
E sources as being different for the three different sky
conditions.
Figure 8.5 The position of the sun in the sky can be
Overcast sky
represented by the altitude angle s and its azimuth
angle s; z is the sun zenith angle The characteristic of an overcast sky is that the luminance
of the zenith is three times bigger than the luminance of
the horizon. Points in the sky with the same zenith angle
also have an effect on the position of the sun in the sky. have the same luminance, which, therefore, does not
The year-long positions of the sun in the sky can also be depend upon their azimuth. For a particular point with a
illustrated using a cylindrical coordinate system. This type angle , the luminance Lp is equal to:
of illustration is known as a sun-path diagram. Figure 8.6
shows the sun-path diagram for Athens (Greece, latitude .
L = 38 degrees) and Nordcap (Norway, latitude L = 72
degrees).
LP = LZ . ( 1 + 23 cos ) ( cdm )
2

Sunrays, which are also referred to as direct solar where: is the zenith angle (degrees) of the selected
radiation, are partly absorbed and reflected when they point; Lz is the luminance of the zenith for an overcast sky
pass through the atmosphere because of the absorption determined by the expression:
and scattering caused by molecules of water vapour,

Source: Arkar, 2001

Figure 8.6 Sun-path diagram for Athens (left) and for Nordcap (right); the looped curve represents 12:00 local time
according to the equation of time and difference between standard and local meridian
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 151

Figure 8.7 Clear (left), cloudy (right) and overcast (bottom) skies

9 cd where p is the azimuth of the observed point in the sky P

LZ =
7.
(300 + 21000 . sins) ( )
m2
(degrees); is the angle between the sun and the
observed point P (degrees); zenith angle (degrees) of the
selected point P in the sky; is the transmittance of the
atmosphere (1).
The luminance of a horizontal, unobstructed plane,
illuminated by an overcast sky, is determined by the
The illuminance of a horizontal plane from a clear sky also
following expression:
depends upon the condition of the environment, particu-
larly upon the absorption and dissemination of light on
7 . .
Eh,e = LZ gas molecules and particulate material in the atmosphere.
9 The condition of the atmosphere can be evaluated with
With the Daylight_sky.xls spreadsheet code, one can Zenith
determine the luminance for a chosen city at any time of
the year. For a selected example, the luminance of an
overcast sky is shown in Figure 8.9. The standardized
model of an overcast sky is made for a relatively clean Sun
atmosphere, so it does not distinguish between urban and P

rural environments.

Clear sky W

The luminance of the points in a clear sky cannot be
determined as easily as in the case of an overcast sky. It p
depends upon many geometrical and meteorological S N
parameters that change with time and position. In p
general, we can state that the luminance of a point P in a
clear sky depends upon:

Lp = f(Lz,ss,,p,p,,)
Figure 8.8 Geometrical parameters of point P for a
clear-sky luminance determination
152 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

90 Luminous efficacy of solar radiation

80
70 In addition to the model for determining different skies
light intensity, we can also determine the light flux from
Altitude s (C)

60
50 the database of the solar radiation data. These data are
40 available for most cities. Daylight data from the solar
30 radiation data are determined with the luminous
20 efficiency of the solar radiation Ks. This constant is
10 defined by the relationship between the light and the
0 radiation flux of the solar radiation, or the relationship
180 90 0 90 180 between the illuminance and the density of the solar
N E Azimuth s () W S
radiation on the observed plane:

lm lx . m2
KS ( W W )
The average values of the luminous efficiency of solar
radiation for different meteorological conditions from a
variety of authors are reported in Littlefair (1990). A
summary is presented in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 The light effect of sun radiation for various sky
conditions; s is presented in Figure 8.5
Source: Arkar, 2001 Ks lumen per Watt (lm/W)

Figure 8.9 Luminance of the sky determined with a Cloudy sky 107
Clear sky, global sun radiation 91.2 + 0.702.s 0.,00063.s2
model of overcast (top) and clear sky (bottom) for 21
Clear sky, direct sun radiation 51.8 + 1.646.s 0.,01513.s2
March at 11:00 (sun time) for an urban area Clear sky, diffuse radiation 144

Source: Littlefair, 1990

different physical measurements. In the spreadsheet
Daylight_sky.xls, we can analyse the illuminance of
horizontal planes in rural, urban and industrial areas, on Artificial lighting
the basis of a typical monthly total turbidity factor that is The discovery of fire at an early stage of mankinds devel-
characteristic for these areas. An example of the opment made it possible for people to illuminate and
luminance of the sky in an urban area is shown in Figure warm their homes. They were no longer dependent upon
8.9. The model of luminance is described in detail in the natural light of the sun when performing tasks. Their
Arkar (2001) living and working rhythms no longer relied upon the
light and dark times of the day. These additional, or as we
Cloudy sky call them, the artificial light sources, changed throughout
The conditions of the sky, described by the models history. At first, individuals burned biomass and animal
presented above, are extreme conditions in nature and fat; later, they were mostly burning fossil fuels, oil
quite rare situations. With the cloudy sky model, we can derivates and gases. But only the invention of electrical
also evaluate intermediate conditions. These models are energy and electric light bulbs at the beginning of the
based on a statistical evaluation of different meteorologi- 20th century made quality illumination possible. From
cal data for instance, an estimation of cloudiness, the this point on it was possible to have light without pollut-
relationship between global and diffuse solar radiation, or ing the internal spaces with emissions from burning fossil
the probability of direct solar radiation in hourly inter- fuels. But for artificial lighting, we need energy, and
vals. In urban areas, the duration of direct sun radiation is electric light bulbs produce heat, which affects the
shorter than in rural areas; therefore, the model for a thermal comfort of living spaces. So, in order to save
cloudy sky also distinguishes between these two situa- energy when lighting buildings, it is very important to
tions. create harmony between natural and artificial lighting.
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 153

Figure 8.10 A standard incandescent lamp (left), a halogen lamp with double-sided connection (middle)
and a low-voltage halogen lamp with parabolic reflector (right)

When referring to artificial lighting, we think of a tungsten-halogen lamps are produced. Because the
system composed of electric light bulbs, lamps and temperature of the filament is higher, about 28003000
control systems. Control systems are presented in Celsius, the lighting efficiency of these bulbs is between
Chapter 5, while the basic characteristics of light bulbs 16 and 18lm/W, and their lifetime is increased up to 2000
and lamps are covered in subsequent sections of this hours. The glass bulb is very hot (200300 Celsius) and
chapter. must be made from temperature-resistant quartz glass.
These lamps are smaller in comparison to classical lamps,
Artificial light sources: Lamps especially if adapted for use with low-voltage electricity
(6, 12 or 24 volts). The filaments in these lamps are
Lamps are devices that convert electrical energy into heat
smaller and are more of a point light. With the use of
and light. Light sources can be divided into various types
mirrors, the light can be directed very accurately.
according to the physical principle by which the light is
Therefore, this type of light can be used in vehicles,
produced and their efficiency. The efficiency of a light
projectors and lamps used to show details. The lighting
source is defined as the relationship between the light
efficiency of low-voltage halogen lamps is up to 25lm/W.
that is emitted and the electricity that is consumed or,
Despite a low lighting efficiency and a relatively short
alternatively, the ratio of the emitted light to the heat
lifetime, incandescent lamps are still in common use
produced. Theoretically, we could turn all of the electri-
because of their low price, because it is easy to control
cal energy into light by emitting radiation with a
the emitted light flux simply by changing the voltage and
wavelength of yellow-green light (monochromatic radia-
because they are produced in many different shapes.
tion with a wavelength of 523nm) that would be equal to
They also have very good colour rendering, with prevail-
680lm/W. But the human eye is not equally sensitive to
ing wavelengths of orange and red.
all the wavelengths that make up white light. Therefore,
A much better lighting efficiency can be achieved
the theoretical efficiency of a light source emitting only
with fluorescent lamps. They are made from a glass tube
white light is just 200lm/W. However, as we will see, the
that is coated with a fluorescent substance such as
efficiency of modern light sources is even lower than this.
phosphorus. The inside of the lamp is filled with inert gas
For the past 100 years we have mainly used incandes-
and low-pressure mercury vapour, and on each end of the
cent lamps. In an incandescent lamp, light is emitted by
glass tube there are built-in electrodes. When the
the electrical heating of a tungsten filament. This is a
electricity flows through the electrodes, it ionizes the
metal with a high melting point of 3680 Celsius. By
mercury atoms that emit ultraviolet radiation with
heating the tungsten with an electrical current, the
wavelengths of between 184nm and 254nm. The fluores-
filament functions as an optical black body, reaching
cent coating turns this invisible radiation into light. With
temperatures of up to 2700 Celsius and emitting a lot of
different fluorescent coatings we can affect the colour
heat, as well as light of all wavelengths. As a result, the
tone of the light emitted by the fluorescent lamps from
lighting efficiency of these lamps is only about 15lm/W,
warm light, with prevailing wavelengths of orange and
and because of tungsten evaporation the life of these
red, to cool light, with the prevailing wavelength of blue
lamps is restricted to about 1000 hours. The evaporation
light. Fluorescent lamps also require an external device
of tungsten from the filament can be decreased by filling
called a ballast; this ballast can be made of a copper coil
the bulb with an inert gas such as argon, or by adding
or a solid-state electronic device. The lighting efficiency
halogens, especially bromine or iodine. This is how
of fluorescent lamps is 40 to 90lm/W, and they have a
154 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Lechner, 1991

Figure 8.11 Features of a fluorescent lamp

lifetime of between 12,000 and 15,000 hours with the use

of a modern ballast. Their long life and high efficiency
normally offset the higher price.
The long tubes of fluorescent lamps mean they cannot
easily replace classical incandescent lamps. Therefore,
compact fluorescent lamps that join all of the necessary
elements in their casing have been developed. Their
lighting efficiency is comparable with classical fluores- Source: Lechner, 1991
cent lamps; but their life is a little shorter because of their
complicated structure between 6000 and 10,000 hours. Figure 8.13 Lighting efficiencies and lifetimes of
With special types of bulbs, the light is emitted from a different lamps
small arc tube, which is inside a protective outer bulb that
is filled with an inert gas such as xenon, some mercury, and reach their maximum light output, and they will not restart
a substance that turns invisible mercury radiation into immediately after a voltage interruption. They require
light. This substance is either a mixture containing iodine, about 5 minutes to cool down before the arc can be
for bulbs with metal halides, or it is sodium, under restarted. Metal-halide lamps are distinguished by their
pressure, in high-pressure sodium lamps. This part is high lighting efficiency of 80125lm/W, their long life and
installed in a glass casing and has a form similar to an their even light spectrum. As a result, they are used in
incandescent lamp. For their operation, they have similar places where high-quality illumination is required for
requirements to fluorescent lights: they need a ballast. It example, schools, shops and offices. High-pressure sodium
is common for these lamps to require 5 to 10 minutes to lamps are also known for their high lighting efficiency
(70140lm/W) and long life (20,000 to 24,000 hours); but
because of the light, mostly with wavelengths of yellow
and red, they tend to be used in spaces such as warehouses
and for outdoor illumination where the quality of the light
is not so important. Lighting efficiencies and lifetimes of
different lamps are shown in Figure 8.13.

Lighting fixtures/luminaries
Luminaries have three major functions: they protect the
lamp and support it with a socket; they supply power to
the lamp; and they control the direction of the light
emitted by the lamp. In general, we divide luminaries into
six categories that are defined by the way in which they
distribute light from direct (sending the light down on
Figure 8.12 Compact fluorescent lamp the work plane), general (distributing the light more or
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 155

0 90.0

439

978
0.0
30.0
1316 60.0
45.0
90.0
120.0
1755 150.0
180.0
0.0

Source: Cerne and Medved, 2001

Figure 8.14 Lamps with direct light-flux distribution and its photometric diagram

less equally in all directions), to indirect (directing almost less illuminated parts of large spaces;
all of the light up to the ceiling). The producers of a diversity of internal spheres and an absence of fear
luminaries provide photometric data sheets for their in dark spaces where danger is normally expected.
products. On these sheets the lighting intensity at a
certain angle is presented with the distance from the Biological needs can be satisfied with good planning and
centre of the light source. With the help of the photomet- checking of lighting areas. For this we use physiological
ric diagram and the distance between the luminaries and requirements (the most important ones are presented
the surface in the same angle direction, we can determine later in this chapter). These are physical quantities
the distribution of the illuminance in space, or, for adjusted to the characteristics of the human eye. We must
instance, in a work plane. be aware that this is a group of very different, but equally
For the process of indoor- and outdoor-lighting important, demands, which must be fulfilled individually.
design, the characteristics of the luminaries described in Beside thermal comfort, sound protection and good
this chapter are not sufficient. Lighting designers must indoor air quality, visual comfort comprises the fourth
be aware of the requirements for visual comfort and the major field of a pleasant, healthy and productive indoor
criteria that help designers to evaluate the state of the environment. Visual comfort must be fulfilled through
visual comfort in living and working spaces. several conditions, described below.

Visual comfort requirements Illumination level

For the perception of objects in space and the perform-
The demands of light comfort in indoor and outdoor areas ance of various tasks, a certain level of lighting is required.
result from the psychological and physiological needs of To recognize a human face, a face lighting of 10, or
people. Psychological needs are satisfied if the lighting calculated on a horizontal plane a lighting of 20lx, is
provides us with the following: required; but for the recognition of details on a face, a
tenfold larger illuminance of 200lx must be provided. The
a guide to our motion and orientation in space and a first value represents the minimum level for recognition,
visual connection to our surroundings; the second one a minimum level of illuminance for
connections to our bio-rhythms; working areas. Generally, an optimum level of working-
an ability to make objects recognizable in space; area illuminance for agreeable working conditions
an ability to direct attention and help us to classify the depends upon the task we are performing. These levels
importance of the information received by sight; (presented in Table 8.2) are for artificially illuminated
an assurance of a feeling of individuality with more or areas, and must be ensured for each of the working areas.
156 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 8.2 Recommended level of illuminance for working presents the nominal illumination of an outdoor,
spaces with artificial illumination according to the unshaded horizontal plane for different site latitudes and
needs of the work daily time intervals. For example, in mid-Europe, the
Activity space Building type Illuminance (lux) illumination of the outdoor unshaded horizontal plane
will be at least 54001x for 90 per cent of the time interval
Art, craft, teaching Schools, colleges, 300500 between 09:00 and 17:00 hours (as this time interval
hospitals, factories,
offices
indicates daily working hours).
Laboratories Hospitals, factories, 500700 There are several parameters that influence the
offices daylight factor at a chosen point in a room: the sky condi-
Staff rooms, common Hospitals, factories, 150300 tion, nearby buildings and their surface reflectivities, the
rooms offices reflectivities of inner surfaces of the room and, of course,
Offices Hospitals, factories, 500 the transmittance of the windows glazing. In Figure 8.16
offices, post offices, banks,
the daylight-factor components in the room are shown.
education buildings
Computer rooms Offices, banks, education 500750
The daylight factor is determined by adding the following
buildings components:
Drawing rooms Education buildings, offices, 5001000
factories D (Ds + Dsky + Da + Db) g,vis + Di
Source: J&J, 1993
where Da a and Db b

Daylight factor (DF) criteria where Ds is the sun component of daylight factor (%); Dsky
is the sky component of daylight factor (%); Da is the
We have already defined the daylight factor (DF) as a surrounding ground-reflected component of the daylight
measure of daylight quality. Similar to the illumination factor (%); Db is the surrounding building-reflected
level of artificial lighting, the appropriate daylight factor component of the daylight factor (%); Di is the internally
also depends upon the requirements of the work. During reflected component of the daylight factor (%); a is the
natural illumination, because the level of illumination ground reflectance (albedo) (1); b is the surrounding-
changes considerably with the depth of the space, we building reflectance (1); vis is the light transmittance of
evaluate the adequacy of the daylight with the average the window glazing (1).
daylight factor DFavg. The recommended values of DFavg
are stated in Table 8.3; however, the recommended Table 8.4 Typical reflectivity a in b
daylight factors vary from country to country. For
instance, in the UK the minimum DF is 2 per cent in Material a, b
kitchens, 1.5 per cent in living rooms and 1 per cent in Aluminium 7085
bedrooms, while in Greece the recommended DF is 1.5 Asphalt 10
per cent in kitchens, 3.5 per cent in living rooms and 1 Concrete 050
Stone 550
per cent in bedrooms. Wood 540
The DF at a chosen point in a room should be calcu- Paints, white 7090
lated by considering nominal illumination of an outdoor light tones 5075
unshaded horizontal plane, and the model of an overcast dark tones 2040
sky. The nominal illumination indicates the minimum black 5
illumination in a selected daily time interval. Figure 8.15 Brick, red 2545
Snow, fresh 6075
Table 8.3 Recommended minimum and average daylight Glass, ordinary 7
reflex 2040
factor and evenness of lighting in different spheres Grass 1030
Ambient DFav (%) DFmin (%)
Source: Medved, 1993
Offices 5 2
Classrooms 5 2
Living rooms 1.5 0.5
Bedrooms 1.0 0.3
Kitchens 2.0 0.6

Source: J&J, 1993

 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 157

Figure 8.15 Minimum illuminance of the outdoor horizontal unshaded plane under overcast sky during 70, 80 or
90 per cent of daily working hours (09:00 to 17:00) in different EU regions

Table 8.5 Thermal and optical properties of the Tall buildings in cities form canyons, which tend to
different glasses lower the sky component of the daylight. However, we
Type of glass U (W/m2K) vis (1) g (1)
also have to take into account the fact that the materials
used in cities such as asphalt, concrete, glass or metal
Double glazing 3.0 0.82 0.76 can increase the daylight component that is reflected from
Triple glazing 1.8 0.74 0.70
the surroundings and nearby buildings. The amount of
Double, low-e glazing 1.9 0.77 0.60
Double, low-e, Ar 1.1 0.74 0.60 daylight that a building with a north-facing faade in a
Solar protection glazing 1.1 0.65 0.33 street canyon receives is strongly dependent upon the
reflectivity of the opposite, south-facing faade, especially
Note: U = thermal transmittance of the glazing; g = total energy transmit- on sunny days.
tance of the glazing. These indicate the total heat flux into the living space A wide range of nomograms are stated in Littlefair
indicated by solar radiation. (1990) for determining the daylight factors for different
Source: Medved, 1993 geometrically shaped canyons and atriums. Because the
daylight factor depends upon a large number of meteoro-
The listed transmissions of the types of glazing in Table 8.5. logical, geometrical and optical parameters, each case is
are valid for clean glazing. Because of the higher levels of
air pollution in cities, the fraction of light transmitted
through glass decreases with time faster in cities than in
other areas. Measurements show that the transmittance of
vertical windows decreases by 5 per cent over a period of
y
sk

Cl
six months, for windows sloping at 60 the reduction is 25 ea
st

rs
ca

ky
er

per cent, and for windows at an angle of 45 the amount of Dir White building
Ov

ect or reflective
transmitted light drops to 45 per cent during the same time sun
ligh
t c ted glazing
period. We should also mention that glasses with a Ref fle
lec Re
ted
catalysator layer, which have a solar-assisted auto-cleaning
feature, are already in production. Besides improving the
daylight-transmittance properties, these glasses also reduce Source: Lechner, 1991
costs and are environmentally friendly because they reduce
the amount of detergents needed for cleaning. Figure 8.16 Components of the daylight factor (DF)
in an urban environment
158 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 8.17 A typical urban street canyon

unique. However, it can be analysed with various

computer tools. For the case of an overcast sky, the Source: Arkar, 2001
daylight factors can be analysed with the DFCAD calcu-
lation tool (DF.xls) on the accompanying CD (Arkar, 2001). Figure 8.19 Input windows of the DF.xls spreadsheet,
Figure 8.18 indicates the difference between the on the left for entering geometrical data relating to
illuminance of a north-facing faade in a street canyon and the surrounding room and the observed point in the
an unobstructed north-facing faade in plane surround- room; and on the right for the canyon data input
ings on sunny days. In the case of highly reflective faades
the illuminance of the north-facing faade during winter
months is even greater due to the strong reflections from
1.6 Faade reflectivity 0.2 the opposite south-facing faades.
Obstruction illuminance modifier (1)

Faade reflectivity 0.8

1.4
Uniform illumination criteria
1.2
The required illumination should be ensured for all
1.0 working planes, regardless of their position inside the
0.8 living space. Uniform illumination must be evaluated
using the relationship between the minimum illuminance
0.6 of a working plane Emin and the average illuminance of all
0.4 working planes in the room Eav. With artificial lighting, it
is relatively easy to achieve uniform illumination.
0.2 However, it is much more difficult to ensure this with
0 daylight because the condition of the sky changes
J F M A M J J A S O N D constantly and because the room illumination decreases
rapidly with the distance from the window. In this case
Source: Tsangrassoulis et al, 1999
the uniformity of the illumination can be improved by the
Figure 8.18 The obstruction illuminance multiplier following:
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 159

D D
Dav Dav Dmin
Dmin

D
Dav
Dmin

Source: Lechner, 1991

Figure 8.20 The uniformity of the daylight illumination inside a living space can be significantly improved by
well-considered arrangement of the windows

Locating the windows to parallel walls and installing pipes positioned on the roof, which is normally less
a skylight if the depth of the interior is more than shadowed than the windows in the sidewalls, can
about three times the height of the window. conduct the light.
Diverting the suns rays to the ceiling with reflective Considering the colour of the walls and the interior.
jalousies, prismatic elements and holographic films. The colours should be chosen in such a way that the
These elements use two basic optical principles: light reflexivity on the ceiling is between 80 and 85
reflection and refraction. The optical characteristics per cent, on the side walls between 50 and 60 per
of these elements must be adapted to the orientation cent, and the reflexivity of the ground between 15 and
of windows and the longitude (L) of the site where the 30 per cent.
building will be constructed.
Attaching highly reflective surfaces to the inner or Glare
outer sides of the window, such as windowsills and
Glare occurs when we perceive a source of strong light in
light shelves.
our central field of vision. Glare is one of the main reasons
Incorporating light pipes, light ducts and fibre optics
for light discomfort. It can be caused by the brightness of
elements that track the sun and beam the suns rays
light sources (daylight and artificial) or by a strong light
into the room. This method of improving the quality
flux reflected from surfaces in the space and the surround-
of daylight is especially efficient in cities because light
ings especially from windows, glass, faades and metal

Note: By using holographic films, these three-dimensional bodies can be replaced with a two-dimensional plane that has the same optical characteristics.

Source: Muller, 1991

Figure 8.21 The operation of the reflective jalousies, shades and prismatic elements, which divert daylight deep into the
room space, use two basic optical principles: reflection (reflective shades) and refraction (prismatic elements)
160 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 8.22 In the office shown, the uniformity of the daylight illumination increased from 1:6 to 1:3.5 after the light
shelf was installed; computer simulations and a photo of the window with and without light shelf are shown

linings in the urban environment. In the first case, we are Table 8.6 Description of the glare perception and the
referring to direct glare, and in the second case, to allowed glare index (GI) and daylight glare index (DGI)
reflected glare. By observing the glare caused by the sun according to the different interiors and spaces
and the sky, and the glare caused by lamps, it has been
Glare GI DGI Interior or
demonstrated that people are more sensitive to the glare
space
caused by lamps. Consequently, glare is evaluated with
the glare index (GI) for artificial lighting and the DGI for Imperceptible 10 16 Art galleries
daylight glare. In Table 8.6, the criteria for the evaluation Just acceptable 16 20 Offices,
museums,
of the GI formed by the Illuminating Engineering Society
classrooms
(IES) are stated. 19 22 Laboratories,
Glare as a consequence of daylight can be decreased offices, hospitals
with the architectonic design of buildings and spaces, or Uncomfortable 22 24 Factories
by the implementation of different devices, as follows: drawing offices
25 26 Factories
Decrease the windows surface area and/or rearrange rough work
Intolerable 28 28
their positions.
Decrease the transmittance of the glass with more Source: J&J, 1993
absorption of the suns radiation or with a higher level
of reflectance on the outer surface of the glass.
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 161

Source: Schmitz-Gunter, 1998

Figure 8.23 With light pipes it is possible to bring lead daylight to spaces that are 10m or more below the ground;
above is a system with parabolic tracking mirrors (bottom left) a combination of skylights and optical
light pipes for lighting a corridor 4m below roof level (top right and left)

However, care is required here because this can also Attach shades to the inner or outer sides of the glass,
affect daylight illumination. In the case of the absorp- which can be movable or fixed. Externally fixed
tive glasses, the temperature of the glass is higher, and shades are very efficient for shading windows on
this affects the operating temperature and can cause south-facing faades. The most appropriate for the
local thermal discomfort. The transmitivity of glass daylighting of spaces are louvers, which pass the light
can be changed automatically depending upon the from the brightest part of the sky at the zenith and
conditions in nature for example, the density of the shade the spaces from direct solar radiation,
light flux (photochromatic glazing); or the tempera- especially in the summer when the sun is high and
ture (thermochromatic glazing); or by the user there is no fear of glare. Glare can be avoided
themself; in the case of windows with a liquid-crystal efficiently with the use of movable shades for
layer; metal oxides that change colour when bonded example, jalousies, shutters, roller blinds or blades
into an electric circle (electrochromic glazing); or by that can be attached on the inner or outer side of the
using different substances (gasochromic glazing). We window. However, external shading devices are more
often refer to these types of windows as smart efficient because they keep the suns radiation outside
windows. the space, while internal shades allow individual
adjustment of the illumination.
162 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Note: In this case the glare caused by

the sun was decreased by the screen
printed on the upper part of the
glazing, and the glare caused by
reflection from the ground by the
screen printed on the lower part of
the glazing. But, simultaneously, the
inner surface temperature of the
glass was up to 15 Celsius higher on
a sunny day compared with clear
glass. This caused thermal discomfort
because of the higher radiant temper-
ature.

Figure 8.26 With printed screens the transmittivity of

glass is decreased only on the parts where glare is
expected (right)

With artificial lighting attention must be paid to areas

where the lamp emits light flux in the direction in which
we can perceive direct glare when our sight is directed
horizontally, in the direction which can cause veiling glare
because of the reflection of light from the working surface.
The glare from lamps can be prevented by proper light
positioning, with a proper choice of the photometric
characteristics of the lamp and with ribs, lenses or diffuse
Figure 8.24 North-facing windows in a shopping centre mirrors, which restrict direct sight of the lamp or the
ensure quality daylight without causing glare and lighting source.
overheating problems
Requests with reference to daylighting
and the duration of sun exposure for
urban areas
One of the specific problems related to ensuring natural
lighting of buildings in the urban environment is a conse-
quence of the high construction density and the tall
buildings. These surrounding buildings cover part of the
sky, shade the windows from the sun and therefore reduce
the daylight factor and duration of the sunshine. As we
Table 8.7 Maximum obstruction angle measured 2m
above the ground
City latitude City Obstruction angle
(degrees) (degrees)
35 Kreta 40
Figure 8.25 The transmittance of solar radiation through 40 Madrid 35
common absorbtive and reflective glass; in the case of 45 Ljubljana 30
absorbtive glass the transmittivity of solar radiation 50 Stuttgart 25
decreases, but the heat flux into the interior is increased 55 Edinburgh 22
by radiation and convection heat transfer 60 Stockholm 20

Source: Littlefair, 2001

 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 163

Figure 8.27 Fixed shades in the form of louvers on a

south-facing faade (8 October; south faade; 13:00;
L = 46 degrees; s = 7 degrees; s = 35 degrees)
such devices efficiently shade interiors and still allow
quality daylighting; but at lower altitudes of the sun
(s < 30 degrees) they do not prevent glare

know, the daylight factor is determined by the overcast-

sky model; therefore, it is proportional to the angle of the
sky that is visible from the selected point. The luminance
of an overcast sky depends only upon the latitude of the
observation site. Therefore, the maximum allowed
obstruction angles measured from ground level and the
top of the surrounding buildings vary according to site
latitude. The maximum recommended values are
presented in Table 8.7.
Sunlight also has an effect on peoples health because
sunrays give us the feeling of warmth and a healthy Note: Internal movable shades enable an individual regulation of natural
environment. The criteria that state the necessary amount lighting and glare, but they heat up because of the absorbed solar radia-
of sunlight are, therefore, more subjective, and demands tion and after that they radiate heat into the space. Even highly reflective
vary considerably. The duration of sunlight is the time roller blinds (bottom) at a low outside temperature (5 Celsius) heat up to
when a certain point for instance, the centre of the 45 Celsius and can cause local thermal discomfort.
window can be sunlit despite its position on the build-
ing or nearby obstacles. The veiling of the sun because of Figure 8.28 Movable shades efficiently decrease the
clouds is not considered in this case. visual discomfort caused by glare
164 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

90 90
Direct glare zone

60 60
Obstruction
Reflected glare zone angle
45 45

30 30 2m
0

Source: Lechner, 1991 Figure 8.30 Presentation of the obstruction angle

Figure 8.29 Photometric diagram of a lamp with
areas of direct- and reflected-glare zones Graphically, we can relatively easily and quickly
evaluate the sunlight duration with a sun-path diagram
Tables 8.8 and 8.9 summarize the criteria for selected onto which we superimpose the surrounding obstacles.
countries and site latitudes. For buildings that use the sun for heating, it is very impor-
The effect of nearby obstacles can be analysed with tant that the windows, sun spaces and sun walls face
different computer programmes (for a review see J&J, south, and that they are not shadowed during the winter.
1993). Here we often face problems that relate to the exact Therefore, in the area between south-east and south-west
listings of complex building geometry and vegetation. We (in the area of the azimuth between 45 degrees and +45
can analyse the surroundings more accurately with a visual degrees) in front of the building, the altitude angle of the
treatment of the landscape. Figure 8.31 shows the obstacle should not be higher than the minimal noon
surroundings of an observed point, photographed with a altitude of the sun. Because of the surroundings, build-
camera, and a computer review of the surroundings in a ings in an urban area are rarely obstructed to such a small
cylindrical diagram (Medved et al, 1992). extent, and therefore it is more suitable to use the criteria
stated in Table 8.10.
Table 8.8 Minimum sunlight duration stated in the regula-
tions of different countries Light pollution
Country Duration of sunlight
People enjoy looking at the night sky to see the stars and
UK > 25% annual probable sunlight hours in six the planets. With the increase in electric lighting in urban
months areas, the view of the night sky has gradually decreased.
Germany > 4 hours of sunlight on 20 March
Astronomers call the wasted light that goes up into the
The Netherlands > 2 hours of sunlight on 19 February
Slovenia > 1 hour of sunlight on 21 December; > 3 hours
sky light pollution. About 99 per cent of the European
of sunlight on 21 March and > 5 hours of population lives in areas where the night sky is above the
sunlight on 21 June
Table 8.10 Highest obstruction angles in the area between
south-eastsouthsouth-west in front of a solar-heated
Table 8.9 Minimum sunlight duration depending
building
on the latitude (L) of the site
Latitude (degrees) Critical angle (degrees)
City latitude (degrees) Sunlight hours
< 45 66.5 (latitude)
4050 >2 hours sunlight on 19 February
4550 20
+ 50 25% annual probable sunlight hours spread
> 50 70 (latitude)
over six months of the year
Source: Littlefair, 2001
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 165

SW SE

South

Critical
angle

Figure 8.32 Area in front of the solar heated building

where the obstruction angle should be as minimal
as possible

able to compare levels of light pollution in the atmos-

phere, to recognize polluted areas.
The use of efficient outdoor lighting can greatly
reduce this problem since overlighting and uplighting
are avoided. The efficiency of outdoor lighting is deter-
mined by the control of light disbursement, lamp
efficiency and the appropriateness of the level of illumi-
nation. The following list describes the characteristics of
efficient light disbursement and control:

Fixtures for parking areas, walkways and street light-

ing should direct all of their light to the ground.
Fixtures should illuminate signs and billboards from
above rather than from below.
Architectural lighting should illuminate only the
Source: Medved et al, 1992 intended target. Spill lighting is to be avoided.
Figure 8.31 A photo of the internal yard (top), digitized Lights should automatically be turned off or dimmed
and computer-analysed picture in a spherical mirror according to the natural illumination.
(middle left) and a sun-path diagram with surroundings
(bottom) The most efficient lamps (bulbs) for outdoor lighting are
the low-pressure sodium type. The most efficient lamps
commonly used for outdoor lighting are high-pressure
threshold set for polluted status, and more than half of the sodium as they give good colour rendition, and metal-
population have lost naked-eye visibility of the Milky Way halide lamps, which are favourites for use in public and
because of the night-sky brightness. Maps of the artificial commercial parking areas where colour rendering is
night-sky brightness at zenith at sea level are now avail- paramount.
166 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

25% annual
probable sunlight
hours spread 70 latitude
20 over 6 months
22

25
> 2 hours on 20
30 February 19

35 66.5 latitude

40
Passive
Daylight Sunlight heating

Figure 8.33 A summary of the criteria of maximum recommended obstruction angles regarding daylighting,
sunlight duration and passive solar heating

Source: Cinzano et al, 2001

Figure 8.34 World map of night-sky brightness; bright pixels represent the most critical areas
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 167

Lighting and the use of energy in Table 8.12 Installed electrical power of lamps and the
buildings use of electrical energy for artificial illumination of
the office building
The illumination of buildings and surroundings is Lamp type Luminary electric Yearly specific
connected to the use of energy. In residential buildings, power (W/m2) end-use of
the use of energy for illumination does not exceed 5 to 10 electricity
per cent of all the energy used; but in commercial and (kWh/m2 year)
public buildings the energy consumption for artificial Standard incandescent lamp 25 9.6
lighting could be as high as 50 per cent (Schmitz-Gunter, Halogen lamp 20 7.6
1998) Fluorescent lamp 6 2.3
As a result, indoor and outdoor illumination have an Note: For illumination of the work plane 500 lux (lx), daylighting is calcu-
important effect on the rational use of energy, especially lated to be sufficient in 80 per cent of working hours.
because lamps turn high-exergy electricity into light. The
electricity is also produced with low efficiency and there-
fore with a high impact on the environment. Measures thermal transmissivity (U), a high light transmissivity
that help to decrease the consumption of energy for (vis) and a low total energy transmissivity (g) (see
illuminating buildings include the following: Table 8.5).

Choose bulbs with a high light efficiency. Table 8.12 The process of planning a building should be an integral
shows a comparison between installed electric power process in which, on the one hand, we consider the
and the annual electricity consumption per square mutual influence of the thermal and the optical character-
metre of office-floor area using different lamp istics of the glazings; and the other the planning should
technologies. involve different experts. As an example of successful
Studies show that it will be possible to reduce integral or holistic planning, two cases are presented: a
electricity use by an additional 15 to 20 per cent with typical office in a commercial building with different
improved luminary light-flux distribution using better double faades and the case of a shopping centre with a
shapes and materials of reflectors. different skylight area.
Regulate the light flux emitted by lamps according to In Figure 8.35 a three-storey commercial building
the daytime (time-based control) presence of people with a south-oriented double faade is presented. The
(presence-based control) and the required level of building is located in a site where DD = 2500K per day
lighting with automatic control systems (see also per year. During the process of design, the energy
Chapter 5). consumption for heating and lighting of the typical office
Combine daylighting and artificial lighting; however, was analysed. The area of a typical office is 20 square
introducing daylight will have an effect on the higher metres. The low-e double glazing was between the office
use of energy for heating during the winter because and the single-glazed faade. High reflective and white
windows have higher thermal losses than opaque painted fixed louvers installed inside the double faade
building constructions. There will also be an effect were analysed. Other parameters (e.g. temperature, inner
during summer because of the high thermal load from heat sources, interior, ventilation and occupancy patterns)
solar radiation. Therefore, glass should have a low were typical for commercial buildings. The specific yearly
energy consumption for heating a typical office was
analysed for north- and south-orientated offices without a
Table 8.11 Electricity use for artificial lighting double faade and for south-oriented offices with a double
in different buildings as a percentage of the faade. Relative electricity consumption for artificial
end-use energy consumption lighting was determined for the same offices according to
Type of building Share of end-use the time period when the daylight factor (DF) is lower
for lighting (per cent) than 4 per cent.
Residental buildings 10%
The results are presented in Table 8.13. The double
Schools 1015% faade reduced energy consumption for heating but
Factories 15% increased the use of artificial lighting. Overall perform-
Hospitals 2030% ance shows that the double faade can be treated as an
Commercial buildings 50% energy saving element.
Source: Schmitz-Gunther, 1998
168 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 8.13 Energy required for heating and relative

electricity consumption for artificial illumination of a
typical office in the building depicted in Figure 8.35
(kWht/m2a) (kWhe/m2a)
North-oriented office
without double faade 49.0 +0
South-oriented office
without double faade 26.0 +0
South-oriented office with
double faade and white louvers 11.5 + 7.5
South-oriented office with
double faade and reflective
louvers 11.0 + 6.5

The second case illustrates the energy consumption of the

shopping centre shown in Figure 8.37. The energy use for
heating, cooling and lighting were analysed according to Figure 8.35 Commercial office with south-oriented
the size and quality of the skylights. The area of the double-glazed faade
shopping centre is 1530 square metres, and the indoor
temperature is 20 Celsius in winter and 24 Celsius transmissivity g = 0.75. The required illumination inside
during the summer. The results are presented in Table the shopping centre is 900lx. No shading device on the
8.14 for roof skylight thermal transmittance U = skylights was used.
2.8W/m2K, light transmittance vis = 0.80 and energy

Figure 8.36 Iso-luxes calculated for overcast sky and nominal illumination for an office without a double faade (left),
and for an office with a double faade and reflective louvres (right)
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 169

Figure 8.37 Shopping centre with central shopping area with flat roof and skylights: view from the south (left),
construction of skylights (right)

Table 8.14 Energy use for heating, cooling and lighting of the shopping centre shown in Figure 8.37
Area of the skylights (DFavg) Heating Cooling Lighting
(% of floor area) (%) (kWht/m2a) (kWht/m2a) (kWhe/m2a) (kWh/m2a)
0.0 0.0 50.3 4.3 70.8 125.4
1.6 1.3 50.8 8.0 49.3 108.1
2.7 1.8 51.3 10.8 41.3 103.4
4.9 2.8 51.1 16.5 33.3 100.9

Synopsis solve the main task of building construction: to supply the

best residential area with the smallest possible energy
Light comfort is one of the four elements of living comfort consumption and influence on the environment in terms
(besides thermal, sound and air-quality comfort) and is of energy use. This is particularly true for buildings in
equally important to the other three. It is important, cities, where conditions in the building often have strong
despite the basic rules, for each building to be treated as links to the more or less shady surroundings and the
an individual case. Only in this way can we successfully urban climate.

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Littlefail, P. (1990) Measurements of the luminous efficacy of Engineers, Copenhagen
daylight, Light Research and Technology, vol 13, Mid-career Education, Technology Module 8: Calculation and
pp192198 design tools, Altener Project, CIENE, University of Athens,
Littlefair, P. (1990) Innovative daylighting: Review of system Athens
and evolution method, Lighting Research and Technology, Moore, F. (1991) Concepts and Practice of Architectural
vol 22, no 1, pp115 Daylighting, Van NostrandReinhold, New York
Littlefair, P. (2001) Daylight, sunlight and solar gain in the Muller, H. F. O. (1991) Intelligente beleuchtung von raumen,
urban environment, Solar Energy, vol 70, no 3, pp177185 Institut fur Licht und Bautechnik an der Fachhochschule
Medved, S. (1993) Solar Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Koln, Essen
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ljubljana Santamouris, M., and Asimakopoulos, D. (1996) Design Source
Medved, S., Arkar, C., Cerne, B. and Vidrih, B. (2001) Book on Passive Solar Architecture, EC, DC XVII, Altener,
Computer and Experimental Analyses of Thermal and Athens
Lighting Characterised in Selected Offices of the Schmitz-Gunter, T. (1998) Lebensraume: Der Grosse Ratgeber
Commercial Buildings HIT, University of Ljubljana, Faculty fr Okologisches Bauen und Wohnen, Konemann
of Mechanical Enginnering, Report, Ljubljana Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Kln
Medved, S., Griar, P and Novak. P. (1992) Video and Tsangrassoulis, A., Santamouris, M., Geros, V., Wilson, M. and
computer aided optimization of the solar radiation in urban Asimakopoulos, D. (1999) A method to investigate the
environment, Renewable Energy, Technology and the potential of south-oriented vertical surfaces for reflecting
Environment, Pergamont Press, vol 4, pp22442248 daylight onto oppositely facing vertical surfaces under
sunny conditions, Solar Energy, vol 66, no 6, pp439446

Recommended reading
1 Lechner, N. (1991) Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Design is divided into several chapters, comprising light and
Methods for Architects, John Wiley and Sons, New human requirements according to the physiological
York and psychological background to the visual process;
This book deals with the heating, cooling and lighting photometry of materials, with precise photometric
of buildings, not as discrete and isolated problems, descriptions of material surfaces and their optical
but in the holistic sense of being integral parts of the properties; light transfer models with a review of
larger task of environmental manipulation. The three techniques; and simplified tools and computer codes.
chapters on light, electic lighting and daylighting A major role of this reference book is to provide
present information required by the designer to design guidance.
create a quality lighting environment. Architects will 3 Moore, F. (1991) Concepts and Practice of
find the most relevant information and practical tools Architectural Daylighting, Van NostrandReinhold,
available to them when designing heating, cooling and New York
lighting systems. The design tools are mainly The primary goal of this book is to familiarize the
concepts, guidelines, handy rules of thumb, examples practising architect with the concepts and the analyt-
and physical modelling. ical procedures needed to confidently design daylit
2 Baker, N., Fanchiotti, A. and Steemers, K. (1993) buildings. Mathematical theory has been replaced
Daylighting in Architecture: A European Reference wherever possible with analogies and graphic expla-
Book, CEC, DG XII, James & James, London nations. Graphic and computer design tools have
This book is aimed at the architect and engineer who been emphasized in lieu of tables and formulae.
wants to acquire an in-depth understanding of the Intended as a practical introduction for the serious
principles of daylighting. The concept of the book is professional, this comprehensive book brings
also a good indication of the current scientific and together a full range of design tools, as well as practi-
design support work in European countries. The book cal hints.
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 171

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 4
Describe the physical phenomena of light and human What are the most important features of electric lamps for
vision. lighting designers?

Activity 2 Activity 5
Compare physical and photo-optical quantities in lighting What are the most important requirements in order to
technology. ensure good indoor visual comfort?

Activity 3
Describe the basic differences between numerical models
of different natural sky approximations.
172 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 Activity 2
The way in which people recognize electromagnetic In order to evaluate light sources and the lighting environ-
waves depends very much upon the wavelength of the ment, we use scotopical and photo-optical quantities. We
radiation and the senses used for the perception. For can express the first of these with units of energy;
example, we see radiation with our eyes but feel it with however, with the second, we also consider the effect of
our skin. Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths of light on the human eye or on our light perception. For
between 380 and 770nm can be seen by the eyes, and this both quantities the systems are related by the spectral
type of radiation is called light. The human eye can be luminous efficiency V().
compared to a camera. The lens, the iris and the film of The spectral luminous efficiency value of the eye is a
the camera, are, in the human eye, replaced by the lens, maximum when illuminated with light with a 555nm
the iris and the retina. By contracting the lens (accommo- wavelength (for vision adapted to normal vision). It has
dation), the eye adapts to be able to see objects at different been experimentally determined that at this wavelength
distances, and by expanding or narrowing of the pupil the radiation flux emitted by a surface is the same as a
(adaptation) the eye regulates the light flux falling on the light flux of 683 lumens (lm). This value is the maximum
retina. The human eye is, however, not equally sensitive value of the luminous efficiency of radiation Km for this
to the different wavelengths of light. To get the impres- monochromatic radiation. However, because light sources
sion of equivalent luminance from a surface, the eye must normally emit light in the visible spectrum, we define the
expand to allow a bigger light flux if the surface is entire lumination flux using integration over the whole
coloured red or violet-blue than it would if the surface visual spectrum.
were coloured green or yellow. This characteristic of our
eyes is called the spectral luminous efficiency V(). Activity 3
Measured from the centre of vision, the field of view is
In nature, the magnitude of the radiation and the relation
seen as approximately 180 degrees wide in the horizontal
between direct and diffuse radiation constantly change, and
direction. The eyebrows and cheekbones limit the field of
therefore certain points in the sky have periodically
peripheral vision to about 130, and because of the retinas
variable light intensities, which represent a major obstacle
characteristics we see objects in this area differently. The
to daylight planning. In order to deal with this, three typical
sharp (foveal) vision occurs in a 2 cone around the centre
sky conditions that are characteristic of a particular place
of vision; but it is true that awareness is still quite high in
and time of year have been determined overcast, clear
the foveal surround, which is within a 30 cone around the
and cloudy sky. The characteristic of an overcast sky is that
centre of vision. The location and the brightness of the
the luminance of the zenith is three times bigger than the
objects in this field of vision are very important.
luminance of the horizon. Points in the sky with the same
The most important factors for our quality perception
zenith angle have the same luminance, which, therefore,
of our surroundings are:
does not depend upon their azimuth. The luminance of the
points in the sky cannot be determined as easily as in the
the sharpness of sight;
case of an overcast sky. It depends upon many geometrical
the speed of sight perception, which is related to the
and meteorological parameters that change with time and
time between the appearance of the object and its
position. The illuminance of a horizontal plane from a clear
recognition;
sky also depends upon the condition of the environment,
depth distinction (we can see a 0.4mm divergence
particularly upon the absorption and dissemination of light
between two objects at a distance of less than 1m; at a
on gas molecules and particulate material in the atmos-
distance of 1000m, we can only discern if the two
phere. The variable conditions of the sky present extreme
objects are separated by more than 275m; at a
conditions in nature and are often quite rare situations.
distance of 1300m the ability to distinguish depth
With the cloudy-sky model we can also evaluate intermedi-
does not exist any more);
ate conditions. These models are based on a statistical
the geometry (spherical aberration) and colour
evaluation of different meteorological data for instance,
(chromatic aberration) of the picture of the object we
an estimation of cloudiness, the relationship between global
are observing (this is a consequence of the suns rays
and diffuse solar radiation, or the probability of direct solar
refracting as they pass through the eyes lens).
radiation in hourly intervals.
 APPLIED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN BUILDINGS 173

Activity 4 Activity 5
Lamps are devices that convert electricity into heat and For the perception of objects in space and the perform-
light. Light sources can be divided into various types ance of various tasks, a certain level of lighting is required.
according to the physical principle by which the light is In order to recognize a human face, face lighting of 10lx,
produced and their efficiency. The efficiency of a light or calculated on a horizontal plane a lighting of 20lx,
source is defined as the relationship between the light is required; but for the recognition of details on a face, a
that is emitted and the electricity that is consumed or, tenfold bigger illuminance of 200lx must be provided. The
alternatively, the ratio of the emitted light to the heat first value represents the minimum level for recognition,
produced. Theoretically, we could turn all of the electri- the second one a minimum level of illuminance for
cal energy into light by emitting radiation with a working areas. Generally, an optimum level of working-
wavelength of yellow-green light (monochromatic radia- area illuminance for agreeable working conditions
tion with a wavelength of 523nm) that would be equal to depends upon the task we are performing. Similar to the
680lm/W. But the human eye is not equally sensitive to illumination level of artificial lighting, the appropriate
all the wavelengths that make up white light. Therefore, daylight factor also depends upon the requirements of the
the theoretical efficiency of a light source emitting only work. Because with natural illumination the level of
white light is just 200lm/W. However, the efficiency of illumination changes considerably with the depth of the
modern light sources is even lower than this. space, we evaluate the adequacy of the daylight with the
Incandescent lamps have a lighting efficiency of average daylight factor (DFavg). The required illumination
between 15 and 25lm/W and their lifetime is increased to should be ensured for all working planes, regardless of
2000 hours. A much better lighting efficiency can be their position. Uniform illumination must be evaluated
achieved with fluorescent lamps (between 40 to 90lm/W) using the relationship between the minimum illuminance
and they have a lifetime of between 12,000 and 15,000 of a working plane (Emin) and the average illuminance of
hours with the use of a modern ballast. Metal-halide all working planes in the room (Eav).
lamps are distinguished by their high lighting efficiency With artificial lighting it is relatively easy to achieve
of 80 to 125lm/W, their long life and their even light uniform illumination; however, it is much more difficult
spectrum; as a result, they are used in places where high- to ensure this with daylight because the condition of the
quality illumination is required for example, schools, sky changes constantly and because the room illumina-
shops and offices. High-pressure sodium lamps are also tion decreases rapidly with the distance from the window.
known for their high lighting efficiency (70 to 140lm/W) One of the main reasons for light discomfort is glare. It
and long life (20,000 to 24,000 hours); but because the can be caused by the brightness of light sources (daylight
light mostly has wavelengths of yellow and red, they tend and artificial), or by a strong light flux reflected from
to be used in spaces such as warehouses and for outdoor surfaces in the space and the surroundings especially
illumination where the quality of the light is not so impor- from windows, glass, faades and metal linings in the
tant. urban environment. In the first case, we are referring to
Luminaries have three major functions: they protect direct glare, and in the second case, to reflected glare. By
the lamp and support it with a socket, they supply power observing the glare caused by the sun and the sky, and the
to the lamp and they control the light emitted by the glare caused by lamps, it has been demonstrated that
lamp. In general, we divide luminaries into six categories people are more sensitive to the glare caused by lamps.
that are defined by the way in which they distribute light Consequently, glare is evaluated with the glare index (GI)
from direct (sending the light down on the work plane), for artificial lighting and the daylight glare index (DGI)
to general (distributing the light more or less equally in for daylight glare. Sunlight has an effect on peoples
all directions), to indirect (directing almost all of the light health because sunrays give them the feeling of warmth
up to the ceiling). The producers of luminaries provide and a healthy environment. The criteria that state the
photometric data sheets for their products. On these necessary amount of sunlight are, therefore, more subjec-
sheets the lighting intensity at a certain angle is presented tive, and demands vary considerably. The duration of
with the distance from the centre. With the help of the sunlight is the time during which a certain point for
photometric diagram and the distance between the instance, the centre of the window can be sunlit despite
luminaries and the surface in the same angle direction, its position on the building or nearby obstacles.
we can determine the distribution of the illuminance in
space, or, for instance, in a work plane.
9
Case Studies
Koen Steemers (editor)

Scope of the chapter and not applied in a deterministic manner. The range of
architectural solutions highlights that low-energy urban
This chapter describes the design and performance of design carries with it no stylistic or architectural
nine case study buildings in urban environments. constraint in fact, it can be argued that the solution
Climates represent the range of conditions found in space is increased.
Europe and projects are located in Greece, Slovenia, Nine building case studies are described. They have
Germany and the UK. The building types primarily been chosen to provide a representative range of uses,
include office and residential use, which together make including:
up the largest proportion of the built environment.
office;
residential;
Learning objectives educational.
The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide real
The case studies are located in a range of European
examples of successful energy-efficient urban buildings.
climates:
It is not intended to be comprehensive in terms of repre-
senting all building types or microclimates, but to
southern;
demonstrate the application of key design principles in
continental;
real building projects.
coastal.

Key words The projects also demonstrate a number of integrated

low-energy strategies:
Key words include:
natural ventilation (cross-ventilation, atrium, double
case studies; skin, stack);
offices; daylighting strategies (including switching systems
residential and educational buildings. for artificial lights);
integration of passive design with mechanical
systems.
Introduction
The case studies are as follows:
The case studies presented demonstrate a combination of
integrated design strategy with the appropriate applica-
1 Meletikiki office building near Athens, Greece;
tion of technology in order to achieve low-energy
2 Avax office building in Athens, Greece;
buildings. They also usefully demonstrate though not
3 Ampelokipi residential building in Athens, Greece;
exhaustively a rich range of concepts that have been
4 Bezigrajski dvor: energy-efficient settlement in
developed in response to the specific contexts and briefs,
Ljubljana, Slovenia;
 CASE STUDIES 175

5 Commercial building with a double faade in Nova by each project presented:

Gorica, Slovenia;
6 EURO centre commercial building with atrium in Title: name, type (office, retail, etc.) and location (city,
Ljubljana, Slovenia; neighbourhood) of building.
7 Potsdamer Platz: office and residential development Introduction: brief statement of the key challenge or
in Berlin, Germany; innovation (e.g. natural ventilation in a noisy urban
8 School of Engineering, De Montfort University in environment, daylighting strategy with high obstruc-
Leicester, UK; tions, refurbishment of a redundant urban building,
9 Inland Revenue Office Headquarters with stack etc.).
ventilation in Nottingham, UK. Location and climate: climate (latitude, longitude,
monthly temperatures, solar radiation, etc.), microcli-
Each has been chosen to represent a distinct set of condi- mate (local data where available to compare with
tions (e.g. combination of climatic and urban context, synoptic data), physical context, development/
function or mix of functions, energy strategy, etc.), and has planning constraints, etc.
been selected on the basis of the appropriate level of Building description: building form, space planning,
information available. More importantly, each case study faade design, systems, details, etc.
offers a specific insight and environmental approach that Key features: special aspects that are innovative or
is successful, related typically to lighting, ventilation or interesting with particular reference to the urban
mechanical systems concepts for urban buildings. context and issues.
The format of the case study descriptions follows a Performance: data related to the thermal, lighting and
general outline, which enables some degree of easy energy performance (actual or targeted) and
comparison between the contexts and solutions offered comments on occupant satisfaction.
176 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Case study 1: Meletikiki office building

Table 9.1 Meletikiki office building
Name: Meletikiki Ltd: A. N. Tombazis and Associates, Architects
Type: Office building at Polydrosso
Nea Ionia
Location: Northern part of Athens: residential area
Elevsis
Peristerion
Introduction
The building is located in Polydrosso, Halandri, a residen- ATHENS Zografos
tial area in the northern part of Athens, and is the office Salamis
Kaisariani
building of the architectural group A. N. Tombazis and Kallithea
Palania
Associates Meletikiki Ltd. Piraeus
The building presents some important design charac-
teristics from an energy point of view. It is well insulated, Koropion
with increased insulation provided to all exterior walls
and roofs.
Clifadha
For reasons of bioclimatic design, the building is 0 10km
narrow and long. This shape is efficient for natural Voula
daylighting purposes. Furthermore, all windows are
shaded by individual exterior vertical motorized shading Figure 9.1 Location of the building (star indicates
devices. The natural light is reflected from fabric panels the location region)
below the skylights of the roof. Ceiling-recessed
downlights and task lighting compose the artificial light- Figure 9.2 illustrates the monthly average global and
ing system. The control of the artificial lighting system is diffuse solar radiation. According to this figure, the global
manual on/off. The building is also equipped with seven solar radiation varies between 200W/m2 during the winter
split and two single package air-to-air heat pumps for period and about 500W/m2 during the summer season
cooling and heating purposes. (maximum during August).
The design of the building and its structural charac- Figure 9.3 presents the monthly average ambient
teristics permit the application of various strategies temperature and the humidity for the city of Athens. The
oriented towards reducing the energy consumption of the minimum ambient temperature is close to 8 Celsius
building. The application of night ventilation techniques during February, while the maximum is about 28 Celsius
is an important measure in order to reduce the cooling during August. With regard to the outdoor temperature,
load of the building. Another measure that is important
for reducing the energy consumption for cooling is the 600
installation of ceiling fans. By using the ceiling fans, it is Iglob
Global and diffuse solar radiation (W/m2)

possible to increase the set-point temperature during the 500

Idif
summer season and, therefore, to reduce the operation
time of the cooling system.
This particular building also permits the use of 400
daylight because the workstations are located close to the
building openings. Additionally, in order to increase the 300
penetration of daylight into the upper part of the build-
ing, skylights have been installed.
200

Location and climate

100
The building is located in Polydrosso, Halandri, a residen-
tial area in the northern part of Athens, with relatively low
traffic (see Figure 9.1). 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
The climatic characteristics of Athens are presented
in Figures 9.2 to 9.4. The climatic data are for the Athens Figure 9.2 Monthly average global and diffuse solar
test reference year. radiation on a horizontal plane in Athens
 CASE STUDIES 177

30 80

70
25
60
Ambient temperature (C)

Relative humidity (%)

20
50

15 40

30
10
20
Humid
5
Tout 10

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 9.3 Monthly average external temperature Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates
and external relative humidity in Athens Figure 9.5 Meletikiki building

the hourly maximum value is close to 40 Celsius because

the summer season is quite warm in Athens. On the other
Building description
hand, during the winter the minimum hourly value of the The building was constructed in 1995. It is the office of A.
temperature is close to 0 Celsius. The seasonal variation N. Tombazis and Associates (Figure 9.5). The same archi-
of the relative humidity is fairly negligable. During the tect, Alexandros Tombazis, designed the adjacent
summer period the relative humidity varies between 45 buildings, which are used as the offices of a construction
to 60 per cent, while during the winter the variation is company. It has three floors and a basement. It is a unique
between 60 to 75 per cent. space in terms of interior design, space manipulation and
Finally, Figure 9.4 illustrates the monthly average daylight design.
wind speed and direction. These measurements concern The long axis of the building faces north and south.
the centre of Athens. During the entire year the wind The east faade is the main entrance. The west and south
velocity varies between 3 and 4.5 metres per second. For faades of the building overlook an open space. The east
the same period the wind direction is from south-east to faade is partly adjacent to a rectangular building of
south-west. 11.45m in height, 22.7m in length and 10m in width (see
5.0 250 building 1 in Figure 9.6). The remaining faade overlooks
the paved semi-urban space. Furthermore, at the opposite
4.5
side of the office, there is a second building (see building
4.0 200 2 in Figure 9.6).
Wind direction (degrees)
Wind velocity (m/sec)

3.5

3.0 150
11.5m Building 1 10m
2.5
22.5m
2.0 100
Building 2 22.7m
1.5 Office

1.0 50
Wind dir
0.5 Wind vel
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 9.4 Monthly average wind velocity and Figure 9.6 Location of the building and
wind direction in Athens neighbouring buildings
178 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates Figure 9.9 Section of the building showing the
Figure 9.7 The building complex where the different levels
office is located
has access to level 3.2, on both sides of the platform. From
The entrance to the building is through an open space level 3.2, there is access to level 4.8, and from level 4.8 to
that has a small pond (Figure 9.7). The route is through 6.4. The staircase from level 6.4 leads to level 8. The
Monemvasias Street to the patio and through the wooden building has skylights on the top floor (levels 6.4 and 8).
bridge on the level of 1.6m. The entrance door is through The space is used for drawing offices, computer-aided
a corridor 1.75m
4.75m, which has service areas (lifts design, a meeting room and a library. The total floor area
and toilet) on the opposite side. The building has a garage of the building (except the floor area of the garage, which
on the level of 2.73m and one basement on the level of is an unairconditioned zone) is close to 500 square metres.
1.63m. The level above the entrance is at 1.6m (Figures The space is open plan (see Figure 9.11). Each floor
9.8 and 9.9). The building has three floors, which have has an area close to 100 square metres and the height of
two levels each, and are jointed by a staircase. Level 1.6 each floor is 3m. The building has a rectangular shape of
7m in width, 29.6m in length and 10.6m in height. Its
section is very interesting, being divided into semi-levels,
which create a unique quality of space. These different

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.8 External views of the building Figure 9.10 A section of the building
 CASE STUDIES 179

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.11 Plan of the building, showing the levels 3.20m and 4.80m (library, meeting room, drawing boards)

levels express individuality of function. Staircases of a

height of approximately 1.60m divide each level from
each other. There are no interior walls in this building
(Figure 9.12).

Key features
The shape of the building and the location of the worksta-
tions, near the windows, allow an efficient use of daylight.
The building is entirely day lit from both sides by
windows and from the roof by way of clerestories (see
Figure 9.13). Clerestory lighting is also provided above
the administrative area on the ground floor. Apertures
purposely have been kept small in order to provide suffi-
cient, but not excessive, daylighting because there are
many days of clear sky conditions; this avoids overheat-
ing. Furthermore, the clerestories are equipped with
reflective blinds in order to distribute the daylight
deeper into the building.
An important element of the building is the shading
devices, which comprise exterior blinds for the windows
and interior blinds for the skylights. The material is white
plastic cloth, and its height can be adjusted through a
rotation mechanism. On the top floor of the building,
skylights are constructed in the middle of the ceiling.
They are covered with panels of cloth, which hang from
the ceiling.
Another important feature is the presence of ceiling
fans that aim to reduce the cooling load of the building.
These fans operate during the summer season and they are
Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates
controlled by the building energy management systems
Figure 9.12 Photo of the interior space of the building (BEMS) of the building. This strategy permits an increase
180 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

indoor and outdoor temperature; the supply of fresh air;

and the part of the mass of the building that is exposed to
the low temperature airflow. The lower the outdoor
temperature and the higher the fresh air supply, the more
effective the system is. Furthermore, the interior planning
of the building is important for the exposure of the
thermal mass, which determines the flows and the paths
of air passing through the building.
The current building uses two extractor fans (2

25,000 cubic metres per hour) installed on the roof of the
building. In order to facilitate the airflow inside the build-
ing, a number of windows (four or five) remain open
during the application of the technique. These two fans
are controlled by the BEMS system of the building and
Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates they operate only if the outdoor temperature is lower than
the indoor one. This control increases the efficiency of the
Figure 9.13 Photo of the clerestory lighting on the technique. The insulation of the envelope (10cm) also
roof of the building and the reflective curtains improves the effect of night ventilation.

in the Heating, Ventilation and Air-conditioning indoor Performance

set-point temperature for cooling. The comfort zone is Figure 9.15 illustrates the energy use in the building for
more extended than the normal summer comfort zone and cooling, heating, lighting, equipment, etc. As the building
rises up to 29 Celsius, as illustrated in Figure 9.14. is designed to reduce the energy consumption for cooling,
As noted, the ceiling fans allow the system settings to this parameter represents only 5 per cent of the total
be raised cooling by 1 to 3 Celsius. This results in a energy consumption. Additionally, the energy consump-
saving of about 8 per cent of the cooling load. Another tion of the artificial lighting system is also low (4 per cent),
advantage of the ceiling fans is that they can improve proof of effective natural lighting design.
natural ventilation during pleasant summer days by circu- With regard to the application of night ventilation, the
lating the air that passes through the opened windows. performance of this technique has been evaluated by
The application of night ventilation techniques during using the transient system (TRNSYS) simulation tool
the cooling period is also important. During summer (Klein, 1990). In order to develop a model for the simula-
nights, ventilation provides a cooling effect by using the tion of the building, the indoor temperature has been
outdoor air to carry away the heat from the building. The measured during the application of the technique.
efficiency of the night ventilation is strongly related to Furthermore, the measurements were compared with the
three parameters: the relative difference between the simulation results (see Figure 9.16).
Equipment (18%)
1.5
Heating (41%)
Summer zone
Average air movement (m/sec)

using ceiling fans

1.0 ASHRAE extended

summer zone

0.5 Summer zone

PCs (27%)
0
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Lighting (4%) Cooling (5%)
Operative temperature (C)
Day ventilation (2%) Night ventilation (3%)
Source: Rohles, 1983 Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.14 Comfort zone when ceiling fans are operated Figure 9.15 Energy use
 CASE STUDIES 181

36
Ambient and indoor temperature for zone 2 Ambient Tmsys Channel 1 Channel 2

34

32
Temperature (C)

30

28

26

24

22
1 20 39 58 77 96 115 134 153 172 191 210 229 248 267 286 305 324 343 362 381
Time (hours)

Source: Geros, 1999

Figure 9.16 Measured (channel 1 and 2), simulated (TRNSYS) and outdoor air temperature (ambient)
for level 0.0 of the building

Figure 9.16 also clearly shows the application period of Celsius. This analysis takes into account four different
the night ventilation (when the indoor temperature is airflow rates during the application of the technique (5, 10,
almost equal to the ambient one during the night). By using 20 and 30 air changes per hour) and shows that when the
the developed model, the coefficient of performance of the airflow is increased the coefficient of performance (COP) is
night ventilation was calculated (see Figure 9.17). The reduced as it requires a bigger size of fans; therefore, the
current results refer to a set-point temperature equal to 27 energy consumption for the ventilation is increased.

25
COP of night ventilation (setpoint temperature = 27 C)
5ACH 10ACH 20ACH 30ACH

20

15
COP

10

0
30
25
10
14

22
26
30

12

20
24
28

21

29

10

22

9/ 6
13
17
21
25
29
2
6

18

4
8

16

5
9
13
17

2
6

14
18
5
9

1
1

2
6/
6/

7/
7/

8/
8/

9/
9/
5/
5/

8/
5/

5/

7/

8/
8/
5/
5/

6/

8/

9/
7/
6/

7/

9/
6/

9/
8/
6/
6/
6/

7/

7/

8/

9/
9/
5/
5/

Date

Source: Geros, 1999

Figure 9.17 Coefficient of performance (COP) of the night ventilation

182 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

ARCHIVES
1%

0.5%
Point 1
0.5%

2%
1%
Point 2

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates
Figure 9.19 Illuminance on the horizontal level with
Figure 9.18 Daylight factors of the 1.63m level and without shading
of the building
day. Sun patches on working surfaces would be particu-
Due to the shallowness of the building and the provi- larly annoying during the summer solstice in the early
sion of windows on both sides, the daylight environment morning (until 9:00 LST).
seems to be relatively homogenous. Because it is an open
space and the interior surfaces have high reflectance, Conclusion
good daylight penetration is ensured. Areas with daylight
This office building is an interesting example of a well-
factors of less than 0.5 per cent (see Figure 9.18) are used
designed building from an architectural and energy point
as archives and for photocopier services. Generally, there
of view. The shape and the orientation, as well as the
is symmetry in the distribution of the daylight factors
interior (open space) planning of the building, allow the
between different levels. This is because all levels have
local climate to be exploited for energy conservation and
the same geometrical configuration. Evidence from
daylighting purposes. The installation of a BEMS gives
measurements of the upper levels shows the strong influ-
the possibility of controlling various systems (such as
ence of the clerestory window on daylighting levels. On
ceiling fans, night ventilation fans, etc.) installed in the
western windows the daylight factors are 22 per cent. On
building. The studies and measurements conducted in the
the north windows, due to the presence of external
building show that from the daylight and solar protection
obstructions, they are 16 per cent. The eastern windows,
point of view, the building is well balanced. The position-
which face the common courtyard, have a daylight factor
ing of the workstations near the windows and the
of 12 per cent.
manually controlled shading devices give the possibility
All apertures facing east and west are provided with
of controlling or utilizing daylight.
manually controlled vertical exterior electric motored
The building is also well insulated through the use of
fabric blinds positioned approximately 15cm from the
ceiling fans and the application of night ventilation
wall, providing both shading and glare control. The large
techniques to reduce the energy requirements for
clerestory over the main stairwell is provided with a light
cooling. The results of the studies performed for night
shelf on the south side.
ventilation show that the ventilation system used for this
With the blinds closed the levels of illumination are
purpose is oversized. The two extract fans that operate
reduced to 95 per cent of their original values when there
during the summer nights give airflow rates of close to 25
is direct sun incidence. In the shaded parts of the room
air changes per hour (ACH). The coefficient of perform-
the reduction of light levels is inversely proportional to
ance (COP) for this air supply is quite low regarding the
the distance from the window. Sun enters the building
lower airflow rates (which require lower fan power) that
after 15:00 local standard time (LST) during the summer
have a higher COP (see Figure 9.17). On the other hand,
solstice and after 14:30 LST during the winter solstice.
the COP for 25 ACH is generally higher than 2 and is
Using the shading devices can eliminate the presence of
comparable with the COP of the HVAC system. This
sun patches on working surfaces. Eastern windows
experience shows that it is important to perform detailed
encounter a different problem. Because they face the
studies before applying similar cooling techniques.
common courtyard the sun is blocked during most of the
 CASE STUDIES 183

Case study 2: Avax office building

Table 9.2 Avax office building
Name: Avax S. A. (construction company)
Type: Office building on Lycabettus Hill Nea Ionia
Location: Centre of Athens
Elevsis
Peristerion
Introduction
This building is located in the centre of Athens on ATHENS Zografos
Salamis
Lycabettus Hill and is the headquarters of a major Greek Kaisariani
Kallithea
construction company. Palania
Piraeus
The target of this construction was to develop an
environmentally sound building that accommodates the
companys increasing needs, promotes its professional Koropion
identity and provides excellent comfort conditions for its
users.
Clifadha
A prime design concern was flexibility. As a result, the 0 10km
building is responsive to natural conditions, and is Voula
capable of controlling itself and of keeping its energy
Figure 9.20 Location of the Avax building
consumption low, while preserving the environment from
(star indicates the location region)
unnecessary pollution.
Regarding its aesthetic identity, the building is
intended to be representative of a (young) dynamic Building description
construction company and to express a modern, techno- The Avax building was constructed in 1998 (see Table 9.3).
logically oriented architectural vocabulary. These The architect of the building was Alexandros N. Tombazis,
objectives had as much influence on the entire design assisted by: N Fletoridis (Meletikiki: Alexandros N.
procedure as did the materials and methods of construc- Tombazis and Associates Architects Ltd). The site is in
tion. downtown Athens on the slopes of Lycabettus Hill and is
The main design concepts for this building concern approximately 500 square metres in area, situated in a
the use of daylight, while the artificial lighting system is densely built-up area with an open view towards the east.
considered a backup system. The building is equipped It is exposed to the sun throughout the morning. While
with a movable type of side-fins shading device in order the eastern elevation is open, neighbouring buildings
to control the solar heat gains. During summer nights the shade the western elevation.
building is ventilated (night ventilation) as a pre-cooling The wedge-shaped site, the orientation and the
strategy by using a mechanical ventilation system. variable but predominantly warm/dry climate of Athens
Additionally, ceiling fans are installed in the office spaces dictated the major architectural decisions.
of the building, which are manually controlled. The The building is oriented east (see Figures 9.21 and
operation of these devices extends the comfort zone of the 9.22) along a northsouth axis, with its back and narrow
building. Finally, another important element of the build- sides touching adjoining buildings. It makes full use of
ing is the use of a central cooling system (air/water heat the total surface permitted by planning regulations to be
pumps), combined with a cold storage system (ice banks). built upon, with free space on ground level in front and at
the back, as well as an interior garden.
Location and climate
Table 9.3 Avax project time scale
The building is located in downtown Athens, on the
slopes of Lycabettus Hill (see Figure 9.20). The area is Design: February 1992October 1992
densely built-up, with an open view towards the east, Construction: February 1993May 1998
Occupation: June 1998
while neighbouring buildings shade the western eleva- Monitoring: September 1998September 1999
tion. The climatic characteristics are as for Case Study 1.
184 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.21 The eastern faade of the building when Figure 9.22 The eastern faade of the building when
the glass panels are closed the glass panels are open

The gross floor area of 3050 square metres is distrib- have been used in order to give the interior a high degree
uted on three basement levels, the ground floor, three of openness and transparency.
identical office floors and the administration penthouse The building was basically conceived as an east-facing
with roof garden. linear climate sensor. The front east-facing elevation is
All main areas (offices, meeting rooms) are situated designed to act as a double skin a diaphragm to protect
along the glazed front faade and are separated from the inner glazing with selective control of thermal gains
secondary spaces (toilet, kitchenettes and vertical circula- and daylight. The front is dominated by five 16m high
tion shafts) by a circulation area. Each level is, thus, concrete columns, which exemplify the structural system
divided into a front/activity zone and a service/back-up of the building, and by the custom-made solar fins or glass
area. The degree of openness of the layout varies from panels, shown open in Figure 9.22 and closed in Figure
floor to floor and can be modified in the future. Floor-to- 9.23, designed to perform as shading devices for the
ceiling glass dividing panels and free-standing furniture middle floors.

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.23 Photos from the interior space of the building

 CASE STUDIES 185

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.24 A plan of the Avax building

Some interior views of the building are presented in Key features

Figure 9.23. The first one shows clearly the effect of the
The building is designed to exploit the natural lighting
glazing panels when they are closed.
potential of the area. It is designed by coupling two impor-
A plan and section of the building are also presented
tant elements: the layout of the office spaces, which is
in Figures 9.24 and 9.25.
narrow (the workstations are located close to the windows;
see Figure 9.26), and the intelligent permeability of the
eastern faade (see Figure 9.27). The dimensions of the
standard offices (7m wide, 3m deep) increase the levels of
daylight in these spaces. It is important to underline that
the western faade requires no special shading because of
its proximity to the adjacent buildings.
The solar fins are the dominant daylighting features,
installed on the eastern faade (see Figure 9.27). They
comprise vertical glass silk screen-printed panels, and
they have sufficient performance to shade the building
faade and to protect the indoor spaces from solar radia-
tion. Another important feature is that they are controlled
automatically in response to temperature and solar radia-
tion. In order to ensure the proper operation of the
devices, manual override is provided via infra-red remote
controls. A series of fixed, white horizontal metal grills is
Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates also attached to these devices in order to provide shading.
The top and mezzanine floors are shaded by conventional,
Figure 9.25 A section of the Avax building external Venetian blinds that are also controlled by the
central system and have manual override.
186 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

with task lighting devices under the control of users,

while the general indirect lighting level is low (200250
lux, on average). The most commonly used luminaries are
high-efficiency fluorescent lights. Special automation
systems control the level of artificial lighting, according to
the natural lighting level. In order to ensure the perform-
ance of the lighting systems, the users, via infra-red
remote controls, can manually override the automatic
operation of these systems. The installation of presence
detectors ensures the switching on/off of the general light-
ing system depending upon the presence of occupants.
Furthermore, a lighting control system is installed in the
parking area of the building, which switches on the light-
ing system only if cars are moving.
The HVAC system is provided as a back-up. The
Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates raised false floor permits the installation of local air-condi-
tioning units that cover the local load demand, fresh air,
Figure 9.26 Location of the workstations
as well as inlet and extraction fans for natural ventilation.
The raised floor acts as an air plenum.
Windows and skylights (one for each office bay) are The energy design of the building aims to
manually operable. The window elements have a total reduce/avoid the operation of the air-conditioning system
height of 1.7m. They are divided into an upper part that by using various passive-cooling techniques. In order to
concerns the daylight (one-third of window height) and a be more specific, the external shading fins are used during
lower vision pane (two-thirds of window height). The warm days to control the solar gains, while the internal
glazing ratio is only 10 per cent on the western elevation gains due to the operation of the artificial lighting system
of the building, while on the eastern elevation it is 45 per are minimized; therefore, the cooling load of the building
cent. All windows are clear, double-glazed units with a U- is reduced. Furthermore, night ventilation techniques are
value of 2.8W/m2K. applied as a pre-cooling strategy by operating a mechan-
The high performance of the daylighting system ical ventilation system at a rate of 30 air changes per hour
permits users to consider the artificial lighting system as a (ACH), from 21:30 to 7:00, when the outdoor temperature
backup. In order to minimize energy consumption, is lower than the indoor one. Another hybrid cooling strat-
various design concepts have been adapted. The walls and egy applied is the operation of ceiling fans during the
ceiling are painted in light colours in order to maximize summer season (see Figure 9.26), which are manually
the diffusion of the light. The workstations are equipped controlled. This operation extends the comfort zone from

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.27 The movable solar fins for outside and inside the building
 CASE STUDIES 187

Source: A. N. Tombazis and Associates

Figure 9.28 Daylight factor distribution in a room with opaque and translucent partitioning walls

25 to 29 Celsius. Finally, the central cooling system According to the results of the monitoring period, the
(air/water heat pump) is combined with a cold storage indoor temperature per floor (in various zones) is quite
system (ice banks). homogenous. The temperature difference between the
The installation is controlled and programmed by a various spaces varies from 0.5 to 1.0 Celsius, due to the
central building energy management system (BEMS). different operation schemes. The mean indoor tempera-
The operation of the BEMS can reduce the cooling load ture varies from 21.5 Celsius during the winter, to 28.5
by the appropriate control of the solar shading and the Celsius during the summer period. These levels are accept-
night ventilation. On the other hand, occupants are also able for the thermal comfort point of view, and take into
expected to cooperate in minimizing the energy account the operation of the heating and cooling system.
consumption (by opening windows and using the ceiling For this experimental period, the measured indoor
fans or air-conditioning units when required). relative humidity is presented in Figure 9.30. The
measurements show that the indoor relative humidity
Performance varies from 23 to 61 per cent.
As stated earlier, the dominant daylighting feature is the 40
solar fins. These shading devices provide a shading coeffi-
cient of 70 per cent and are automatically rotated in 35
response to temperature and solar radiation. In order to
30
evaluate the performance of the solar fins, extensive
simulations have been performed by using the radiance
Temperature (C)

25
software tool. The calculated daylight factor for a repre-
sentative space of the office is presented in Figure 9.28. 20
According to this figure, the daylight factors vary from 2
to 23 per cent, with a value close to 10 per cent on the 15
height of the workstations.
The actual performance of the building was 10
Tmax
monitored continuously after the opening of the building.
5 Tmin
The measured parameters comprise the following: Tmean
0
ambient air temperature and relative humidity; Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
indoor air temperature and relative humidity; 2000 2001
actual energy consumption. Figure 9.29 Monthly average minimum, maximum and
mean indoor air temperature
188 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

70

60

50
Relative humidity (%)

80.3 33.8 14.7 11.8

40
57.2% 23.9% 10.5% 8.4%
30
kWh/m2
20 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0
RHmax
10 RHmin Low voltage Plant Lighting System
RHmean
0 Figure 9.31 Annual energy consumption per use
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
2000 2001
Figure 9.30 Monthly average minimum, maximum avoidance of ozone layer-depleting substances;
and mean relative humidity use of natural materials;
use of wood from managed forests.
The annual energy consumption per use is illustrated The operation of the solar fins shows that the control of
in Figure 9.31. It is important to underline that cooling the solar gains and the exploitation of natural lighting can
and heating consumption are not separate, because the be effective. But the right design and sizing is very impor-
same heat pump unit is used for both heating and cooling. tant. For example, the increased airflow rates during the
Therefore, the BEMS system records the total energy application of the night ventilation require the installa-
consumption of this unit. The following figure shows that tion of high-capacity fans. This can result in higher energy
the annual low-voltage consumption is close to 80kWh/m2 consumption, which is due to the operation of the fans
(consumption of equipment, elevators and any energy rather than the reduction of the cooling load that occurs
consuming device except the cooling, heating and light- the next day after the application of night ventilation.
ing equipment). The HVAC system contains a central heat Furthermore, another possible problem for this type of
pump that consumes about 34KWh/m2/year for the installation is the high noise levels of the fans, especially
heating and the cooling operation. The energy consump- if the building is located in a residential area. For this
tion of the artificial lighting system is close to 15KWh/m2, particular building, neighbours from the surrounding
while the fan-coil units and the distribution system residential buildings frequently complained about the
consume about 12KWh/m2. high noise levels of the fans during the summer nights.
The high energy consumption of the low-voltage The manual operation of the ceiling fans is a possible
appliances is due to the operation of the ventilation strategy; but, generally, it is more effective to connect
system for the night ventilation (it is a separated system these fans with the BEMS.
from the HVAC), the ice banks, the ceiling fans, the Use of the occupancy sensors is a favourable solution
operation of the solar fins, etc. The annual energy for reducing the artificial lighting system consumption;
consumption is close to 140KWh/m2. but the designer should be careful not to install this type
of sensor in spaces where people are frequently present.
Conclusion These sensors are efficient for spaces such as corridors,
The Avax office building is an example of a building that garages, etc.
combines various passive and hybrid techniques. During The installation of a BEMS system that controls venti-
the design process, the following environmental issues lation, shading, lighting and the back-up air-conditioning
were taken into account wherever possible, in addition to system can reduce energy consumption and permits the
those already discussed: monitoring of the building, improving the operation and
efficiency of various systems.
embodied energy of materials and components;
reduction of CO2 emissions;
 CASE STUDIES 189

Case study 3: Ampelokipi residential building

Table 9.4 Ampelokipi residential building In order to keep a low initial cost and to free the
Name: Ampelokipi residential building
whole project from restrictions and technological
Type: Residential building problems created by the use of heat tanks and forced air
Location: Ampelokipi, Athens city centre flows, simple day-to-day systems were used and most of
the required elements were designed as part of the
conventional construction of the building.
Introduction
Location and climate
This building is located in Ampelokipi, a residential area
district in the centre of Athens, near the Hilton Hotel. It The building is located in Ampelokipi, Athens and is a
is used for housing. residential district within a built-up urban environment
A vertical approach resulting from the small available and substantial traffic in nearby streets (see Figure 9.32).
lot and the need to create the necessary solar-energy The climatic characteristics are as for Case Study 1.
collecting surfaces is characteristic of the design.
The building presents important design features from Building description
the thermal point of view. The design characteristics The building was constructed in 1986; the architect was
include a greenhouse in the south faade of the building; Katerina Spiropoulou. The building is situated in the
trombe walls at certain available points in the external Ampelokipi region, in the centre of Athens. It is a semi-
envelope of the building; solar collectors; an auxiliary detached house of 210 square metres in total area and 900
heating system powered by natural gas and a biomass cubic metres in volume. The urban and building regula-
option with a traditional fireplace, using wood. tions, the tall surrounding buildings that form a densely
The target of this construction was to develop high built urban environment and the small plot have strongly
thermal-energy savings during winter. Solar-air heating influenced the vertical form and construction of the build-
methods and energy-collecting elements were adapted to ing (Figure 9.33). This has also influenced the
complement a townhouse design. Optimization of both organization of the residences internal space.
architectural design and solar-collecting efficiency within
given economic restrictions had to be achieved, which led
to the elimination of active higher technology systems in
favour of passive solar-energy collecting methods.

Nea Ionia
Elevsis
Peristerion

ATHENS Zografos
Salamis
Kaisariani
Kallithea
Palania
Piraeus

Koropion

Clifadha
0 10km
Voula

Figure 9.32 Location of the Ampelokipi building (star Source: Katerina Spiropoulou
indicates the location region) Figure 9.33 Sections of the Ampelokipi building
190 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Katerina Spiropoulou

Figure 9.35 Photo of the interior space of the building

Source: Katerina Spiropoulou
(c)
Figure 9.34 The southern faade of the building

The building, a four-storey house for a family of four,

was first occupied in 1986. Its architecture is modern,
compared with the neighbouring urban buildings, and is
characterized by the applied passive solar systems, which
are placed on the buildings faades. The buildings axis
has been rotated in a northsouth direction, so the main
faades are not parallel with the roads axis, forming an 18 (b)
degree angle. The two main opposite faades are on Likias
and Avlidos streets, while the other two sides adjoin the
neighbouring semi-detached buildings.
The limited building plot, only 99 square metres in
area, the needs of local families and the tall neighbouring
buildings made it necessary to expand the building in a
vertical direction. The ground floor is 5.5m in height and
is used as a store. This area also houses the central heating
installations and other auxiliary rooms. The main (a)
residence is therefore raised 5.5m above this and consists
of three successive floors and a small mezzanine between
the first and the second floor, 13 square metres in area.
The living room, the dining room, the kitchen and a store
are on the first floor (see Figure 9.36a). The childrens
bedrooms, a guestroom and a bathroom are placed on the
second floor (see Figure 9.36b). The parents bedroom, Source: Katerina Spiropoulou
the necessary auxiliary spaces and an office are on the
Figure 9.36 Floor plans of the building
 CASE STUDIES 191

presents the weather stations position, and the tempera-

ture and humidity sensors position in the building.

Key features
The building is designed to exploit solar energy for
thermal energy saving and couples three important
elements: the greenhouse/sunspace, the trombe walls at
the envelopes alcoves and the direct solar gain through
the southern openings.
One of the most important elements of the building is
the sunspace. Through the south-oriented greenhouse
indirect solar gains are obtained. The greenhouse is an
intermediate space, bridging the external environment
and the interior spaces. Being the reference point of the
house, the sunspace can be seen from almost every inside
or outside angle. It is planted in order to act as a garden
and to give a sense of nature in this densely built urban
area as a substitute for the missing panoramic view. The
greenhouse, covering a glazed area of 19 square metres,
extends 2.5 floors in height (9m) and consists of a metal-
framed construction filled with single reinforced glass
panels for security reasons. The surface between the
Source: Katerina Spiropoulou
greenhouse and the interior spaces is of single-glazed
Figure 9.37 Axonometric plan of the Ampelokipi building;
weather station and sensors location in the building

third floor (see Figure 9.36c). The (a) (b)

fourth floor, the smallest one,
includes two study rooms. A
sunspace stretches from a height
of 9m (mezzanine floor) up to the
bedroom floors. The floor plans of
the building are depicted in
Figure 9.36.
In the building there is a
monitoring system that comprises
40 sensors connected to a data
logger. The climatic parameters
measured are the ambient air
temperature; the total solar radia-
tion; the diffuse solar radiation;
the ambient air relative humidity;
and the wind velocity and direc-
tion. The following quantities are
measured in the internal spaces:
air temperature on all of the build-
ings floors and in the sunspace;
air relative humidity; electricity
consumption; gas consumption;
Source: Katerina Spiropoulou
and the space heating systems
volumetric flow rate. Figure 9.37 Figure 9.38 Interior airflow in winter and summer
192 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

glass, providing the living room and the staircase with mentioned that there is significant temperature stratifica-
natural lighting which is precious for the elongated tion due to the open structure of the internal spaces,
building shape and the relatively confined faades. The which helps the buoyancy of the warm air mass. The
air, as it warms up inside the greenhouse, moves to the building therefore acts as a chimney and the upper floors
upper floors where the bedrooms are located. In order to are warmer. Measurements showed a 3 Celsius tempera-
have hot air for the living room, an air-duct system is used ture difference between the lower and upper floors.
with a small fan for forced air circulation (see Figure Another important element is the direct solar gain
9.38a). through the southern openings. The dimensions of the
Scattered openings in the glazed envelope of the southern openings (total area of 19m2) increase the levels
greenhouse and dampers at the top prevent overheating, of the solar radiation on these spaces. The mezzanine
especially during the summer period (see Figure 9.38b). between the first and the second floor allows deep
The shading of the greenhouse could be considered insuf- penetration of sunlight and free air circulation, unifying
ficient and an internal aluminium-coated curtain is the the interior spaces. The southern openings face 18
only solar protection measure. eastward. All glazed areas are metal-framed. The glazing
Another key figure is related to the use of trombe is single and reinforced for security reasons, except in the
walls, which aim to reduce the energy consumption for northern faade, where double glazing is used. External
heating. Two trombe walls have been constructed at roller shutters without core insulation are used for night-
certain available points in the external envelope. The first time insulation. Curtains offer extra shading in the
one is east-oriented, covering an 8m2 area (this covers interior.
part of the kitchen and the guest rooms external walls), Furthermore, in order to minimize energy consump-
while the other is south-oriented, covering a 30m2 area tion, various design concepts have been adapted. Solar
(this covers the bedrooms and the bathroom). A special collectors have been used to provide warm water for the
cost analysis has been performed for these trombe walls users needs. A traditional fireplace in the dining room is
because a significant part of them is shaded due to the used sporadically. Its chimney is used for creating
building itself. The trombe walls were made of reinforced additional hot airflow in the rooms through which it
concrete and solid brick. Their external envelope is metal- passes.
framed, filled with single reinforced glass panes and is Finally, there is also an auxiliary heating system. A
interrupted at certain points where external openings natural gas boiler powers this auxiliary heating system
exist. with local thermostats for fuel saving.
Both of them are multi-storied trombe walls, which
give hot air separately to each floor. Air circulation occurs Performance
via dampers placed in the upper and lower parts of the
During the heating period, indoor temperatures are
trombe walls. The south-oriented windows open directly
significantly increased due to diffused and incidental solar
onto the trombe walls. Opposite the windows are similar
radiation. Part of this radiation is stored in the buildings
external openings, which provide added ventilation of the
thermal mass and particularly in the walls, floors and
system and the house during summer (Figure 9.38b), and
trombe walls. The percentage of opaque and transparent
help with the maintenance of external components of the
building elements in the buildings envelope is presented
walls. Between the two opposite windows, there are
in Figure 9.39.
rollover shutters to prevent heat loss or overheating.
Figure 9.40 shows the thermal energy consumption
During the day, due to diffused and incidental solar
in the building. Solar systems contribute 42 per cent of
radiation, the indoor temperatures are significantly
the buildings thermal energy demand, while incidental
increased. Part of the radiation is stored in the buildings
gains contribute 28 per cent, and the other solar gains
thermal mass, in the trombe walls. At night, the stored
contribute 2 per cent of thermal demand. The auxiliary
heat is returned, keeping indoor temperatures reasonably
heating demand is only 28 per cent.
high, while the external roller shutters and the curtains
Since the target of the construction was to develop
are kept closed in order to minimize thermal losses to the
high thermal energy saving during winter, the energy
external environment. In summer, cross-ventilation is the
consumption from the auxiliary heating is low (28 per
only natural cooling strategy because shading is inade-
cent), proof of the right thermal design of the building.
quate, as has been previously mentioned.
Seventy-two per cent of the buildings heating require-
Overheating of the trombe walls is eliminated by
ments were provided by solar and internal thermal gains.
using the openings in the external glazed envelope, while
The annual requirements for the same but conventionally
keeping the dampers closed during the day. It should be
 CASE STUDIES 193

Total 15 100
window area
Opaque (11%)
elements area 12
(89%) 75

Heating load (GJ)

Performance (%)
9
50
6

25
3

0 0
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Source: Katerina Spiropoulou
Performance (%) Heating load Energy gains from
Figure 9.39 Percentage of opaque and transparent build- passive systems
ing elements in the buildings envelope Source: Katerina Spiropoulou

Passive systems Auxiliary heating Figure 9.41 Monthly heating load and passive systems
(42%) (28%) performance in the building

floor during August and July, when the residents of the

house were absent and natural ventilation did not take
place. The comfort zones limits have been assessed as
from 19 up to 28 Celsius.
Other solar
gains (2%)
Conclusion
The Ampelokipi residential building is an example of a
Incidental gains well-designed residential building with regard to thermal
(28%) energy savings. The passive heating systems and the
Source: Katerina Spiropoulou buildings orientation are the most important design
elements. The buildings adaptation to the environment
Figure 9.40 Thermal energy consumption and to the local climate is also noticeable, as is its contri-
bution to reducing CO2 emissions.
designed house and the same thermal comfort levels are The densely built environment, the narrow streets,
approximately 12,362.2KWh (59KWh/m2/year), compared the tall buildings and the narrow faades raised problems
with 5380.2KWh (26KWh/m2/year) of the actual annual for passive solar design. These problems have been
auxiliary heating load of the building with passive solar overcome by expanding the building in a vertical direc-
systems. tion. The buildings carefully insulated envelope and the
Figure 9.41 presents the heating load in the heating small openings in the north faade ensure satisfactory
period and the total energy gains from the passive systems internal thermal comfort conditions and low energy
in the building. The mean system performance is close to consumption in the winter. Solar protection during
74.8 per cent. summer is rather inadequate, especially in the green-
The thermal comfort conditions appeared to be satis- house, due to the lack of sun-shading devices.
factory. The designers, who were also the inhabitants of Implementing cross-ventilation through north and south
the house, ascertained that vertical and horizontal cross- external openings reduces summer overheating.
ventilation is very effective for natural cooling during the The floor spaces that overlook each over, connected
summer. vertically by an interior opening, give continuity to the
Indoor temperatures were within the limits of space and provide the whole with good airflow and venti-
thermal comfort. Only during the summer vacations did lation. This is very valuable during the hot summer
the temperature reach 32 Celsius at the top of the fourth months. Furthermore, solar radiation penetrates the
194 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

500

400
Temperature (C)

300

Comfort zone Max

200

Min
100

0
110 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Julian day

Source: Katerina Spiropoulou

Figure 9.42 Daily maximum and minimum temperature values in different places in the building

interior spaces so that there is an efficient use of daylight. In summer, all external windows are open, as well as
From the users point of view, the frames of the exter- the dampers at the top and in between the trombe walls,
nal openings should be more weather stripped in order to in order to facilitate ventilation. Reflecting curtains
reduce air infiltration losses during winter. Double between walls and glass panels are placed on most of the
glazing could possibly improve thermal comfort and glass-covered areas.
reduce the noise level.
 CASE STUDIES 195

Case study 4: Bezigrajski dvor: An energy-efficient settlement in Ljubljana

Table 9.5 Bezigrajski building Settlement description
Name: Bezigrajski dvor The settlement was constructed in 1998 by the architect
Type: Residential settlement Andrej Mlakar in Ljubljana. There are two taller commer-
Location: Centre of Ljubjana
cial buildings (ground floor and six upper floors) along the
traffic road at the south and north of the settlement that
Introduction define the visual landscape. These two higher edifices
The Bezigrajski dvor settlement is located in the area of a also represent a sound barrier to prevent sound penetra-
former military barracks almost in the centre of the town. tion into the settlement. Three groups of residential
At the design stage, there were no space limitations buildings inside the settlement are lower (ground floor
that would affect the design of the settlement. The and four upper floors) and are located around three
planners wished to design a neighbourhood to a low squares. The minimum distance between buildings is
density. They assured residents of privacy and also of good equal to the height of the building, which makes enough
illumination and sunlight, with appropriate distancing space for sunlight, green areas, playgrounds and walking
between buildings. paths (Figures 9.45 and 9.46).
A two-storey car park is built below the entire neigh-
Location and climate bourhood. Approximately 80120cm of soil has been
placed on the roof of the car park in order to plant trees
The city of Ljubljana is located in the centre of Slovenia:
and shrubs. In this way, the heat island has been reduced.
latitude 46.5 degrees and longitude 14.5 degrees. The
The building interior is designed in such a way that
settlement location is shown in Figure 9.43. The city
each floor has four apartments. Each apartment has a
climate is continental, with 1660 sunshine hours per year
lodge sunspace in the building corner for passive heating.
and degree days of 3300 Kelvin (K) days/year. Average
Through these lodges (balconies), the apartments are
monthly temperatures and solar irradiation are presented
linked to the outdoor landscape. Sunspaces are not
in Figure 9.44. There are, on average, 160 rainy days with
heated. During the summer, apartments are shaded with
1220mm of precipitation.
external movable shading devices, which stretch over the
entire glazed area (Figures 9.47 and 9.48).

Figure 9.43 Location of the settlement (map of Slovenia (left) and map of Ljubljana (right))
196 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

20 6000

18

16 5000

14
Ambient temperature (C)

Solar irradiation (Wh/m2)

4000
12

10
3000
8

6
2000
4

2
1000
0

2 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Figure 9.44 Monthly average air temperature and daily solar irradiation in Ljubljana

Heat supply Although traffic has increased, measurements show

that concentrations of pollutants in the air have decreased
The settlement is connected to a distant heating system,
during the last decade. Figure 9.50 presents the decrease
172km long. The system largely concentrates on supply-
in sulphur dioxide (SO2) concentration in the city centre
ing hot water, while steam is also supplied, to a lesser
during the last decade.
degree, to industry users (Figure 9.49). The distant
Emission decrease in the city centre is primarily a
heating system operates throughout the year and has two
result of the following:
central heating plants. Both heating plants simultaneously
produce heat and electricity. Medium-weight oil and coal
expansion of the distant heating network (heating
are used as fuel.
power has increased by 29 per cent; the heating

Source: Andrej Mlakar u.d.i.a., Bureau Krog d.o.o., Ljubljana

Figure 9.45 Floor plan of the Bezigrajski dvor settlement; shades of the building are plotted at a sun altitude of
45 degrees and an azimuth angle of 45 (10 April at 10:00)
 CASE STUDIES 197

Source: Andrej Mlakar u.d.i.a., Bureau Krog d.o.o., Ljubljana

Figure 9.46 Green areas reduce the heat island in the settlement

power of suspended separated boilers was 110 computer model developed both at Cambridge
megawatts); Architectural Research and the Martin Centre, University
construction of a gas network for natural gas distribu- of Cambridge. It is a simple manual procedure that
tion (during the last ten years, the gas network in the requires only a pencil and a calculator. The LT method
city was enlarged by 150km); allows the designer to predict the energy consumption for
fuel quality improvement, which is used in both a proposed building during the early stages of the design.
heating plants (on average, sulphur in medium weight LT Method 4.0 is sensitive to parameters such as building
oil has decreased from 1.5 to 0.7 per cent and in coal form and size; U-values of a buildings construction; area,
from 2.5 to 0.3 per cent). type and distribution of glazing; air infiltration; internal
heat gains; the presence of sunspaces or an atrium and a
Performance heating system; and provides an output for annual
primary energy use and CO2 production under the end
Energy efficiency for the settlement has been evaluated
uses of heating, lighting and cooling. Results of different
using LT Method 4.0.
design options are combined in a single worksheet, giving
The LT method is a manual design tool for calculat-
ing energy performance in buildings. It is based on a

Figure 9.48 View of the south and east faade with

Figure 9.47 Picture of the Bezigrajski dvor settlement sunspace, and the east faade with external shading
from the north-east devices and windows with night insulation
198 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Institute of Public Health, Republic of Slovenia and Municipality of Ljubljana, 1998

Figure 9.49 Hot water (black) and steam (grey) network of distant heating system with both heating plants and the
Bezigrajski dvor settlement (black dot)

0.10 1.0 a picture of the relative importance of various energy

Maximum components. The appropriate worksheet has to be
Max 24-hour SO2 concentration (mg/m2)
Average SO2 concentration (mg/m2)

Average selected depending upon climatic conditions and build-

0.08 0.8 ing envelope surface-to-volume ratio. Heating energy is
influenced primarily by winter temperatures, represented
by heating degree (days) and, secondarily, by the avail-
0.06 0.6
ability of solar radiation. These two climatic variables are
used to characterize three climate zones. Each climatic
0.04 0.4 zone has three different worksheets for a different range
of building envelope surface-to-volume ratios.
Figure 9.52 shows the results for the selected build-
0.02 0.2 ing presented in Figure 9.48. The opaque walls of the
building are thermally well insulated (U = 0.42W/m2K),
while windows and sunspaces are double glazed (U =
0 0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2.8W/m2K). Other important parameters are stated on the
1989 1991 1993 1995 1997
worksheet.
Source: Institute of Public Health, Republic of Slovenia and Municipality of
Ljubljana, 1998

Figure 9.50 Average and 24-hour maximum

SO2 concentrations in the city centre of Ljubljana
 CASE STUDIES 199

Conclusion
From the results it can be seen that the buildings heat
consumption without internal and solar gains is approxi-
mately 110KWh/m2 each season. Internal gains from
people, electrical lighting and equipment, as well as solar
gains from south-oriented windows and sunspaces,
reduce energy need for heating by approximately 40 per
cent. Taking into account the efficiency of the district
heating system according to the LT method, the energy
value or annual energy use of the building is 57KWh per
square metre of floor area.

Figure 9.51 Heat sub-station of the Bezigrajski dvor

settlement

Figure 9.52 LT Method 4.0 worksheet with results for the selected building in the Bezigrajski dvor settlement
200 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Case study 5: Commercial building with a double faade

Table 9.6 HIT Center building Building description
Name: HIT Center The building was designed in 1997 by a group of archi-
Type: Commercial building tects from the Stolp bureau from Nova Gorica, led by Ales
Location: Centre of Nova Gorica
Suligoj, and was finished in 1999. The building was
integrated within the existing commercial and residential
Introduction environment. Its main faade is south oriented and faces
This commercial building is located almost in the city the street; the opposite north faade faces the parking
centre of Nova Gorica. It is a multi-storey commercial area and other commercial and residential buildings.
building that is occupied by different companies. The The building has two basement levels with parking
building faade, which faces the street, is south oriented. places. The east part of the ground floor is occupied by a
A double glass faade was built, firstly, because the south commercial bank; there are also some small shops and a
faade faces the street and is representative of the build- restaurant. Three office floors are used for administration
ing, giving it substantial character. The glass faade also and business activities and include different offices, a
gives the building a suitable acoustic and privacy barrier conference hall and a television centre. In the attic there
from the street. The glass faade is long lasting and does are primarily service rooms. Figure 9.54 presents the
not need special maintenance. buildings cross-section with a double faade on the south
The double glass faade also enables efficient adapta- side. Figure 9.55 is a plan of the building.
tion to optimal working conditions for different types of The double faade consists of a single glass pane with
offices in the commercial building. A properly designed 60cm of air space. The separation wall between the faade
double faade helps to reduce overall building energy and the interior is made from lightweight prefabricated
consumption. elements and double-glazed windows with a U-value of
1.3W/m2K. The outer envelope is made from an 8mm-
Location and climate thick, high-efficient solar protection glass pane with a
light transmittance of 50 per cent. Shading of individual
The city of Nova Gorica is located in the western part of
offices is provided by Venetian blinds on the inner side of
Slovenia: latitude 45.6 degrees and longitude 13.4
the outer envelope glass, which are controlled manually.
degrees. The building location is shown in Figure 9.53.
The air cavity is closed on both sides and is open at the
bottom. On the top there are louver shutters that are
controlled by a central control system. During the summer,
the louvers are fully opened all of the time; during the rest
of the year, the louvers are closed except when the temper-
ature in the air cavity exceeds 40 Celsius.

Figure 9.53 Location of the commercial building (map of Slovenia (left) and Nova Gorica (right))
 CASE STUDIES 201

comfort is not always optimal. Large glazed areas enable

suitable natural lighting and passive solar heating during
cold days; but they could be the reason for glare and
overheating, and thermal discomfort due to temperature
asymmetry. In spite of intensive development of new
technologies, smart windows or faades are not yet avail-
able on the market for a reasonable price. The optimal
solution regarding energy use for heating, cooling and
lighting could be achieved by incorporating different
elements and concepts, such as selective transparent
glazing, shading devices and controlled ventilation.
During the design stage for this building, several
different options were analysed. One of them queried
what type of glass should be used to prevent building
overheating and to provide efficient daylighting. Another
concerned arrangement and size of openings for
controlled natural ventilation, including optimization of
distance between the inner and outer faade. Different
Source: Ales Suligoj, Bureau Stolp d.o.o., Nova Gorica configurations of bottom and top openings, as well as
openings in the outer glass faade, have been analysed
Figure 9.54 Building cross-section; the three-storey using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tools. Using
double faade is on the left CFD simulations, the airflow rate in the natural ventilated
gap of the double faade was approximated. This approxi-
Key features mation was later included in the transient heat transfer
simulation programme TRNSYS for analyses of building
The building envelope is a building component that has heating and cooling demands. In natural lighting studies,
the largest influence on thermal, lighting and acoustic different types and position of blinds were analysed using
comfort. As a rule, the modern architecture of commer- the daylighting simulation tool LUMEN.
cial buildings uses large glazed elements. However, the
performance of such (faade) elements in the context of Performance

Source: Ales Suligoj, Bureau Stolp d.o.o., Nova Gorica

Figure 9.55 First-floor plan of the building

202 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 9.56 Commercial buildings south faade

According to the results of numerical simulations, a solar the bottom and closed by an automatically regulated
protective glass with a total energy transmittance of 0.27 mechanical shutter at the top.
and visual transmittance of 0.5 were selected. Manually In Figure 9.58, ambient temperature and air temper-
driven blinds are mounted on the inner side of the faade atures in a double faade on each floor are presented,
glass in front of each window. The air cavity is opened at together with heat gains for each office attached to the
double faade for the hottest week in the year according
to a test reference year.
HVAC systems are controlled by a building manage-
ment system that also monitors temperatures in the
double faade. Figure 9.59 presents temperatures at
different heights inside the double faade for the hottest
summer day of 2002. The temperature gradient during
the day confirms the efficiency of the natural ventilation
inside the gap.
Climatic data monitored by a building management
system (BMS) were used to compare measured and
simulated temperatures in the double faade. Results are
presented in Figure 9.60 for one week in June 2001.
The impact of a double-glazed faade on the energy
demand for heating was tested numerically by looking at
the energy consumption of north- and south-oriented
offices without a double faade, compared with that of a
south-oriented office with a double glazed faade. Results
show that the heating season for south-oriented offices is
approximately two months shorter than for the north-
Figure 9.57 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) oriented offices. Figure 9.61 shows the energy
analyses of temperature in a double-glazed faade
 CASE STUDIES 203

40 3600
T1
3240 T2
35 T3
2880

2520
30

Heat flow (kJ/h)

Temperature (C)

2160

25 1800

1440
20
1080

Tf 1 720
15 Tf 2
Tf 3 360
Te
10 0
Week in July Week in July
Figure 9.58 Temperatures and heat gains in a double-glazed faade. Te: ambient temperature; Tf1Tf3: temperatures in
a double-faade cavity on different heights (floors); T1T3: heat gains to a typical office on different floors

requirements for heating each floor (except the ground monitored on a monthly basis. The data for the year 2001
floor) of the building. Much less energy for heating is are presented in Figure 9.62. Calculated specific end
required for south-oriented offices, especially when a energy use considering boiler efficiency was
double faade is attached. 50.5kWh/m2/year.
Data from Figure 9.61 can be corrected according to Solar protection glass and Venetian blinds in a double
the fact that the average temperature of a heated space faade reduce natural lighting. Different studies of natural
was 23 Celsius, which gives overall specific energy use lighting have been made using a lighting simulation
of 46.8kWh/m2/year. Natural gas consumption is program. The results for an office with a double glazed

Figure 9.59 Measured temperatures in a double-glazed faade on 22 June 2002; image shows air temperatures in the
faade cavity of each floor and ambient air temperature. Figure on the right is a screen of a building management system
for temperatures in a double faade
204 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

40
38
36
34
32
Temperature (C)

30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16 Measured 3rd floor Calculated 3rd floor
Measured 2nd floor Calculated 2nd floor
14
Measured 1st floor Calculated 1st floor
12
4104 4128 4152 4176 4200 4224 4248 4272

Hour in the year

Figure 9.60 Measured and calculated temperatures in a double-glazed faade for one week in June 2001

faade with reflective (left) and white (middle) blinds, and without a double faade. This equals 4 to 5kWh/m2
for an office without a double glazed faade are presented additional energy use for lighting compared with single-
in Figure 9.63, both for a cloudy day and for natural faade offices; but this is substantially less than energy
daylight with horizontal luminance of 5000lx. savings for heating. Because of less uniform illumination,
Results show that in the case of a daylight factor of 4 two-zone artificial lighting has been suggested and
per cent on a yearly basis, south-oriented offices need 400 applied in the south-oriented offices.
to 500 hours of artificial lighting more than similar offices
80
1st floor
2nd floor 7000
70
3rd floor
60 6000
Energy use (kWh/m2a)

50 5000
Natural gas (m3)

40
4000
30
3000
20
2000
10
1000
0
North faade South faade South double
faade 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 9.61 Energy use for heating each square metre of
office floor area calculated on the basis of data from test Figure 9.62 Earth gas consumption for office
reference year and a room temperature of 20 Celsius building heating
 CASE STUDIES 205

Figure 9.63 Natural lighting in a typical office in the HIT Center building; (left) office with double faade and
reflective blinds; (middle) office with double faade and white blinds; (right) office without double faade

Conclusion Positive experiences have led to the decision to

construct a double faade on a second commercial build-
This project has demonstrated that double-glazed faades ing owned by the same company as a solution for a
substantially reduce energy needs for heating and thus temporary overheating problem during the summer.
could be classified as an element that saves energy in spite Table 9.7 Euro Centre building
of slightly greater electricity use for lighting. Shading with
outer glass and Venetian blinds, and cooling of south- Name: EURO Centre
Type: Commercial building
oriented double faades with natural ventilation, are also
Location: Centre of Ljubljana
effective.
206 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Case study 6: EURO Centre commercial building with atrium

Introduction Location and climate
The EURO Centre commercial building is located in the
The city of Ljubljana is located in the centre of Slovenia:
centre of Ljubljana. It is a multi-storey commercial build-
latitude, 46.5, and longitude, 14.5. The building location
ing with an eye-shaped atrium in the centre of the
is shown in Figure 9.64. The city climate is continental,
building. The buildings north faade faces a main street
with 1660 sunshine hours per year and degree days of
with heavy traffic. On the south side, the building ends
3300Kday/year. Average monthly temperatures and solar
near neighbouring residential buildings, forming a narrow
radiation are presented in Figure 9.65. There are, on
canyon corridor in an eastwest direction. The building
average, 160 rainy days, with 1220mm of precipitation.
was integrated within the existing commercial and partly
residential environment. During the buildings design
stage, several innovative solutions were applied to reduce
Building description
energy use for heating, cooling and lighting. For the The building was designed in 1999 by a team of architects
south-oriented offices, a specially designed ventilation led by Gorazd Groleger, Samo Groleger and Davorin
system is used to prevent overheating. Shading is Gazvoda. The building was integrated within the existing
provided with perforated, reflective-shading roller blinds environment (mostly commercial buildings) and was
inside the office. Space between the shading device and finished in mid 2002.
the window is connected to the exhaust duct in order to The building has three basement levels that serve as
prevent hot air from entering the office. For the atrium, a car park. The ground floor is occupied by small shops, a
different natural lighting and ventilation strategies have restaurant and a control centre. Six office floors are used
been analysed. The result was a specially designed for commercial purposes. Figure 9.66 presents the build-
mechanical ventilation system. The building has been ings cross-section without basement levels and Figure
occupied since mid 2002, and different system operation 9.67 presents a plan of the buildings first floor.
parameters are monitored by a central building manage- On the north and west side is a glass faade with a
ment system (BMS). coated raster. The U-value is 1.8W/m2K. Internal shading
is provided for those offices.
South-oriented offices have windows with a U-value
of 1.4W/m2K and an aperture area of 1.8m2. Shading is
provided with a perforated, reflective-shading roller blind
inside the office. Space between the shading device and
the window is mechanically ventilated for cooling. Fresh
air for ventilation enters the offices from the north side of
the office, providing displacement ventilation.

Figure 9.64 Location of the EURO Centre commercial building (map of Slovenia (left) and map of Ljubljana (right))
 CASE STUDIES 207

20 35
18 30
16
Ambient temperature (C)

Ambient temperature (C)

25
14
20
12
10 15
8 10
6
5
4
0
2
0 5

2 10
J F M A M J J A S O N D
6000 1000

5000
800
Solar irradiation (Wh/m2)

Solar irradiation (Wh/m2)

4000
600
3000

400
2000

200
1000

0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Figure 9.65 Monthly average air temperature and daily solar radiation in Ljubljana (left) and hourly values from
test reference year for Ljubljana (right)

Source: Gorazd Groleger, Samo Groleger and Davorin Gazvoda

Source: Gorazd Groleger, Samo Groleger and Davorin Gazvoda
Figure 9.67 EURO buildings first-floor plan
Figure 9.66 EURO buildings cross-section
208 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 9.68 EURO buildings north faade Figure 9.70 Part of the atriums artificial lighting that
simulates daylight
The building atrium is eye-shaped, with 300m2 of
floor area, and is a communication and social focal point. Key features
Natural lighting is provided from the top. The lighting of During the design stage of the building, different strate-
the basement floor is enhanced by the reflective surfaces gies concerning lighting, ventilation and cooling were
of glass separation walls. Cooling the atrium was not analysed.
planned during the design stage; so an appropriate Daylighting of the atrium base floor is enhanced
mechanical ventilation and shading strategy has been through high visual-transmittance roof glazing without
designed to prevent overheating in the atrium and in the any shading devices, and high reflective-glass separation
upper floors of the building. The upper three floors are walls inside the atrium. On the north side of the atrium,
mechanically separated from the atrium with glazing, as the glass separation wall covers all six floors, while on the
shown in Figure 9.69. south side only the upper three floors have a glass separa-
tion wall (see Figure 9.70). Artificial lighting simulates
natural conditions with focused lights and mounted
mirrors.

Figure 9.69 EURO buildings eye-shaped atrium

 CASE STUDIES 209

Figure 9.71 Openings on the rim of the atrium before bi-directional fans were installed

Atrium cooling during the summer time is provided the fourth to sixth floors to prevent overheating in
by ventilation instead of external shading because of adjacent offices.
architectural demands. Computational fluid dynamics Following the architects demands, the south faade
(CFD) and transient heat transfer analyses have been is without any outside shading device to provide a smooth
used to ensure that temperatures and air velocities in the surface. As a result, an inner shading device is used with
atrium will not cause thermal discomfort. Bi-directional the specially designed ventilation system. The exhaust
operating fans on the rim on the top of the highest floor ventilation air flows between the windows and the reflec-
provide necessary cross-ventilation (Figure 9.71). The tive blinds to remove the heat from the blinds, providing
same fans are used in fire protection. On the basis of lower air and radiant temperature. The system is planned
numerical simulations presented in Figure 9.72, the glass according to CFD simulations, presented in Figure 9.73.
separation wall has been recommended and applied on
43

40

37

34

31
Temperature (C)

28

25

22

19

16

13

10
4000 4140 4280 4420 4560 4700 4840 4980
Hour in the year
Figure 9.72 Predicted temperatures in the atrium in summer conditions: cross-ventilation on the sixth floor
(0.14 cubic metres per second) and displacement ventilation in the atrium (4 cubic metres per second)
210 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 9.74 Temperatures in offices on the sixth floor

(top) and temperatures in the atrium at the top level
during selected months (bottom)

Performance
The building was finished and occupied in the summer of
2002. Building service systems are monitored and
regulated by a building management system (BMS). Via
Figure 9.73 South office ventilation system; concept of the BMS, each occupant can adjust microclimatic condi-
ventilation (top), computational fluid tions in the office. Current parameters (see Figure 9.74)
dynamics (CFD) analysis of indoor temperatures on a can be adjusted by the intervention of the energy manager
summer day at 12 noon (middle); and part of the system from a central operating room. Another important advan-
at the construction phase are depicted (bottom) tage of BMS is that it is possible to show the history of the
measured parameters during past use of the building
services systems (see Figure 9.74).
 CASE STUDIES 211

52

48

44

40

36
Temperature (C)

32

28

24

20

16

12

0
4344 4440 4536 4632 4728 4824 4920 5016
Hour in the year
Figure 9.75 Comparison of measured and calculated temperatures in the atrium on the sixth floor for July 2002

Real climatic data were used to confirm numerically Conclusion

determined indoor environmental conditions. Figure 9.75
The design of EURO Centre commercial building is a
shows good agreement between measured and numeri-
good example of integrated building design. Specialists
cally determined temperatures in the atrium in July 2002,
from different fields cooperated with architects from the
the first month of the buildings operation.
start of the project. Different technologies for energy
conservation were applied, such as energy-efficient light-
ing and passive solar heating. Their effect will be
evaluated during the buildings monitoring process in the
following years.
212 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Case study 7: Potsdamer Platz: Office and residential development, Berlin, Germany
Table 9.8 Potsdamer Platz building spells, and when the wind blows from the north very cold
Name: Potsdamer Platz
weather follows.
Type: Office and residential building In microclimatic terms, there is no evidence for very
Location: Berlin significant heat island effects; but the microclimate can
be characterized as overshadowed and noisy. Some vehic-
ular traffic is present, particularly to the north, with some
Introduction local traffic (e.g. deliveries) on the south and east streets.
The development is well served by public transport in the
This project is part of a larger master plan for the form of an underground railway, which limits traffic
Potsdamer Platz development, set in the heart of Berlin, problems. However, the presence of a shopping arcade,
the capital of Germany, with a population of about 3.5 cafs, theatre and other public amenities means that this
million. It is a densely developed project of three court- area is lively and busy.
yard forms some 32m tall and with narrow streets only Local planning constraints, as well as those
13m wide on three sides. To the south-east there is a prescribed by the master plan for the whole area
wider green space that provides views and access to (designed by Piano and Kohlbecker), put severe limits on
daylight, air and morning sun, to which the courtyard the geometry of the buildings. Requirements that build-
forms open up. The three buildings (two offices and one ing occurs up to the site frontage and is up to 32m high
residential) are designed to be naturally ventilated, even aim to ensure that there is urban spatial integrity and
in this urban context. The architect was Richard Rogers continuity.
Architects, in conjunction with RP+K Sozietat Engineers
and Cambridge Architecetural Research Ltd (CAR) Building description
Consultants.
The project consists of three courtyard buildings, with
Location and climate two office blocks (with retail on the ground and first floor)
to the north, and one residential block (with retail on the
The climate of north-east Germany is continental and lower three floors) to the south. There were a number of
thus has warm summers and cold winters, with strong key design strategies that developed from the simple
seasonal variations. The buildings respond to minimizing master, and which were all informed by energy and
heat loss in winter, as well as minimizing the need for air environmental performance concerns.
conditioning in the summer. In January and February, The first design decision was to cut the closed court-
mean temperatures are below 0 Celsius, rising to 20 yards open to the south-east, facing the park. This meant
Celsius in the summer. Rainfall is moderate, with an that, although some floor space was lost, it was now possi-
annual total of 500750mm falling during all months. ble to have views towards the park from the courtyard.
Humidity is always high, with fog in the autumn, and These openings (in the form of a stepped-back faade in
winter can be overcast for long periods. Snow lies for long
Table 9.9 Climate data for Berlin
Month Average sunlight Temperature Relative humidity Average
(hours) (deg C) (%) precipitation
ave min ave max am pm (mm)
January 2 3 2 89 82 46
February 2 3 3 89 78 40
March 5 0 8 88 67 33
April 6 4 13 84 60 42
May 8 8 19 80 57 49
June 8 12 22 80 58 65
July 8 14 24 84 61 73
August 7 13 23 88 61 69
September 6 10 20 92 65 48
October 4 6 13 93 73 49
November 2 2 7 92 83 46
December 1 1 3 91 86 43
 CASE STUDIES 213

Source: Richard Rogers Partnership

Figure 9.76 South-east faade of the Potsdamer Platz Source: Richard Rogers Partnership
development showing the stepped opening in the elevation Figure 9.77 Environmental design strategies for
the building form
the south-east elevation) furthermore enabled increased
winter morning sunlight, daylight and ventilation to reach glazed areas. However, shading to the north is likely to be
the north-west sides of the blocks (Figures 9.76 and 9.77). different from the south. Similarly, at the bottom of the
Furthermore, offices to the rear of the courtyard could building where overshadowing is greatest, daylight avail-
now have views out across the courtyard and to the park. ability suggests increased glazing areas and little need for
Finally, the opening in the faade became the main shading. The same considerations can be applied to the
entrance route to the blocks via the courtyards. Thus, a faades facing in towards the atrium. As a result, a kit-of-
number of benefits were achieved with one strategic parts was developed for the faades based on simple
formal move. modules and allowing for combinations of opaque,
The next design decision was to glaze the courtyards translucent or transparent elements, moveable exterior or
in order to create an atrium (Figure 9.78). The environ- interior shading devices, and fixed faade components
mental advantages include a thermal buffer to heat loss in that can open (Figure 9.79).
winter; preheated ventilation air in winter; thermal The interior arrangements are as follows: a 14m deep
buoyancy-driven ventilation in summer; an acoustic plan that can be cellular or open plan, with windows that
buffer to the streets; and an intermediate environment for can open at low and high level. Thermal mass is provided
informal uses (e.g. caf and garden). With the reduced above a perforated, suspended ceiling, which allows
heat losses through the faades facing the atrium, it is ventilation and radiative exchange with the space, while
possible to increase the amount of glazing with no heat- limiting the negative acoustic aspects of hard surfaces and
loss penalty. As a result, daylight availability can be allowing for a range of internal fit-out options and light-
improved upon (at least to compensate for the reduction ing systems. Perimeter radiators provide heat in the
in daylight caused by the atrium glazing and structure). mornings and in the winter, and avoid cold downdrafts
As the streets and courts are fairly narrow, the initial from the faade and openings. There is no provision for
design strategy for the faades was to determine appro- mechanical ventilation; but a centralized chilled water
priate glazing and shading proportions as a function of the system is available for chilled ceiling systems where these
level of obstruction. Thus, on the top floors where are seen as necessary (i.e. in high internal gains spaces).
obstructions are small it is important to reduce solar High-level windows are opened automatically to allow for
gains through a combination of shading and reduced night-time ventilation (Figure 9.80).
214 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Richard Rogers Partnership

Figure 9.80 Environmental design strategies for

the interior

Key features
The outline description above indicates that the buildings
integrate a range of low-energy strategies that are inter-
dependent. Thus, there is no single feature that, on its
own, determines the success of the solution. However, a
primary consideration is clearly the ventilation strategy,
Source: Richard Rogers Partnership particularly in the context of an urban site and with a
Figure 9.78 Environmental design strategies for speculative office brief. The key ventilation feature of the
the atrium buildings is the use of a large (1.5m) plenum at the atrium
floor level that penetrates right through the building
(Figure 9.78). This ventilation zone enables fresh air to
enter the atrium from three sides of the building in order
to ensure that during summer there is sufficient fresh air
to cool the atrium and the adjacent office spaces. The
benefits of this plenum are numerous, including a noise
reduction zone and a pre-cooling space. The distance
from external louvers to the atrium is about 14m, which
helps to significantly reduce noise transfer (combined
with some acoustic baffling) from outside the atrium. The
plenum is constructed of in-situ concrete, and when
combined with night-time cooling can reduce the temper-
atures of the incoming air during the peak daytime period.

Performance
The buildings were recently completed and occupied,
and have not been monitored. However, the predicted
energy performance, assuming no use of chilled systems,
is estimated to be 200kWh/m2. This is approximately half
that of a typical air-conditioned building. What is not
clear is to what extent the tenants have opted for the
chilled ceiling options and how this has affected the
energy in use.
Source: Richard Rogers Partnership Overheating predictions show that the combination
of natural ventilation, thermal mass, night-time cooling,
Figure 9.79 Environmental design strategies for daylight design and shading reduced the number of hours
the faade
 CASE STUDIES 215

above 27 Celsius to 40 hours per year. This is well below

the target figure of 5 per cent of the occupied period (i.e.
100 hours).
The costs of the building are approximately 2250 per
square metre, slightly higher than for a typical office
building. However, the architectural design qualities are
high and these buildings are considered prestige projects.

Conclusion
This project has demonstrated that it is possible to design
low-energy speculative buildings in an urban context. The
increased costs associated with this superstructure
required to passively reduce the energy demand are
offset by reduced costs for services. The provision of
optional cooling, though not a low-energy strategy, was
seen as essential for commercial speculative offices of this
quality. What is not yet clear is to what extent the cooling
option has been adopted. One suspects that tenants
unfamiliar with the passive systems and who are used to
cooled office space will instruct their interior fit-out
designers to install cooling capacity. Thus, in providing
the option for cooling, this is likely to result in a signifi-
cant uptake of the option.
This project provides valuable generic insights for
speculative as well as bespoke developments in similar
urban contexts. The range of climate conditions also
suggests that the concepts are applicable to a wide range
of climates, from those predominantly in cold regions of
Northern Europe down to mid-European regions such as
France. The atrium strategy may prove to be inappropri-
Source: Richard Rogers Partnership ate to southern climates where the thermal buffer benefits
Figure 9.81 Interior view of a typical atrium are not useful, and where summer conditions (particularly
with warm nights) will require improved passive cooling
strategies.
216 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Case study 8: School of Engineering, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK

Table 9.10 School of Engineering building,
University of Leicester
Name: School of Engineering
Type: Offices, workshops, auditoria
Location: Leicester

Introduction
This university engineering department (designed by
Short Ford Architects, in conjunction with Max Fordham
Engineers) houses a multitude of functions, from audito-
ria and offices to computer rooms and engineering
workshops. The combination of both noise-sensitive areas
(such as the auditoria) and noise-generating spaces (the
workshops) presents a range of environmental challenges Source: Alan Short Associates
beyond that of energy efficiency. The building is set in an
urban environment and, yet, is totally naturally ventilated Figure 9.82 View of the De Montfort engineering
and largely day lit. It exploits passive strategies by opting building in its context
for a convoluted plan form as opposed to a deep plan
creating a number of microclimates, ranging from exterior Building description
courtyards to interior streets.
The building accommodates 1000 occupants in The building accommodates the following functions:
10,000m2 over four floors. A significant level of internal lecture theatres (auditoria), classrooms, engineering
gains from occupants and heavy machinery would laboratories, offices and a cafeteria. It is up to four storeys
conventionally lead to year-round cooling. The combina- tall and is separated from the immediate context by streets
tion of shallow plans, thermal mass and stack ventilation and courtyards.
enabled a passive, low-energy solution. The plan is convoluted, adopting shallow proportions
wherever possible in order to increase the availability of
Location and climate daylight and natural ventilation. The high internal gains
associated with 1000 occupants and a large amount of
Leicester is a small city located in the centre of England heat-producing machinery would, particularly if lighting
(52.7 degrees north, 1 degree west). It has a moderate loads were added, create a continuous cooling demand in
maritime climate but is protected from the ocean to the a conventional deep-plan engineering facility. Here, the
west. The annual temperature range is small, with a typology of a shallow linear plan is twisted and turned to
record low of 10 Celsius and a high of 34 Celsius. create courtyards and an internal concourse. Noise-
Rainfall varies little throughout the year, and is fairly low sensitive areas where simple windows that open provide
typically less than 750mm annually. The UKs reputa- ventilation are orientated away from the street, whereas
tion for cloudiness is well merited, with a mean sunshine the noise-producing spaces and the auditoria exploit
duration of 3.7 hours daily for Leicester. special soundproofing and ventilation strategies to enable
Leicester is set in rolling, hilly farmlands and the city them to face the street.
is primarily known historically for its textile industry. The Faades are carefully articulated to reflect the
site is located in Leicester city centre, is surrounded by functions and environmental criteria of the spaces within.
two- to four-storey buildings and is adjacent to a street. A range of openings, from small view and ventilation
With the potential of noisy traffic on the street, adjacent windows to high-level roof lights, as well as ventilation
to the need for quiet auditoria, noise is an issue. louvers at the bottom and top of the building, provide the
Conversely, due to neighbouring buildings and the fact required environmental characteristics (Figures 9.83 and
that the building accommodates noise-producing 9.84).
engineering facilities, reducing noise emission is also a In the deeper plan areas or for the larger spaces
key concern (Figure 9.82). (auditoria and engineering labs), the ventilation strategies
 CASE STUDIES 217

Source: Alan Short Associates

Figure 9.83 Architects sketch and final view of the faade

Source: Alan Short Associates

Figure 9.84 The roof profile (left) indicates the strong role that stack ventilation plays, while the section through the
building (right) shows teaching spaces on the left with high glazing ratios facing in to a court, the tall concourse space in
the centre with a stack, and an auditorium space on the right
218 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Alan Short Associates

Figure 9.85 Exterior, showing perforated brick peers for air inlets, and interior, showing high windows for
good daylight penetration into the double-height mechanical spaces

have a more significant implication for the building The heavy form of construction primarily brick and
design. The use of ventilation stacks is evident from the concrete provides ample thermal mass, which (when
overall view of the building, and these form a primary combined with night-time cooling controlled by the
approach to ventilating key spaces naturally. building management system) ensures that overheating is
minimized.
Key features The ability of the stack ventilation systems, combined
with thermal mass and night-time cooling, to prevent
Generally, the main section of the building is ventilated
overheating in an auditorium for 150 people is a particu-
from the perimeter through windows or via acoustically
lar achievement. One key conflict to overcome was the
lined louvered plenum spaces to the centre and air is
compromise between exposing sufficient thermal mass
expelled via a series of stacks. The engineering laborato-
while having enough acoustic absorption to provide the
ries are ventilated separately, but follow the same
appropriate reverberation characteristics. Careful calcu-
principles. Openings in the brick faades allow air to
lations of both the thermal and acoustic performance were
enter via an acoustically lined chamber (in this instance,
needed to reach a successful balance.
to prevent noise from escaping from the interior to the
The daylighting strategies vary according to function
exterior) into the space and it is evacuated via roof-
and orientation. In the computer spaces, small view
mounted monitors. These spaces are single storey but
windows are used at low level, and light shelves with
double height (see Figure 9.85).
 CASE STUDIES 219

increased glazing above aim to provide good daylight Conclusion

distribution while limiting sunlight and glare. The
This project demonstrates that a complex brief in an
mechanical laboratories (see Figure 9.85) have high-level
urban setting can be resolved to produce a low-energy,
glazed gables and roof lights. The deep overhangs prevent
naturally ventilated building. Careful planning particu-
direct sunlight penetration.
larly with respect to natural ventilation and noise is
Generally, artificial lighting is automated, except in
essential, and a large surface area-to-volume ratio used
the smaller office spaces, and a centralized control
here offers a series of conditions and microclimates that
switches all lights off at 22:00. Light and movement
can be exploited. The use of stacks, even for ventilating
sensors are provided and manual override is also avail-
auditoria and other spaces with high internal gains, has
able.
been shown to be effective. However, careful modelling
and simulation of ventilation, acoustics and lighting were
Performance
an essential part of the design process, and were neces-
The building is still undergoing post-occupancy analysis. sary to balance and fine-tune the design strategies (not to
However, estimates show that energy savings will be in mention fire safety).
the order of 50 to 75 per cent of a conventional engineer- The overall strategy is, in principle, applicable to
ing building with mechanical cooling. Capital cost other climates, although the effectiveness of night-time
reductions of 35 to 24 per cent of the building costs have cooling and stacks will need to be assessed. Where
been achieved through reducing electrical and mechani- diurnal fluctuations are smaller than in the UK, this strat-
cal services. egy will not be able to cope with the level of internal gains
of this building.
220 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Case study 9: Inland Revenue Office Headquarters, Nottingham, UK

Table 9.11 Inland Revenue headquarters, Nottingham major roads, one of which is raised and runs along the
Name: Inland Revenue Office Headquarters
short length of the site: a railway line to the south and a
Type: Offices canal to the north. The site is also large enough for a small
Location: Nottingham urban enclave to be designed and thus to create its own
microclimate of semi-pedestrianized streets and court-
Introduction yards. The urban plan was conceived around maintaining
views to the city centre and the castle.
The six Inland Revenue buildings are designed to accom-
modate the UKs tax office in 40,000 square metres and Building description
on three to four floors, set on a 100,000 square metre site
in the centre of Nottingham. The challenge was to design A series of shallow plan (13.6m) court and L-shaped plans
a low-energy, naturally ventilated and day-lit building in of three and four storeys are planned around new
this urban context. The strategy was to adopt shallow landscaped streets and squares. All wings and faades of
plans for cross-ventilation and daylight availability, the buildings are essentially the same, independent of
supplemented by stack ventilation and exposed thermal orientations. The structure is heavyweight, with exposed
mass. The large site area enabled the urban design pre-cast concrete ceilings to the lower levels (all but the
approach to create a quieter and cleaner microclimate for top floor). The top-floor level is made of a lightweight
many of the buildings faades, limiting the issues of noise form with a steel roof structure and roof lights for ventila-
and pollution as constraints on the natural ventilation tion purposes. The upper floor is thus independently
approach. The buildings were designed by Michael ventilated and does not rely upon the towers used for
Hopkins Architects, in conjunction with Ove Arup natural ventilation on the lower floors.
Engineers. At the corners of each block are ventilation towers,
which provide the stack effect of drawing air through the
Location and climate office space. These towers also accommodate the fire
escape stairs.
Nottingham is in the same climate region as Case Study 8 Windows can be opened in the form of large sliding
in Leicester, so the synoptic climate data are the same. glazed doors to allow for natural ventilation, although
The local conditions differ in that the site is next to two alternative routes for fresh air supply have been

Source: DETR, 2000

Figure 9.86 Overview of the site and views to the castle

 CASE STUDIES 221

Source: DETR, 2000

Figure 9.87 Perimeter environmental strategies

integrated. All glazing is triple glazed, with an inner- to counteract any heat loss in winter and to provide early
sealed argon-filled unit and an outer cavity with morning preheating, when necessary.
adjustable blinds. Although there is a fairly large amount
of glazing, the tall windows are shaded by a combination Key features
of fixed louvered balustrades and light shelves externally,
The key energy features of this design are the integration
as well as moveable inter-pane blinds to provide user
of natural ventilation, thermal mass, shading and daylight-
control. High-level glazing above the external light
ing.
shelves aims to improve daylight penetration deeper into
It is the ventilation strategy that is the most interest-
the plan (Figure 9.87). Offices are generally open plan,
ing and worth discussing in more detail. A combination of
though some cellular space is provided around the core
natural and mechanical ventilation is used, allowing
spaces at each corner.
different strategies for different times of the year. Natural
The environmental systems could be described as fan-
ventilation is achieved by manually opening the glazing
assisted natural ventilation in that small air-supply fans
(either sliding doors on the lower floors or windows on
are provided near the perimeter to provide minimal
the top floor) during warm weather. Alternatively, under-
winter-time fresh air. Perimeter heating is also installed
floor perimeter inlets can be opened to provide fresh air
222 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Tower roof moved up and

down hydraulically to
control air flow rate
Air from top floor is exhausted
at ridge level motorized dampers
control roof vents Solar gain in
tower increases
the buoyancy
of the air
Top floor doors
normally closed
Fresh air rises under to prevent air in
bouyancy as it is heated tower passing
by internal gains into top floor
Fresh air is drawn Doors to tower
through underfloor held open
ducting and floor
grille (can be Warm air drawn
fan-assisted) up tower by
stack effect

Source: DETR, 2000

Figure 9.89 Overall natural ventilation strategy

the thermal buoyancy (i.e. solar chimneys). The tops of

the towers can be gradually opened by raising the fabric
roof upwards by 1m and providing a large area that can
be opened to allow rising warm air to escape. The
umbrella-like top hat tower roof openings are controlled
by the building management system (BMS). Only the top
floor is ventilated independently from the towers via
motorized roof vents (Figure 9.89). The same ventilation
routes (i.e. from perimeter inlet, via office space, and out
of towers or roof vents) are used for night-time cooling,
Source: DETR, 2000 controlled by the BMS. The exposed concrete ceilings in
Figure 9.88 The ventilation towers are a key the offices are an important feature of the passive cooling
architectural feature strategy, and the shading and daylight strategies help to
minimize thermal gains. The benefits of noise reduction
achieved as a result of the perimeter system means that
naturally, avoiding the potential problems associated with noise is not a significant constraint to natural ventilation.
noise. The air entering via the perimeter inlets can also
be mechanically forced in, using under-floor fans. This Performance
provides a degree of control to assist night-time ventila-
tion in the summer and preheating in the winter (the One of the buildings wings was monitored during 1996
under-floor systems include perimeter heating). Figure and 1997. The summer temperature assessment showed
9.87 shows the perimeter design principles. that the top floor was always the warmest (24.3 Celsius
The exhaust air can leave the building either under average) compared with the ground floor (22.5 Celsius).
conventional cross-ventilation (i.e. the air enters one side During the summer of 1996, a total of 25 working days
and leaves via the opposite side of the plan) or by exploit- had temperatures exceeding 27 Celsius on the top floor,
ing the stack effect created by the towers (Figure 9.88). compared with 13 hours on the second floor, 10 on the
However, cross-ventilation is only effective if windows or first and none on the ground floor. On average, the build-
inlets are opened and there is sufficient pressure differ- ing exceeded 25 Celsius for 2.9 per cent of the occupied
ence between the windward and leeward side (i.e. there year and 28 Celsius for 0.3 per cent of the year levels
is sufficient wind). A fall-back option, for when the wind that are considered acceptable in the context of a crite-
pressures are low, is the use of the towers. Doors into the rion of no more than 25 Celsius for no more than 5 per
towers from the lower floors are permanently open cent of the year (Figure 9.90).
(except in the case of a fire). These towers are constructed Air movement was lower than expected, particularly
of glass blocks in order to exploit solar gains to assist in in the middle of the wings. Typical summer ventilation
 CASE STUDIES 223

35 450
Other
Ground floor
30 400 Office equipment
Third floor

Energy use (kWh/m2 per year)

Percentage of time (%)

25 350 Lighting
Cooling
20 300
Heating
15 250

10 200

5 150

0 100

5 50
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Temperature (C) 0

AC
V

AC
V
d
ed

N
re

N
ict

ito

l
e
Source: DETR, 2000

l
e

ca
ca

tic
ed

tic
on

pi
pi

ac
ac
Pr

Ty
M

Ty

pr
pr
Figure 9.90 Percentage of internal temperatures recorded

od
od

Go
Go
Source: DETR, 2000
rates of below 2 air changes per hour (ACH) were
measured. Night cooling was found to be effective, Figure 9.91 Comparisons of energy use
achieving up to a 2 Celsius reduction in day-time
temperatures. theoretical potential, but complexities and compromises
The daylight performance is disappointing, largely can occur. For example, excessive fixed and non-
due to the extensive shading strategies employed (the retractable shading resulted in disappointing daylight
moveable mid-pane louvers are not retractable), and also availability; the exposed thermally massive concrete
due to the relatively dark concrete ceiling finish (original ceiling has low reflectance, giving a darker visual environ-
white concrete was eliminated due to costs). However, ment and making light shelves less effective; occupant
the top floor with its roof light achieves average daylight behaviour (of, for example, the ventilation controls)
factors of above 2 per cent, compared with below 1 per reduces the thermal and energy performance; and the
cent for the other floors. stacks are too far apart to effectively ventilate the whole of
The predicted annual total energy use figure was the floor plan.
94kWh/m2 (excluding small power), consisting of 26 for Many of the problems can be overcome in this build-
lighting, 6 for pumps and fans and 57 for heating and hot ing by remedial measures. They might include improved
water, and the rest for ancillary uses. The actual energy BMS control over the perimeter fans (rather than reliance
performance during the first year of operation was on occupants); occupant and light sensors for the lighting
157kWh/m2 about twice the predicted demand. Overall, controls; and zoned heating control as a function of floor-
the building uses almost 20 per cent less heating energy level and faade orientation. The decision to have the
than an air-conditioned building, but between two and same faade design strategy on all faades has reduced
three times the lighting energy (Figure 9.91). the potential of fine-tuning the shading strategy. For
Occupant surveys reported reasonable general satis- example, little shading is required on the north side,
faction, though high temperatures on the top floor and which would benefit from increased daylight without a
stuffiness, possibly due to limited ventilation rates, were significant thermal gain penalty. Perhaps a more control-
mentioned. Occupants did not seem to be aware of the lable opening window design as opposed to large sliding
perimeter mechanical ventilation option only one in five doors would have offered more manual control over the
fans was in operation at any one time. Daylight was natural ventilation and limit draughts.
considered to be low, as reported in the measured Although the design targets have not all been met, it
surveys. is clear that this building provides an energy performance
that is better than that of a standard solution, and that
Conclusion with remedial interventions, an overall improved
This project provides a number of valuable lessons. The performance is expected.
integration of energy strategies has very significant
224 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Synopsis response to the specific contexts and briefs, that have not
been applied in a deterministic manner. The range of
The case studies demonstrate how the combination of architectural solutions highlights that low-energy urban
integrated design strategy with the appropriate applica- design carries with it no stylistic or architectural
tion of technology can achieve low-energy buildings. constraint in fact, it can be argued that the solution
They also usefully demonstrate though not exhaustively space is increased.
a rich range of concepts that have been developed in

References
DETR (2002) The Inland Revenue Headquarters, Lyon, France
Nottingham: Feedback for designers and clients, New Klein, S. A. (1990) TRNSYS: A transient system simulation
Practice Case Study 114, Energy Efficiency Best Practice program, Solar Energy Laboratory, Report no 38-13,
Programme, London University of Wisconsin, Madison
Geros, V. (1999) Ventilation nocturne: Contribution a la Rohles, F. H. (1983) Ceiling fans as extensions of the summer
reponse thermique des batiments, PhD Thesis, INSA de comfort envelope, ASHRAE Transactions, vol 89, pp245

Recommended reading
A number of case study-based books exist that deal with link between the architectural and engineering
energy efficient projects. solutions to environmental design.
3 Fontoynont, M. (ed) (1999) Daylight Performance of
1 Jones, L. (1998) Sustainable Architecture, Laurence Buildings, James & James, London
King, London Finally, Marc Fontoynont has edited an excellent book
This book contains a rich variety of environmentally on daylit buildings, which describes over 60 case
sensitive case study projects, with excellent photo- studies from the perspective of their lighting perform-
graphs, although not a significant amount of technical ance. The buildings cover a wide range of types,
data. As a design source book, it is an attractive periods and climates, and were monitored. Each is
document. described in terms of its qualities, and the book gives
2 Hawkes, D. and Forster, W. (2002) Architecture, details of the monitoring results, together with photo-
Engineering and Environment, Laurence King, graphs. It complements the recently published
London Daylight Design in Buildings by Baker and Steemers
This book features case studies, and provides a useful (2002, James & James), which is a source book and
critique of buildings that are of significant architec- design guide for daylighting.
tural merit. This book of case studies emphasizes the
10
Guidelines to Integrate Energy Conservation
Marc Blake and Spyros Amourgis

Scope of the chapter Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of key issues regarding Considerations for energy conservation include the
environmental conditions and energy conservation of energy embodied by the building materials in their
urban buildings. While each issue is dealt with in greater manufacturing process (see Chapter 4), the energy
depth in other chapters, the merits of a comprehensive consumed during the construction process, and energy
approach and utilization of all options available to the demands for the operation and maintenance of a building
designer are discussed here as guidelines. As conditions during its life cycle. Finally, energy is also consumed in
vary from site to site and from one building function to the demolition of a building at the end of its useful life.
another, it is up to the ingenuity of the designer to address This chapter deals with the conservation of energy
all issues and factors and to resolve then through the during the functional life of a building. The energy
building design. performance of a building depends, largely, upon the
design decisions made at the planning stage and in the
way in which the occupants interact with the building.
Learning objectives The significance of making the right decisions in order to
integrate the building concept with environmental and
After studying this chapter, readers will understand how
energy conservation issues is discussed in Chapter 2.
to address all of the factors affecting the environmental
Following these introductory comments, a number of
conditions of urban buildings, generally; and specifically
guidelines are provided that highlight the various options
through the building design process, readers will be able
available to integrate energy conservation measures
to search for those solutions that will conserve non-
during the initial stages of the building design.
renewable energy resources.
There is no single method or means that could be
applied generally to produce maximum energy savings in
Key words all buildings, as there are many variable factors that affect
the decision-making stage of each building design
Key words include: problem. The best approach is to consider all of the possi-
bilities and options to conserve energy in each building
urban climate; design situation and to study their synergy in producing
heat and mass transfer in buildings; cumulative results. Therefore, the issue is to integrate in
illumination of buildings; the building design as many options as are feasible.
urban energy resources management; With regard to the issue of integration, it is important
economic feasibility of buildings; to distinguish between the utilization and assimilation of
intelligent controls and advanced building manage- a number of measures in formulating a building design
ment systems (BMS); concept in order to decrease the consumption of energy
building design guidelines. during the life span of a building, and the piecemeal
approach of resolving the various issues separately before
applying elements in a building design that improve one
226 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Note: The insulation (c) protects heat transfer through conduction to the mass of the interior wall (b) from heat gains by solar radiation to the external
wall (d), while the high albedo white-washed plaster (e) partially mitigates radiation effects to the external wall (d) through reflectivity.

Figure 10.1 Wall section: (a) shows interior plaster; (b) shows internal cavity wall skin (i.e. bricks); (c) shows thermal
insulation material in the cavity; (d) shows external cavity wall skin (i.e. bricks); (e) shows white-washed plaster
(high albedo)

aspect only of the energy performance of a building. The great diversity of environmental conditions within the
first approach is more difficult and creates a real challenge urban context, such as differing ground morphology, low
for the building designer to be inventive. The second to high building densities, fixed orientations of streets and
approach is easier since a building is designed conven- private properties, the size and shape of building sites, as
tionally and, at the end of the process, a number of well as a variety of building heights and volumes. This
environmentally corrective measures are added to the diversity presents opportunities as well as constraints to
initial design. Such examples are universally common. the range of available options, from one urban site to
Environmental criteria and energy conservation are another, for energy conservation and particularly for
equally important to all other design criteria and factors passive solar systems.
that help to generate a building design. For this reason
the guidelines in this text must not be seen as keys to
solving only particular building functional problems, but,
General issues
in their totality, as generating a building concept and
There are a number of issues that are important to under-
function, as a whole.
stand and that make up the context to specific building
The environmental design of a building is a rather
design decisions. These are analysed in greater depth in
complex task, as it must respond effectively to often
various chapters of this book. In this chapter, the princi-
conflicting environmental requirements. For example, the
ples and findings of other disciplines that feed into the
sun provides natural light to interior spaces while it
architectural design process are listed briefly. The
creates glare. At the same time, it is desirable for the suns
designers expertise is to integrate the findings of the
rays to enter the interior of a building during the cold
specialist as guidelines in building design, and in complex
months, but undesirable for them to do so in the warm
situations to consult with the necessary experts in order
months. To address only one condition is not sufficient.
to resolve the specific issues.
Finally, in dealing with urban buildings one faces a
considerable number of limitations. These result from the
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 227

Insulation

 
Note: (left) Incorrect as heat passes unabated into concrete beam and slab; (right) correct as heat is stopped by insulating material between the building
skin and the concrete beam

Figure 10.2 Two building section details which show how thermal bridges can occur if proper insulation
is not provided at tectonic elements

The urban climate The airflow between buildings in the urban canopy is very
difficult to assess. It is particularly difficult to assess the
While land uses in rural areas are more even in texture
microclimatic prevailing conditions in areas with an
and extent, in the urban environment they are so varied
uneven density of buildings unless one conducts exten-
in their texture and density that microclimatic conditions
sive readings and tests. Other factors that make it difficult
are much more difficult to assess and predict. Therefore,
to assess and estimate air movements are the constant
it is important to emphasize a number of points. Some of
changes that take place in the urban environment, with
these are useful regarding the benefits of a building and
demolitions of old buildings and the construction of new
some relate to how a building design affects the microcli-
structures with a different volume and mass, as well as
mate of its surroundings.
changes in plant materials.
In urban areas, as described in Chapter 6, the main
Generally, improvement of the overall urban environ-
differences between the urban environment and the
ment during the hot months can be achieved primarily by
surrounding rural areas are as follows:
reducing solar heat gains as follows:
Air temperatures in cities are higher compared with
using materials with a high albedo in buildings and
the adjacent countryside (this difference is known as
where hard surfaces are necessary;
the urban heat island effect).
planting trees, shrubs and ground cover;
The speed of the wind in urban areas is usually less
spacing buildings to allow for air movement.
than the speed of the wind at the same height in
adjacent rural areas.
Details regarding the albedo and emissivity of different
Urban pollution can reduce sunlight intensity in
materials are provided in Chapter 6.
industrial areas.
Appropriate spacing of buildings and the use of decid-
Direct sunlight and daylighting intensity varies from
uous trees may improve, during the cold months, solar
location to location as large buildings cast shadows
heat gains and, of course, natural lighting conditions.
over others (this condition also varies according to the
orientation and siting of the buildings).
228 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 10.3 Continuous building system layout of city block

Heat and mass transfer Heat losses

The principles to remember in designing a building are In cold weather the interior mass of the wall (b) stores
that heat is transferred (see Chapter 7) in three modes by: heat gained from convection and/or radiation from inter-
nal sources, and insulation (c) stops heat transfer to the
conduction; exterior skin (d) by convection (see Figure 10.1).
convection; However, if a building is occupied occasionally, it
radiation. takes longer to heat up until the interior skin (b) absorbs
enough heat to sustain internal temperatures at a constant
Of those modes, the first has to do with the heat trans- level.
ferred through the mass of a building: primarily the walls
and roofs, and in some situations the floors. The second Thermal bridges
mode occurs in a building as a result of airflow and the
Thermal bridges occur when materials of uneven conduc-
third is emitted by matter and transported by electromag-
tivity are placed next to each other or structural elements
netic waves, the sun being a major source of radiant heat.
such as columns, beams or slabs interrupt thermal insula-
Figure 7.13 in Chapter 7 illustrates the heat transfer
tion layers. In these cases, provisions have to be made to
balance of a building.
reduce heat gains or losses where thermal bridges occur.
Thermal insulation N
The primary method of protecting a building from heat
losses and gains is to insulate the buildings various exter-
nal elements. Patented thermal insulation materials
provide protection primarily from conduction through the
mass of the building envelope.

Heat gains
In hot weather the building envelope gains heat from
solar radiation and thermal convection, when the external
air temperatures are higher than the interior of the build-
ing. In order to avoid this, thermal insulation is used to 15 15
protect from heat transfer. However, it is more efficient to
consider also the external finish materials, colour and S
texture that provide protection from solar radiant heat.
This can be achieved by increasing solar reflectivity by Figure 10.4 Roof plan of building showing favourable
using high albedo materials (see Table 6.3 in Chapter 6). orientation of the major faades to within
15 of the northsouth coordinates
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 229

 
Figure 10.5 (left) Correct building section showing how equal amounts of cut and fill are created during excavation;
(right) incorrect building section showing how too much soil is exported from the site during excavation

Illumination ity used in the US is directly consumed for lighting.

Actually, energy consumption is higher when the energy
Natural light is a free source during daytime. Artificial
used to remove the heat generated from the lights is
light is necessary during darkness. Over the last 40 or
estimated (Von Weizscker et al, 1997, p36).
more years, artificial lighting sources have become a
Generally, energy can be conserved by using timers,
feature during daytime, quite unnecessarily, in the
as well as sensors, for switches of temporary use spaces
interior of buildings!
(such as toilets), photovoltaics for the exterior of buildings
and, as mentioned before, compact fluorescent lamps.
Natural lighting
Illumination of the interior of buildings during daytime can Energy and resource management in the
be provided through natural lighting. In urban buildings urban environment
orientation is given by the location of the site within the
Infrastructure
street pattern of the urban fabric. In disadvantageous situa-
tions, natural light can be improved by utilizing reflective Where urbanization has taken place the opportunities to
light from surfaces that receive direct light. Visual comfort explore all available options are limited. In most of the
requirements are analysed in Chapter 8, as well as the urban centres except those that expand on new grounds,
components of daylight factor (see Figure 8.16) in the urban there is scope for corrective actions to improve infrastruc-
environment. Where possible, in the design of any urban ture and to address issues such as recycling of waste;
building it is important to observe the obstruction angle tapping into secondary sources (i.e. wasted energy from
between buildings, according to the latitude of the location thermodynamic electricity plants); converting to less
(see Table 8.7 in Chapter 8). When designing new areas, polluting energy sources, such as natural gas; improving
care must be taken to space buildings at distances that on public transport (Von Weizscker et al, 1997, plate 11);1
allow exposure to the sun in winter months. planting to improve the the heat island effect; using
photovoltaics for ancillary public lighting; water manage-
Artificial illumination ment; solar energy for domestic hot water; and other
similar measures, mostly addressing general infrastruc-
Artificial lights are used for after daylight hours.
tural improvements. Chapter 12 outlines a number of
Considerable energy can be saved when using compact
opportunities and examples that have been tried in
fluorescent lamps. Apparently, 20 per cent of all electric-
several parts of Europe.
230 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

 
Figure 10.6 (left) Correct building section showing how building surface and ground are placed to assist in the
absorbtion of unfavourable heat gains; (right) incorrect building section showing how surfaces and ground absorb and
radiate heat

Building projects Economic feasibility

Generally, most construction projects in existing cities are Energy conservation can be measured in quantitative
single buildings. Of those buildings in moderate and terms through cost and financial benefits. However, quali-
higher density areas, there is scope to address energy tative benefits are difficult to assess and some are not so
conservation issues through design as described in apparent. The ozone hole and the global greenhouse
Chapters 2, 3 and 4. Each building project can contribute effects were not clearly appreciated 50 years ago; the cost
considerably to this effect through careful consideration not to reduce but to halt the process now is, indeed, very
of, primarily, energy-efficient interiors, as well as the high, if globally feasible. There is no doubt that to
management of resources, the remodelling of existing convince people to adopt different practices is to provide
buildings and adapting them to contemporary needs. evidence of economic benefits for the medium term, if not

Figure 10.7 Building sections showing how a deciduous tree (left) can shade a building in summer, and in winter
(right) lose its leaves to allow the sun to pass through and warm the building
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 231

 
Figure 10.8 (left) Correct building floor plan showing a low surface to volume ratio; (right) incorrect
building floor plan showing a high surface to volume ratio

for longer term periods. Therefore, economic analysis is Intelligent controls and advanced building
also a very important tool for assessing a building project. management systems (BMS)
Feasibility studies can help to avoid adopting excessive
In urban buildings, simple building management systems
building standards as, indeed, can recycling existing
have been used traditionally to control heating, air condi-
buildings. Passive cooling and heating systems can
tioning and lighting. Building management systems could
improve indoor quality, as well, by eliminating the
be used to totally control a building environment.
airborne diseases that sometimes are associated with
Regarding the latter, the aim is to achieve maximum
mechanical systems. Furthermore, materials from renew-
efficiency and optimum environmental comfort condi-
able resources can be used to replace synthetic materials
tions for humans (as described in Chapter 5).
to create a healthier, non-allergenic interior environment.

BR BR

BA KIT

LIVING

Figure 10.9 Building section showing open pilotis Figure 10.10 Floorplan showing the ideal location of
allowing free airflow below the building rooms in relation to north and south directions
232 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS


Figure 10.11 (left) Correct building floor plan showing free flow of air currents through the space; (right) incorrect floor
plan showing interrupted airflow due to the introduction of a corridor

There are three basic categories of control systems: The first includes simple methods of conserving energy
through the use of:
those that provide a dual-position regulating action
(on/off ); thermal insulation of the external skin of the building;
those that provide proportional control action; construction details that seal air leaks from the
artificial intelligence programmes that respond simul- interior of the building;
taneously and to variable conditions. interventions in the mechanical systems of a building.

The range of activities that can be controlled and

monitored in a building is shown in Figures 5.2 to 5.4 in
Chapter 5.
The term intelligent building is based on the possi-
bilities offered by advances in information and
communication technologies to control and monitor the
building environment, as well as a range of many other
building functions. The most feasible use at the present
times is to create a central control system that regulates an
integrated system of all such installations that affect the
environment of a building in order to obtain the maximum
results of comfort, with minimum energy consumption.
Social changes and urban living will increase the need
for intelligent controls; possibly with remote controls. It
may, in the future, become widely feasible to monitor the
environment of a building from a distance and to reduce
even more energy consumption.

Design guidelines
Figure 10.12 Section of a building showing a compromise
There are two loosely defined categories of energy-saving solution; two apartment units with a corridor between
approaches in a building (Chrisomallidou, 2001, p247). them, allowing for free flow of air in both units
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 233

 
Figure 10.13 (left) Incorrect building section showing narrow space between two building blocks; (right) correct
building section showing wide space between two buildings, allowing better flow of air and use of natural daylight

The second category includes approaches, such as: other basic limiting factor to the thermal insulation of a
building. This is not true for the other approaches,
utilizing passive solar heating; where, as mentioned before, it is difficult to find in all
natural cooling; sites or locations in the urban environment the essential
natural ventilation. environmental conditions in order to apply all available
options.
Efficient thermal insulation of the external elements of a The following guidelines highlight a number of key
building may be seen as a prerequisite to applying any points. They must not be seen in isolation to each other
other additional techniques of the second category. by the designer, but should be combined and adjusted to
Other than availability of materials and cost, there is no each other, leading to optimum design solutions for a

 
Figure 10.14 (left) Incorrect building floor plan showing narrow gap; (right) correct building plan showing alternative
arrangement with a wider gap between building blocks in order to allow better airflow and use of natural light
234 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

 
Figure 10.15 Two alternative building plans showing the use of the same component in different ways
in order to achieve free flow of air

given site. North hemisphere references to orientation are the site layout. In such cases, it is essential after the site
used for all the examples mentioned in this chapter. analysis to work closely with the environment, while
addressing the other factors of the programme, and to
Site layout take advantage of:
Within the urban fabric there are very few large enough
the topography, without disrupting the natural water-
open spaces where one can design the site layout free of
shed;
existing constraints. Most sites are tight spaces within
the local winds and wind movement between build-
built-up areas with fixed parameters for placing a build-
ings;
ing (building line, setbacks, rear yards, etc.).
solar exposure and the distance between proposed
An urban renewal project where clearing of old struc-
buildings;
tures takes place is rare, and only new subdivisions and
the possibilities offered by planting.
extensions of city limits offer opportunities for designing

Figure 10.16 Building sections showing various ways to place the building in relation to the ground
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 235

Summer Winter

Figure 10.17 Building sections showing how overhangs can assist in controlling sunlight

Siting a building Excavations

The confines of building sites within the urban fabric Sloping sites offer opportunities for cut and fill to save
often do not offer many options for placing the mass of the carting away and to reuse topsoil (when it is of usable
building upon a site. The following guidelines are appli- quality).
cable when certain conditions are available.
Rear yards and building setbacks
Orientation Hard surfaces must be avoided. Precipitation must be
Facing south or within 15 degrees of due south is advis- allowed to percolate into the ground. Parking surfaces can
able for optimal performance of heat-gaining spaces. be designed to provide a stable surface while allowing
water absorption.

Figure 10.18 Building sections showing various window types and the circulation of air,
(left) pivoting and (right) double sash
236 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 10.19 Building section showing a fixed fin and how it assists in controlling sunlight coming into the building
during summer and winter seasons

Plants Building configuration

Deciduous trees are very useful to shade the building The shape of a building, the interior layout, the size and
and/or the ground in the summer without obstructing solar orientation are all factors that affect its energy
sunlight in the winter. Shading hard surfaces or the build- consumption. To obtain maximum energy conservation, all
ing may reduce air temperature by as much as four factors must be considered in an integrated manner.
approximately 7 Celsius during the warmest period.
Building shape
Considerable energy savings can occur by reducing the
surface-to-volume ratio and getting the right solar orien-
tation.

Figure 10.20 Vertical section of a trombe wall showing

how the suns energy passes through a wall of glass, Figure 10.21 Vertical section of an attached sun room
is stored in a mass and is slowly radiated to the showing how warm air is trapped in the volume of the
adjacent room glass structure so it can be transferred to the building
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 237

Figure 10.22 Vertical section of an atrium showing how

the suns energy can be trapped in the space and Figure 10.23 Vertical window sections showing how an
transferred to the adjacent rooms exterior roller shutter can be used to control sunlight
before it enters the building

Building on pilotis
Designing wall openings
Building on pilotis, when feasible, and leaving the ground
floor open allows air movement between the street and The position of openings, proportions and opening areas
the rear yards. must be designed to meet interior space functional
requirements (natural light and ventilation), views and
Interior layout aesthetic requirements of the exterior treatment of the
elevations.
The layout in relation to the appropriate orientation can
help to conserve energy for heating and cooling, as well
as for lighting.

Relation to attached units

Avoid layouts of units without cross-ventilation in order
to retain the free flow of air and to receive direct daylight
in habitable rooms.

Tall buildings
Avoid compact building arrangements to allow for airflow
and sun exposure. Where this is not possible, include
southern light through the adjustment of the building
section.

Relation of building to the ground

The further away the building is from the ground, the
more it is subject to climatic conditions. When feasible,
such as in suburban areas, keep the building in close
contact with the ground; otherwise it is necessary to Figure 10.24 Vertical building section showing
compensate with additional exterior building insulation how vegetation might be used to help absorb the
in order to keep internal temperatures stabilized. suns energy
238 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

 
Figure 10.25 (left) Correct placement of openings to assist in the free flow of air in a room;
(right) incorrect placement of openings, hampering the free flow of air

North openings considered (are they necessary for ventilation, natural

light or views?) since protection from the sun is less easy
Generally, north openings provide steady natural light
than with southern orientations.
that is free of glare. Double glazing can reduce heat losses
during the cold months. During the warm season, north
South openings
openings are useful for natural ventilation.
These are useful as the sun can enter during the cold
East and west openings months, while it is easier to block the summer sun. Glare
is also an issue that needs to be resolved, particularly for
In warm climates, east and west openings present
working areas.
problems of shading from the morning and afternoon sun,
which is in a lower position. They need to be carefully

Figure 10.26 Building section showing the use of Figure 10.27 Building section showing the use of
a wind tower a solar chimney
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 239

Figure 10.28 Building sections showing various ways to insulate a building; (left) parasol-like roof to block sun and
allow air movement; (right) cavities built in the wall and roof to allow for air movement

Window systems Passive solar heating guidelines

The choice of glazing systems can drastically alter the Solar heat can be utilized through passive systems in a
energy consumption of a building. The choice of fenestra- variety of ways to improve temperatures within the
tion can improve or mitigate natural ventilation. Window interior of a building.
and door details may reduce or increase heat gains or
losses through air draughts or hotcold bridges. Direct gain
Extensive glass surfaces must be double glazed in order
Interior surfaces can be heated by means of properly
to avoid unnecessary heat gains or losses. A number of
designed south-facing windows.
contemporary hardware options allow windows to be
flexible and operate as side-hung pivotal, depending upon
the users needs for ventilation.

Figure 10.29 Building sections showing (left) clerestory windows and (right) horizontal fins in the building faade
240 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Figure 10.30 Building section showing how cool air might Figure 10.31 Building section showing the planting of
be pumped into a building from underground pipes roof surfaces

Trombe walls Vegetation

Trombe walls can be used to protect interior spaces from As discussed earlier, by planting around the building and
direct solar gain, while simultaneously storing heat that on roofs and walls, the heat load is reduced and internal
can be used at a later time of day. The trombe wall temperatures are lower.
operates as a mass capable of storing heat from the sun
and then transferring it to the interior of the building, Air currents
mostly by convection, within an enclosed area from the
The proper positioning and configuration of the building
exterior system.
can enhance the flow or air currents, thus helping to keep
the temperatures around and inside the building cooler.
Attached sunroom
This works in a similar fashion to the trombe wall, External coatings
although the warm air is collected in the sunroom which,
The choice of external cladding material and the colour of
in turn, heats the wall mass.
a building can affect the absorption of heat. Therefore,
external coatings should be selected carefully.
The atrium
Glazed multilevel rooms in a building can serve as collec- Wind towers
tors of solar energy, which is especially effective in cold
Wind towers are simple structures that through differ-
climates.
ential pressure allow warm air to be passively extracted
from a building, allowing for cooler air to be drawn in
Passive cooling techniques from lower parts of a building. They can be used in
External shading devices reverse by funnelling in cool winds from the towers high
opening and forcing the warm air out through the lower
There are several methods of reducing heat gain in the
external openings.
summer, such as fixed projections or breeze soleil
(screens), or movable projections, such as awnings and
operable shutters. There are also several new materials
Solar chimney
that provide similar effects. A metal shaft on the south side of a building is used to
draw warm air out when external air currents are unavail-
able.
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 241

Internal gains control

Through the use of energy-efficient lighting and sunlight,
the heat gain inside a building can be considerably
reduced.

Natural lighting
There are many means of using natural daylight to illumi-
nate a building.

Artificial lighting
Low-efficiency artificial lights use more electricity than
high-efficiency artificial lights since low-efficiency lights
generate more heat in the interior of a building. Provision
must be made to use high-efficiency artificial lights.
Through the building design, it is important to make
maximum use of natural light during the daytime.
Figure 10.32 Building section showing the use of water
elements on roof surfaces Appliances and equipment
Most domestic appliances and equipment generate heat,
Ventilated wall and roof construction which is undesirable during the hot months. The surplus
heat from the appliances can be tapped during the cold
By providing a pocket of air between the inside and months and directed to boost interior temperatures, while
outside surfaces of a building, added insulation is it can also be ventilated to the exterior during the summer
provided. months.
Clerestories and roof vents Natural air cooling
These simple devices can allow direct sun access or venti- Air movement occurs naturally between areas of different
lation of internal spaces. pressure. When the difference in pressure is insufficient
to cause the air to move naturally, then mechanical means
Ground pipes may be used, preferably powered by renewable energy
Buried pipes can be used to pump latent energy from the sources. As the air moves and ventilates the interior of a
ground to cool a building. building, it drives away heat from the building and its
occupants. The following options will assist air to move
Roof configuration naturally and to ventilate a building:
Planted roofs Position openings to allow cross-ventilation.
Planted roofs are an ideal method of insulating a roof, Provide high-level openings to let rising hot air
although the extra load on the structure and the cost of escape outside.
insulation against water intrusion often outweighs their Place openings between indooroutdoor spaces of
benefits. This type of planting also aids in reducing the varying temperature levels, designed specifically as
ambient temperature of urban centres. cool areas (i.e. shaded areas with water elements or
ground cover plants) and generally design the interior
Roof water elements of a building so that it is viewed as a sequence of
spaces that facilitate air movement.
A roof spray or pond provides all of the benefits and
drawbacks of planting, although the roof cannot be used
as a habitable space.
242 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Synopsis An integrated design is a comprehensive approach:

This chapter clearly shows the complexity of energy that considers the many disparate parts
conservation in buildings as a result of using an integrated of a building project, and examines the inter-
approach. A multitude of factors have to be considered action between design, construction and
during the design process in order to achieve the operations to optimize the energy and
optimum cumulative results. The guidelines included in environmental performance of the project.
this chapter prove this point, rather than provide an exclu- The strength of this process is that all
sive list. The various factors that have to be considered relevant issues are considered simultane-
range from general issues to very specific issues that deal ously in order to solve them (Lopez Barnett
with minute details of materials and constructions. The and Browning, 1995, p100).
ultimate results, however, also depend upon the behav-
iour of the buildings users.

Note
1 The example of Curritiba, Brazil, is an excellent illus-
tration of rational planning with environmental
concerns in mind.

References
Chrisomallidou, N. (2001) Guidelines for integrating energy Olgyay, V. (1963) Design with Climate, Princeton University
conservation techniques in urban buildings, in Press, New Jersey
Santamouris, M. (ed) Energy and Climate in the Urban Roaf, S., Fuentes, M. and Thomas, S. (2001) Ecohouse: A
Environment, James & James, London, p247 Design Guide, Architectural Press, Oxford
Goulding, R. J., Lewis, J. O. and Steamers, C. T. (eds) (1993) Santamouris M. (ed) Energy and Climate in the Urban
Energy in Architecture: The European Passive Solar Environment, James & James, London
Handbook, B. T. Batsford Ltd, London Von Weizscker, E., Lovins, A. B. and Hunter Lovins, L. (1997)
Lopez Barnett, D. and Browning, D. W. (1995) A Primer on Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use,
Sustainable Building, Rocky Mountain Institute, Aspen, Earthscan Publications, London
Colorado Watson, D. and Labs, K. (1992) Climatic Buildings Design,
McGraw Hill Book Co., New York

Recommended reading
The following publications are recommended to the create a comprehensive frame of reference that
reader; each one provides an opportunity to expand on the inevitably captivates the focus of the designer. It is
issues and subjects dealt with in this chapter. essential background reading before indulging in the
1 Von Weizscker, E., Lovins, A. B. and Hunter Lovins, design process with the environment in mind.
L. (1997) Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving 2 Santamouris M. (ed) Energy and Climate in the Urban
Resource Use, Earthscan Publications, London Environment, James & James, London
Design is a process of invention. To invent, one has to This book comprises a detailed analysis of a whole
be in the right frame of mind. The information and range of issues regarding the built environment. A
analysis of various examples regarding energy conser- useful set of specific environmental references are
vation in the built environment contained in this book included.
 GUIDELINES TO INTEGRATE ENERGY CONSERVATION 243

Activities
Activity 1 north latitude. Each is of similar size, price and location;
but one is northsouth facing and the other is eastwest
Show, through a rough sketch, at least two alternative
facing. Which of the two would you advise him to
solutions to how one might, during the summer months,
develop?
allow south daylight into a building without permitting
solar heat gain.
Activity 3
Activity 2 Describe at least two alternative ways of utilizing solar
energy to heat spaces in cold climates.
A developer has an option to build on two sites between
two existing buildings in a city located in a 40-degree
244 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 Activity 3
By using dedicious trees to shade a building, direct 1 Trombe wall: the solar heat is stored in the mass of the
sunlight is filtered, while ambient skylight is also permit- wall. The cold air in the building is warmed by the
ted to pass through the buildings openings. mass and transferred mechanically throughout the day
In addition, by placing horizontal louvers on a build- and night into the living spaces.
ing, direct sunlight is transformed into reflected light. 2 Direct gain through windows, clerestories or skylights
provides another option.
Activity 2 3 The atrium: a glass-covered interior space stores
radiant heat from the sun. If a multi-storey building is
A northsouth-facing site would be most advantageous
involved, the heat rising into the uppermost parts of
because it is easy to control the suns rays on the south-
the volume can be mechanically transferred to other
facing faade with horizontal louvers. The north faade is
parts of the building.
naturally protected from the sun. The eastwest-facing
site has problems due to the low level of the sun in the
morning and the afternoon, thus requiring vertical louvers
which can block the views from the building.
11
Indoor Air Quality
Vassilios Geros

Scope of the chapter Introduction

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is an important parameter in IAQ is an important parameter that characterizes the
buildings, strongly related to the health of the occupants indoor environment and is strongly related to the health
and therefore to their comfort. The aim of this chapter is of a buildings occupants. Additionally, the operation of
to discuss the important role of IAQ and to present the the ventilation system of a building is also important,
ventilation systems and strategies that can be applied in since the primary role of ventilation is to improve the
urban buildings. Additionally, the chapter includes the buildings indoor climate. Therefore, the performance of
requirement levels and the national standards of various the ventilation system directly determines the IAQ of an
pollutants and the procedures that can be used in order indoor space. Furthermore, the air flows and paths
to evaluate the IAQ parameter. inside the building have an important influence on the
thermal comfort of the occupants, especially during the
summer season. The impact of ventilation on the energy
Learning objectives performance of the building is also crucial because when
the outdoor/fresh air supply is increased, the cooling and
Upon completing a study of this chapter, readers will able
heating energy requirements are also increased when
to:
the cooling/heating system is operating. On the other
hand, there are energy conservation strategies, such as
understand various aspects related to indoor air
free cooling operation, that reduce the cooling load of
quality;
the building by increasing the amount of outdoor air that
be familiar with the various indoor and outdoor
is handled by the ventilation system. Therefore, it is
sources and the relevant air pollutants;
important to appropriately design and operate the venti-
know the international standards for IAQ;
lation system by taking into account the specific
understand the mechanisms for controlling indoor
characteristics of the urban microclimate (such as wind
and outdoor pollutants;
speed and direction, air temperature, pollutant concen-
be familiar with various calculation models that
tration, etc.) in order to ensure the optimal performance
concern IAQ.
of this system.
The content of this chapter includes building-related
Key words illnesses, presentation of the main indoor and outdoor
pollutant sources, their main sources (including
Key words include: occupants, material emissions, etc.), the role of ventila-
tion and the techniques/strategies that should be adopted
indoor air quality (IAQ); in order to improve IAQ, the standards for IAQ and,
sick building syndrome (SBS); finally, some simple calculation procedures.
air pollutants;
ventilation;
IAQ calculation models.
246 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Indoor air quality The occupants of the building complain of lethargy,

headaches, difficulty in concentrating, runny nose,
In modern societies, people spend close to 90 per cent of dry throat, eye and skin irritation, dizziness and
their time indoors. It is therefore very important to ensure nausea, and sensitivity to odours.
the quality of the indoor environment by taking into The cause of the symptoms is unknown.
account parameters such as thermal and visual comfort, Symptoms frequently disappear soon after leaving the
without ignoring factors that concern the quality of the building.
air. The use of various ventilation techniques and strate-
gies for ventilating indoor spaces, in order to increase the When the term building-related illness (BRI) is used, then
indoor air quality by replacing the indoor with outdoor the symptoms concern diagnosable illness and can be
air, has been in existence since humans brought fire into attributed directly to contaminants of the indoor air. A
their caves and used an opening at the top of the caves to BRI situation refers to the following aspects:
reduce harmful contaminants. Of course, the outdoor
environment in big cities is also polluted; but it is a fact Building occupants complain of symptoms such as
that frequently the air within buildings can be more cough, chest tightness, fever, chills and muscle aches.
seriously polluted than the outdoor air (sometimes even The symptoms can be clinically defined and have
in the largest and most industrialized cities). Therefore, clearly identifiable causes.
the risk to health may be greater when people are exposed Complainants may require prolonged recovery times
to indoor air pollution. In 1984 the World Health after leaving the building.
Organization concluded that up to 30 per cent of new and
remodelled buildings worldwide might be the subject of Of course, these complaints may result from other causes
excessive complaints related to IAQ. that are not related to IAQ. For example, symptoms may
The use of increased ventilation rates, on the other be linked with illnesses contracted outside the building,
hand is, in most cases, in opposition to energy efficiency acute sensitivity (e.g. allergies), job-related stress or
as the fresh air energy load can be an important part of dissatisfaction or other psychosocial factors. However, it
the whole buildings energy consumption. Therefore, it is is possible that symptoms are caused or exacerbated by
important to control the ventilation rates in a building by indoor air quality problems.
achieving, at the same time, acceptable levels of IAQ. Every building has a number of potential sources of
Frequently, problems related to IAQ appear when a build- indoor air contaminants. Some of them are continuously
ing is operated, managed or maintained in a way that is emitted, such as building materials and furnishing, while
not in accordance with its original design or the appropri- others, such as cooking, smoking and the use of solvents,
ate operating procedures. Of course, IAQ problems can paints and cleaning products release contaminants inter-
also be a result of poor building design or occupant activ- mittently. Grouped by origin, the most important sources
ities. of pollutants are:

Human and animal metabolism: there is an association

Sick building syndrome and building- between oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide
related illness (CO2) release that occurs due to human and animal
metabolism. In addition to CO2, some volatile organic
The quality of indoor air plays an important role in the
compounds (VOCs) are also produced by this process.
health of a buildings occupants. There are two general
Generally, metabolic gases can lead to air quality and
categories of diseases that are connected with IAQ. The
odour problem; but health hazards occur only at high
first one, called sick building syndrome (SBS), concerns
concentrations. In this case, the ventilation require-
situations in which the buildings occupants experience
ments are usually low.
acute health and/or discomfort effects that are apparently
Occupant activities: the air quality of an indoor space
related to time spent in a building, and it is not possible
is strongly related to the use of the space and, of
to determine any specific illness or cause. The problems
course, the occupant activities. For example, activi-
may be localized in one or more specific rooms or areas,
ties such as smoking, cooking and cleaning directly
or may extend to the whole building. But, in any case, the
affect IAQ and can contribute to an increase in the
symptoms are not diagnosable and may correspond to the
concentration of various pollutants.
following indicators:
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 247

Building materials and equipment: building materials woodstoves, fireplaces and gas stoves can emit carbon
and equipment are also important sources of pollu- monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and respirable particles,
tants. Carpets, furniture, paints, varnishes, etc., are which are combustion products. Generally, the construc-
emitters of pollutants and, depending upon their tion of the building as well as the use and the activities
chemical composition, can have a significant effect on that take place in the indoor environment can seriously
IAQ levels. The use of low-emitting materials can lead affect the IAQ levels.
to a reduction in the ventilation requirement and,
therefore, the energy consumption of the building. Outdoor contaminants
The role of the ventilation system is to introduce outdoor
Many factors can cause and/or contribute to sick building
air into the building in order to replace a part (in most
syndrome; the most common are listed below.
cases) of the indoor air and increase the IAQ levels. The
introduction of outdoor air can occur through natural
Ventilation system means (natural ventilation: e.g. single-sided or cross-
The airflow rates of the ventilation system are strongly ventilation) or through mechanical means (mechanical
related to IAQ. When reduced ventilation rates are used, ventilation: use of supply and/or exhaust fans and/or
IAQ levels may be inadequate to maintain the health and duckwork). In this case, the outdoor air that enters a
comfort of a buildings occupants. The effective or building can be a source of indoor air pollution as it trans-
ineffective distribution of the air inside the building by fers outdoor contaminants. For example, if the ventilation
the Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system has a poorly located intake ventilator, windows or
system is another factor in SBS. Isolated spaces in a other openings, pollutants from motor vehicle exhausts,
building, where the air of the ventilation system cannot plumbing ventilators and building exhausts (e.g.
reach, may have serious problems from the IAQ point of bathrooms and kitchens) can enter the building.
view. According to the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers Biological contaminants
(ASHRAE), the minimum requirements are 27 to 30m3
This kind of contaminant includes bacteria, moulds,
per hour of outdoor air per person (close to 36m3 per
pollen and viruses. These contaminants may breed in
hour per person in office buildings). In addition, if
stagnant water that has accumulated in ducts, humidi-
smoking is allowed (i.e. increased production of indoor
fiers and drain pans, or where water has collected on
contaminants), the minimum requirements are close to
ceiling tiles, carpeting or insulation. It is also possible for
110 cubic metres per hour per person. Generally, the rate
insects or bird droppings to be a source of biological
of the outdoor air depends upon the activities that
contaminants. Legionnaires disease and Pontiac fever
normally occur in that space (see ASHRAE Standard 62,
are caused by one indoor bacterium named Legionella.
1989). And, of course, the maintenance of the duct and
Some of the physical symptoms related to biological
filtration systems are also important factors that can
contamination may include coughing, chest tightness,
increase or reduce IAQ levels.
fever, chills, muscle aches and allergic responses such as
mucous membrane irritation and upper respiratory
Indoor contaminants congestion.
Generally, the majority of the indoor air pollutants come Research shows that ventilation (by introducing
from sources located inside the building. For example, outdoor air indoors) as a measure of maintaining satisfac-
VOCs, including formaldehyde, may be emitted by tory IAQ levels represents only one aspect of a very
adhesives, carpeting, upholstery, manufactured wood complex problem. The previous mentioned elements may
products, copy machines and various other mediums. act in combination and may supplement other complaints,
Also, tobacco smoke increases the levels of VOCs, other such as inadequate temperature, humidity or lighting.
toxic compounds and respirable particulate matter. The Nevertheless, it seems that ventilation has, in these
effect of high concentrations of VOCs can be to cause problems, a more significant role when ventilation rates
chronic and acute health problems, and some are known are very low (a fact that also decreases employee produc-
carcinogens. When the concentration levels of VOCs are tivity). But it is also important that even after a building
low to medium this may also produce acute reactions. In investigation, the specific causes of the complaints may
addition, unvented kerosene and gas space heaters, remain unknown.
248 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Indoor air quality design Some of the actions that can be undertaken to resolve
indoor air quality problems are:
Building investigation procedures
routine maintenance of HVAC systems;
A building investigation procedure is necessary in order periodic cleaning or replacement of filters;
to identify and solve complaints related to indoor air replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpet-
quality issues by preventing them from recurring and by ing;
avoiding additional problems. A first and important phase institution of smoking restrictions;
of the investigation process is to discover if each of the venting contaminant source emissions to the
complaints is related to indoor air quality or if the source outdoors;
of the problem is different. A second phase requires the storage and use of paints, adhesives, solvents and
identification of the source that causes the complaint(s); pesticides in well-ventilated areas;
finally, the investigator should determine the most appro- use of these pollutant sources during periods of non-
priate actions to correct the problems. Typically, the occupancy;
investigation procedure begins with a walk through the allowing time for building materials in new or
building or the area where IAQ problems are presented renovated areas to off-gas pollutants before
in order to gather information about four basic factors: the occupancy.
occupants, the HVAC system, the possible pollutant
pathways and the possible contaminant sources. Of course, the simplest solution (supposing that the
The walkthrough audit should collect information maintenance of ventilation system is as it should be) is to
that concerns the history of the building and the reported increase the outdoor air ventilation rates, and this action
complaints, as well as the HVAC zones and the complaint can often be a cost-effective means of reducing indoor
areas. This audit involves visual inspection of critical pollutant levels. HVAC systems should be designed, at
building areas and consultation with occupants. During least to meet ventilation standards, according to local
the initial walkthrough, the investigator can develop some building codes. Nevertheless, there are HVAC systems
possible explanations for the complaints by using the that are not operated or maintained properly, and there-
gathered information in order to formulate a possible fore the design ventilation rates are not ensured. To
solution. In a second step, he/she can test the solution and achieve adequate IAQ levels, the HVAC system should
examine whether the problem can be solved. be operated at least to meet the design standards; this is
In the case where the collected information from the very often sufficient to ensure the quality of the indoor
walkthrough audit is insufficient to formulate a possible air. When there are important pollutant sources, the local
solution, or if a tested solution failed to solve the problem, ventilation system, if it exists, can be used to expel the
the investigator should collect additional information in exhaust-contaminated air into the outdoor environment.
order to define a new or alternative solution. In this kind The use of various filters and/or devices for air clean-
of approach the whole procedure of formulating solutions, ing can be a suitable solution but presents certain
testing and evaluating them continues until the final limitations. For example, the use of a typical furnace filter
solution is achieved. (an inexpensive particle-control device) cannot effectively
Another approach concerns air sampling for contami- capture small particles. Additionally, mechanical filters
nants in order to identify the contaminant that causes the cannot remove gaseous pollutants. On the other hand,
complaints; but sometimes it is quite difficult to determine high-performance air filters can capture small inhalable
exactly the source of the problem. This approach can particles; but they are relatively expensive to install and
include the measurement of parameters such as tempera- operate. Moreover, adsorbent beds can be used to remove
ture, relative humidity, CO2 and air movement that may some specific gaseous pollutants; but these devices are
determine the conditions of the building or the area. But, also expensive and require frequent replacement of the
in this case, sampling for specific pollutant concentrations, absorption material.
without understanding how the building operates and the Finally, another important issue is the education of
nature of the complaints, can be misleading. The experi- the occupants, management and maintenance personnel,
mental measurement of various parameters and the as well as the well-organized communication between the
sampling strategy should be performed when the investi- involved actors. The avoidance of IAQ problems can be
gator has collected all of the necessary information and achieved if these actors understand the causes and conse-
clearly understands the operation of the building. quences of IAQ problems and work more effectively
together.
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 249

Box 11.1 DETERMINING IAQ DESIGN TARGETS

Determine the overall purpose, as well as the IAQ required levels.
Identify what the client accepts to do in order to achieve good IAQ (this can help to establish the IAQ goals).
Determine the wishes of the client concerning the IAQ levels (standard, above average, outstanding).
Identify the indoor environmental quality concerns of the client.
 Reduce occupants sick building syndrome symptoms.
 Reduce occupants absenteeism.
 Reduce occupants odour-related complaints.
 Reduce occupants allergic or asthmatic complaints.
 Reduce health risks related to Legionnaires disease and Pontiac fever, colds and flu, and hypersensitivity
pneumonitis.
Determine the participation of the client in the planning and design process.
Identify the spaces that require special protection for good IAQ.
Determine any sensitive populations who occupy the building. In this case, the spaces that occupy and/or
access the occupation periods (e.g. visitors or permanent occupants) and the characteristics and the require-
ments of this kind of population should be identified.
Identify the spaces that are possible sources of contaminants.
Record the functions that are performed in these spaces (major and routine activities, potential pollutant
emissions from materials, equipment and processes).
List suspicious materials, from the IAQ point of view, or any other pollutant sources that may be brought
from outside into the building.
List dangerous or toxic chemicals that may be brought into the building.
Identify spaces or areas of the building where outdoor pollutant sources can be brought in.

BOX 11.2 IDENTIFYING SITE CHARACTERISTICS BOX 11.3 DETERMINING THE OVERALL APPROACH
RELATED TO IAQ RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Determine the preferable locations for outdoor air Define the ventilation system (fully mechanical,
intakes and air cleaning and filtration, and sched- hybrid system, fully natural).
ule the operation of the relevant systems Identify the distribution system.
according to short-term outdoor air pollutant Identify the return and exhaust parts of the ventila-
concentration peaks (e.g. heavy traffic periods). tion system.
Survey any industrial or commercial activities Determine the link between the cooling/heating
nearby that might be sources of pollutant system and ventilation system.
emissions (manufacturing, waste handling, dry Describe the occupant-level controls that concern
cleaning, food preparation, etc.). the regulation of the thermal conditions, as well as
Survey any potential sources of contaminants other environmental parameters (e.g. noise levels).
related to soil or groundwater.
Determine the prevailing wind conditions in the
building location. Process of a good IAQ design
Determine traffic patterns.
Determine the local ambient air quality. This part of the chapter describes a sequence of phases
and questions that can be followed or answered during a
typical IAQ design project. In the following boxes, the
main steps of such a design project are presented in bullet
format (Spengler et al, 2000).
250 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

BOX 11.4 DESCRIBING THE BUILDING BOX 11.7 IDENTIFYING TARGET MATERIALS FOR IAQ
EVALUATION
Identify the general building massing, layout and
exterior openings. Select the building materials that are important
Describe the ventilation system flows, equipment for IAQ issues.
locations, and the location of major pollutant Identify the building materials that are not
sources, the exhausts from the ventilation system, concrete, masonry, metal, stone tile or glass.
cooling towers, outlets of combustion exhausts, Analyse the area and mass of major materials per
etc. unit of volume in each zone of the building in
Identify how the air is supplied to occupants. order to determine the materials with the most
Identify the outdoor pollutant sources (including extended use, the largest interior total surface
sources such as drift from cooling towers, exhaust area and the greatest mass.
air from toilets, kitchens, biological/chemical Identify the target materials (including dry and
hoods, etc.). wet products) and estimate the impact that
Identify the location of the air intakes (HVAC emissions from these materials have on indoor
system, doors, windows, etc.) relevant to outdoor concentrations (by multiplying the emission factor
pollutant sources. by the areas or masses).
Identify the location of the mechanical ventilation
equipment.
Describe the control of the ventilation system in
various levels (user level, zone level, building level, BOX 11.8 IDENTIFYING THE CHEMICAL CONTENT
etc.). AND EMISSIONS OF THE TARGET MATERIALS
Acquire the product sheets and the volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) emission tests for dry
products and chemical contents lists for wet
BOX 11.5 DESCRIBING THE BUILDING products.
MATERIALS
Determine if composites of wood products are
Describe the dominant materials and their proper- extensively used and if low-emitting products have
ties related to IAQ (e.g. use of low-emitting been used.
materials). Examine if wood products are isolated from
Determine the necessary cleaning materials (toxic, indoor air (e.g. sealed, laminated, etc.).
non-toxic) for walls and floors. Examine if the use of wet products can be reduced.
Determine the maintenance requirements of the
floor-covering materials (wooden floors, carpets,
etc.).
BOX 11.9 IDENTIFYING THE CLEANING AND MAINTE-
NANCE REQUIREMENTS
Examine the cleaning and maintenance chemical
BOX 11.6 DETERMINING VENTILATION SYSTEM products that are used on major surface areas
OPTIONS AND EVALUATION
(walls, floors, ceilings) and identify the chemical
Conduct a box model analysis in order to investi- composition of these products.
gate the various alternatives and describe a set of
best alternative scenarios.
Evaluate various options that concern the ventila-
tion system, such as user-level control of the
ventilation, options concerning energy efficiency
and improved IAQ, and the use of natural or
passive ventilation techniques, as well as heat
recovery systems and displacement ventilation.
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 251

BOX 11.10 REVIEWING CHEMICAL DATA FOR BOX 11.14 VENTILATION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
THE PRESENCE OF STRONG ODORANTS, IRRITANTS,
Determine the required outdoor air under full- and
ACUTE TOXINS AND GENETIC TOXINS
part-load operation conditions.
Examine the chemicals that are emitted at impor- Identify the locations of the outdoor air intake.
tant rates by using specific databases that include Identify the filters required (type, efficiency, instal-
information on the chemical properties (odour, lation/operation/maintenance guidelines).
irritation and toxicity) of various products. Determine the air-cleaning specifications if the
outdoor air quality levels are low.
Identify the return air system requirements.
Determine the air distribution system characteris-
BOX 11.11 CALCULATING THE CONCENTRATION OF tics under heating/cooling full- and part-load
DOMINANT EMISSIONS operation in order to ensure the compatibility with
the IAQ standards.
Use an indoor air model to calculate emissions of Identify monitored variables, sensor positions,
worst-case chemicals during a 24-hour period and alerts, calculation procedures and operation
over 30 days for each zone of the building and requirements if IAQ issues are to be integrated
examine which of the pollution sources have the within a building management system (BMS).
greatest impact on IAQ.

Indoor pollutants and pollutant sources

BOX 11.12 COMPARING THE CALCULATED CONCEN-
TRATIONS WITH IAQ REQUIREMENTS
Indoor pollutants result both from outdoor and indoor
sources. Furthermore, indoor pollutants may have a
Use the IAQ standards in order to determine the natural origin or may result from occupant activities. Of
criteria concentrations. course, air pollutant sources may differ from one building
Compare the calculated concentration of each to another, according to building design, the building
zone of the building against the criteria concentra- construction, the location of the building, the occupants
tions in order to evaluate the levels of various activities, etc.
contaminants. Indoor sources may comprise construction materials
and furnishings that release contaminants more or less
continuously. In most cases, the sources that are related
to the occupants activities release contaminants intermit-
BOX 11.13 SELECTING PRODUCTS AND DETERMIN- tently. Some of the occupants activities that influence
ING INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS IAQ include smoking, cooking and using paint and clean-
ing products. The presence or not of a ventilation system,
Determine the specifications concerning the acqui-
as well as its operation, strongly affects the concentration
sition, storage, transportation, handling and
of the pollutants in the indoor environment.
installation of the selected products, primarily in
In the urban environment, outdoor sources present a
the case of buildings under construction.
particular importance since they can affect the quality of
Determine which products should be replaced
the air that enters the building. Of course, the ventilation
and/or isolated from the indoor air, including the
system can control, to a certain degree, the quality of the
procedures described in the previous point, in the
outdoor air that enters the building through the fresh air
case of existing buildings.
(e.g. by using filters); but in naturally ventilated buildings,
air cleaning is ineffective. The major outdoor sources
concern the following:

Industrial emissions (local or distant) can be responsi-

ble for high concentrations of oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur, ozone, lead, volatile organic compounds,
smoke, particles and fibres. These polluting effects
252 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

depend upon specific climatic conditions, especially very volatile (gaseous) compounds (boiling point:
in urban areas where the influence of effects such as < 0 to 50100 Celsius);
heat island effect and/or airflow distribution around volatile organic compounds (boiling point: 50100
the buildings is very important. Celsius to 240260 Celsius);
Traffic pollution is another important source in urban semi-volatile organic compounds (boiling point:
areas and concerns a major part of the outdoor pollu- 240260 Celsius to 380400 Celsius);
tion close to streets, tunnels and parking areas. Some organic compounds associated with particulate matter
of the major pollutants due to traffic are carbon or particulate organic matter (boiling point: > 380
monoxide and dioxide, carbon dust, lead and oxides Celsius).
of nitrogen.
Soil-borne sources of pollutants in the vicinity of the There are three main categories of VOCs:
building may include radon (a naturally occurring
radioactive gas), methane (a product of organic decay) 1 Halogenated compounds: these compounds are, in
and moisture. general, hydrocarbons with one or more halogens,
Nearby sources may involve combustion emissions usually chlorine. They can be found in products such
from neighbouring buildings or installations, extract as degreasers, cleaning agents and propellants in
ventilation systems close to air supply intakes, etc. aerosol-type products. Long-term exposure to
halogenated hydrocarbons may cause cardiac arrhyth-
Generally, some sources of pollutants may be common in mias, affect kidney and liver functions, damage the
all types of buildings; but the design, air handling systems nervous system and affect the reproductive system.
and occupants activities influence the pollutant concen- Some of them are known or are suspected to be
trations, and this is the reason that some pollutant sources human carcinogens.
can be more dominant than others. In the following 2 Aromatic compounds: these are, for example, substi-
paragraphs most important pollutants are presented, tute benzene rings. The basic aromatic VOCs are
grouped by source of origin. benzene (constituent in fuels, emitted as a combus-
tion by-product) toluene and xylene (major
Synthetic organic compounds components of adhesives, spray paints, art supplies,
etc.) and styrene (constituent of tobacco smoke).
The use of synthetic chemical compounds has increased
Acute effects of exposure to aromatic VOCs include
during the last few decades, and various products exist as
upper respiratory system irritation, eye irritation,
a result of organic chemistry.
headaches and fatigue. Long-term exposure may
cause central nervous system damage and cancer.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 3 Aliphatic compounds: these can be short, straight
The term volatile organic compounds refers to carbon- chain compounds containing carbon and hydrogen,
containing chemicals that participate in photochemical hydroxyl or carbonyl functional groups (alcohols and
reactions in the ambient air. They are organic compounds aldehydes) or formaldehyde. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
that can be found in the vapour phase at ambient temper- are components of gasoline and other fuels and they
atures. VOCs have various sources related to building can be used as solvents. Formaldehyde is a colourless
materials, such as paint, solvents, fuel storage, carpeting, gas with a characteristic pungent odour. Indoor
adhesives, motor vehicles, tobacco smoke, toiletries and sources of formaldehyde can be adhesives used in
cosmetics, and cleaning supplies. Generally, they are building materials, insulation materials, tobacco
produced when certain products are consumed. Studies smoke and combustion appliances. Indoor formalde-
show that indoor concentrations of most VOCs are two to hyde concentration is generally higher than outdoor,
ten times higher than outdoor ones. They are measured especially in new buildings with extensive use of
by using sampling and analysis methods and the sum of particleboards. Symptoms of formaldehyde exposure
all measurements is referred as TVOCs (total volatile include respiratory and eye irritation, headache,
organic compounds). nausea and fatigue. Formaldehyde is also a known
The World Health Organization (WHO) classification sensitizer (someone exposed to a high dose can
system defines VOCs as organic compounds that are become sensitive to lower doses).
divided into four categories according to their boiling
point as follows:
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 253

Pesticides Table 11.1 CO2 production rate for various activities

Pesticides are, in general, chemicals that have different Activity Metabolic rate (W) CO2 production rate (l/s)
modes of action and are used to control, keep away or Sedentary work 100 0.004
eliminate pests. They are sub-classified according to their Light work 150300 0.0060.012
action into many classes. There are close to 600 different Moderate work 300500 0.0120.020
pesticides and more than 45,000 formulations. Pesticides Heavy work 500650 0.0200.026
Very heavy work 650800 0.0260.032
may include inorganic compounds (such as salts of
arsenic, sulphur and chlorine), organo-chlorine com-
pounds, organo-phosphorus compounds and pyrethroids.
Generally, pesticides are used in agriculture; but a major ing gas cooking and heating appliances, wood stoves and
indoor use involves pest control (e.g. in wood-frame emissions from garages attached to homes. CO2 is also a
buildings). Exposure to pesticides can be through inhala- colourless and odourless gas, which forms part of the
tion (e.g. airborne pesticides during the application of the atmosphere of the Earth. CO2 is not generally considered
product), by dermal absorption and by ingestion. a toxic gas; but in high concentrations it affects breathing.
Pesticides affect the nervous system, the liver and Indoor sources of CO2 are associated with the presence
may cause cancer. Symptoms may include fatigue, loss of of people (emission through breathing; see Table 11.1);
appetite, nausea and headaches. therefore, the monitoring of CO2 concentrations is impor-
tant for ventilation studies.
Combustion products
Combustion particulate matter
Combustion products are produced during the burning
process of any fuel, including tobacco. They are a mixture Generally, the particles of indoor combustion products are
of gaseous and particulate materials. Water vapour and small (diameter less than 10m) and are, therefore,
carbon dioxide (CO2) are the two major products emitted breathable. In addition, various chemical compounds are
by burning organic fuels in any state (solid, liquid or absorbed within them and can cause damage to people
gaseous). Generally, the most important pollutants exposed to them.
emitted during the combustion process include carbon
oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. This pollutant concerns the combination of smoke
Symptoms of exposure to combustion pollutants breathed out by active smokers (mainstream smoke) and
include respiratory and eye irritation, while long-term the smoke that is released directly from the burning end
exposure can cause serious illnesses, such as heart and of the cigarette (side-stream smoke). In general, the
lung diseases. exposures of involuntary and active smoking differ quanti-
tatively and qualitatively. Tobacco smoke consists of
Oxides of nitrogen thousands of chemical components and in the indoor
The main anthropogenic sources of NOx production are environment increases the levels of respirable particles,
the combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and vehicle fuel, nicotine, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon
and therefore NOx can have both indoor and outdoor monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and many other substances.
sources. For NO2, the rate of production is related to the
amount of oxygen, the f lame temperature and the rate of Heavy metals
cooling of the combustion products.
Sources of heavy metals occur both indoors and outdoors.
These pollutants include lead and mercury, which can be
Oxides of carbon found in paint products and leaded gasoline. When the
CO and CO2 are produced, indoors and outdoor, when sources are outdoors, such as contaminated soil and dust,
carbonaceous material is burned in the presence of foot traffic can increase the levels of these contaminants
oxygen. Carbon monoxide, which is a colourless and in the indoor environment. Heavy metals affect the
odourless toxic gas, is produced by incomplete combus- nervous system and can lead to foetotoxicity, teratogenic-
tion of any carbonaceous fuel containing carbon. CO ity and mutagenicity. Long-term exposure can increase
outdoor sources include vehicle and industrial emissions. blood pressure and can affect the kidneys and the nervous
Major indoor CO sources include unvented/malfunction- system.
254 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Bio-aerosol contaminants the lungs to infections and increase responsiveness to

allergens and other air pollutants.
Bio-aerosols are airborne particulates composed of, or
originating from, living organisms. They can include
micro-organisms, fragments, toxins and waste products of International standards of indoor
living organisms. The sources of bio-aerosols are the air quality
outdoor and the indoor environment, as well as the
occupants and the building. Outdoor sources include There are many organizations that determine specific
fungi, bacteria and plant pollen. Occupants can also be levels for the presence of contaminants that are related to
sources of bacteria and viruses. Concerning the building- indoor air quality. There are also various national regula-
related sources, HVAC systems can support the growth of tions that determine certain standards, primarily
fungi and bacteria, especially the components of these concerning the concentration of pollutants in the indoor
systems that have increased levels of humidity (e.g. environment.
cooling towers, humidifiers, cooling coils and air filters). In general, national and international standards
Furthermore, elements such as wet carpets, various build- recognize almost the same physical or chemical impuri-
ing materials and furnishings can be sources of ties as pollutants that can cause a potential health risk in a
microbiological growth. In general, outdoor bio-aerosols buildings occupants. Furthermore, a group of six pollu-
cannot be controlled and therefore one should prevent tants called criteria pollutants are used as an indicator of
their entrance into the indoor environment. Chronic indoor air quality, and comprise carbon monoxide, nitro-
exposure can lead to permanent lung damage, hypersen- gen dioxide, ozone, lead, particulate matter and sulphur
sitivity pneumonitis, humidifier fever and asthma. dioxide. Of course, there are many more pollutants that
Legionnaires disease (caused by a bacterium called are harmful to human health than these six criteria pollu-
Legionella pneumophilia found in cooling towers, evapo- tants; but these concern the outdoor air used for
rative condensers and other warm water systems) and ventilation indoors. Another approach is defined in
Pontiac fever (associated with exposure to airborne Standard 62 of ASHRAE, which defines acceptable
Legionella) are also diseases related to bio-aerosols. indoor air as air in which there are no known contami-
nants at harmful concentrations as determined by
Respirable particles cognizant authorities and with which a substantial major-
ity (80 per cent or more) of the people exposed do not
Respirable particles (dust) are less than 10m in aerody-
express dissatisfaction.
namic diameter. In the indoor environment, sources of
In Tables 11.211.8, reviews of international
respirable particles are unvented or malfunctioning
standards for indoor air quality are presented (the
combustion appliances, smoking, cooking, house dust,
research was performed by the International Energy
aerosol sprays and fibreglass insulation. Exposure to
Agency). Three main indices are highlighted:
respirable particles is associated with respiratory
illnesses, bronchoconstriction and aggravation of
the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) in the
symptoms in asthma patients. Chronic exposure may lead
work space for an eight-hour period;
to illnesses such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Table 11.2 International standards for CO2 concentration
Ozone levels
Ozone is mainly a secondary outdoor pollutant that is Country MAC (parts per Peak limit AIC (parts per
formed from a mixture of VOCs and NOx exposed to million) (parts per million) million)
sunlight. Ozone concentration has a direct dependence on
Canada 5000 10003500
sunlight intensity and the ratio of NO2 to NO. Therefore, Germany 5000 2 x MAC 10001500
ozone concentrations have a strong peak during daylight Finland 5000 5000 2500
hours. In general, high concentrations are found close to Italy 1500
large cities. Of course, ozone affects the occupants of a The Netherlands 5000 15,000 10001500
building through the ventilation system and infiltration Norway 5000 MAC + 25%
only when the outdoor concentration exceeds the health Sweden 5000 10,000
standards. But ozone is also a strong oxidant, reacting Switzerland 5000 10001500
UK 5000 15,000
rapidly with gases and readily decomposing by reaction at
surfaces. Inhaling ozone can increase the susceptibility of Source: WHO, 1984; Santamouris, 2001
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 255

Table 11.3 CO concentration levels for various areas

Area Concentration range
(parts per million)
Natural base level 0.0440.087
Rural areas 0.1750.435
Industrial areas 0.871.75
Downtown levels up to 40

Source: WHO, 1984; Santamouris, 2001

Table 11.4 International standards for CO concentration levels

Country MAC Peak limit ME value AIC
(parts per million) (parts per million) (parts per million) (parts per million)
Canada 50 400 9
Germany 30 2 x MAC 843 118
Finland 30 75 8.726
Italy 30
The Netherlands 25 120 8.735
Norway 35 +50%
Sweden 35 100 12
Switzerland 30 7
UK 50 400

Source: WHO, 1984; Santamouris, 2001

the maximum environmental (ME) value; Modelling indoor pollutants

the acceptable indoor concentration (AIC):, a thresh-
old value of concentration below which the negative Modelling indoor pollutants can be very effective for the
health effects are insignificant or at least tolerable. study of indoor air quality. The main result of these
models concerns the prediction of pollutant concentra-
Table 11.2 presents the carbon dioxide-related standards tion. Therefore, it is easy to evaluate the occupants
for various countries. exposure to various indoor pollutants, even before the
Table 11.3 presents the recommended higher concen- construction of the building. In addition, by using this
tration ranges for carbon monoxide according to the area. kind of model, it is easy to study various control strategies
Table 11.4 summarizes the carbon monoxide require- of various systems, such as the ventilation system, and
ments for various countries. evaluate their efficiency.
Table 11.5 presents the values for nitrogen dioxide. In general, there are two categories of models: steady
Finally, Table 11.6 gives the national standards for state and unsteady state. The first category concerns the
various countries for formaldehyde (HCHO). simplest approach to the problem and does not consider
A review of the standards of organizations such as the the time variation of parameters such as the concentra-
World Health Organization and the US Environmental tion of indoor and outdoor pollutants, ventilation flows,
Protection Agency (USEPA) is presented for five of the etc. The unsteady state category of models is more
six criteria pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, complex and takes into account the time variation of time-
ozone, lead and sulphur dioxide) in Table 11.7. Table 11.8 dependent parameters.
presents the US National Ambient Air Quality Standards Generally, steady-state models consider the air in the
(NAAQS) for all six pollutants. zone or the room that is studied to be well mixed. That
means that the supply air is well mixed with the air in the
zone. Certainly, this is not exactly the real situation since
a certain amount of supply air bypasses the zone (with no
mixture with the air in the zone) and is removed from the
zone. A parameter that increases the efficiency of these
mathematical models is the ventilation efficiency which
256 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 11.5 International standards for NO2 concentration levels

Country MAC Peak limit ME value AIC
(parts per million) (parts per million) (parts per million) (parts per million)
Canada 3 5 0.3 (office)
0.052 (homes)
Germany 5 2 x MAC 0.050.1
Finland 3 6 0.08 (daily average)
0.16 (hourly average)
The Netherlands 2 0.080.16
Sweden 2 5 0.150.2
Switzerland 3 0.0150.04
UK 3 5

Source: WHO, 1984; Santamouris, 2001

Table 11.6 International standards for formaldehyde (HCHO) concentration levels

Country MAC (parts per Peak limit AIC (parts per
million) (parts per million) million)
Canada 1 2 0.1
Germany 1 2 x MAC 0.1
Finland 1 0.12 (new buildings) 0.24 (existing buildings)
The Netherlands 1 2 0.1
Norway 1 +100%
Sweden 0.5 1 0.010.1
Switzerland 1 0.2
UK 2 2

Source: WHO, 1984; Santamouris, 2001

determines the amount of supply air that actually accesses SR

the occupied part of the zone. Ci = Co + (2)
Q
Steady-state models where R is the pollutant sink.
The simplest approach concerns the box model which
considers a room that is well mixed and not pressurized Equations 1 and 2 are valid only for systems without
with one inlet and one outlet. It is important that, in this return air, which means that 100 per cent of outdoor air is
case, no return air is considered (see Figure 11.1). supplied into the room. In the case where recirculation
By taking into account a mass-balance equation and occurs and a filtration device is installed, the previous
the fact that the same amount of air enters and exits the equations become more complex. When a filter is
zone, the following equations describe the problem and installed in the return air channel (see Figure 11.2), the
calculate the indoor pollutant concentration in air (Ci): next equations describe the problem and calculate the
pollutant concentration in the room:
S
Q . Co + S = Q . Ci Ci = Co + (1)
Q
Q . Co + (1 Ef) . R . QR . Ci + S = QR .
where Q is the airflow rate of the outdoor and exhaust air;
Co is the pollutant concentration in entering air; S is the Q . Co + S
Ci = (3)
pollutant emission rate (mass emission rate); Ci is the Q + Ef . R . QR
indoor air pollutant concentration.
where Ef is the filter efficiency; R is the recirculation
If there is a pollutant sink, Equation 1 is written as factor; QR is the volumetric airflow of the return air.
follows:
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 257

Table 11.7 WHO guideline values for the criteria air pollutants
Compound Annual ambient air Health endpoint Observed effect Guideline value Averaging time
concentration (g/m3) level (g/m3) (g/m3)
Carbon monoxide (CO) 500700 Critical level of 100,000 15 minutes
carboxyhaemoglobin 60,000 30 minutes
(COHb) < 2.5% 30,000 1 hour
10,000 8 hours

Lead (Pb) 0.012 Critical level of Pb in blood 0.5 1 year

< 100150g Pb
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 10150 Slight changes in function 365565 200 1 hour
in asthmatics
Ozone (O3) 10100 Respiratory function 120 8 hours
responses
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 5400 Changes in lung function 1000 500 10 minutes
in asthmatics. Exacerbations of 250 125 24 hours
respiratory symptoms in 100 50 1 year
sensitive individuals

Source: WHO, 1999; Sherman and Matson, 2003

Table 11.8 USEPA national ambient air quality standards for the criteria air pollutants
Pollutant Standard Value Averaging time
Carbon monoxide (CO) 9 ppm (10mg/m3) 8-hour average
35 ppm (40mg/m3) 1-hour average
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.053 ppm (100g/m3) Annual arithmetic
mean
Ozone (O3) 0.12 ppm (235g/m3) 1-hour average
0.08 ppm (157g/m3) 8-hour average
Lead (Pb) 1.5g/m3 Quarterly Average
Particulate (PM 10) 50g/m3 Annual arithmetic
(particles with diameters 150g/m3 mean
of 10 micrometres or less) 24-hour average
Particulate (PM 2.5) 15g/m3 Annual arithmetic
(Particles with diameters 65g/m3 mean
of 2.5 micrometres or less 24-hour average
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 0.03 ppm (80g/m3) Annual arithmetic
0.14 ppm (365g/m3) mean
0.50 ppm (1300g/m3) 24-hour average
3-hour average

Note: ppm = parts per million;

g = micrometre;
m3 = cubic metres;
mg = milligrams.

Source: US Environment Protection Agency, 1999; Sterman and Matson, 2003

The assumption to solve Equation 3 is that the same equation is the following:
volume of air enters and exits the room per unit time, as
described in the following relation: (Q . Co + R . QR . Ci) . (1 Ef) + S = QR . Ci (5)
Q = QR . (1 R) (4)
Q . Co . (1 Ef) + S
Ci =
In the case where the filtration device is installed in the Q + Ef . R . QR
supply airflow channel (see Figure 11.3), the mass balance
258 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Q, Co Q, Co
Outdoor air Outdoor air

S, Ci Ef S, Ci
Filter

Room Room
R.QR, Ci

Q, Ci (1R).QR, Ci QR, Ci
Exhaust air Exhaust air

Figure 11.1 Steady-state modelling without return air Figure 11.2 Steady-state modelling with return air and
filtration device installed in the return air channel
Unsteady-state models
changeable and are adjusted to the indoor and outdoor air
Unsteady-state models take into account the time temperature and humidity in zone or building level.
dependence of parameters such as indoor and outdoor There are various unsteady-state mathematical
pollutant emission rates and removal rates of pollutants, models that take into account the time variation of the
as well as supply, return and exhaust air rates. previously mentioned parameters. Such a model is devel-
For the indoor pollutants emission rates, those that oped by Rodriguez and Allard and concerns a transient
are related to the occupants activities vary during the day multi-zone model, which assumes that pollutants are well
according to the occupation of the building, while those mixed in each zone and that the pollutant transfer occurs
that are related to the construction materials may have through the air exchange between zones.
constant, slow or rapid decay according to the type of On the other hand, it is possible to describe the varia-
material. tion of pollutants concentration under transient
Concerning the variation of the outdoor pollutants conditions by using the simple box model, which is the
emission rates, they depend upon the sources, the time simplest approach. In this case, the following equation
periods of emission and the emission strength. Variation can be used:
in emissions from street automobile traffic, industrial
processes and other sources is also strongly related to the
weather conditions that determine the distribution of the Q, Co Ef
pollutants in the nearby area to the source area. Outdoor air Filter
The installation of filtration devices or various air
cleaners directly affects the concentration of pollutants.
The reduction of pollutant concentration certainly
concerns the channels where the previously mentioned
devices are located and depends upon the pollutant load R.QR, Ci
S, Ci
(thus, there is a time dependence as the pollutant load is
variable). Furthermore, the chemical decomposition of
certain pollutants may vary with time.
Room
Finally, the airflow rates of the ventilation system in a
building may vary. As infiltration is variable and depends
upon the pressure and temperature difference between the (1R).QR, Ci QR, Ci
indoor and the outdoor environment, this affects the airflow Exhaust air
rates of the ventilation system (supply, return and exhaust).
Furthermore, when variable air volume (VAV) systems are Figure 11.3 Steady-state modelling with return air and
installed, the airflow rates of the ventilation system are filtration device installed in the supply air channel
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 259

dCi building, the amount of fresh air introduced from the

V = Q(Co Ci) + S (6) outdoor environment and the operating conditions of the
dt
building (e.g. if smoking is allowed) are also important
where Q is the airflow rate of the outdoor and exhaust air; parameters for IAQ conditions.
Co is the pollutant concentration in entering air; S is the The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of
pollutant emission rate (mass emission rate); Ci is the issues related to IAQ. The first part presents sick-build-
indoor air pollutant concentration; V is the volume. ing syndrome (SBS) and building-related illness (BRI),
which are related to IAQ. The chapter also presents the
various sources of indoor and outdoor pollutants, together
Synopsis with the international standards and requirements for
IAQ. Furthermore, the reduction of indoor pollutants
The effect of indoor air quality (IAQ) on the health and concentration by controlling indoor and outdoor air pollu-
comfort of a buildings occupants is very important as tants is discussed. Another important issue for a good IAQ
people spend a great deal of their time in the indoor design concerns the theoretical estimation of the indoor
environment. Various syndromes are connected to poor pollutant concentration, a topic that is covered in the last
IAQ levels and many researchers have shown that build- part of this chapter where some simple calculation models
ing materials play a significant role in causing these that can be used in simulating pollutant concentration
problems. Additionally, the ventilation strategy of the levels in the indoor environment are presented.

References
Alevantis, L. and Xenaki-Petreas, M. (1996) Indoor Air Quality Morawska, L., Bofinger, N. D. and Maroni. M. (eds) (1995)
in Practice, Energy Conservation in Buildings Series, Indoor Air: An Integrated Approach, Pergamon Press,
University of Athens, Greece Oxford
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Rodriguez, E. A. and Allard, F. (1992) Coupling Comis Airflow
conditioning Engineers) (1996) HVAC Systems and Model with other transfer phenomena, Energy and
Equipment, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia, US Buildings, vol 18, pp147157
ASHRAE (1997) Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia, Santamouris, M. (ed) (2001) Energy and Climate in the Urban
US Build Environment, James & James, London
ASHRAE (2001) Standard 62: Ventilation for Acceptable Sherman, M. H. and Matson, N. E. (2003) Reducing Indoor
Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia, US Residential Exposures to Outdoor Pollutants, Lawrence
du Pont, P. and Morrill, J. (1989) Residential Indoor Air Quality Berkeley National Laboratory, Report Nb LBNL-51758,
and Energy Efficiency, ACEEE, Washington, DC, US Berkeley, California, US
EPA (1991) Indoor Air Facts No 4 (revised): Sick Building Spengler, J., Samet, J. and McCarthy, J. (eds) (2000) Indoor Air
Syndrome (SBS), www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/sbs.html Quality Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, US
Lester, J., Penny, R. and Reynolds, G. L. (eds) (1992) Quality of USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) National Air
the Indoor Environment, IAI, London Toxics Assessment, www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/nata/index.html
Liddament, M. (1996) A Guide to Energy Efficient Ventilation, USEPA (1991) Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building
AIVC, Coventry Owners and Facility Managers, Craftsman Book, Co,
Maroni, B., Seifert, B. and Lindvall, T. (eds) (1995) Indoor Air Carlsbad, US
Quality, Elsevier Science, The Netherlands WHO (World Health Organization) (1999) Air Quality
Martin, A. (1995) Control of Natural Ventilation, BSRIA, Guidelines, WHO, www.who.int/environmental_informa-
Bracknell tion/Air/Guidelines
260 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Recommended reading
1 USEPA (1991) Building Air Quality: A Guide for can also affect other pollutants. Integrated manage-
Building Owners and Facility Managers, Craftsman ment strategies should take these processes into
Book, Co, Carlsbad, US consideration and aim at an overall upgrading of the
This book deals with the quality and safety of the indoor environment. This book has a unique charac-
indoor air environment and what is commonly ter and focus and includes a selection of papers
referred to as sick building syndrome. The text has presented at the International Workshop on Indoor
been developed in order to resolve existing indoor air Air: An Integrated Approach, covering a comprehen-
quality problems as well as to prevent future sive description of indoor air, strategies for integrated
problems. Additional topics include air quality health risk assessments and strategies for controlling
measurements, HVAC systems, mould, asbestos and and managing the indoor environment.
radon. A complete evaluation section allows the 3 Maroni, B., Seifert, B. and Lindvall, T. (eds) (1995)
reader to evaluate existing conditions in a building in Indoor Air Quality, Elsevier Science, The
order to determine the source of indoor air problems. Netherlands
The book is separated into four main sections. The This book brings together much more than toxicology
first part presents the basics of IAQ issues and the as it describes physical and chemical hazards, and
second part explains how to prevent IAQ problems. many medical and psychological consequences, and
Possible solutions are presented in the third part of welds them into approaches to better design and
the book, while in the final section IAQ survey forms manage structures. Contributions from specialists
are included. (medical doctors, architects, engineers, chemists,
2 Morawska, L., Bofinger, N. D. and Maroni. M. (eds) biologists, physicists and toxicologists) in various
(1995) Indoor Air: An Integrated Approach, Pergamon disciplines concerned with indoor air quality are
Press, Oxford presented in order to provide comprehensive cover-
Previously, the most common approach to monitoring, age of all aspects, including building design, health
health risk assessment and management of indoor air effects and medical diagnosis, toxicology of indoor air
quality was to consider each atmospheric pollutant pollutants, and air sampling and analysis. Some
individually. Today, there is a realization that both the chapters contain formative and educational messages
comfort and the combined health risk may depend not for architects, engineers and public health profession-
only upon the concentrations of individual pollutants, als; but the high cost of this reference may deter its
but also upon the complexity of the interactions use in educational settings. Extensive references for
between all constituents in the air. In addition, any each section recommend it as a reference book for
mitigation process aimed at one particular pollutant those in any of the associated fields.
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 261

Activities
Activity 1 by a buildings occupants, identify some common actions
and procedure that can improve IAQ levels.
Sick building syndrome (SBS)
Sick building syndrome is one of the general categories of Activity 3
diseases that are related to IAQ. The problems that
IAQ design
concern SBS may be localized or can extend to the whole
building. Furthermore, the symptoms are often related, During an IAQ design project, there is a sequence of
with complaints from building occupants of lethargy, major phases that designers should, more or less, follow.
headaches, difficulty in concentrating, runny noses and Give a short description of the phases that should be
other symptoms with unknown causes. Frequently, these included in an IAQ design project.
symptoms disappear when the occupants leave the build-
ing. Describe and explain same of the major factors that Activity 4
are related to SBS. IAQ design
Activity 2 The control of indoor and outdoor pollutant concentra-
tions can be achieved by using various systems and
IAQ problem solution techniques. Give a brief description of the available
During and after building investigation procedures, options that can help to control indoor and outdoor pollu-
various problems related to IAQ can be identified. In tant concentrations.
order to solve these problems and the possible complaints
262 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 kinds of actions include the routine maintenance of HVAC
systems and the periodic cleaning or replacement of
The operation of the ventilation system strongly affects
filters. Equally important is the replacement of water-
the IAQ levels in a building. The first important parame-
stained ceiling tiles and carpeting, while the institution of
ter concerns the appropriate outdoor airflow rates that
smoking restrictions is highly recommended in order to
should be used to ventilate indoor spaces. The use of the
improve IAQ levels. Of course, the isolation of pollutant-
proper rates primarily according to national and inter-
emitting materials (such as paints, adhesives, solvents and
national standards can maintain acceptable levels of IAQ
pesticides) and the proper ventilation of storage spaces
and reduce any SBS symptoms. Another important param-
are also important actions from the IAQ point of view.
eter is related to the distribution of the air in indoor spaces
Finally, the use of materials that are pollutant sources
through the ventilation system. An ineffective distribution
during periods of non-occupancy and the delay of the
of ventilation air can lead to spaces that are isolated and,
occupation time in new or renovated areas in order to
eventually, not ventilated. The appropriate design and
allow building materials to off-gas pollutants can be very
operation of the ventilation system can reduce air pollu-
effective under certain conditions.
tants and increase indoor air quality. Finally, one of the
When it is necessary, the increase of outdoor air venti-
most important factors concerns the maintenance of the
lation rates can directly improve IAQ; but in this case one
ventilation system (primarily ducts and filtration systems):
should respect the economic parameters as the total
a procedure that can increase or reduce (when the process
energy consumption of the building is also increased.
is not accurate) IAQ levels. The maintenance of the venti-
Generally, an HVAC system should be operated to at least
lation system is also connected with the existence of
meet the design standards, and this very often is sufficient
biological contaminants that can accumulate in ducts,
for the quality of indoor air. When there are important
humidifiers and drain pans (or where water has collected
pollutant sources, the local ventilation system, if it exists,
on ceiling tiles, carpeting or insulation). Appropriate
can be used to transfer the exhaust-contaminated air to
cleaning of the ventilation system can rapidly reduce the
the outdoor environment.
symptoms caused by this category of pollutants.
Furthermore, the use of various filters and/or devices
Of course, the quantity and the type of indoor contam-
for air cleaning can be a suitable solution, but may present
inants strongly affect the existence or the absence of SBS
certain limitations. Certainly, the education of the
symptoms. The majority of indoor air pollutants come
occupants, management and maintenance personnel is
from sources located inside the building. For example, the
important in order to avoid and solve IAQ problems.
high concentration of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
can cause chronic and acute health effects, and some are
Activity 3
known carcinogens. In general, the construction and the
use of the building, and the activities that take place in The main phases that the designer should follow during
the indoor environment, affect IAQ levels. And the appro- an IAQ design project can be summarized by the follow-
priate sizing, design and operation of a ventilation system ing points:
can efficiently control the indoor contaminants and
increase the IAQ of a building. Determine the IAQ design targets, the overall
Since the role of the ventilation system is to introduce purpose of the project and the IAQ required levels.
outdoor air into the building, the exterior air that enters During this phase, the spaces that require special
indoor spaces can be a source of indoor air pollution as it protection or contain possible sources of contaminants
transfers outdoor contaminants to the inside. Therefore, should be identified.
the study of outdoor sources is an important part of an Identify site characteristics related to IAQ, a proce-
IAQ study and sometimes requires the installation of dure that includes the right location of the various
specialized filters in order to trap outdoor contaminants. parts of the ventilation system, the survey of possible
outdoor pollutant sources and the investigation of the
Activity 2 local climatic characteristics of the building site.
Determine the overall approach related to envir-
Generally, the reasons that poor IAQ occurs may not be
onmental control, which concerns the definition and
clear; the interaction and the interrelations of the involved
the design of the ventilation and distribution system
parameters are often complicated. Nevertheless, there are
in relation to the whole HVAC installation and
some standard actions that can improve IAQ. These
operation.
 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 263

Provide a general description of the building from the Activity 4

structuralmaterial point of view and a more detailed
The control of outdoor air pollutants can be achieved by
description of the HVAC system and its sub-systems,
using the following systems and techniques:
as well as the control levels of the ventilation system.
Describe the building construction and cleaning
Use filters in the mechanical ventilation system to
materials and their properties in relation to IAQ.
prevent pollutants coming from the outside to the
Determine ventilation system options and provide an
inside.
evaluation by using calculation methods, such as box
Carefully move air intakes away from pollutant
model analysis.
sources, when possible.
Identify and analyse target materials for IAQ evalua-
Use air quality-controlled fresh air dampers, which
tion.
close the intakes during the peaks of outdoor air
Identify the chemical contents and emissions of the
pollution.
target materials.
Decrease the infiltration by increasing the building
Identify the cleaning and maintenance requirements.
air tightness in order to more accurately control the
Review chemical data for the presence of strong
indoor environment.
odorants, irritants, acute toxins and genetic toxins.
Provide direct source control that can be achieved by
Calculate the concentration of dominant emissions.
eliminating avoidable pollutants through restricting
Compare the calculated concentrations with the IAQ
pollutant emissions.
requirements.
Use a local ventilation system to directly extract the
Select products and determine installation require-
pollutants from their source (ventilation at source).
ments.
Provide an appropriate design of the main ventilation
Determine ventilation system requirements during
system in order to meet the ventilation requirements
various operational conditions. Identify the location
during its minimum operation.
of the ventilation system parts and integrate them
within a building management system.
12
Applied Energy and Resource Management
in the Urban Environment
Saso Medved

Scope of the chapter recognize the advantages of central supply systems;

be aware of the importance of a reliable water supply
The great concentration of people in cities requires a very and measures for protecting water sources;
large supply of energy, water, food and other matters essen- estimate the amount of waste in cities and compare
tial to peoples everyday lives. In general, we can talk about technologies for their treatment.
the inputs renewable and non-renewable natural
sources and the outputs that result from their energetic Key words
and material conversions, and which are then discharged
as waste into the air, water or soil in gaseous, liquid or solid Key words include:
state. Reducing energy and mass flows is one of the main
goals in the process of sustainable urban design. On the energy sources;
other hand, implementing technologies for renewable fossil fuels;
energy source conversion, systems for achieving a non- renewable energy sources;
pollutant water supply and reducing the amount of waste central supply systems;
are important goals in continuously enlarged urban regions district heating and cooling;
in developing countries. transportation in cities;
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the impor- water supply and treatment;
tance and quantity of energy and material flows, and the waste and waste treatment.
impact of these flows on the environment, together with
the technologies that can be used to create sustainable Introduction
cities. The chapter is divided into three main sections.
The first section deals with energy sources, including The population in urban areas has been growing continu-
renewables and the rational use of energy. The second ously, resulting in a decreasing rural population for the
section deals with water supply and treatment; and the last few decades. Cities have become bigger and what
third section describes material flows in cities and waste once used to comprise suburbs has become an integral
treatment. part of cities. It is estimated that today more than 80 per
cent of Europeans live in cities.
Learning objectives The large numbers of inhabitants in cities require a
very intensive supply of energy, water, food, etc. A city
At the end of this chapter, readers will be able to: can be presented as a black box with different input and
output flows of natural resources (land, energy and
evaluate the quantities and environmental impacts of materials; see Figure 12.2). The development of cities and
energy and mass flows in cities; the standard of living, health and culture of their inhabi-
compare different non-renewable and renewable tants depend upon a sufficient and continuous flow of
energy sources; resources.
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 265

Source: Europe Environment, 1995

Figure 12.1 Modern cities occupy substantially more surface area than they used to in the past, and 80 per cent
of the population in the EU lives in cities

The influence of cities on their surrounding environ- forms such as heat, electricity and mechanical work.
ment can be expressed in different ways. Ecological Fuels can be divided into two groups: renewable and non-
footprints can be very useful, representing the necessary renewable fuels. The former have the characteristic of
area of biological active land and water to provide all renewing themselves in nature. According to their origins,
requirements for inhabitants and absorption of human- they are divided into:
produced emissions (such as carbon dioxide and waste).
For example, the ecological footprint of London is 120 solar radiation, emitted by the sun, which can be
times greater than the area of the city itself. And this is a converted into heat and electricity, and which results
general figure for all cities (EnerBuild RTF, 2000). in the energy of waves, wind, water energy and
Decreasing cities footprints is an important task on biomass;
the way to achieving sustainable cities. Besides improv- the planetary energy of the moon and the sun, which
ing the economic and sociological quality of life in cities, together with the Earths kinetic energy cause tidal
the rational use of land, energy and materials is also an action in oceans and seas;
important step in this effort. Measures for rational use of heat emerging from the interior of the Earth towards
land have been presented in previous chapters. Problems its surface, and which is known as geothermal energy.
and some solutions for the rational use of energy and
materials such as water and waste are presented at the
end of the chapter. Processes
Gas, liquid and
Energy
Energy sources Materials Inputs Outputs solid emissions
CITY Land occupied by
Water
buildings, streets,
Renewable and non-renewable energy sources Land
landfills
Our standard of living and culture depends upon a suffi- Energy conservation
cient and continuous energy supply. In order to ensure its reuse
energy needs, mankind uses various kinds of energy recycle
conversion technologies to convert energy into required Figure 12.2 Energy and mass flows in cities
266 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Medved and Novak, 2000

Figure 12.3 Renewable sources of energy are solar radiation, the gravitational force of the moon and the sun,
and the heat within the Earth

The suns radiation represents the main energy source on This liquefies at very high pressure and with high energy
the planet. Renewable sources in the form of water and consumption; therefore, it is transported by gas pipelines.
wind energy represented the only source of energy In Europe, a vast network of pipes for gas transportation
besides human and animal mechanical work until the has been constructed. Aggregation fuels also differ in the
Industrial Revolution began. However, the rapid devel- amount of chemically bound energy per mass unit, which
opment of civilization that we have been facing during the is called calorific value, and in their environmental
last two centuries has only been possible due to the inten- impacts through their transformation.
sive use of natural (non-renewable) energy sources: fossil An important energy source is also represented by the
fuels and nuclear power. nuclear fuels. The best known are uranium, plutonium and
Fossil fuels coal, petroleum and gas represent the thorium. In peacetime energetic conversions, only the
various forms of energy accumulated during the past uranium isotope U235 is used. Nuclear energy is released
evolutionary era of the Earth. Coal is the most widespread by splitting the atom nuclei. The atom nucleus splits into
fossil fuel on Earth. It took several millions years of high two lighter nuclei after it has captured a neutron; new
temperatures, pressure and chemical processes to turn neutrons are also released, which launches a chain
the trees and other plants buried among the sediments reaction. A nuclear reaction can be controlled in a nuclear
and alluvia into coal. Beside carbon and hydrogen, coal power plant if it takes its course in water, heavy water or
consists of sulphur, nitrogen, ash and vapour. At larger even in graphite providing that some of the formatted
depths, different kinds of heat reactions took place neutrons are absorbed and that very dangerous radiation
because of greater temperatures and pressure. Vapour is absorbed in an appropriate shield.
partially extracted sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen; at the The rapid growth of civilization, over the past two
same time, organic substances started to decompose into centuries, was largely due to intensive consumption of
liquid molecules. This is how petroleum came into fossil fuels. Even today, three-quarters of the worlds total
existence. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and energy supply is produced from fossil fuels; the share of
nitrogen. Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons and is distilled nuclear energy is also significant. In less developed
in oil refineries before use. This is how petrol and fuel oil, countries, the share of renewables principly, biomass
as well as gases, among which the best known are propane and water energy are of primary importance. With
and butane, are produced. Both gases liquefy at relatively regard to energy, we distinguish between:
low pressure and occupy only 1/260 of the volume that
they occupy in the gaseous state, which enables simple primary energy in fossil and nuclear fuels, and
transportation to consumers by road tankers. The mixture renewables;
of propane and butane is also known as liquefied gas (LG). secondary or end-use energy, which is produced from
At even larger depths, gaseous fossil fuel has been formed: the primary energy sources by converting their inter-
natural gas that contains carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. nal energy into other forms that are needed by
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 267

450 450
Renewables
400 400
Nuclear
350 350 Gas
Oil
300 300
Coal
250 250
103 PJ

103 PJ
200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
Primary energy Secondary or end-use energy fuel type
Source: Energy in Europe, 1996

Figure 12.4 Primary and secondary or end-use energy use in the world in 1996

consumers (heat, electricity and solid, liquid and the last 1000 years, until the Industrial Revolution began
gaseous fuels); at the end of the 18th century. Since then, however, this
useful energy emitted from numerous installations, concentration has been continuously increasing, already
such as heating and cooling systems, lamps and other reaching 350 ppm in 1990. Alongside CO2 concentration,
devices. air temperature has also increased. During the last 100
years, it has risen by 0.3 to 0.6 Kelvin (K). CO2 does not
Energy conversion and environmental impacts allow long-wave Earth radiation to spread into the
universe, thus increasing the greenhouse effect. Gases
The conversion of chemical energy into other forms has a
that have this effect are called greenhouse gases. Beside
strong impact on the environment, both in urban and
CO2, these are methane, NOx and a compound of fluor,
rural areas. The most important transformation of fossil
chlorine and carbon. The consequences of the greenhouse
fuels is combustion. This is a process in which chemical
effect are thought to be higher sea levels, which would
energy is transformed into heat by the process of oxida-
cause massive floods over large coastal areas, and climate
tion. Through this process products (air pollutants) are
change in, for the time being, fertile regions. CO, which
emitted into the atmosphere in the form of exhaust gases.
affects the capability of oxygen transportation in the
Among the emitted pollutants from the burning of fossil
blood, represents a much greater threat to people. When
fuels, those that pose the greatest threat to the environ-
inhaled, it links immediately with haemoglobin to form
ment are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
carboxihaemoglobin (COHb). A concentration of 10 per
nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and
cent of COHb in the blood will cause a headache; a 50 per
suspended particles. The amount of emitted matter
cent concentration, however, can be lethal.
depends upon the composition of fuel and the quality of
Nitrogen oxides released by the burning of fossil fuels
the appliance in which combustion takes place.
originate from the nitrogen in fuel and from air, needed
CO2 and CO result from the combustion through
for the combustion process. Altogether, they come in
oxidation of the carbon from the fuel. CO2 does not have
various forms and are labelled NOx. In the atmosphere,
a harmful effect on people by itself as long as the concen-
they react with hydrocarbons under the presence of the
tration is less than 1000 to 1500 ppm. However, it
suns radiation into hazardous photochemical smog. In
increases the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere (the
London, from 12 to 15 November 1952, exceptionally
thermal insulation encircling the Earth). Concentration of
high concentrations of NOx SO2 and solid particles were
this gas had changed little (between 180 and 280 parts per
registered. During this period the rate of deaths caused
million, or ppm, which is the unit used to measure very
by respiratory organ difficulties and heart problems
small concentrations; 1 ppm represents a mixture of 1
increased by 160 per cent above the average value.
volume unit of gas in 1 million volume units of air) over
268 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Nitrogen oxides, together with sulphur dioxide (SO2), present in vehicle fuel, but is formed by chemical
cause acid rain; they are dissolved in water drops and thus reactions when fuels are burned and is emitted in the
make diluted acid. Besides forest fires, acid rain is the exhaust. In the atmosphere, VOCs react with nitrogen
main cause of forest decline. Acid precipitation reacts oxides on hot summer days to form ozone (smog).
with the calcium carbonate present in limestone and thus As can be seen from Figure 12.5, emissions of volatile
forms gypsum, which dissolves in water and is therefore organic compounds from traffic are more than ten times
rinsed by rainfall. It has been estimated that, in urban higher than those from district heating power plants
areas, the annual damage due to acid raid corrosion (DHPP), while emissions of CO are a hundredfold higher.
amount to several tens of billions of Euros. Traffic also causes almost twice the emissions of nitrogen
The burning of fossil fuels also creates solid and liquid oxides regarding all other sources.
particles of different shapes, sizes and chemical composi-
tion. These can comprise dust particles emitted by Emissions control
different materials (the size of dust particles is 1 to
Because fossil fuels represent the main source of our
100m), fumes caused by the evaporation of metals (the
energy supply, they cannot be replaced with environmen-
size varies between 0.03 and 1m), aerosols (mist and
tally friendlier sources within a short period of time, for
sprays with particle sizes of between 0.5 and 3m) or
both technological and economic reasons. However, fossil
smoke emitted by the process of fossil fuel burning
fuels also differ in their environmental impact. They
containing 0.05 to 1m sized solid particles. Suspended
should contain more hydrogen and less carbon, as well as
particles of between 0.5 to 10m in size are particularly
less sulphur and nitrogen; hydrogen burns out into
dangerous to human respiratory organs. These are
harmless water vapour. Solid fossil fuels are built up of
labelled as PM10 (particulate matter, 10m). They are
long molecules of hydrocarbons, containing a large
inhaled into the lungs where they can cause lung diseases.
number of carbon atoms; gaseous fossil fuels, on the other
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are any organic
hand, are composed of short molecules which have three
compound that evaporates readily into the atmosphere.
to four times more hydrogen atoms than carbon ones.
In car exhaust gases, there are as many as 100 different
Therefore, through heat production, we substitute solid
VOC substances, such as benzene and 1.3 butadiene.
fossil fuels with liquid ones; in transport, more gaseous
Benzene is an organic chemical that makes up about 2 per
fossil fuels are used instead of liquid fuels. Furthermore,
cent of petrol. The main source of any benzene in the air
liquid fuels produced from biomass are being introduced
is from vehicle exhaust emissions. It is a genotoxic
(e.g. bio-ethanol, bio-methanol and bio-diesel) with a
carcinogen (i.e. a substance that causes cancer). It is not
smaller impact on the environment. In the next 30 to 50
100% years, hydrogen, which only emits water while being
burned, should be in massive use.
Besides heat, the burning of fossil fuels results in
80
formatting the products, which are released into the
atmosphere through exhaust gases. The emission of
harmful substances in exhaust gases can be effectively
Emmissions

60
reduced by elimination of sulphur dioxide and dust parti-
cles in a process known as gas cleaning. For
40 de-sulphuration, wet methods are generally employed
through which water-diluted limestone (CaCO3) is
injected into the flow of the exhaust gases. Sulphur
20 dioxide in chemical reaction is transformed into environ-
mental friendly gypsum, which is then deposited in
landfill. Solid particles (aerosols), however, are eliminated
0
SO2 NOx CO VOC PM CO2 through electrostatic filters and fabric filter bags. In
vehicles powered by internal combustion engines,
DHPP Traffic Households
catalytic converters are used to enable simultaneous
Source: Krasevec, 1998 oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons and CO into CO2
and reduction of NOx into N2. In the case of diesel
Figure 12.5 Emissions from households, traffic and a co- engines a special filter can be used to eliminate the parti-
generation district heating power plant (DHPP) in a cles from exhaust gases.
mid-sized city (300,000 inhabitants)
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 269

400 400

350 350
Emmissions CO2 per KWht (103 kg)

Emmissions CO2 per KWht (103 kg)

300 300

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
Natural gas Oil Coal CO NOx SO2

Figure 12.6 Emission results from the combustion of fossil fuels, calculated per kWh of heat

The most effective way of reducing environmental important role in energy supply (in France and
impacts is through energy saving, the use of efficient Switzerland), and water energy is important in others
conversions of fossil fuels and their substitution with (Austria and Slovenia).
renewable sources of energy. Some possible solutions are Use of energy in cities depends upon the climate,
discussed below. building and transport, industrialization, life habits and
standards of living. If we look at the energy consumption
across different sectors, we can see that the biggest
Energy use in cities consumer in cities is the domestic sector. This is a result
of energy consumption for heating and cooling, dense
The most important energy sources in cities are also fossil
construction and a larger number of home appliances than
fuels, which are converted into heat, mechanical work and
in rural areas. A lot of energy in cities is spent on trans-
electricity. In some countries, nuclear power also plays an
port, too. Since 1970, the consumption of energy in
Fabric filters
Clean gas

Polluted gas

Large particles

Landfill

Source: Energy in Europe, 1996

Figure 12.7 With fabric filters, 98 per cent of particles smaller than 1 to 5m are removed
270 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

domestic and commercial sectors has increased by more

than 50 per cent and by 10 to 15 per cent in transport in
almost all cities. The latter is the result of population
growth and the increasing number of cars. Statistics show
us that in cities the average number of passengers
amounts to only 1.4 persons per vehicle. On the other
hand, energy consumption in the urban industrial sector
has been reduced due to technological restructure. In the
domestic sector, heating buildings consumes the most
energy (approximately 75 per cent); hot water production
requires 10 per cent and the rest is used for household
appliances.

Energy efficiency in the urban

environment
There are several possibilities for reducing energy
Note: The rate of SO2 elimination in this power plant is 94 to 95 per cent;
consumption in cities, and for reducing environmental
the amount of used limestone is up to 16 tonnes per hour; and the
pollution and improving the quality of life. Among them
amount of eliminated plaster and solid particles reaches 70 tonnes per
are:
hour.
demand-side management;
Figure 12.8 In a thermal power plant with 275 megawatts introduction of central supply systems;
(MW) power, the wet method for de-sulphuration in the integration of renewable energy sources within the
exhaust gases washer and electrostatic filters are used energy supply chain.
for particle removal
120
Domestic Industry Commercial Transport
100
100
90
End-use consumption (GJ/capita)

80 80
End-use of energy (%)

70
60
60
50 40
40
30 20

20
10
10
0 0
a

a
els

els
en

en
ki

ki
r

r
on

on
lin

lin
gn

gn
ve

ve
in

in
ag

ag
s

s
r

r
nd

nd
lo

lo
no

no
ls

ls
us

us
Be

Be
Bo

Bo
nh

nh
He

He
Lo

Lo
Br

Br
Ha

Ha
pe

pe
Co

Co

Note: The results for the cities are quite similar; only Hanover stands out due to the greater share of industry and, therefore, the greater per capita
consumption.

Source: Europe Environment, 1995

Figure 12.9 Relative end-use of energy consumption in cities for different sectors (left) and
absolute end-use of energy consumption per capita (right)
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 271

Demand-side management use, for example, with improved thermal insulation of

our building; another possibility is more efficient
The continuously increasing use of energy in cities can be
ventilation with heat recovery, and buying the most
fulfilled not only by supply-side actions, which increase
energy-efficient appliances. For the assessment of a
energy supplies, but even more efficiently by demand-
buildings energy efficiency, energy labelling is also
side actions or management (DSM). This action can be
effective.
implemented for all resources or energy flows in cities.
This section concentrates on demand-side energy
Transport use is another area where individuals can save
management. Demand-side management of other
energy by changing their life-style habits. It is a known
resources such as water and material flows is
fact that in the European Union (EU) 75 per cent of all
presented in the following chapters.
private car drives are shorter than 8km in length, and one-
Demand-side management encourages consumers to
third of them do not reach 1.6km. In order to overcome
change their energy use and to use energy-efficient appli-
these short distances, it is more convenient to walk, cycle
ances, equipment and buildings. There are four basic
or to use public transportation. In Table 12.1 the energy
DMS strategies:
required and the transportation emissions are given for
various forms of transport.
1 Peak-load clipping seeks to reduce energy consump-
On the city level, energy efficiency is highlighted by
tion at the time of daily peak. Examples include utility
a wide range of promotion campaigns and design and
or user control of appliances such as air conditioning
planning strategies, which support and promote environ-
or water heating, or a timer for water heating.
mentally friendly technologies and public awareness in
2 Valley filling smoothes the load and improves the
both the domestic and transportation sector for example,
economic efficiency of systems. For example, electri-
efficient energy transformations, planning and using
cal vehicles can be charged at night when electricity
district energy, cycle-path networks integrated with urban
use is lower then during the day.
planning, and efficient public transportation.
3 Load shifting can be accomplished through measures
Demand-side energy management systems have
such as thermal storage; heat or cold can be provided
several advantages, such as reduced cost to consumers,
and stored in a form of sensible or latent energy when
pushing new capacity further into the future, reducing
consumption is low and can be used during high
environmental impacts, and providing flexibility in free-
consumption periods.
market conditions. Implementation of DSM programmes
4 Practice energy conservation. Lower consumption of
requires new skills and costs money; but costs are usually
energy sources can be achieved by individuals and
lower than the cost of new production units.
cities, as a whole. As tenants, we can affect energy
Peak-load clipping Valley filling
Energy consumption

Energy consumption

+DSM
+DSM

Time Time

Load shifting Conservation

Energy consumption

Energy consumption

+DSM

+DSM

Time Time
Figure 12.10 Four basic demand side management (DSM) strategies
272 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 12.1 Energy needed and transportation emissions for passenger and freight transport
Passenger MJ/km/person g CO2/km/person Freight MJ/tonne/km g CO2/tonne/km
transport transport
Bicycle Pipeline 0.25
Bus 1.0 3560 Inland waterway 0.32 4070
Train 1.5 4080 Train 0.40 4050
Car 3.2 130200 Lorry 1.37 200300
Plane 4.2 160450 Plane 21.7 11602150

Source: Masters, 2001

Central-supply systems The heat source in a central plant can be a boiler or a

refuse incinerator, or renewable energy sources such as
Central-supply systems are one of the most important
geothermal and solar energy. The boiler may be fired by
services in cities. They transport energy in the form of
any fossil fuel coal, gas, oil or biomass. The piping
gas; electricity; heat; or water from a central source to
network conveys the energy between the source and the
single buildings, and collect the dray or black water and
buildings. Usually, the pipeline consists of a combination
even the waste from individual buildings and transport
of pre-insulated and field-insulated pipes in concrete
them to the central treating plants. Taking into account
tunnels or in direct buried application. The third compo-
the huge amounts of energy used in residential and
nent of district heating and cooling systems is a consumer
commercial buildings, and the impacts of energy conver-
system, which includes heating and cooling systems in
sion processes on the environment, district heating and
buildings. In most cases, the district pipelines and build-
cooling systems have great advantages compared with
ing service system are separated by a heat exchanger.
individual supply (see Chapter 13).
The district heating and cooling systems are expen-
sive and they can be used in case of the following:
District heating and cooling systems
District heating and cooling systems transport heat and/or High thermal load density: this is characteristic of
cold via steam or hot or chilled water pipelines. The areas with high buildings and high population density
systems consist of three primary components: the central in cold climates. In such cases, the capital investment
plant, the distribution network and the user heating for a distribution system, which usually costs 50 to 75
system. per cent of the total investment, will be covered.
High annual load factor: this occurs when the district
system operates with constant power throughout the
whole year.

As a result, district systems are cost-effective in densely

populated (at least 50 buildings per hectare) urban areas,
for high-density building clusters with high thermal loads
or in industrial complexes. These district systems have
significant thermodynamic, economic and environmental
advantages compared with individual systems, as follows:
Central plant Distribution Building heating
Note: Buildings like this consume at least 200 to 300kWh of heat per system system
square metre of residential area in a year, while buildings that are well
insulated, with low-emission windows, and with heat recovery by ventila- Fossil fuels Boiler
tion, consume only 40 to 50kWh heat per square metre per year. Recovery heat Incinerator Steam
Renewable Sources Heat Hot water
Heat
Source: Zupan, 1995 energy exchanger exchanger
Chilled water
(solar,
Figure 12.11 Older building with no insulation (left) and geothermal) Chiller
thermal picture of the same buildings (right); the brighter
spots show the thermal bridges, spots where heat loses Figure 12.12 Major components of a district
are particularly large heating system
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 273

Figure 12.13 Pipelines are, in most cases, pre-insulated Figure 12.14 Heat sub-station of the building, with 40
and buried in the ground flats; on the left is a heat exchanger, which connects the
district heating system with the one in the building
A larger central plant can achieve higher thermal
efficiency than smaller ones; the differences are even District heating systems
larger in the case of partial load operation because
One of the most common classifications of the district
larger plants operate with more heat sources, which
heating system is based on different temperatures and
can switch off separately.
mediums of transport fluid. Hot water or steam can be
Larger units can be adapted to the use of various fossil
used as transport fluid. The latter is common in industrial
fuels, thus making it possible to utilize the least
areas because steam can be used not only for heating or
expensive fuel. Furthermore, sources of waste heat
cooling, but for industrial processes too. Hot water
and renewable energy can be exploited.
systems are divided into three temperature ranges: high-
District heating and cooling systems have the advan-
temperature supply comprises temperatures over 175
tage of measuring energy consumed by users with
Celsius; medium-temperature supply comprises temper-
simple remote heat meters, as well as the possibility
atures in the range of 120 to 175 Celsius, and
of efficient remote surveillance of the systems opera-
low-temperature systems comprise temperatures of 120
tion.
Celsius or lower. The medium-temperature systems are
Heating and cooling systems that are operated by
common for district heating of residential areas because
personnel can be reduced because less mechanical
of lower pressure, lower thermal loses and lower leakage
equipment in buildings requires less maintenance.
losses. They are designed for a high temperature drop (50
Usable space in buildings increases when boiler- or
to 60K) in the buildings heating system heat exchanger
chiller-related equipment and fuel storage are no
in order to reduce the flow rate of the transport fluid and
longer needed.
pumping power.
Emissions from central plants are easier to control;
The thermodynamic and economic efficiency of
air pollution caused by the transportation of fuels to
district heating systems can be increased by introducing
consumers and ash removal is reduced, as is the
co-generation: simultaneously producing electricity and
danger of spillage of liquid fossil fuels in case of road
heat. Large amounts of heat at lower temperatures, which
accidents.
are emitted into the surroundings by thermal power
In the case of district cooling systems, the leaking of
plants, are the reason that the primary energy efficiency
environmentally unfriendly refrigerants can be
rate of fossil, biomass and nuclear fuels only reaches 30 to
monitored readily in a central plant.
40 per cent. Waste heat, however, can be applied to
district heating. Energy efficiency by co-generation can
rise up to 80 or 85 per cent. Buildings, however, need
274 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Note: The distant heating systems can operate using solar collectors instead of fossil flue boilers.

Figure 12.15 District heating and power plant and part of 156km long supply pipelines of district heating system
in mid-sized city; hot water system (130 Celsius/70 Celsius) provide heating for 45,000 residental units (left);
recently, the 24,000 cubic metre large hot water storage was built with a thermal capacity of 850MWh for
peak-load clipping (right) instead of enlarging the thermal capacity of the boilers

heating only in winter; therefore, the all-year energy by integrating heat storage (heat storage decreases
efficiency of the primary fuels energy amounts to around daily peaks of heat consumption and provides higher
55 per cent. In smaller co-generation systems, the diesel- and more economical electricity production in co-
or gas engine-driven generator can be used. Heat can be generation plants during the day time).
recovered from the exhaust, cooling and lubrication
engine system. Large units have steam turbines and heat District cooling systems
can be recovered from expanded steam leaving the
Modern buildings are cooled in two basic ways: with local
turbine.
and central cooling (or air-conditioning) systems. These
As cities grow continuously, one of the major difficul-
appliances need electricity for their operation and they
ties in planning district heating systems is predicting
primarily use environmentally unfriendly refrigerants. In
future heat consumption. When the system is already
cities, where there is greater building density and because
built, there are still several options for connecting new
of the heat island effect, and due to the increased need
settlements to an existing district heating system:
for cooling these buildings, district cooling systems can
be cost-effective.
by promoting and implementing demand-side
There are two types of district cooling systems: open
management policy;
and closed. With open systems, cold water from deep pits
by planning low-energy buildings with low-tempera-
and larger sea depths (500 to 1000m), which is pumped
ture heating systems (buildings can be connected to
onto the surface, flows through heat exchangers. Water is
return pipeline because the temperatures of transport
cooled in a central water pipeline. In this case, the cold
fluid are high enough for heating such buildings);
source water temperature should not exceed 5 Celsius.
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 275

For example, seawater has been used to cool the central Biomass
system in Stockholm since 1995.
With a 14 per cent share of the worlds energy supply,
In closed systems, cooling energy can be produced in
biomass qualifies as the most important renewable energy
a central plant. In the central unit, peak electricity
source. In European alpine and some Scandinavian
consumption is lower, as cold can be effectively stored.
countries, the share of biomass in the primary energy
Cooling energy can be transported by cold water, ice
supply reaches almost 20 per cent, while the European
slurry or brine to buildings. Through the use of slurry and
average amounts to only 2 to 5 per cent. For direct usage
saltwater, the temperatures of the cooling medium are
and biomass processing, various processes are used:
lower; therefore, smaller quantities are required and
burning; biological conversion with natural processes
pumping costs are lower. Supply temperatures are
such as anaerobic fermentation; fermentation and
normally around 5 to 7 Celsius, with return tempera-
composting, which occurs through microbes and
tures of between 10 and 15 Celsius. These low
enzymes; as well as thermal-chemical processes for
temperatures are necessary for cooling and the dehumid-
instance, pyrolysis, liquefaction or gasification. Among
ification of indoor air.
these processes, the most widespread is burning of the
When the high temperature source or waste heat
solid biomass and heat production for heating buildings.
(>110 Celsius) is available during the summer, heat can
Modern biomass solid fuels are made through
be turned to cold with an absorption cooling system.
processing the remains of forest biomass, agricultural
Instead of hazardous refrigerants, which contain
plants and energetic plants (e.g. willow, poplar and
chlorine and fluor, binary solutions of the substances are
Chinese reeds). Before being burned, they are processed
used whereby one of them absorbs the vapour of the
into various shapes: chopping pieces, pellets, briquettes
other. This liquid is called absorbent; the substance it
or bales. The advantages are that these fuels are easier to
absorbs, on the other hand, is known as cooler. The most
transport, provide better efficiency of boiler installations
commonly used substances are water and ammonia, or
and feature lower emissions during burning. In some
water and lithium bromide. The co-generation systems
cities, a distribution system similar to the oil supply
can be upgraded with an absorption cooling system. In
system has already been established.
this case, the system is referred to as triple generation
When burning wood biomass, besides common pollu-
(simultaneous production of heat, cold and electricity).
tants, different organic compounds (CxHy) and small
Therefore the waste heat can be utilized throughout the
amounts of heavy metals (mercury, lead and chrome)
year and the efficiency of the co-generation system is
contained in wood occur. Modern technologies for
much higher.
burning wood biomass have automatically regulated fuel
Although, district cooling systems are most
and air intake, as well as automatically removing the ash,
widespread in the US, applications also exist in Europe.
and there are filters for eliminating unburned particles
In Sweden, the first system was built in 1992. Today,
from exhaust gases. These kinds of installations are expen-
however, over 20 district cooling systems, covering a
sive; it is better to build bigger units for district heating.
length of 85km, are in operation. In France, five systems
Denmark provides a good example. After introducing
are in operation; the largest is in Paris, with a cooling
environmental coal taxes in 1990, 37 district heating
power of 220MW. In Germany, local systems of district
operators decided to substitute coal with wood chips.
cooling are the most common. They use absorbtion
Various types of liquid fuels can also be made from
cooling systems, which are connected to the hot water
biomass, among which bio-ethanol and bio-diesel are the
network of district heating.
most important for motor vehicles. Bio-ethanol is
produced through the fermentation of plants containing
Integrating renewable energy sources
sugar, starch or cellulose. Fermentation is a natural chemi-
Unlimited use and great potential are the main character- cal process, where microbes in water and plants in
istics of renewable energy sources. Most of them present solution use sugar and emit residues in the form of alcohol
very little or no danger to the environment. They can be and CO2. The amounts of alcohol produced from differ-
used by individuals or they can be part of a larger central ent agricultural plants are given in Table 12.2.
supply system, such as biomass and thermal solar systems The best known case of using bio-ethanol is a
for district heating systems or solar cells and wind programme in Brazil, where 70 per cent of the worlds
turbines for electricity generation. production occurs. Measurements of environmental
pollution have shown that air pollution in Rio de Janeiro
and So Paolo sank by one-quarter between 1978 and
1983.
276 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Source: Singh, 1998; Renewable Energy World, 1999

Figure 12.16 Wood pellets (left) and transportation of the baled straw from storage into a boiler in a central plant of a
small-sized district heating system (right)

Bio-diesel, however, is produced by processing heating solar systems are solar collectors mounted on the
vegetable oil. It is produced by compression of seeds of roof or faade of the building. Solar collectors can also be
oil rape, soya, sunflower, peanuts and other plants that used for heating settlements using district hot water
have oil in their seeds. Natural oil can be added to fossil heating systems. Solar systems can operate with a central
diesel fuel or is processed in ester for example, rapeseed or divided field of solar collectors, and with smaller, short-
oil methyl ester (RME). RME contains about 7 per cent term (daily) or bigger, seasonal heat storage.
oxygen; therefore, the emissions are lower. It is also Central field systems are composed of a large number
biodegradable. Up to 900 litres of fuel can be produced of large-panelled flat-plate collectors, which are placed
per hectare of agricultural land sown by the oil plants. on the ground on one spot. This kind of system is used in
Over 50 RME refineries operate in Europe and in numer- the Danish town of Marstal, where the largest solar
ous countries it is already possible to buy bio-diesel in heating system for district heating with 8000m2 of solar
petrol stations. collectors is used. As a rule, solar heating with divided
collector fields has roof-integrated solar collectors.
Solar-assisted district heating Systems with daily heat storage are designed in such
a way that on a sunny summers day, the entire required
Solar energy can by converted to heat using a device
amount of hot water is prepared; in winter, on the other
called the solar collector. Together with a thermal storage,
hand, about 10 to 20 per cent of the heat needed for
piping network, pump and control unit, this comprises an
domestic heating is produced. The size of the field
active thermal solar system. The most popular hot water
Table 12.2 Amounts of alcohol produced from different agricultural plants
Plant Annual production of bio-ethanol
tonne/hectare/year litre/tonne litre/hectare
Sugarcane 5090 7090 35008000
Sweet corn 4580 6080 17505300
White beet 1550 90 13505500
Wheat 46 340 13502050
Rice 2.55 430 10752150

Note: 1 hectare = 10,000 square metres.

Source: Medved and Novak, 2000
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 277

There are more than 50 solar-assisted district heating

systems that operate in Europe with a surface SC of
between 500 and 8000m2 and with a total heat power of
over 40 megawatts. Experience shows that large solar
systems can be successfully complemented with other-
wise cheaper renewable energy, such as biomass and
waste heat.

Heating with geothermal energy

Heat that is stored within the Earth is called geothermal
energy. It originates from the natural radioactive decay of
uranium, thorium and potassium isotopes. Therefore,
geothermal energy is constantly being renewed. Heat
emerges from the Earths core in various ways.
Source: Renewable Energy World, 1998
Geothermal water originates from atmospheric precipita-
Figure 12.17 Vehicles can be supplied with bio-diesel fuel tion, which penetrates deep into porous layers where they
in numerous filling stations heat up. These layers are known as aquifers. The average
temperature gradient is 30 Celsius per kilometre of
depth, but in areas where tectonic plates are joined it can
reaches between 0.03 to 0.05 square metres of solar reach up to 100 Celsius per kilometre.
collectors per square metre of the building heated area. Geothermal energy is exploited in various ways. The
With the seasonal heat storage systems, heat is stored oldest form represents the capture of thermal springs.
between summer and winter in water reservoirs. Because Rainfall, which trickles through porous rock into great
of seasonal heat storage, the SC field can be bigger (0.2 to depths, warms up and comes back to the surface through
0.3m2 per 1m2 of the heated building area); the container natural cracks in the ground or artificially made
volume, on the other hand, amounts to 2m3 per each 1m2 boreholes. It comes to the surface in the form of hot water,
of the SC. The portion of the buildings heating and hot seldom as steam. After energetic exploitation, it must be
water supply is between 50 and 80 per cent. pumped back into aquifers in order to prevent thermal
pollution of the surface water and to maintain the
pressure potential of the aquifer. In areas where no
aquifers are to be found, non-porous rock at larger depths
is crushed by explosion. After that, water is diverted into
a formed artificial aquifer, and afterwards pumped out
again as hot water or steam. This method of geothermal
energy exploitation is called hot dry rock. Geothermal
energy can also be pumped using vertical heat exchang-
ers in pipe form, which are called vertical borehole heat
exchangers. Because of lower temperatures, borehole
heat exchangers are used as a heat source for heat pumps.
In cities, geothermal energy is used for various
purposes, such as road heating, greenhouse heating for
food production and as an energy source for district
Note: A total of 1260 buildings are connected to the district heating heating. In 1930, Reykjavik started to use district heating.
system. Later on the system was expanded and today the entire
Source: Large Scale Solar Heating, 1999 city is heated this way. Geothermal energy is also used in
Paris, where seven systems of district heating were built
Figure 12.18 The solar collectors field of the biggest between 1980 and 1985. In Switzerland, where the use of
solar system for district heating in the Danish town of heat pumps is quite common, several thousand borehole
Marstal; the white cylindrical vessel, in the lower left heat exchangers are used. However, except in Italy, there
corner next to the solar collectors field, is a 2000m3 large are no thermal springs in Europe with temperatures high
heat storage, which is sufficient for one days heat enough that would be sufficient for producing electricity.
accumulation
278 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Note: One hundred and twenty-three single-family houses have solar collectors installed on their roofs with a total amount of 3000m2 of surface; together
with the buried 4500m3 water heat storage, 50 per cent of heat required for domestic heating and hot water supply is produced by the solar system.

Source: Large Scale Solar Heating, 1999

Figure 12.19 One of the first solar systems for settlement heating built in Germany operates in Hamburg

The potential of geothermal energy varies according way by using mirrors to focus solar radiation. The energy
to the geological structure underground. Thus, it repre- of the sun, however, can be converted into electricity
sents a significant source of renewable energy, first of all, without thermal processes by using devices called photo-
in Iceland, Austria, Germany, France, and in the countries voltaic cells. They are made of semiconductors, mostly
along the Panonian lowland in central Europe. Its usage, from silicon. Photovoltaic cells consist of two layers of
however, is associated with some environmental impacts silicon, each with different electromechanical characteris-
due to sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) tics, which are connected to an outside electric circuit
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions, which are removed through which the generated low-voltage electric current
from geothermal water before its energetic exploitation, is transported. Because of their fragility and smallness,
and because of saline fluids in it, which are corrosive. photovoltaic cells are linked to modules and these are
further linked to systems. Single appliances, a building or
Photovoltaic systems a settlement can be powered by using photovoltaic
systems. The former are the low-power consuming devices
By converting heat into mechanical work, electricity is
and machines, such as lamps, parking meters and radio
generated in thermoelectric and nuclear power plants.
transmitters, and the latter are buildings, away from the
Today, two-thirds of electricity is produced using this
public grid, and where we do not want to use fossil fuels,
method. Solar thermal power plants function in a similar

Figure 12.20 Different ways of exploiting geothermal energy: thermal aquifers (left), hot dry rock (middle)
and borehole heat exchanger (right)
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 279

Source: Singh, 1998 Figure 12.22 Luminaries with solar cell in the city park
Figure 12.21 Reykjavik is the only capital that provides
space heating entirely with geothermal energy According to a forecast, the electric power of photo-
voltaic systems in Europe should increase from todays 52
which pollute the environment. For example, all buildings megawatts to 2000 megawatts and as much as 65 per cent
within national parks within Slovenia should be equipped of all modules should be integrated within buildings
with photovoltaic systems. envelopes by 2010.
Larger systems of solar cells are called photovoltaic
power plants. Buildings with integrated photovoltaic Wind energy
energy systems are of special interest for the electricity The use of wind energy for transportation, water pumping
generated in cities. These systems use specially and milling has been known for thousands of years. In
designed modules of solar cells in the shape of tiles, Europe, 50,000 small wind turbines were in operation
faade panels, shading devices and windows. They are since 1850. After the invention of the steam engine, their
used as a substitute for the common elements of the numbers rapidly declined, until recently. Large high-
buildings envelope, and in this way reduce the system efficiency wind turbines have become cost-effective as
installation costs. Furthermore, modules have a large life electricity generation units. They have also become larger
span and they do not need a lot of maintenance, as is the and cheaper. The modern wind turbine is 150m tall, has a
case with most construction elements of the buildings rotor diameter of 100m and provides 3 megawatts of
envelope. Through electricity generation, solar cells do electrical power. Several wind turbines are connected in
not cause any environmental pollution in terms of wind farms. They can be located on a citys surrounding
emissions and noise, and this is of extreme importance hills and on shores or (off shore) on the sea, and are
for cities. connected to the main electricity supply grid.

Note: Shading can be managed and glare controlled by choosing the right density of installed solar cells within window glass.

Source: European Directory of Renewable Energy Suppliers and Services, 1994

Figure 12.23 The modules of solar cells can be made in the form of tiles, window glazing and faade panels
280 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

production because solar and wind energy complement

each other: PV in summer; wind in summer and winter;
PV during the day; wind at night.

Water resources and management

Water represents the basis of life. Human health and the
development of mankind depend a great deal upon water
quality and a sufficient water supply. The science that
studies the hydrological cycle on Earth is called hydrol-
Source: Singh, 1998 ogy. The processes of water movement in the lithosphere
Figure 12.24 Off-shore wind farm (land) are treated by hydrogeology; those of water and
water vapour circulation in the atmosphere by hydro-
meteorology. Due to the radiation of the sun that reaches
In the future, wind turbines will be constructed in the Earths surface, water circulates continuously. This
two ways as small units on industrial and office build- circulation is called the hydrological cycle. It is estimated
ings or as large units as an integral part of specially that around 23 per cent of the suns radiation is consumed
designed buildings. Wind turbines can be combined with by this cycle. The amount of water involved is uncertain.
photovoltaics (PV) to ensure more constant electricity Land is divided into two areas: arid or dry regions, and
humid or wet regions. Water does not flow away from dry
areas because precipitation evaporates before inland
surface waters can be formed.
In cities, water and water surfaces have numerous
functions. They improve microclimate and level daily
temperature oscillations; they enabled transportation, as
well as tourist and sporting activities; they render possi-
ble the production of mechanical work and electricity;
and they provide storage of water for fire protection, to
mention just a few functions. One of the most important
functions is, of course, as a citys drinking water supply.
The total amount of water on Earth is estimated to be
1.36 109km3; but only 3 per cent of this quantity occurs in
the form of freshwater liquid. Water availability, as well as
water quality, are also important factors. The main water
source for water abstraction varies a great deal from
country to country. In Spain, Belgium, The Netherlands
and Finland there is surface water. In Switzerland,
Slovenia and Denmark, on the other hand, there is
groundwater. In Malta, an important portion of drinking
water is provided through desalination of sea water. In
Europe, it is estimated that 53 per cent of water is used in
industry, 26 per cent in agriculture, and 19 per cent in
households. Water use in Europe has increased from
100km3 in 1950 to 560km3 in 1990, which represents
about 20 per cent of the available sources. Local condi-
tions, however, can differ a great deal in terms of critical
circumstances.

Source: EnerBuild RTD, 2002

Figure 12.25 Building-integrated wind turbines

 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 281

600
Atmosphere
+41 +5
+48

Water demand in Europe (km3/year)

+5 +407 +5 500
89
412 10

5 +41 41 +5 5 +5 400

300
+89 10 +10
Hydrosphere
53
+412 200
448 +36
100

Oceans Land
0
Figure 12.26 Estimated amount of water within 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
the hydrological cycle in millions of cubic metres Source: Europes Environment, 1995
(atmosphere, hydrosphere, arid regions, humid regions, Figure 12.27 Increasing water use in Europe during
lithosphere, oceans, land) the last 50 years

Water supply in cities metals, minerals and salts, and the eruption of sea water
into fresh groundwater. The problem is even more urgent
Water streams in cities are either natural (surface water
because of very slow natural replenishment of ground-
or groundwater) or artificial (waterworks and sewage
water. The speed of the groundwater replenishment in the
system). A citys water supply depends upon its water-
majority of the cases does not exceed a few metres per
works. The increasing use of water is the result of a
month, or even per year.
growing population and industrialization, as well as of
Therefore, the protection and prudent use of existing
broader use (e.g. for use in agriculture). Statistical evalua-
water sources is necessary. In this way, enlarging of exist-
tions show us that the use of drinking water in cities
ing water sources can be avoided. Various measures are
depends upon their size. Higher use in larger cities is an
possible:
effect of a smaller number of people in lodgings, a higher
number of appliances, as well as of leaking water works
Water consumption (litres/person per day)

between 25 and 30 per cent in France, and even 50 per 500

cent in Spain and the UK, in particular cases.
More than 65 per cent of the population in Europe 400
depends upon groundwater as a source of water supply.
In the rural surroundings of many cities, however, water 300
abstraction through pumping is greater than groundwater
inflow, resulting in decreasing levels of groundwater. This
affects vegetation, as well as the bearing capacity of the 200
ground in the city, where building damage may occur.
100
Water management
Due to increasing pollution of the water circulating in the 0
Urban Rural Urban Urban
hydrological cycle in the atmosphere, the sources of settlements settlements settlements settlements
drinking water are less and less usable. Water pollution is >20,000 >50,000 >100,000
the result of numerous human activities, such as uncon- inhabitants inhabitants inhabitants
trolled municipal and industrial waste disposal; the use of Source: Medved and Novac, 2000
nitrates and pesticides in agriculture; the discharge of Figure 12.28 Daily use of freshwater per capita:
noxious substances; as well as the effect of natural geolog- bottom represents minimum values;
ical characteristics, which are linked to wash-out of top represents maximum values
282 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Reducing water consumption through technical fixes, surface streams or reused (grey water). However, this
such as the installation of percolators on water taps; way of managing waste water is rather expensive and
toilets with variable quantities of flushing water (low- therefore is not used very often. On the other hand, over
flow toilets); public campaigns and promotions; the 95 per cent of buildings are connected to the mixed-type
implementation of water metering. sewage systems in big cities, even more (up to 99 per
Substituting drinking water with grey water more cent).
than 60 per cent of water use in households can be Waste water has caused many infectious diseases. It
replaced with clean waste water (grey water) and contains a lot of organic matter as a result of food leftovers
rainwater where there is no need for sanitary and human excreta, which represent the food for micro-
concerns, such as water for flushing toilets, laundry organisms and rodents, as well as due to the presence of
and car washing, garden watering and residence phosphate (the consequence of using purifiers and
cleaning (Figure 12.29). washing powders in households). For this reason, in
Tightening up water networks, which is not just modern settled cities waste water is purified in municipal
important for water savings but also for energy waste-water treatment facilities (which were first built in
savings that are required for pumping. 1960 and 1970) before being discharged into rivers, lakes
or seas. Waste water is cleaned mechanically (removing
Waste water treatment sand and degreasing), chemically (neutralizing the swill)
and biologically (decomposing organic ingredients). The
After use, water is polluted; therefore, waste waters from
capacity of purifying plants is measured by the popula-
households and industry are collected and drained off by
tion equivalent (PE) that is, a unit of water burdening
sewage systems. Moreover, many city and building areas
per capita per day. A schematic diagram of a modern,
are covered with material that is impermeable to water
small waste treatment facility is given in Figure 12.30.
(e.g. roofs and roads). As a result, groundwater must be
collected and drained away. Roughly speaking, there are
two types of sewage systems mixed and separate Material flows in cities
systems. In the first case, we collect and drain away both
waste water and rainfall; in the second, we do this There is a constant inflow into cities of huge quantities of
separately. The latter is especially effective when non- very diverse matter that we require for our survival (food)
polluted rainfall is collected (for instance, from buildings or for producing goods. Transformation of this matter and
roofs), which can be led away into underground streams, the production of goods emit part of these substances into
air or water; a portion of unused matter remains as
50
Water consumption (litres/person per day)

40

30

20

10

0
Bath WC Laundry Dish Drinking
showers washing Cooking
Source: Medvec and Novac, 2000

Figure 12.29 Water consumption in households for different needs; all sites provided with rainwater
should be marked with a sign that makes clear that water is not potable
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 283

Note: Mechanical parts are removed from waste water on screen (01); in a grit chamber and grease catcher (02) sand is collected at the bottom and the
grease skimmed. Biological decomposition of organics by micro-organisms takes place in two aeration tanks (04) into which air is blown; micro-organisms
consume organics as their food. Sludge is being removed periodically, dewatered in a sludge digester (05) and disposed of. Purified water is being pushed
into an outflow shaft and from there into the nearby river. The treatment plant shown is of a closed type due to the vicinity of a settlement, so all appli-
ances are situated in closed spaces under the ground. Air, which contains smelling matter, is pumped into a bio-filter (06), thus preventing the stench from
spreading into the surroundings.

Source: Water, 1999

Figure 12.30 Municipal purifying plant with the capacity of 8000 population equivalents (PE)

leftovers. The former are known as emissions, the latter In developed countries, 250 to 500kg per capita of
as waste. Waste represents liquid, gaseous or solid state municipal waste is produced in a year. The correlation
materials, which the owner does not want to preserve or between standard of living and waste production in cities
use. As a result of all human activities, waste matter also shows that, because of a higher living standard, the
originates in urban areas. According to its origins in the amount of waste is increasing, above all, as a result of food
urban environment it can be physiological (human and leftovers and packaging. The structure of municipal waste
animal excreta), a product of human activity (households, in which organic waste and (despite recycling campaigns)
restaurants, offices, industry, remains of demolished paper products abound confirms this fact.
buildings, etc.) or natural (leaves, grass, etc.). We call it Besides municipal waste in urban areas, hazardous
municipal waste. Increasing amounts of municipal waste waste is also produced, such as batteries, paint, oil and
are evident in all countries, and its quantity correlates to medicaments, as well as industrial waste and refuse from
the standard of living. hospitals and research institutes. Although the amount
is smaller, it represents a much greater threat to the
284 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

160 30

140

Municipal waste (106 tonnes/year)

25
Municipal waste (106 tonnes)

120
20
100

80 15

60
10
40
5
20

0 0
1975 1980 1985 1990 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
GDP (109 )
Source: Europe Environment, 1995

Figure 12.31 Municipal waste generation in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
countries (left); municipal waste generation in relation to gross domestic product (GDP) (right)

environment and therefore must be collected separately. waste incineration is the effective reduction of its volume,
Furthermore, it demands special transport and final to about 20 per cent of the former content. The technol-
treatment. ogy originates from the UK, where, more than 100 years
ago, waste incineration was developed. In modern incin-
Waste treatment erators the released heat is used for generating electricity.
However, incinerators are rather expensive and therefore
There are various technologies in use for municipal waste
only big facilities (in which the average annual amount of
treatment. A huge amount of waste contains matter that
burned waste reaches 100,000 to 200,000 tonnes) are
can be reused or recycled in raw materials. Thus, the
being built. Yet, through waste incineration heavy metal
volume of the waste is reduced, as well as the energy
emissions occur (cadmium, lead, mercury, chromium,
consumption for the production of raw materials. In Table
12.3, possible reduction of energy consumption and pollu-
tion through the recycling of varied materials is shown. 100%
The amount of waste that is recycled varies a great Other
90
deal from country to country. It is estimated that in Metals
Europe between 20 per cent (Norway, UK) and 60 per 80 Glass
cent (The Netherlands) of waste paper is recycled; up to Plastic
70
60 per cent of aluminium is recycled; and between 20 Paper,
(Norway, Greece, UK) to 63 per cent (The Netherlands) 60 paper
products
of glass is recycled. Re-use and recycling represent the
50 Food,
waste treatment methods through which the least garden
emissions are caused. 40 waste
Municipal waste also contains organic substances,
30
which can disintegrate into compost in composting facili-
ties and then be reused as a fertilizer in gardening and 20
agriculture. This method of waste treatment occurs in
Spain, Portugal, Denmark and France, where between 6 10
and 21 per cent of collected municipal waste is 0
composted. Composting is especially effective when used B GR FIN UK
in households in their own environment. Source: Europe Environment, 1995
In large cities, another effective method for waste
treatment is waste incineration. The main purpose of Figure 12.32 Structure of municipal waste in selected
European countries
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 285

Table 12.3 Possible reduction of energy consumption and pollution by recycling of various materials
Aluminium Steel Paper Glass
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Impact on energy
consumption 9097 4774 2374 432
air pollution 95 85 74 20
water pollution 97 76 35 -
mining industrial waste - 97 - 80
water usage - 40 58 50

Source: Europe Environment, 1995

zinc, etc.). Furthermore, there are also emissions of The most widespread way of treating municipal waste
unburned residues and gases, which cause the acidifica- is disposal on a landfill. Sanitary landfills are public struc-
tion of precipitation (such as HCl, SO2 and NOx). These tures with special requirements in relation to site
emissions can be substantially reduced in contemporary selection, preparative arrangements, operation, closing,
purification plants. However, this matter is also found in and final completion and restoration. During the prepara-
ash and scoria, which occur in large quantities (300 to tion phase, rainwater and leakage are drained into the
500kg per tonne of dry burned waste) after burning and disposal purification plant. The bottom of the landfill and
gas purification. The proportion of municipal waste its sides are boarded with an impermeable layer (e.g.
treated in incinerators is greater in countries with devel- clay), which is covered with plastic liners. Waste is spread
oped systems of waste treatment and smaller in countries out in thin layers and compacted simultaneously with
where this does not occur. various machines. Within the pressed waste, decay of the
In larger incineration plants, the released heat can be organic matter (through anaerobic fermentation and
used for steam production and electric power generation. without the presence of oxygen) takes place. A landfill gas
First of all, the waste is ground and mixed up; in this way is released during the process, consisting mainly of
the combustible compounds are distributed evenly. The methane (45 to 55 per cent) and CO2.
waste is then fed into the boiler, where it burns through In uncontrolled waste disposals (open dumps), landfill
the addition of air and fossil fuels. The hot exhaust gases gas soars in the atmosphere and thus increases the green-
are cooled using water that turns into vapour and which house effect. Methane is the most dangerous greenhouse
expands in a turbine, thus producing mechanical work gas besides CO2. Landfills are, worldwide, the main
needed for electricity generation. The exhaust gases are cause, next to agriculture, of greenhouse gas emissions.
cleaned in semi-dry scrubbers, in which sulphur oxides Therefore, the landfill gas is collected and burned on
are eliminated, and in fabric or electrostatic filters, which atmospheric burners, called the torch. In this way, the
retain solid particles. The cost of the energy, produced by spreading of odours into the surrounding landscape and
incineration, is today quite high. Firstly, due to the low the danger of explosion is reduced. The share of landfilled
cost of waste removal and the high cost of the incinera- municipal waste varies between countries: 50 per cent in
tors and, secondly, because of the very strictly conducted Denmark and France, 93 per cent in the UK and 100 per
combustion process as a consequence of the severe cent in Slovenia. In larger disposal sites, we can use
regulation of the permissible exhaust gas emissions.
However, waste removal is going to be much more expen- Table 12.4 Share of the incinerated municipal waste in
sive in the future. Moreover, new incineration various countries and the European average share
technologies with better efficiency will be available. In Country Percentage of incinerated
spite of rigorous emission regulations and comprehensive municipal waste
emission controls, local public opinion is important and is Austria 11%
very vocal about expressing its concern about emissions Germany 36%
of dioxin and heavy metals. Nevertheless, until 2010, in UK 7%
Europe the rate of municipal waste incineration is The Netherlands 35%
projected to grow from todays 22 per cent up to 30 per Denmark 48%
cent. Analyses show that greater composting of organic France 42%
EU (average) 22%
waste and increased recycling should also increase the
caloric value of waste. Source: Europe Environment, 1995
286 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

years to reach the maximum of the natural production of

the methane. Later on, the reaction process slows down
as the organic matter content diminshes. Although
methane is produced for 50 to 100 years, the quality of
the landfill gas is only suitable for energy recovery during
the first 10 to 20 years.
Sanitary landfills occupy a large surface area and they
have a great impact on the appearance of the landscape.
In the long term, the extent of landfilled, biodegradable
municipal waste should strongly decline (possibly by 75
per cent until 2010): for these wastes, composting seems
to be more than adequate. This will affect the potential of
the landfill gas in the future. Nevertheless, the power
generated from these installations for the production of
electricity is expected to rise from todays 700 megawatts
to 1400 megawatts.

Influence of waste treatment technologies

Source: http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/atlas on the environment
Figure 12.33 A contemporary waste incinerator in Regardless of the selected waste treatment technology,
Birmingham, UK we cannot avoid its impact on the environment.
Fortunately, everyone can influence the amount and
landfill gas for the production of heat and electricity. In type of waste in all phases of the life cycle of matter or
1970, it was first used in the US, and soon afterwards in products. The elementary way of solving waste problems
Europe. At the design stage, it is important to estimate is by reducing their quantity. With product design,
the potential of landfill gas. Although chemical processes designers can use methods of product assessment
start right away after waste is deposited, it takes many throughout the whole life cycle of a product. This method

High-pressure
steam from boiler

High-pressure
steam to turbine
Clean flue gas Existing boilers
to atmosphere for top-up
Combustion and standby
Turbo alternator
air drawn from Flue gas lime
above refuse scrubber LP turbine
Generator HP turbine
Bag filters
Economizer
Boiler

Hot water
Power lines piped to
buildings

Household Scrap metal

refuse extraction

The district
heating scheme
Exhaust
fan
Combustion Residue Flue Chimney
air fan ash ash
Source: http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/atlas

Figure 12.34 Schematic diagram of a typical municipal waste incinerator with energy recovery
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 287

Generator set Flare and pumping equipment

Pumped
sump
Manhole Polyethylene Dewstering
cover pipe wellhead
Well liner

Typical landfill gas extraction and flaring plant arrangement

Source: http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/atlas

Figure 12.35 Schematic diagram of a sanitary landfill Note: One thousand tonnes of municipal waste from the nearby city
(approximately 340,000 inhabitants) is landfilled daily. Two piston engines
coupled with electric generators have 1.2 megawatts of power. For the
is regulated by the group standard ISO 14000 and is
gas capture, there are 64 vertical perforated pipes, with a diameter of
known as life-cycle assessment (LCA). With environmen-
200mm. If the quality of the gas is not suitable for the piston engines, it
tal labelling of products, we can offer customers the
burns automatically on the torch. This disposal site, in relation to its scale,
possibility of product choice in relation to its environmen-
represents a typical urban municipal sanitary landfill with energy recovery
tal friendliness.
from the landfill gas.
Individuals can make a significant contribution to
waste reduction and recycling. This process can be very Figure 12.36 Engines and generators where landfill gas is
effective, but has to be supported by the city community being used for heat and electricity production
through regaining public consciousness, promotion and

Table 12.5 Impact of waste treatment technologies on the environment

Technology of the Air Water Soil Ecosystems Urban environment
waste treatment
Landfills Emissions of methane Increasing rates of Accumulation of the Risk of hazardous Exposure to
(CH4) and carbon salts, heavy metals, hazardous material in matter intake into hazardous
dioxide (CO2), and and organics in the the soil the food chain matter
odours groundwater
Composting Emissions of CH4 and Risk of hazardous
CO2, and odours matter intake into
the food chain
Incineration Emissions of Excretion of hazardous Flying ash and Risk of hazardous
sulphur dioxide (SO2), matter on water disposal of residues matter intake into
nitrogen oxide (NOx), surfaces remaining after the the food chain
hydrochloric acid (HCl), exhaust gas purification
carbon monoxide (CO),
CO2, dioxin, heavy
metals (zinc, lead,
copper, arsenic)
Emissions
Recycling Emissions of dust Release of waste Appearance Noise
water disturbances
288 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

effective organization of waste treatment. Removal of

waste should be organized in relation to population
density, and transport routes should be carefully planned.
Experience from a small town with a population of 50,000
shows us that a reduction of 2.8 to 2.5 litres of fuel per
tonne of transported waste is possible (Grmek and
Medved, 2000).

Synopsis
Population numbers in urban areas have been continu-
ously growing, resulting in a decreasing rural population
over the last few decades. The great concentration of
people in cities, however, requires a very intensive supply
of energy, water, food and other resources that are
required in peoples everyday life. Decreasing the citys
ecological footprint is an important task on the way to
achieving sustainable cities. In addition to improving the
economic and sociological quality of life in cities, the Source: www.eco-label.com
rational use of land, energy and materials is an important Figure 12.37 European daisy, which is used to label
step in this grand effort. environmentally friendly products; among the criteria
there is also the possibility of recycling and natural
decomposition

References
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Grubler, A. (1988) Technology and Global Change, Cambridge
conditioning Engineers) (1996) HVAC Systems and University Press, Cambridge www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/ert/
Equipments, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia, US dsm_hi.html
Atkinson, G., Dubourg, R., Hamilton, K., Munasinghe, M., Hewitt, M. and Hagan, S. (eds) (2001) City Fights: Debate on
Pearce, D. and Young, C. (1997) Measuring Sustainable Urban Sustainability, James and James, London
Developments, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, International District Energy Association (nd),
Cheltenham www.districtenergy.org
Cross, B. (ed) (1994) European Directory of Renewable Energy International Energy Agency (nd) www.iea.org
Suppliers and Services: Photovoltaics in Buildings, James & International Energy Agency (nd) District Heating and
James, London Cooling, Including the Integration of CHP, Annex VI,
Directorate-General for Energy (DG XVII) (1996) Energy in www.iea.org/textbase/publications/index.asp
Europe: A Scenario Approach; ECSC-EC-EAEB, European Kitanovski A. and Poredo? A. (2000) District Cooling,
Commission, Brussels SITHKO, Ljubljana
Ecological footprints (nd), www.earth.day.net/footprints.stm Krasevec, R. E. (1998) Ljublanas Health Profile, Institute of
EnerBuild RTD (nd) Wind Enhancement and Integration Public Health of the Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia
Techniques to Enable the Productive Use of Wind Landfill gas (nd) www.europa.eu.int/comm/energy_trans-
Energy in the Built Environment, ERK6-CT-1999-2001 port/atlas
ENERBUILD Energy Research Group Dublin, Research Lechner, N. (1991) Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Design Methods
Directorate General European Commission for Architects, John Willey and Sons, Toronto
Energetika Ljubljana (1995) District Heating in Ljubljana, JP Lewis, J. O. (1999) A Green Vitruvius: Principles and Practice
Energetika, Ljubljana, Slovenia of Sustainable Architectural Design, James and James
Grmek, M. and Medved, S. (2001) Implementation of Science Publishers, London
Directive IPPC, Faculty for Mechanical Engineering, Masters, C. M. (1991) Introduction to Environmental
Ljubljana, Slovenia Engineering and Science, Prentice Hall International
Editions, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, US
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 289

Medved, S. and Novak, P. (2000) Environmental Engineering Stanners, D. and Bourdeau, P. (ed) (1995) Europes
and Renewable Energy Sources, University of Ljubljana, Environment: The Dobris Assessment, European
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia Environment Agency, Copenhagen
Municipal waste (nd) www.europa.eu.int/comm/energy_ Sustainable Urban Design (nd) Energy: General Information,
transport/atlas EC, Energy Research Group, University College Dublin,
Municipality of Ljubljana (2000) Water, Periodic Publication, Ireland
Municipality of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Dalenbck, J.-O. (1999) European large-scale solar heating
Pogacnik, A. (1999) Urbanistical Planning, University of network thermie project, DIS/1164/97, Chalmers
Ljubljana, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia University of Technology, Goteborg, http://wire.ises.org/
Renewable Energy World (1998) From the Field to the Fast wire/doclibs/EuroSun98.nsf/id/1A880E3F0CED45FCC12
Line: Biodiesel, James & James, London 56771003045F0/$File/DalenbaeckIII28.pdf
Renewable Energy World (1999) Biomass: Does Renewable Twidell, J. and Weir, T. (1986), Renewable Energy Resources,
Mean Sustainable? James and James Science Publishers, E. & F. Spon Ltd, New York, US
London Zupan, M. (1995) Thermal Insulation of Residential Buildings:
Singh, M. (1998) The Timeless Energy of the Sun, Sierra Club IR Approach, ZRMK, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Books and UNESCO, San Francisco, California, US

Recommended reading
1 Stanners, D. and Bourdeau, P. (ed) (1995) Europes can be greatly enriched by integrating the environ-
Environment: The Dobris Assessment, European ment with the macro-economic picture.
Environment Agency, Copenhagen 3 Hewitt, M. and Hagan, S. (eds) (2001) City Fights:
Europes Environment is a detailed and comprehen- Debate on Urban Sustainability, James & James,
sive review of the state of the environment in Europe. London
The book is clearly structured and its information is This book presents aspects from a wide variety of
accessible. The topics are divided into chapters disciplines, with the aim of developing sharp ideas
dealing with the state of the environment in eight about making better and more sustainable cities
different fields, including air, water, soil, nature, according to environmental, social and economical
wildlife and urban areas. Chapters describe the terms. The different views described in the book
pressures on the environment, such as emissions and bring into focus the complexity and diversity of the
waste, and examine the source of environmental issues involved. It is a useful source of knowledge to
pressures that arise from human activities in different all with a common interest in the future of cities.
sectors, including energy and resource management. 4 Twidell, J. and Weir, T. (1986) Renewable Energy
2 Atkinson, G., Dubourg, R., Hamilton, K., Resources, E. & F. Spon Ltd, New York
Munasinghe, M., Pearce, D. and Young, C. (1997) Renewable Energy Resources covers a subject of
Measuring Sustainable Developments, Edward Elgar increasing technical and economic importance. It is
Publishing Limited, Cheltenham divided into numerous chapters and describes differ-
The focus of this book is on the theory and practice of ent renewable energy sources. Each chapter begins
economic development as viewed from the perspec- with a fundamental theory from a physical science
tive of sustainability. The authors are not overly perspective, then considers applied examples and
concerned with detail, but focus on the implications developments. Chapters then conclude with a set of
of sustainability for development policy. The book problems and solutions. The book is intended both for
shows that traditional discussions and analyses of basic study and for application.
savings and investments at the micro-economic level
290 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 5
Describe the most important energy sources for a citys Describe what you know about the use of renewable
energy supply. energy sources in the urban environment.

Activity 2 Activity 6
Which emitted pollutants released by the burning of fossil Describe the importance of the water supply in the urban
fuels are most dangerous for human health and the environment.
environment?
Activity 7
Activity 3 Which waste treatment technologies are primarily used
Describe four basic demand-side energy management in cities?
strategies.

Activity 4
Describe central supply systems for heating and cooling
in the urban environment.
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 291

Answers
Activity 1 Activity 2
Energy sources can be divided into two groups: renew- Among the emitted pollutants from the burning of fossil
able and non-renewable fuels. The former have the fuels, the most threatening to the environment are carbon
characteristic of renewing themselves in nature. dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
According to their origins, they are divided into: (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), dust particles and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). For a complete answer,
solar radiation, emitted by the sun, which can be describe the influence of each pollutant on humans and
converted into heat and electricity, and which origi- the environment.
nates wave, wind and hydro energy and biomass;
the planetary energy of the moon and the sun, which Activity 3
together with the Earths kinetic energy cause tidal
Four basic demand-side energy management strategies
action;
are:
heat emerging from the interior of the Earth towards
its surface, and which is known as geothermal energy.
1 Peak-load clipping seeks to reduce energy consump-
tion at the time of daily peak. Examples include utility
However, the rapid development of civilization that we
or user control of appliances such as air conditioning
have been facing during the last two centuries was only
or water heating, or a timer for water heating.
possible due to the intensive use of natural (non-renew-
2 Valley filling smoothes the load and improves the
able) energy sources: fossil fuels and nuclear power. Fossil
economic efficiency of systems. For example, electri-
fuels coal, petroleum and gas represent the various
cal vehicles can be charged at night when electricity
forms of energy accumulated during the past evolutionary
use is lower then during the day.
era of the Earth. Coal is the most widespread fossil fuel
3 Load shifting can be accomplished through measures
on Earth. It took several millions years to turn the trees
such as thermal storage; heat or cold can be provided
and other plants buried among the sediments and alluvia
and stored in a form of sensible or latent energy when
under high temperatures, pressure and chemical
consumption is low and can be used during high
processes into coal. Beside carbon and hydrogen, coal
consumption periods.
consists of sulphur, nitrogen, ash and vapour. At larger
4 Practice energy conservation. Lower consumption of
depths, different kinds of heat reactions took place
energy sources can be achieved by individuals and
because of greater temperatures and pressure. Vapour
cities, as a whole. As tenants, we can affect energy
partially extracted sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen; on the
use, for example, with improved thermal insulation of
other hand, organic substance started to decompose into
our building; another possibility is more efficient
liquid molecules. This is how petroleum came into
ventilation with heat recovery, and buying the most
existence. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and
energy-efficient appliances.
nitrogen. Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons and is distilled
in oil refineries before use. At even greater depths,
Activity 4
gaseous fossil fuel has been formed: natural gas that
contains carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. It liquefies District heating and cooling systems transport heat and/or
through very high pressure; therefore, it is transported by cold as steam, hot or chilled water using pipelines. The
gas pipelines. Nuclear fuels are an important source of system consists of three primary components: the central
energy. The best known are uranium, plutonium and plant, the distribution network and the users heating
thorium. In peacetime, only uranium isotope U235 is used. systems. The heat source in a central plant can be a boiler
Nuclear energy is released by splitting the atom nuclei. or a waste incinerator, or renewable energy sources such
The atom nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei after it has as geothermal energy, biomass or solar energy. A piping
captured a neutron; new neutrons are also released, which network conveys the energy between the source and the
launches the chain reaction. buildings. In most cases, the district pipelines and the
building service system are separated by a heat exchanger.
District heating and cooling systems are expensive
and they can be used in case of high thermal load density.
292 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

In this case, district systems are cost-effective in densely pumping costs are lower. Supply temperatures are
populated (at least 50 buildings per hectare) urban areas, normally around 5 to 7 Celsius, with return tempera-
for high-density building clusters with high thermal loads tures of between 10 to 15 Celsius. These low
or in industrial complexes. These district systems have temperatures are necessary for cooling and the dehumid-
significant thermodynamic, economic and environmental ification of indoor air.
advantages compared with individual systems, as follows:
Activity 5
A larger central plant can achieve higher thermal
Modern biomass solid fuels are made through processing
efficiency than smaller ones. The differences are even
the remains of forest biomass, agricultural plants and
larger in the case of partial load operation because
energetic plants (e.g. willow, poplar and Chinese reeds).
larger plants operate with more heat sources, which
Before being burned, they are processed into various
can switch off separately.
shapes: chopping pieces, pellets, briquettes or bales. The
Larger units can be adapted to the use of various fossil
advantages are that these fuels are easier to transport,
fuels, thus making it possible to utilize the least
provide better efficiency of boiler installations and feature
expensive fuel. Furthermore, sources of waste heat
lower emissions during burning. In some cities, a distri-
and renewable energy can be exploited.
bution system similar to the oil supply system has already
District heating and cooling systems have the advan-
been established.
tage of measuring energy consumed by users with
Various types of liquid fuels can also be made from
simple remote heat meters, as well as the possibility
biomass, among which bio-ethanol and bio-diesel are the
of efficient remote surveillance of the systems opera-
most important for motor vehicles. Besides being the most
tion.
popular hot water heating solar systems, with solar collec-
Heating and cooling systems that are operated by
tors mounted on the roof or faade of the building, solar
personnel can be reduced because less mechanical
collectors can also be used for heating settlements using
equipment in buildings requires less maintenance.
district hot water heating systems. Solar systems can be
Usable space in buildings increases when boiler- or
projected with a central or separate field of solar collec-
chiller-related equipment and fuel storage are no
tors, and with smaller short-term (daily) or bigger seasonal
longer needed.
heat storage.
Emissions from central plants are easier to control;
The energy of the sun, however, can be converted into
air pollution caused by the transportation of fuels to
electricity without thermal processes by using devices
consumers and ash removal are reduced, as is the
called photovoltaic (PV) cells. Single appliances, a build-
danger of spillage of liquid fossil fuels in case of road
ing or a settlement can be powered through PV systems.
accidents.
Larger systems of solar cells are called photovoltaic power
In the case of district cooling systems, the leaking of
plants. Buildings integrated within photovoltaic energy
environmentally unfriendly refrigerants can be
systems are of special interest for electricity generated in
monitored readily in a central plant.
cities. These systems use specially designed modules of
solar cells in the shape of tiles, frontage panels, shading
There are two types of district cooling systems: open and
devices and windows. They are used as a substitute for
closed. With open systems, cold water from deep pits and
the common elements of the buildings envelope, and in
larger sea depths (500 to 1000m), which is pumped onto
this way reduce the system installation costs.
the surface, flows through heat exchangers. Water is
Furthermore, modules have a long life span and they do
cooled in a central water pipeline. In this case, the cold
not need a lot of maintenance, as is the case with
source water temperature should not exceed 5 Celsius.
construction elements of the buildings envelope.
For example, seawater has been used to cool the central
Geothermal energy is exploited in various ways. The
system in Stockholm since 1995.
oldest form represents the capture of thermal springs.
In closed systems, cooling energy can be produced in
Rainfall, which trickles through porous rock into great
a central plant. Chilled water can be produced by an
depths, warms up and comes back to the surface through
electricity-driven compressor. In the central unit, peak
natural cracks in the ground or artificially made
electricity consumption is lower, as cold can be effectively
boreholes. It comes to the surface in the form of hot water,
stored. Cooling energy can be transported by cold water,
seldom as steam. After energetic exploitation, it goes back
ice slurry or brine to buildings. Through the use of slurry
into aquifers in order to prevent thermal pollution of the
and saltwater, the temperatures of the cooling medium
surface water and to maintain the pressure potential of
are lower; therefore, smaller quantities are required and
 APPLIED ENERGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 293

the aquifer. In areas where no aquifers are to be found, Reducing water consumption through technical fixes,
non-porous rock at larger depths is crushed through the such as the installation of percolators on water taps;
use of hydraulics. After that, water is diverted into a toilets with variable quantities of flushing water (low-
formed artificial aquifer, and afterwards pumped out again flow toilets); public campaigns and promotions; the
as hot water or steam. This method of geothermal energy implementation of water metering.
exploitation is called hot dry rock. Geothermal energy Using relatively small portions of drinking water for
can also be pumped using vertical heat exchangers in pipe drinking and washing; more than 60 per cent of water
form, which are called vertical borehole heat exchangers. use in households can be replaced with cleaned waste
Because of lower temperatures, borehole heat exchangers water (grey water) and rainwater where there is no
are used as a heat source for heat pumps. need for sanitary concerns, such as water for flushing
Large high-efficiency wind turbines have become toilets, laundry and car laundry, garden watering and
cost-effective as electricity generation units. They have residence cleaning.
also become larger and cheaper. The modern wind Tightening up water networks, which leads to water
turbine is 150m tall, has a rotor diameter of 100m and savings and will also reduce the amount of energy
provides 3 megawatts of electrical power. Several wind required for pumping.
turbines are connected in wind farms. They can be
located on a citys surrounding hills and on shores or (off Activity 7
shore) on the sea, and are connected to the main electric-
There are various technologies in use for municipal waste
ity supply grid.
treatment. Waste contains matter that can be reused or
When burning wood biomass, besides common pollu-
recycled in raw materials. Thus, the volume of waste is
tants, different organic compounds (CxHy) and small
reduced, as is the energy consumption for producing raw
amounts of heavy metals (mercury, lead, chromium)
materials. Municipal waste also contains organic
contained in wood occur. Modern technologies for
substances, which disintegrate into compost in compost-
burning wood biomass have automatically regulated fuel
ing facilities, and are then reused as a fertilizer in
and air intake, as well as automatically removing the ash,
gardening and agriculture. This method of waste treat-
and there are filters for eliminating unburned particles
ment occurs in Spain, Portugal, Denmark and France,
from exhaust gases. These kinds of installations are expen-
where between 6 and 21 per cent of collected municipal
sive. It is better to build bigger units of district heating.
waste is composted. Composting is especially effective
Denmark provides a good example. After introducing
when used in households in their own environment. In
environmental coal taxes in 1990, 37 district heating
large cities, another effective method is also waste incin-
operators decided to substitute coal with wood chips.
eration. The main purpose of waste incineration is the
The exploitation of geothermal energy is associated
effective reduction of its volume to about 20 per cent of
with some environmental impacts due to SO2, H2S and
the former content. Yet, through waste incineration heavy
NO2 emissions, which are removed from geothermal
metal emissions occur (e.g. cadmium, lead, mercury,
water before its energetic exploitation, and because of
chromium and zinc). Furthermore there are also
corrosive saline fluids in it.
emissions of unburned residues and gases, which acidify
precipitation (e.g. HCl, SO2 and NOx). These emissions
Activity 6 can be substantially reduced in contemporary purification
Water pollution is the result of numerous human activi- plants; however, ash and scoria still remain in large
ties, such as uncontrolled municipal and industrial waste quantities after burning and gas purification.
disposal; the use of nitrates and pesticides in agriculture; The most widespread way of managing solid waste,
the discharge of noxious substances; as well as the effect of which prevails in cities, is still disposal in a landfill site.
natural geological characteristics, which are linked to Sanitary landfills are very exacting public structures with
wash-out of metals, minerals and salts, and the eruption of special requirements in relation to site selection, prepara-
sea water into fresh groundwater. Therefore, the protec- tory arrangements, operation, closing, and completion
tion and prudent use of existing water sources is necessary. and restoration. Within the pressed waste, decay of the
In this way, the expensive expansion of existing water organic waste occurs through anaerobic fermentation. A
sources can be avoided. Various measures are possible: landfill gas is released during the process. It consists
mainly of methane (45 to 55 per cent) and CO2.
13
Economic Methodologies
Vassilios Geros

Scope of the chapter discounted payback method;

net cash-flow method;
The aim of this chapter is to cover the principal methods simple payback method;
of economic evaluation that can be used to calculate the unadjusted rate of return method.
economic impact of an investment project. By applying
these methodologies, one can estimate the economic Introduction
effectiveness of various building-retrofitting scenarios, as
well as the efficiency of different types of building compo- The evaluation of a building project by using economic
nents. For example, some of the methodologies concern methodologies can be an important tool in designing
costbenefit evaluation methods (i.e. the comparison buildings. These methods provide the means to investi-
between the receipt and the disbursement of an invest- gate various economic aspects of an investment project
ment during a certain time period in order to evaluate the (e.g. insulation of the roof or replacement of the shading
economic efficiency of the investment). devices). Therefore, they permit evaluations of various
scenarios and help the designer to decide which of the
Learning objectives alternative solutions is economically appropriate.
In this chapter, two categories of methods are
Upon completing a study of this chapter, readers will be presented. The first category covers discount techniques,
able to: while the second one concerns non-discount techniques.
The main difference between these two is the fact that the
evaluate the effectiveness of a building project from first category takes into account the time value of money
an economic point of view; (i.e. how the value of money changes through time: an
compare various alternatives scenarios and decide amount received or paid at some point in the future is not
which one is more cost-effective; worth as much as the same amount today). The second
perform various economic-related calculations, from category does not consider this parameter. Generally, the
simplified to more detailed approaches. application of this type of technique is simpler and gives
a quick estimation of the economic performance of an
investment.
Key words
Key words include: Economic methodologies
economic methodologies; It is important to clarify the term economic methodolo-
discount techniques; gies. This term refers to well-defined approaches in order
non-discount techniques; to understand various economic phenomena. These
life-cycle cost method; methods are adapted from various fields of economics and
net savings method; other related areas, and are used to investigate the
internal rate of return method; economic phenomena associated with buildings.
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 295

Table 13.1 A simple cash flow example that compares for each time step (e.g. yearly) of the examination period,
two alternative solutions such as operating and maintenance costs, as well as
Year Cash receipts (+) Alternative Alternative energy savings.
Cash disbursements () scenario 1 scenario 2 Table 13.1 presents a simple example where two alter-
(Euros) (Euros) native scenarios are compared. This table summarizes the
0 Equipment cost 9000 11000
cash flows for the two examined situations. According to
Installation cost 2000 2500 this example, after the purchase and the installation of the
1 Maintenance cost 700 1200
equipment the cash flows are limited only to maintenance
Energy savings +1500 +2200 costs and the cash receipts due to the energy savings.
2 Maintenance cost 700 1200
Energy savings +1500 +2200 Discount techniques
3 Maintenance cost 700 1200
Energy savings +1500 +2200 Using an index called a discount rate, it is possible to
4 Maintenance cost 700 1200 compare the various investment alternatives. The advan-
Energy savings +1500 +2200 tage of this index is that it considers the time value of
money (i.e. the fact that the value of money changes with
time).
Therefore, it is useful to summarize the major building In this category of methods, money that is due to be
energy issues in order to review these methods. These received now is worth more than money due to be
issues primarily include economic feasibility (financing received far in the future. Because of the time value of
decisions, purchase decisions and design/sizing money, the difference in the timing of cash flows can make
decisions), as well as economic impact (employment, one investment more attractive than another.
environment and energy-related impact). The discount techniques use the discount rate, which
Questions such as the following should also be is chosen according to the type of the investment project.
answered. Do the examined systems, components or The use of these methods allows the comparison of cash
techniques have a cost-effectiveness potential (i.e. are flows at different times. For example, if the discount rate
savings higher than costs over the long run)? What types is d, it is equivalent to receive F today or F(1 + d) in one
of designs and/or sizes are potentially more cost-effective? year:
Is it possible for a system to be financed? What are the
impacts on the environment and the energy aspects? Fj
Generally, the costs and benefits are the main param- Fj(0) = (1)
(1 + d)j
eters that describe an investment project when the
investment is realized. In this simplified case, the cash where j is the year; d is the discount rate; Fj(0) is also
flow is the sum of the cash receipts (this parameter can be called present value of a future account of income.
considered positive) and the disbursements (contrary to
receipts, this parameter can be considered negative) Table 13.2 presents an example of the use of the discount
during one or more time periods frequently, the lifetime rate. In this example, the discount rate is considered
of the project. If the user wants to compare different alter- equal to 3 per cent and the initial cash flow equates to
natives by using this basic approach, the cash flow for 100. According to this example, the initial amount of
each alternative must be estimated. But the important and money after four years is equal to 112.6.
sometimes quite difficult and time-consuming part of the
procedure is to have an accurate economic evaluation of Table 13.2 An example of the use of the discount rate
the necessary cash flows. This determination also requires
the evaluation of both direct and indirect cash flows. Year Cash flow (Euros)
(discount rate = 0.03)
Another aspect that is important when comparing
alternatives is to determine if there is enough money for 0 100
the initial cost. In this case, an alternative scenario can be 1 100(1 + 0.03) = 103.00
2 100(1 + 0.03)2 = 106.10
rejected due to a high investment cost, even though it can
3 100(1 + 0.03)3 = 109.30
provide great savings. 4 100(1 + 0.03)4 = 112.60
On the other hand, it is essential to have acceptable
cash flows during each year of the evaluation. In this case,
it is important to estimate precisely the various cash flows
296 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

The discount rate should be chosen carefully because this

6 Base case
value strongly influences the result and, therefore, the
Alternative 1
comparison between the alternative solutions with very
5
different net cash flows. Furthermore, it is possible to use
a different discount rate for each time step of the calcula- 4
tion in order to increase the accuracy of the method.

Years
3
Life-cycle cost method
2
A method for evaluating the economic performance of a
system or a component is the life-cycle cost (LCC) 1
method. This method includes the sum of the relevant
percentage and future costs that concern an energy 0
system or component, minus any positive costs (e.g.
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4
salvage values). This summation is performed for the LCC (thousand )
current or annual value of money over the studied period.
The various costs include the facilitys energy costs, Figure 13.1 A graph showing the comparison of
equipment and/or system costs, maintenance costs, and two alternative solutions by using the life-cycle
repair and replacement costs. The LCC can be calculated cost (LCC) method
by using the following formula:
N the procedure that compares the alternative solutions, it
LCCA1 = (C
j=0
A1 BA1)j / (1 + d) j
(2) is possible to size and/or design an energy system or
component. The objective of this method is to minimize
the overall LCC for a facility by finding the appropriate
where CA1 is the cost in year j for the system (A1) being combination of sub-systems/components.
evaluated (j = 0 indicates the cost at the beginning of the The use of the LCC method is more suitable when
period); BA1 is the benefits (positive cash flows) in year j the economic analysis focuses on the cost rather than on
for the system (A1) being evaluated; d is the discount rate. the benefits. Additionally, when the projects budget is
limited, the use of this method gives the possibility of
The use of the LCC method permits one to determine if a rejecting projects or increments to projects in order to
project is cost-effective. Furthermore, it gives the possi- have higher savings due to investment for the completion
bility of finding which combination of the projects of the projects (although they have lower LCC than the
components that meet the performance requirements can other alternatives).
minimize the long-term costs. In order to evaluate various An example that compares a hypothetical base-case
alternatives, it is possible to compare their LCC, or to scenario with an alternative one is presented in Table 13.3
compare the LCC of an energy system or component with and Figure 13.1. According to this example, the alterna-
the base case. In this case, if the performance of the tive scenario 1 has the greatest LCC and therefore is more
compared systems is equal, the one that has the lower cost-effective than the base-case scenario.
LCC is the most cost-effective. Consequently, by using

Table 13.3 An example of the life-cycle cost (LCC) method that compares two alternative solutions
Year Base-case scenario Alternative scenario 1
Net cash flow (Euros) LCC(bc) (Euros) Net cash flow LCC1 (Euros)
(CA(bc) BA(bc)) (d = 3%) (Euros) (CA1 BA1) (d = 3%)
0 8000 8000.00 10,000 10,000.00
1 600 8582.52 200 10,194.17
2 1600 7074.37 2800 7554.91
3 1600 5610.14 2800 4992.51
4 1600 4188.56 2800 2504.75
5 1600 2808.39 2800 89.44
6 1600 1468.42 2800 2255.51
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 297

Net savings or net benefits method

7
Another method that can be used to evaluate the
economic performance of a buildings system or compo- 6
nent is the net savings (NS) or net benefits (NB) method.
5
The NS or NB method can be used to decide if a project
is cost-effective. The use of this method determines the

Years
4
net difference between two alternative systems, in
present or annual, as follows: 3

NSA1:A2 = LCCA2 LCCA1 (3) 2

1
where LCCA1 is the life-cycle cost for the system A1;
LCCA2 is the life-cycle cost for the system A2. 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
NS [Base Case: Alter 1] (thousand )
or
Figure 13.2 A graph showing the comparison of two
N alternative solutions by using the net savings (NS) method

(BA1 BA2)j (CA1 CA2)j
NBA1:A2 = (4)
j=0
(1 + d)j
Internal rate of return method
where: BA1 are the benefits (positive cash flows) for the
The current method can also be utilized to evaluate the
system A1; BA2 are the benefits (positive cash flows) for
economic performance of a buildings system or compo-
the system A2; CA1 is the cost for the system A1; CA2 is the
nent. The internal rate of return (IRR) method can be
cost for the system A2; d is the discount rate.
used to find the discount rate that gives a net present
value equal to zero when applied to the cash flows of a
A project is cost-effective if NS or NB is positive. As in
project. The main concept of the method is focused on
the previous method, this one can be used to find the best
calculating the minimum internal rate of return at which
project design and size. Furthermore, the net savings or
the investment is still cost-effective. There are two
net benefits are calculated for each design and size. The
versions of this method. The first one, the unadjusted
highest result of NS or NB method indicates the optimal
version, requires the solution of the following equation
choice.
for the interest rate i:
Table 13.4 demonstrates the use of the net savings
method. This example is the same as in the life-cycle cost N

(BA1 BA2)j (CA1 CA2)j
method, but includes the NS calculation procedure and (CA1o CA2o) = 0 (5)
compares the base case scenario (bc) with an alternative j=1
(1 + i)j
solution (A1). The NSBaseCase: Alter1 represents the net
where i is the interest rate; CA1o is the cost at the begin-
savings of these two scenarios.
ning of the period for the system A1; CA2o is the cost at the
beginning of the period for the system A2.

Table 13.4 An example of the LCC method that compares two alternative solutions
Year Base-case scenario Alternative scenario 1
Net cash flow (Euros) LCC(bc) (Euros) Net cash flow LCC1 (Euros) NSBaseCase: Alter1
(CA(bc) BA(bc)) (d = 3%) (Euros) (CA1 BA1) (d = 3%) (Euros)
0 8000 8000.00 10,000 10,000.00 2000.00
1 600 8582.52 200 10,194.17 1611.65
2 1600 7074.37 2800 7554.91 480.54
3 1600 5610.14 2800 4992.51 617.63
4 1600 4188.56 2800 2504.75 1683.82
5 1600 2808.39 2800 89.44 2718.95
6 1600 1468.42 2800 2255.51 3723.93
298 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

BOX 13.1 SOURCE CODE IN C LANGUAGE FOR PERFORMING THE NECESSARY

CALCULATIONS OF THE IRR METHOD
// file cflow_irr.cc
// author: Bernt A Oedegaard

#include <cmath>
#include <algorithm>
#include <vector>

#include fin_algorithms.h

const double ERROR=-1e30;

double cash_flow_irr(vector<double>& cflow_times, vector<double>& cflow_amounts) {

// simple minded irr function. Will find one root (if it exists.)
// adapted from routine in Numerical Recipes in C.
if (cflow_times.size()!=cflow_amounts.size()) return ERROR;
const double ACCURACY = 1.0e-5;
const int MAX_ITERATIONS = 50;
double x1=0.0;
double x2 = 0.2;

// create an initial bracket, with a root somewhere between bot,top

double f1 = cash_flow_pv(cflow_times, cflow_amounts, x1);
double f2 = cash_flow_pv(cflow_times, cflow_amounts, x2);
int i;
for (i=0;i<MAX_ITERATIONS;i++) {
if ( (f1*f2) < 0.0) { break; }; //
if (fabs(f1)<fabs(f2)) { f1 = cash_flow_pv(cflow_times,cflow_amounts, x1+=1.6*(x1-x2)); }
else {f2 = cash_flow_pv(cflow_times,cflow_amounts, x2+=1.6*(x2-x1)); };
};
if (f2*f1>0.0) { return ERROR; };
double f = cash_flow_pv(cflow_times,cflow_amounts, x1);
double rtb;
double dx=0;
if (f<0.0) { rtb = x1; dx=x2-x1; }
else { rtb = x2; dx = x1-x2; };
for (i=0;i<MAX_ITERATIONS;i++){
dx *= 0.5;
double x_mid = rtb+dx;
double f_mid = cash_flow_pv(cflow_times,cflow_amounts, x_mid);
if (f_mid<=0.0) { rtb = x_mid; }
if ( (fabs(f_mid)<ACCURACY) || (fabs(dx)<ACCURACY) ) return x_mid;
};
return ERROR; // error.
};
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 299

This equation may have multiple solutions or no solutions. 35

The adjusted version of the equation, to be solved for i, is: Base case
30

Net present value (thousand )

Alternative 1
N 25

[(BA1 BA2)j (CA1 CA2)j](1 + rj)Nj

(CA1o CA2o) = 0 20
j=1
(1 + i)N
15
(6) 10
5
where rj is the reinvestment rate. 12.1
0
The decision rule is to accept a project if its IRR exceeds 3.4%
5
the investors minimum acceptable rate of return (or its 10
IRR is higher than the alternatives). 10% 5% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
As previously mentioned, the IRR is the discount rate Interest rate
that makes the current value of an income cash-flow total Figure 13.3 A graph showing the comparison of
equal to zero. Generally, there is no closed-form solution two alternative solutions by using the internal rate
for the IRR. In order to find a solution, it is necessary to of return (IRR) method
adopt a repetitive method. The basic procedure for these
methods is to start with an initial value for the IRR and to
perform the calculation. According to the result of this In Table 13.5 and Figure 13.3, an example of the IRR
calculation (how close to zero is the result of the method is presented for a ten-year time period. According
equation?) a different IRR value is used and repeated to this example, the use of the alternative scenario is more
until the equation is as close to zero as desired. profitable because the IRR is about three times the IRR
In order to apply the IRR method, it is possible to use of the base case.
the following source code in C, as presented in Box 13.1.
This approach will find only an interest rate. If there
Discounted payback method
is more than one IRR solution, one can graph the current The payback period is the necessary length of time in
value as a function of interest rates, and use the graphical which to recover the initial cash flow. The payback period
representation to evaluate when an investment meets the can be calculated by using both discount and non-
profit requirements. discount techniques. This section presents the discounted
In the case of a single initial investment without any payback method (the non-discounted technique is
further investments, Equation 6 is simplified to the presented in the following section). For the comparison of
following, when considering only one system: two different building systems or components, the
1/j
method determines the time, according to the time step
CA1
IRR = ( )
CA1o
1 (7)
of the calculations, required for the cumulative difference
in future cash flows of one energy system relative to an

Table 13.5 An example of the internal rate of return (IRR) method that compares two alternative solutions
Year Base-case scenario Alternative scenario 1
Net cash flow (Euros) IRR(bc) Net cash flow (Euros) IRR1
(CA(bc) BA(bc)) (CA1 BA1)
0 8000 10,000
1 900 1000
2 1200 2300
3 1200 2300
4 1200 2300
5 1200 3.4% 2300 12.10%
6 1200 2300
7 1200 2300
8 1200 2300
9 1200 2300
10 1200 2300
300 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

alternative system to just equal the difference in their

8 Base case 8 years
initial investment costs.
The method requires finding the minimum solution 7 Alternative 1
value of PB: the number of the time periods (e.g. years), 6
6 years
for which the first part of the following equation is equal 5

Years
to the difference of the costs at the beginning of the 4
period: 3
PB 2

(BA1 BA2)j (CA1 CA2)j
(CA1o CA2o) (8) 1
(1 + d)j
j=1 0

In order to calculate the payback period for a single build- 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4

ing energy system or component, the following equation Total running (thousand )
can be applied: Figure 13.4 A graph showing the comparison of
PB two alternative solutions by using the discounted

(BA1 CA1)j
CA1o (9) payback method
j=1
(1 + d)j

For the simple payback method, d = 0. initial investment. On the contrary, the alternative
This methodology can be used as an index in order to scenario is more effective and gives a payback period of
estimate the projects cost-effectiveness. When the about six years.
payback period of a project is less than the expected
projects life, then this project can be considered as cost- Non-discount techniques
effective.
It is important to clarify that the payback period Non-discount techniques are simpler to use than discount
method does not provide a complete economic analysis. techniques. An investment project that concerns a build-
The project with the shortest payback period may not be ings energy system or component has an initial cost
the best investment and may not provide the expected (purchase and installation of equipment), plus other
return. Additionally, the method is quite defective as it expected cash outflows associated with the investment.
ignores the cash flow after the payback period, which is Additionally, the economic analysis of the project should
an additional economic benefit. take into account the various cash inflows, which are any
Table 13.6 and Figure 13.4 represent an example of current or expected revenues or savings directly associ-
the discounted payback period. In this example, the base- ated with the investment. By using these two parameters
case scenario of a project is compared with an alternative and without considering the time value of money, it is
solution. According to this example, the initial cost of the possible to investigate the economic performance of a
base case is recovered during the eighth year after the system or component.

Table 13.6 An example of the discounted payback method that compares two alternative solutions
Year Base-case scenario Alternative scenario 1
Net cash flow (Euros) Running total Net cash flow Running total Payback
(CA(bc) BA(bc)) (d = 3%) (Euros) (CA1 BA1) (d = 3%) period
0 8000.00 8000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00
1 600.00 8582.52 200.00 10,194.17
2 1600.00 7074.37 2800.00 7554.91
3 1600.00 5610.14 2800.00 4992.51
4 1600.00 4188.56 2800.00 2504.75
5 1600.00 2808.39 2800.00 89.44
6 1600.00 1468.42 2800.00 2255.51 Alternative1
(sixth year)
7 1600.00 128.44
8 1600.00 1211.53 Base case
(eighth year)
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 301

Three main methods are presented: the net cash flow,

Base case
the payback method and the unadjusted rate of return 4
Alternative 1
method.

Net cash-flow method 3

The net cash flow is a simple methodology that summa-

Years
rizes the various cash flows that occurred during the 2
realization of an investment project and permits the
economic evaluation of the project. This method also
1
compares various alternative projects and decides which
one is the most cost-effective.
Generally, a project has both receipts (cash inflows) 0
and disbursements (cash outflows), which provide a calcu-
lation of net cash flow. The net cash flow is the sum of cash 20 15 10 5 0 5
inflows and outflows that take place during the same Net cash flow (thousand )
studied period and during the same time intervals (e.g. Figure 13.5 A comparison between two alternative
yearly). Benefits may be gained through energy savings, solutions by using the net cash flow method
cost savings during operation, increased productivity, etc.
When energy related flows are part of the calculation
(e.g. energy savings), it is necessary to convert energy to where j is the year; E is the energy saving; c is the unitary
cash units in order to take into account these parameters energy price; g is the specific inflation rate
to the calculation of the net cash flow. In this case, the
evaluation of the energy cash flows may require consider- Table 13.7 and Figure 13.5 present a simple example of
ing a specific inflation rate g for the energy prices. The the method.
inflation rate may be used in order to correct other
periodic costs, such as operating costs. The energy cash Simple payback method
flow, which occurs at year j, can be calculated by using The simple payback method is like the discounted
the following formula: method without taking into account the time value of
money; therefore, it is less accurate. It is a technique that
Bj = E . c . (1 + g)j (10) estimates the amount of time it takes the net cash flows of
an investment to recover from the initial investment costs.
Table 13.7 Net cash flows of the two alternatives
Year Cash receipts (+) Alternative scenario 1 Alternative scenario 2
Cash disbursements () (Euros) (Euros)
0 Equipment cost 9000 11,000
Installation cost 2000 2500
Initial cost 1000 1250
Net cash flow 12,000 14,750
1 Maintenance cost 700 1200
Energy savings +1500 +2200
Net cash flow +800 +1000
2 Maintenance cost 700 1200
Energy savings +1500 +2200
Net cash flow +800 +1000
3 Maintenance cost 700 1200
Energy savings +1500 +2200
Net cash flow +800 +1000
4 Maintenance cost 700 1200
Energy savings +1500 +2200
Net cash flow +800 +1000
302 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

By using this method, one can accept a project investment

7 Base case 7 years
if the estimated payback period is less than the economic
Alternative 1
life of a project. When various alternative solutions are 6
compared, the most efficient solution is the one that has
5 5 years
the shortest payback period. Unfortunately, the simple
payback method does not account for the savings after the 4

Years
end of the payback period. But this method is helpful for 3
a first-cut analysis of a project as a screening tool. If a
project does not have a payback period less than a speci- 2
fied period, then parameters such as the risk due to 1
changing technology can possibly reject the project.
0
There are two types of payback methods. The first one
is the payback with equal annual savings, while the 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2
second one concerns the case of unequal annual savings. Total running (thousand )
The following equation can be used for the calcula- Figure 13.6 A comparison of two alternative solutions
tion of the payback period (PB) with equal annual savings: by using the simple payback method
CA1o
PB = (11)
BA1 CA1 Table 13.8 and Figure 13.6 give an example of the appli-
cation of the simple payback method. This example uses
where CA1o is the initial investment cost; BA1 CA1 is the the same net cash flow as in the case of the discounted
annual operating savings (e.g. the annual net cash payback method. As shown, the payback periods of the
inflows), which are constant during each time step of the base case and the alternative scenarios are reduced
project (benefits minus costs). compared with the discounted method (for the base case
from eight to seven years, and for the alternative scenario
If the annual cash flow differs from time step to time step, from six to five years). The absence of the discount rate
the payback period can be estimated by using the follow- from the present method reduces its accuracy; but the
ing equation in order to find the value of PB so that: simplicity of the methodology gives rapid results.
PB

(B
j=1
A1 CA1)j = CA1o (12)
Unadjusted rate of return method
The unadjusted rate of return (URR) method is a capital
budgeting technique in which one can quickly estimate a
where j is the time step of the studied period.
simple rate of return in order to evaluate an investment
opportunity. This method uses the average expected
income from the investment and expresses it as a percent-
age of the initial investment cost.
Table 13.8 An example of the simple payback method that compares two alternative solutions
Year Base-case scenario Alternative scenario 1
Net cash flow (Euros) Running total Net cash flow Running total Payback
(CA(bc) BA(bc)) (d = 3%) (Euros) (CA1 BA1) (d = 3%) period
0 8000.00 8000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00
1 600.00 8600.00 200.00 10,200.00
2 1600.00 7000.00 2800.00 7400.00
3 1600.00 5400.00 2800.00 4600.00
4 1600.00 3800.00 2800.00 1800.00
5 1600.00 2200.00 2800.00 1000.00 Alternative1
(fifth year)
6 1600.00 600.00 2800.00
7 1600.00 1000.00 2800.00 Base case
(seventh year)
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 303

The decision rule requires that a project must have a

Base case
minimum URR to be acceptable. When comparing alter- 7
native scenarios, the one with the higher URR is the most Alternative 1

Future annual income

6
effective.
The following simple formula can be used in order to 5
estimate the unadjusted rate of return: 4

Years
N

3
(BA1 CA1)j / N (13) 2
j=1
1 Initial investment cost
The primary advantage of the unadjusted rate of return is
0
its simplicity. The primary disadvantage is that the
technique fails to take into account the time value of 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
money. (thousand )
Figure 13.7 A comparison of two alternative solutions
by using the unadjusted rate of return (URR) method
Table 13.9 An example of the unadjusted rate of return (URR)
method that compares two alternative solutions
Year Base-case scenario Alternative scenario 1
Initial cost () and future URR(bc) Initial cost () and future URR1
annual net income )+) annual net income )+)
(Euros) (Euros)
0 5000 7000
1 700 600
2 800 800
3 900 12.00% 900 8.37%
4 700 500
5 600 400
6 300 600
7 200 300

Synopsis one does not include this parameter. In general, the first
category uses an index called discount rate, which consid-
The economic methodologies for evaluating a building ers the fact that the value of money changes with time. By
project are important tools when investigating the using this index, it is possible to compare different cash
efficiency of a project. The application of various flows that occur at different times. This category of
technologies, design approaches and systems in order to methods is more complicated than the second one, but
improve the indoor conditions in a building and to reduce the results are more accurate.
its energy consumption is usually evaluated only from the The second category, called non-discount techniques,
energy point of view; but the economic approach is is simplest and the relevant methods can be used for a
sometimes the main criterion for selecting a project from quick estimation of the economic efficiency of an invest-
the various alternatives. ment project. These kinds of techniques do not consider
In this chapter some basic economic methodologies the time value of money and simply take into account the
are presented. These methodologies are separated into various cash inflows and outflows in order to investigate
two main categories. The first category refers to methods the economic performance of a system or component.
that consider the time value of money, while the second
304 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

References
Atrill, P. and McLaney, E. (1994) Accounting II, Unit 3: Lott, C. (2002) The investment frequently asked questions
Investment Decisions, Open Learning Foundation (FAQ), www.invest-faq.com/articles/
Enterprises Ltd, www.eds.napier.ac.uk/flexible/OLF/ McCracken, M. (19982000) Teach Me Finance: Basic
materials/bs/MANAGEMENT%20ACCOUNTING/ Finance Concepts, www.teachmefinance.com/
06unit3.pdf Odegaard, B. A. (1999) Financial Numerical Recipes,
Brown, W. B. (1999) Problems in Microeconomics, Michigan www.finance.bi.no/~bernt/gcc_prog/algoritms/algoritms/
State University Department of economics, www.bus.msu. Peterson, P. P. (2001) Capital budgeting techniques, Florida
edu/econ/brown/pim/ State University, www. garnet.acns.fsu.edu/~ppeters/
Cottrell, M. D. (2000) Managerial accounting, Chapter 22: fin3403/pp01/day20.ppt
Capital investment decisions, www.panoptic.csustan.edu/ Polistudies (1998) A Multimedia Tool for Buildings in the
2130/22/ Urban Environment, SAVE Programme, Commission of the
Hazardous Waste and Toxics Reduction Program (2000) Cost European Community, XVII/4.1031/Z/96-121, Brussels
Analysis for Pollution Prevention, www.ecy.wa.gov/pubs/ West, R. E. and Kreith, F. (1988) Economic Analysis of Solar
95400.pdf Thermal Energy Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge,
Johnson, R. E. (1990) The Economics of Building: A Practical Massachusetts and London
Guide for the Design Professional, Wiley-Interscience, New
York

Recommended reading
1 West, R. E. and Kreith, F. (1988) Economic Analysis of specialized topics that are relevant to building
Solar Thermal Energy Systems, MIT Press, economics, including cost estimation, life-cycle
Cambridge, Massachusetts and London costing, cost indexes, capital budgeting, decision
This book is recommended because of the economic analysis and real-estate feasibility analysis. It devel-
methodologies that are presented. Although these ops these concepts within the framework of an
methodologies are oriented towards thermal energy integrated approach to design and management
systems, the main concept for a building project decision-making, simplifying where appropriate, but
remains the same. This book reviews the spectrum of never at the expense of intellectual content.
economic methods that have been developed from the Incorporating a number of sample spreadsheet
mid 1970s to the mid 1980s in order to analyse the models, The Economics of Building is a practical
feasibility of solar systems. The text also demonstrates resource and guide to the financial assessment of
how the use of these techniques has influenced feder- planning, design and management decisions about
ally sponsored research, development and buildings.
demonstration techniques. Additionally, the book 3 Atrill, P. and McLaney, E. (1994) Accounting II, Unit
reviews applications analysis, net energy analysis and 3: Investment Decisions, Open Learning Foundation
cost requirements for active and passive heating and Enterprises Ltd, www.eds.napier.ac.uk/flexible/OLF/
cooling, for electric power generation and for indus- materials/bs/MANAGEMENT%20ACCOUNTING/
trial process heat. The change in the costs of solar 06unit3.pdf>
systems over time is one indication of programme This report comprises material from the Business
success, and the book includes a useful summary of Studies Programme, a distance learning course of the
the cost histories of various solar programmes. Napier University at Edinburgh. In this report
2 Johnson, R. E. (1990) The Economics of Building: A various economic aspects are presented; basic
Practical Guide for the Design Professional, Wiley- concepts and terms are also explained. The text also
Interscience, New York clarifies how to use various economic techniques in
In this book, both an introduction to economic princi- order to make investment decisions. Furthermore,
ples as they relate to building design and a practical examples are given for each economic methodology
guide to putting these principles to effective use are in order to make clear its application.
presented. The book brings together a variety of
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 305

Activities
Activity 1 cooling requirements of the building. The second solution
suggests the installation of an evaporating cooling system
Simple payback period that is used to reduce the temperature of the introduced
An energy study of an office building requires the instal- fresh air. This measure can be quite effective as the
lation of new shading devices on the south side of the amount of fresh air that is required is quite important due
building. The total purchase cost plus the installation is to the high occupancy of the indoor spaces. For this
6500, while the annual cooling load reduction is specific building, when the previous mentioned measures
9kWh/m2 and the maintenance cost is considered null. are not taken into account, the annual electrical energy
Calculate the simple payback period of the shading consumption for cooling is close to 90kWh/m2, while the
system using the following additional information: total surface area is 150m2. The solution that requires the
replacement of the compressor (first solution) reduces the
The total floor area of the building is 1000m2. annual consumption for cooling by 15 per cent and the
The total coefficient of performance (COP) of the installation cost is 10,000 (no additional maintenance
cooling system is 1.6. cost is taken into account). The solution that proposes the
The cost of the electrical energy is 0.15 per kWh. evaporative cooling of the fresh air (second solution)
reduces the electrical energy for cooling by 21 per cent,
Activity 2 has an installation cost of 4000 and a maintenance cost
of 150 per year. If the cost of the electrical energy is
Life-cycle cost (LCC) method 0.15 per kWh, use the unadjusted rate of return method
An educational institution considers reducing the energy to evaluate which is the most cost-effective solution.
consumption for cooling. One of the measures that the
energy study of the building proposes is the installation of Activity 4
ceiling fans in order to increase the thermal comfort zone
of the building. This measure requires the installation of
Net savings (NS) method
one ceiling fan per 35m2. If the floor area of the building, A supermarket located in an individual building is being
where the fans are going to be installed, is 3850m2 and retrofitted and various measures are examined in order to
the electrical energy consumption is 12.2kWh per m2 per reduce the energy consumption of the building. The
year and 11kWh per m2 per year before and after the following two proposed measures should be evaluated
installation of the fans, respectively (the second value according to the net savings method.
includes the electrical energy consumption for operation The first scenario requires the replacement of the
of the ceiling fans), then use the life-cycle cost method in existing fluorescent lamps with more efficient ones. This
order to evaluate the economic efficiency of the scenario. measure reduces the number of lamps that are installed
The total installation cost per ceiling fan is 40, while the in order to achieve the same lighting levels as before
discount rate is 3 per cent (cost of the electrical energy is retrofitting occurred. In the initial installation, 1253
0.15 per kWh). lamps of 36 watts per lamp comprised the lighting
system, while after the retrofitting the number of lamps
Activity 3 is 1085 at the same wattage. Therefore, the installed
lighting power is decreased and this reduces the energy
Unadjusted rate of return (URR) method consumption for lighting. This also influences the cooling
In a fast-food restaurant, the requirements for cooling load of the building which is decreased as the internal
vary quite rapidly during the daily operation of the build- gains due to lighting are reduced. On the other hand, the
ing, following the peak of customer occupancy. A central heating load is increased for the same reason due to the
heat pump unit equipped with an air distribution reduction of the internal gains. The energy study of the
ductwork are the main elements of the cooling system building shows that the annual total electrical consump-
installation. The designer examines the use of two tion for heating is 64,669kWh per year, for cooling
solutions in order to reduce the energy consumed for 77,215kWh per year and for lighting 24,6552kWh per
cooling. The first solution proposes the replacement of year (the HVAC system fully consumes electrical energy),
the one-stage compressor by a variable speed one in order when the actual lighting system is used. When the more
to adjust the cooling capacity of the system to the variant efficient lamps are considered, the corresponding annual
306 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

reduction is 10 per cent for lighting and 4 per cent for occupants and reduce the cooling requirements of the
cooling, while the consumption for heating is increased building. For this measure the installation cost is close to
by 5 per cent. The installation cost is 6500, while no 1500 and the reduction of the cooling energy consump-
maintenance cost is considered. tion is 7 per cent of the actual situation. Furthermore, the
The second scenario examines the possibility of cost of the electrical energy is 0.15 per kWh and the
installing ceiling fans on the roof of the supermarket. This discount rate is 3 per cent.
kind of system can increase the comfort zone of the
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 307

Answers
Activity 1 where C is the cost in year j for the system being evalu-
ated; B is the benefits in year j for the system being
The annual cash flow due to the cooling energy reduction
evaluated; d is the discount rate.
(energy savings) is calculated by multiplying the cooling
load with the floor area of the building and the cost of the
Table 13.11 Net cash flow and life-cycle cost per year
electrical energy consumption, divided by the coefficient
of performance of the cooling system: Year Net cash flow () LCC ()
(C B) (d = 3%)
9[kWh/m2/year] 1000[m2]0.15[/kWh]/1.6 0 4400 4400.00
1 693 3727.18
= 844 per year 2 693 3073.97
3 693 2439.77
4 693 1824.05
Table 13.10 Net cash flow and running total per year 5 693 1226.26
Year Net cash flow Running total Payback 6 693 645.89
() () period 7 693 65.51
8 693 514.87
0 6500.00 6500.00
1 844.00 5656.00
2 844.00 4812.00 8
3 844.00 3968.00
4 844.00 3124.00 7
5 844.00 2280.00 6
6 844.00 1436.00
7 844.00 592.00 5
Years

8 844.00 252.00 8 years 4

3
The payback period of the shading system is eight years.
2
Activity 2 1
The annual reduction of the electrical energy consump- 0
tion is calculated by the following formula:
5 4 3 2 1 0 1
LCC (thousand )
(12.2[kWh/m2/year] 11[kWh/m2/year]) 3850 [m2] =
Figure 13.8 Life-cycle cost results of the project
4620kWh/year
Activity 3
Therefore, the annual financial gain due to the operation For the first solution, the annual gain due to the reduction
of the ceiling fans is: of the electrical energy for cooling is:
4620[kWh/year] 0.15[/kWh] = 693 per year 90[kWh/m2/year] 150m2 0.15 0.15[/kWh]=
The installation cost of the ceiling fans is: 303.75 per year
3850 [m2] / 35 [m2] 40[] = 4400 For the second solution, the annual gain is the following:
The life-cycle cost (LCC) method can be calculated by the 90[kWh/m2/year] 150m2 0.21 0.15[/kWh]=
following formula:
N 425.25 per year
LCC =
j=0
(C B)j / (1 + d) j
308 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Table 13.12 Results of the alternative scenarios for the unadjusted rate of return method
Year First solution Second solution
Initial cost () and future URR1 Initial cost () and future URR2
annual net income (+) annual net income (+)
() ()
0 10,000 4000
1 303.75 275.25 (425.25150.00)
2 303.75 275.25 (425.25150.00)
3 303.75 3.04% 275.25 (425.25150.00) 6.88%
4 303.75 275.25 (425.25150.00)
5 303.75 275.25 (425.25150.00)
6 303.75 275.25 (425.25150.00)
7 303.75 275.25 (425.25150.00)

As the annual cost and benefits are constant after the year Activity 4
of the installation, one can choose any period of year in
The heating, cooling and lighting electrical energy
order to calculate the URR for each scenario. For the
consumption for before the retrofitting situation is as
current situation, seven years have been chosen as the
follows:
period for the calculation of the URR by using the follow-
ing formula:
64,669[kWh/year] + 77,215[kWh/year] +
N

(B C) / N
j=1
j 246,552[kWh/year] = 388,436kWh/year
URR =
C0 For the first possible solution (replacement of lamps), the
where C is the cost in year j for the system being evalu- annual electrical consumption is:
ated; B is the benefits in year j for the system being
evaluated; Co is the initial cost. (64,669[kWh/year] 1.05) + (77,215[kWh/year] 0.96)

The higher the URR, the higher the cost-effectiveness. + (246,552[kWh/year] 0.9) = 363,926kWh/year
Therefore, according to the results, the most effective
solution is the second one that requires the installation of Therefore, the annual financial gain due to the energy
an evaporative cooling system in order to reduce the conservation is:
temperature of the fresh air that is handled by the HVAC
system. (388,436[kWh/year] 363,926[kWh/year])

0.15[/kWh] = 3676.50
7 1st solution
2nd solution
For the second examined solution (ceiling fans), the
annual electrical consumption is:
Future annual income

6
5
64,669[kWh/year] + (77,215[kWh/year] 0.93) +
4
3 246,552[kWh/year] = 383,031kWh/year
2
And the annual financial gain is:
1 Initial investment cost
0 (388,436[kWh/year] 383,031[kWh/year])

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 0.15[/kWh] = 810.75
(thousand )
Figure 13.9 Comparison of the alternative scenarios
for the unadjusted rate of return method
 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES 309

Table 13.13 Results of the alternative scenarios for the net savings method
Year Solution 2 Solution 1
Net cash flow () LCCA2 Net cash flow LCCA1 NSA2:A1
(CA2 BA2) (d = 3%) () (CA1 BA1) (d = 3%) ()
0 1500.00 1500.00 6500.00 6500.00 5000.00
1 810.75 712.86 3676.50 2930.58 2217.72
2 810.75 51.35 3676.50 534.87 483.53
3 810.75 793.30 3676.50 3899.39 3106.09
4 810.75 1513.64 3676.50 7165.91 5652.27
5 810.75 2213.00 3676.50 10,337.29 8124.30
6 810.75 2891.99 3676.50 13,416.30 10,524.32

According to the net savings (NS) method, for each alter- The NS is then calculated by using the following equation
native scenario the life-cycle cost is calculated as follows: for the scenarios A1 and A2:
N

LCC = (C B) / (1 + d)
j=0
j
j NSA1:A2 = LCCA2 LCCA1

Both solutions have a very quick amortization period; but

where C is the cost in year j for the system being evalu- the second one is the most cost-effective, with higher
ated; B is the benefits in year j for the system being positive cash flows.
evaluated; d is the discount rate.
14
Integrated Building Design
Koen Steemers

Scope of the chapter At a most fundamental level, an example of integrated

design is one in which the use of passive strategies is
This chapter provides an overview and demonstration of exploited to reduce the reliance on conventional mechan-
the interrelationships between architectural and techni- ical services. Thus, for example, shading devices reduce
cal parameters. The technical performance characteristics the reliance on mechanical cooling, and natural lighting
that are referred to include heating, ventilation, cooling strategies can limit the need for artificial lighting energy
and lighting, and they are linked to considerations of demand.
urban planning, building form, faade design and fabric One strategic aim of the integrated approach is to
design. avoid conflicts between architecture and technology. This
requires close collaboration between architect and
engineer at the beginning of the design process. This is
Learning objectives contrary to the common approach where an architect
designs a building first and then an engineer is expected
Upon completing this chapter, readers will be able to:
to make it work through the application of services (and
the use of energy to correct poor design decisions). If
understand the interrelationships between design and
energy considerations discussed broadly in Chapter 3
technical parameters;
and in more detail in other chapters are not integral to
describe the complexities and interactions.
the design solution, it becomes difficult to improve the
energy saving potential through the application of
Keywords technology alone. Thus, if a design does not integrate
natural ventilation strategies, then more energy-intensive
Keywords include: mechanical systems may be the only recourse without
fundamentally changing the building design.
integrated design; It has been argued that design integration is critical,
design methodology. and that the means to achieve this is through the early and
effective collaboration of the design team. The next step
is to describe more precisely what the procedure is, or
Introduction might actually be.
One could broadly outline three stages in integrated
This chapter argues that for the successful performance of
environmental design:
buildings, it is essential to consider all aspects that affect
energy use from planning to detailed materials specifica-
1 Define the problem and boundary conditions.
tions. These aspects have been discussed in detail in
2 Develop strategies and options in response to the
previous chapters. Here the emphasis is on integrated
criteria.
design. This implies an understanding of the relative
3 Apply tools and knowledge to evaluate the perform-
impacts of each parameter both those determined by
ance of the strategies.
design and those that can be described as technical in
order to achieve a balanced and holistic strategy.
 INTEGRATED BUILDING DESIGN 311

Three examples are provided below to demonstrate this urban context. It sets out to provide a framework of
approach: working that demonstrates and reminds the design team
of the range of issues and interactions through the design
1 In determining how to achieve appropriate indoor air process. It should not be considered a rigid process, but,
quality (IAQ) one of the key boundary conditions will rather, as a means of raising awareness of the integration
be the outdoor environment. Urban air pollution implications of a range of environmental and design
levels that are known, or can be predicted, and exceed parameters. IBDS is broadly based on the design stages
internationally or regionally set standards, will have a that are explained in more detail in Chapter 2.
significant impact upon the appropriate design The IBDS proposed here can be broken down into
response. The use of natural ventilation on a street four main sections:
side may be unacceptable, and thus an appropriate
ventilation system (probably mechanically driven) 1 principles of low-energy design;
with filtration will comprise one strategy. Another 2 pre-design context;
may be to draw the air for ventilating the building 3 building design; and
from somewhere away from the pollution source 4 building services.
(assuming that this has been determined), such as a
vegetated courtyard. The performance of such
options then needs to be tested and assessed using
Principles of low-energy design
tools and expertise before the appropriate design
This part of IBDS considers the roles of the key environ-
strategy can be identified.
mental design principles and the associated building
2 The need to achieve certain levels of ventilation for
physics that will impact upon the design. The focus here
cooling a building will be determined by the temper-
is on those factors that determine the energy performance
ature conditions in the urban microclimate. Proposals
of the buildings form and fabric, and the related comfort
to integrate, for example, thermal mass, ground pipes,
issues, and thus includes:
evaporative cooling and ventilation stacks will influ-
ence whether natural ventilation is sufficient, or
passive solar design;
whether mechanical systems will be required. The
daylighting;
performance of ventilation strategies can be evaluated
natural ventilation;
using computer modelling, which will inform the
comfort.
ultimate building solution.
3 The aim of reducing electrical lighting as a means of
This brief list is by no means exclusive and additional or
decreasing energy demand can be very effective.
alternative aspects could be included that are of particu-
However, it requires the design team to clearly define
lar relevance to the project in hand. However, it is
the problem notably, the presence of obstructions
proposed that the above factors are central to the context
to light, the potential conflict between daylighting
of energy-efficient urban design.
and solar shading, and problems with glare. The
Each aspect which can be further broken down into
response will involve a careful balance between key
sub-categories will have an impact upon strategies
design parameters, such as glazing ratios and plan
adopted for the buildings design and services, and
depth, to ensure the availability of natural light. A
provides the necessary principles upon which to base
critical condition that is required is the effective
decisions. The purpose of including these principles is
control of artificial lighting in response to daylight.
that they are central to explaining the physical mecha-
nisms that link design decisions with performance
These brief examples highlight the need for integrated
consequences.
thinking and design team collaboration. The following
section will develop a broader overview of such interrela-
tionships between architecture and technique. Pre-design context
Any project will have a number of pre-determined design
An integrated building design system constraints. These are determined by the site, the client
and the planning authorities, and thus include the follow-
This chapter aims to outline a structure and methodology
ing:
for an integrated building design system (IBDS) in an
312 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

site climate and context; 4 artificial lighting.

the building brief;
local building and planning regulations. It is clear that building design decisions should determine
the appropriate building services strategies. At a simple
Again, additional pre-design aspects could be included if level, if a deep plan is adopted, then increased mechani-
desired. Each of the above key factors will have a signifi- cal ventilation possibly even cooling as well as
cant impact upon the design from the outset and are artificial lighting is necessary. This may be offset against
largely fixed, although some manipulation and negotia- reduced solar gains or heat loss, and requires the princi-
tion is occasionally possible under each category. Thus, ples of low-energy design to be rigorously applied.
for example, the urban context is largely a given; but
changes to the site boundary may be negotiated. Similarly,
the client may change the building brief as a result of site
The integrated building design system
analysis, and some negotiation may be possible with
The aim of IBDS methodology is to demonstrate how the
planning authorities in order to obtain exemption from
various factors described above interact and more
certain regulations.
importantly how they can be integrated successfully and
holistically in order to achieve low-energy urban building
Building design design. The IBDS is depicted below in Figure 14.1.
Clearly, design is an iterative process and the strategy
At the core of IBDS lie the building design considera- outlined here should not be considered as a simplistic
tions. The primary parameters can broadly be defined as: linear process. The main purpose is to increase an aware-
ness and understanding of interrelationships that exist in
urban planning; the design process. It can be used as a framework for
building form; design team discussions at the various key design stages,
faade design; as well as a design tool at any given stage (whether outline
building fabric. design or construction detailing). The system inevitably
needs to be sufficiently general to enable local conditions,
Not only will these variables be influenced by the princi- expertise and individual procedures to be incorporated,
ples and pre-design issues already outlined, but there will and should not be used in a deterministic manner or in
be strong interdependencies within this group of design isolation.
concerns. For example, the building form whether Figure 14.2 provides a simple overview of the struc-
terraced or courtyard or deep plan, etc. will impact upon ture. The highlighted (grey) area is the building-related
the overall layout, but will also influence the decisions procedure, which will be the focus of IBDS. The follow-
related to the faade design and building fabric. These ing schematics will first address building design issues
considerations will, furthermore, have a bearing on the broken down into a number of sub-categories and the
appropriate choice of building services, outlined below. relationships to other design parameters and to issues of
low-energy principles (Figure 14.2). This is followed by a
schematic of building services issues in a similar manner.
Building services Finally, an overall matrix of all the key parameters will be
shown to demonstrate the integrated interrelationships
The above sections on Principles of low-energy design
between each.
and Building design focus primarily on the passive
design strategies. However, in any given context it is more 1. Principles of low-energy design
than likely that buildings will need to rely, to a certain
extent, on mechanical systems in order to ensure that
comfort conditions are maintained. Here we consider
such systems as auxiliary (i.e. the aim is to minimize 3. Building 4. Building
reliance on them and thus reduce the energy demand). 2. Pre-design
design services
The following four categories are considered:

1 heating;
Figure 14.1 Schematic layout of overall integrated
2 cooling;
building design system (IBDS) stages and relationships
3 mechanical ventilation;
 INTEGRATED BUILDING DESIGN 313

Urban planning Building form Faade design Building fabric

Compact or open Deep or shallow plan Glazing ratio Insulation value

Regular or irregular Cellular or open plan Glazing distribution Thermal mass

Orientation of spaces Faade orientation Ventilation openings Toxicity and health

Mixed use or zones Courtyards or atria Shading strategies Embodied energy

Figure 14.2 Schematic layout of building design-related issues; the primary sub-categories of each main
design consideration are depicted

Urban Form Faade Fabric

Orientation of spaces

Deep plan or shallow

Cellular or open plan

Ventilation openings
Regular or irregular

Glazing distribution
Mixed use or zoned

Faade orientation

Shading strategies

Toxicity and health

Embodied energy
Compact or open

Insulation value
Courts or atria

Thermal mass
Glazing ratio

Compact or open
Urban

Regular or irregular
Orientation of spaces
Mixed use or zoned
Deep plan or shallow
Form

Cellular or open plan

Faade orientation
Courts or atria
Glazing ratio
Faade

Glazing distribution
Ventilation openings
Shading strategies
Insulation value
Fabric

Thermal mass
Toxicity and health
Embodied energy

Figure 14.3 Matrix of building design issues showing environmental interrelationships between parameters
314 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Urban Form Faade Fabric Urban Form Faade Fabric

Urban 25% 69% 63% 19% Passive solar 38% 63% 69% 58% 57%

Form 50% 94% 44% Daylighting 56% 69% 63% 17% 51%

Faade 38% 44% Ventilation 50% 69% 25% 25% 42%

Fabric 38% 48% 67% 52% 33%

Figure 14.4 Diagram of strength of links, expressed as a Figure 14.6 Diagram of interconnectedness between
percentage of interconnectedness between design and low-energy strategies
building design variables

Interrelationships between design The strongest relationships between design variables

parameters are those related to building form and faade design (94
per cent). Thus, design decisions about one should signif-
Each filled box in the matrix in Figure 14.3 indicates a icantly affect the decisions made about the other. For
possible interaction between the two variables. Thus, for example, the basic orientation of form will affect the
example, the urban design factor of compact or open glazing ratio and distribution in the faade. Other strong
urban planning will have an impact on building form interrelationships are found between urban planning and
aspects, such as whether it is deep plan or not, what the form (69 per cent), as well as urban planning and faade
implications are for faade orientation (and level of design (63 per cent). Even within the categories, strong
obstruction), as well as whether courts or atria are likely dependencies are found particularly for building form
to be possible. Having gone through such an exercise, it (50 per cent). Thus, decisions about, for example, plan
is now easy to see which group of building design param- depth will be influenced by plan arrangement (i.e.
eters have a strong link to other groups. A simplified whether open plan or cellular).
version of the chart is in Figure 14.4.
Urban Form Faade Fabric
Orientation of spaces

Deep plan or shallow

Cellular or open plan

Ventilation openings
Regular or irregular

Glazing distribution
Mixed use or zoned

Faade orientation

Shading strategies

Toxicity and health

Compact or open

Insulation value
Courts or atria

Thermal mass
Glazing ratio
Daylighting Passive solar

Useful solar gains

Distribution
Control
Comfort
Daylight availability
Distribution
Comfort
Views or privacy
Wind
Ventilation

Stack
Night- time cooling
Pollution

Figure 14.5 Matrix of building design issues and related environmental performance parameters
 INTEGRATED BUILDING DESIGN 315

Design parameters versus low-energy Urban Form Faade Fabric

strategies
Heating 44% 44% 50% 17% 39%
Figure 14.5 indicates the potential links between design
parameters and some key passive-energy strategies, Cooling 69% 75% 50% 67% 65%
where each filled box suggests a connection. As before, it
is useful to draw a simplified matrix to communicate the Lighting 13% 75% 25% 0% 28%
key interrelationships.
It can be seen from Figure 14.6 that building form has 42% 65% 42% 28%
the strongest role to play in terms of low-energy design
strategies overall (67 per cent). Faade design is the next Figure 14.8 Strategic relationships between
most significant issue (52 per cent), particularly for design and services
passive solar (69 per cent) and daylighting design (63 per
cent). Urban planning, too, has an important role, though
the building fabric is of primary importance in terms of Design parameters versus
the thermal (passive solar) potential (58 per cent). This environmental systems
reflects the importance of thermal mass and insulation.
The building fabric is only weakly connected to daylight Figure 14.8 highlights detailed connections between
and ventilation strategies. design and services aspects. These are presented more
Of the energy strategies, all have significant implica- strategically in Figure 14.7.
tions for design, particularly passive solar strategies (57 Figure 14.7 demonstrates the strong potential links
per cent), followed by daylighting (51 per cent) and venti- between cooling (air conditioning or natural, mechanical,
lation design (42 per cent). mixed mode, etc.) and urban building form, as well as
fabric aspects. As a result, cooling has a significant
connection to design parameters overall.
Of the design parameters, it is building form that
tends to influence the environmental services strategies
most significantly. The weakest links are between fabric

Urban Form Faade Fabric

Orientation of spaces

Deep plan or shallow

Cellular or open plan

Ventilation openings
Regular or irregular

Glazing distribution
Mixed use or zoned

Faade orientation

Shading strategies

Toxicity and health

Compact or open

Insulation value
Courts or atria

Thermal mass
Glazing ratio

Fuel/plant type
Heating

Emitters
Distribution
Location
Air conditioning versus
natural ventilation
Mechanical versus
Cooling

natural ventilation
Mixed mode
Integration
Lighting

Manual/automated
Lamps/luminaries

Figure 14.7 Schematic of the interrelationships between building design and services
316 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Faade

Faade

Faade

Faade
Design

Orientation of spaces Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban
Fabric

Fabric

Fabric
Deep plan or shallow Form

Cellular or open plan Form

Form

Form
Ventilation openings

Regular or irregular
Glazing distribution
Mixed use or zoned

Faade orientation

Shading strategies

Toxicity and health

Compact or open

Insulation value
Courts or atria

Thermal mass

Glazing ratio
Energy
Cooling Air conditioning
versus natural
ventilation 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Cooling Mechanical
versus natural
ventilation 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Passive solar Useful solar gains 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Daylighting Daylight availability 1 1 A 1 1 1 1 1 1 B 1 1
Passive solar Distribution 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Daylighting Views or privacy 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Passive solar Comfort 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Daylighting Distribution 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ventilation Pollution 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Heating Distribution 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Heating Location 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Cooling Integration 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ventilation Wind 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Cooling Mixed mode 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Passive solar Control 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ventilation
Lighting
Stack
Manual/automated
1
1
1
1
C
1 1
1
1
1 1 1
D
1

Daylighting Comfort 1 1 1 1 1
Ventilation Night time cooling 1 1 1 1 1
Heating Fuel/plant type 1 1 1 1
Heating Emitters 1 1 1 1
Lighting Lamps/luminaires 1 1 1 1

Note:
A Many links between design and energy strategies
B Some energy implications of design strategies
C Some design implications of energy strategies
D Few links between design and energy strategies.

Figure 14.9 IBDS matrix of key parameters, indicating zones of levels of interaction between
building design and energy strategies

parameters and lighting, in particular (it should be noted Figure 14.9 lists the various parameters, whether
here that fabric design does not include interior finishes, design related or energy related, according to the
which could entail adding another parameter to the IBDS frequency of interrelationships between each category.
methodology). This methodology can be applied to any key set of param-
eters as set by the design team. For this matrix, at the top
of the design list, in terms of the variables that have the
Design parameters versus energy greatest links and implications for energy and services
strategies strategies, are the following:
If one combines the design variables with both the passive
deep or shallow plan;
and active energy strategies, then it becomes possible to
cellular or open plan;
rank the strength of interrelationships. The following
ventilation design;
matrix in Figure 14.9 shows this in detail.
 INTEGRATED BUILDING DESIGN 317

courts or atria; Design strategies

orientation. Urban Form Faade Fabric
Cooling

Energy strategies
The primary environmental issues are as follows: Solar
Daylighting Integration
the need for air conditioning versus natural ventila- increases
Ventilation
tion;
mechanical versus natural ventilation; Lighting
solar gains; Heating
daylight;
distribution of solar gains. Figure 14.10 A simplified matrix indicating the
hierarchy of interrelationships of the key energy and
Area A design parameters
One can thus conclude that, for example, the plan organi-
zation (deep versus shallow, cellular versus open plan) is mental strategies. For example, the choice of lighting and
strongly associated with primary decisions about the heating appliances has relatively little bearing on design
ventilation strategies (mechanical versus passive), as well strategies.
as other key low-energy strategies (solar and daylight).
This implies that such strategies require careful and fully Area C
integrated design solutions, particularly in urban and This zone of the matrix indicates those design strategies
building form terms. that have some environmental potential. For example,
plan form will have implications for stack ventilation
Area B options, but will not be affected significantly by some
A number of key environmental strategies will be influ- faade and fabric design considerations.
enced by the design considerations in this section
consisting typically of faade and fabric design aspects. Synopsis
Thus, the opportunity to naturally ventilate (as opposed
to air condition or mechanically ventilate) is primarily The IBDS methodology provides a flexible system for
dependent upon building form and urban planning, but assessing the interrelationships and levels of integration
will also rely upon appropriate faade and fabric design of design parameters for low-energy design in an urban
(i.e. shading, mass, glazing ratio, etc.). context. The method is flexible in that additional and
Figure 14.10 is a simplified version of the more alternative parameters can be included in the analysis.
complex matrix presented in Figure 14.9. Thus, if the emphasis of a project shifts to include, for
example, interior planning issues (such as interior
Area D finishes, visual and thermal comfort, etc.) or wider urban
Conversely, the IBDS matrix also indicates the environ- issues (such as the microclimate, transport, green space,
mental strategies that are only linked to a few design etc.), these can be incorporated by the design team in the
parameters and which have little effect on other environ- IBDS method. However, the variables presented here are
considered to be the primary ones.

Activities
Activity 1 Activity 3
What is the role of design team collaboration in determin- Describe what and how design factors may influence a
ing successful integrated building design? natural ventilation strategy?

Activity 2
Develop your own simplified matrix to demonstrate the
links between faade design, plan and section, and
daylighting design.
318 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

Answers
Activity 1 Activity 3
1 One strategic aim of the integrated approach is to Plan form: a deep, compact plan makes natural venti-
avoid conflicts between architecture and technology. lation more difficult to achieve easily as the
This requires a close collaboration between the archi- ventilation paths need to be integrated.
tect and engineer from the beginning of the design Orientation: spaces with solar gains (particularly if
process. highly glazed) or facing the prevailing wind direction
2 If the energy considerations are not integral to the will require specific ventilation strategies that
design solution, it becomes difficult to improve the respond to these factors.
energy saving potential through the application of Zoning of uses: certain space uses will require higher
technology alone. Thus, if a design does not integrate or lower ventilation rates.
natural ventilation strategies, for example, then more Cellular plans make passive cross-ventilation difficult;
energy-intensive mechanical systems may be the only special air paths will need to be integrated.
recourse without fundamentally changing the build- Atria can be used to provide stack effect or ventilation
ing design. preheat passively, and courtyards can be a source of
3 It has been argued that design integration is critical, relatively quiet, clean air.
and that the means to achieve it is through the early The location of ventilation openings will determine
and effective collaboration of the design team. the potential stack forces that can be exploited.
The building fabric can reduce the cooling loads
Activity 2 (thermal insulation and mass) for passive strategies.

Form Faade
Deep plan or shallow

Cellular or open plan

Ventilation openings
Glazing distribution
Faade orientation

Shading strategies
Courts or atria

Glazing ratio

Daylight availability
Daylighting

Distribution
Comfort
Views or privacy

Figure 14.11 Example of a matrix showing links between

form and faade design, and daylighting criteria
Index

Page numbers in italic refer to Tables, Figures and Boxes.

active systems 3940 energy consumption strategies 271, configuration 1415, 1415, 501,
aesthetics 279 271 2357
air conditioning 52, 54, 60, 69, 186 examples 868, 8791, 2023, 204, energy consumption 8, 46, 634, 64
air flows 10611, 10610, 114, 227, 210, 21011, 222, 223 heat transfer processes 120
2314, 238, 245 see also BEMS; control systems low-energy 1745, 311, 314, 314
see also heat transfer; ventilation BRI (building-related illness) 2467 operation 64, 64, 76
air pollution 17, 48, 49, 49, 65, 98, 114 building, and sustainability 46, 635, 64 orientation 51, 56, 228, 234
from fossil fuels 2679, 2689 building calculations 1345 recycling 6970
smog 98, 111 building concept 367 retrofitting 6970
and ventilation 57, 58 building design 38, 72, 226, 312 shape 2357
air temperatures 106, 114 environmental issues 4660, 4753, siting 22930, 2345, 234
albedo 14, 111, 112, 113, 114, 226, 227, 559 spacing 227
228 integrated 46, 1745, 211, 242, thermal balance 1356, 135
amenity 279 31017, 31316 see also integrated design
Ampelokipi residential building (Athens, process 36, 378
Greece) 18994, 18994 building energy management systems canyons see urban canyons
artificial light 146 see BEMS carbon dioxide see CO2
artificial lighting 59, 59, 1525, 1535, building management systems see BMS case studies, overview 1745, 224
162, 186, 311 building materials 37, 423, 46, 545, ceiling fans 17980, 180, 183, 1867
energy use 146, 1678, 167, 168, 169, 63, 678, 71 central cooling systems 183
229, 241 environmental behaviour 645 central-supply systems 2725, 2724
atria 523, 52, 56, 240 external finish 228 cities see urban areas
EURO centre 206, 2089, 20812 and health 545, 66, 689 clerestories 179, 180, 182, 239, 241
Potsdamer Platz development 213, natural 701 climate 46, 479, 479
214, 21415 recycling 667, 67, 71 Athens (Greece) 1767, 1767
Avax office building (Athens, Greece) renewable 66 Berlin (Germany) 212, 212
1838, 1838 reuse 66 Leicester (UK) 216
solar absorptivities 138 Ljubljana (Slovenia) 195, 196, 206, 207
bacterial contamination 69, 247, 254 and solar radiation 16, 16 and urban design 1016, 1216
behaviour 28, 29, 53, 223, 242 thermophysical properties 1367 see also microclimates
BEMS (building energy management see also embodied energy CO2 (carbon dioxide) 1, 2, 65, 253, 253,
systems) 80, 81, 17980, 1858 building methods 37, 423, 6570, 67, 254
see also BMS; control systems 68 from fossil fuels 64, 67, 68, 267
Bezigrajski dvor (Ljubljana, Slovenia) building processes 701, 72 cold storage 183, 188
1959, 1959 building projects 230 comfort 28, 37, 46
bio-aerosols 69, 254 economic evaluation 294303, light comfort 146, 147, 169
biological contaminants 69, 247, 254 295303 temperature comfort 589, 60
biomass energy 189, 2756, 2767 building-related illness (BRI) 2467 composting 2845, 287, 287
BMS (building management systems) building-use patterns 534, 53 conduction 121, 121, 1236, 124, 125,
756, 7989, 815, 2312 buildings 135, 228
320 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

construction materials see building Ljubljana (Slovenia) 1967 heat island effect 1314, 48, 95100,
materials see also air pollution 96100, 227, 274
construction methods/techniques see energy Bezigrajski dvor 195, 197
building methods and buildings 634, 64 reducing 11113, 112, 114
construction processes 701, 72 embodied 42, 46, 545, 63, 64, 66, heat transfer 120, 1213, 1213, 2289
context 37, 226, 31112 678, 68 in buildings 12336, 1245, 12933,
climatic 479, 47, 48, 49 non-renewable 39, 64, 67 1368
control systems 769, 7680, 153, 229 operating energy 64, 64 heating 5960, 136, 189
see also BEMS; BMS renewable 17, 29, 39, 5960, 67, 72 see also distant heating systems;
convection 1212, 122, 1269, 129, sources 2657, 2667 district heating systems
1356, 228 energy conservation 2256, 242 HIT Center commercial building (Nova
cooling 60, 136, 183 energy consumption 38, 46, 634, 64, Gorica, Slovenia) 2005, 2005
air conditioning 52, 54, 60, 69, 186 2301 HVAC (heating, ventilation and air
ceiling fans 17980, 180, 183, 1867 artificial lighting 146, 1678, 1679, conditioning) systems 136, 188, 247,
cold storage 183, 188 229, 241 248
district cooling 2723, 272, 275 in cities 95, 26970, 270
costs 37 UK 7, 7 IAQ (indoor air quality) 2458, 24951,
courtyards 3, 56, 50, 523, 52 and urban spatial structure 719, 7, 259, 311
criteria air pollutants 254, 256, 257 918 pollutants 2514, 253
cross-ventilation 5960, 220, 2201, 222 see also transport energy standards 2545, 2547
energy conversion 2678, 2689 IBDS (integrated building design
daylight 146 energy efficiency 21, 249, 26, 5960, system) 31117, 31316
daylight factor see DF 27080, 2714, 27680 ice banks 183, 188
daylighting 14952, 1502, 174, 227 Bezigrajski dvor 1978 illumination 1589, 159, 161
case studies 1856, 21819, 218, energy savings, thermal 5960, 18995, see also artificial lighting; daylighting;
2212, 221, 223 18995 natural lighting
demand-side management see DSM energy use incineration 285, 286, 287
demolition 64, 6970 in cities 95, 26970, 270 indigenous architecture 38, 66
design 467, 23241 see also energy consumption; trans- indoor air quality see IAQ
parameters 310, 31217, 313, 314, 316 port energy indoor pollutants 2467, 247, 2519,
DF (daylight factor) 1568, 1568, energy-efficient urban design 1619, 253, 258
1623, 182, 182, 229 1718 induced energy 63, 64
discount techniques 295300, 295300, environmental audits 18, 18 infiltration 1279, 129, 136
303 environmental deterioration 645 Inland Revenue Office Headquarters
discounted payback method 299300, environmental taxes 71 (Nottingham, UK) 2203, 2203
300 EURO centre commercial building insulation see thermal insulation
distant heating systems 1967, 198 (Ljubljana, Slovenia) 20611, integrated building design system
district cooling systems 2723, 272, 275 20611 (IBDS) 31117, 31316
district heating systems 25, 2724, integrated design 46, 1745, 211, 242,
2724, 277 fins 183, 184, 184, 1856, 186, 236, 239 31017, 31316
solar-assisted 2767, 2768 floor plans 512, 2313 intelligent controls 756, 2312
double glass faades 2005, 2005 fossil fuels 2669, 268, 269 internal gains 54, 135, 216, 241
DSM (demand-side management) 270, internal planning 512, 2313
2712, 271 geothermal energy 2778, 2779 IRR (internal rate of return) method
glare 16, 15962, 160, 162, 1634, 238 2979, 2989
ecological footprints 265 glass faades 2005, 2005
economic methodologies 2945, 295, glazing 589, 58, 1567, 157 lamps 1534, 1534, 162, 164, 167, 167,
303 green spaces 16, 11113, 112 229
embodied energy 42, 46, 545, 63, 64, greenhouse effect 2, 65, 113, 267 landfills 2856, 287
66, 678, 68 greenhouse gases 2, 64, 65, 267 LANs (local area networks) 834, 85
emissions 98, 2689, 269, 270, 2823 greenhouses see sunspaces LCC (life-cycle cost) method 296, 296,
from fossil fuels 2679, 2689 297
from geothermal sources 278 health 25, 37, 163, 2823, 283 light 146, 147, 147
from incineration 285 building materials and 545, 66, 689 light comfort 146, 147, 169
from landfills 2856, 287 IAQ (indoor air quality) and 245, light pollution 1645, 166
from transport 272 2467, 259 lighting 1678, 167, 168, 169, 229, 311
 INDEX 321

see also artificial lighting; daylighting; outdoor pollutant sources 247, 2512 overhangs 56, 235
natural lighting overheating, avoiding 589, 59 roller shutters 237
lighting fixtures 1545, 155 solar fins 183, 184, 184, 1856, 186,
local area networks (LANs) 834, 85 particulate matter 253, 254, 268 236, 239
low-energy design 1745, 311, 314, 314 passive solar gains 557, 56 shallow plans 216, 220
luminance 149, 1502, 152 passive systems 38, 3843, 3942, 60, sick building syndrome see SBS
luminaries 1545, 155 174, 231 sight 1478, 147, 148
cooling techniques 48, 2401, 240 simple payback method 3012, 302
mass transfer 2289 solar heating 23940 site planning/layout 4950, 234
material flows 2838, 2847 permeability of streets 13, 13, 29 siting buildings 15, 22930, 2345, 234
mechanical ventilation systems 206, 208, photometric quantities 1489 smog 98, 111
209, 209, 2212, 222 photovoltaic systems 2789, 279 sol-air temperatures 135
Meletikiki office building (Athens, policy-making 245 solar absorptivities 138
Greece) 176, 17682, 17782 pollutants, indoor 2467, 247, 2514, solar chimneys 238, 240
microclimates 479, 47, 48, 4950, 253, 2559, 258 solar collectors 189, 192, 2767, 2767
11314, 212, 227 pollution 1, 2, 89, 16, 42, 227 solar energy 39, 39
see also heat island effect; urban air see air pollution solar fins 183, 184, 184, 1856, 186, 236,
canyon effect; urban wind field light 1645, 166 239
noise 89, 17, 48, 49, 578, 113 solar gains 51, 51, 135, 191, 192, 227,
natural cooling 413, 42 smog 98, 111 228, 239
natural heating 413, 42 see also emissions; IAQ (indoor air solar heating 25, 189, 190, 190, 192
natural lighting 401, 401, 55, 55, 176, quality); indoor pollutants solar radiation 1223, 1314, 1323, 135,
229, 311 Potsdamer Platz development (Berlin, 14952, 1501, 192
atria 52 Germany) 21215, 21215 absorption 48, 49
energy benefits 55, 59 precipitation 114 and building materials 16, 16
reduced by shading 2045, 205 protocols 82 and building orientation 51, 51
natural ventilation 413, 42, 48, 127, and H/W ratios 13, 13
136, 174, 241 radiation (electromagnetic and ionizing) solar-assisted district heating 2767,
atria 214, 214 69 2768
cross-ventilation 5960, 220, 2201, radiation (heat transfer) 1223, 123, spectral luminous efficiency 147, 148,
222 12931, 1301, 228 148
strategies for 578, 57, 2201, 2212 radon 69, 252 speculative buildings 21215, 21215
see also ventilation stacks rate equations 1213 stacks see ventilation stacks
net cash-flow method 301, 301 recycling 71 street canyons see urban canyons
net savings or net benefits method (NS buildings 6970 streets 1114, 12, 13
or NB) method 297, 297 materials 64, 667, 67, 2845, 285, sun path diagrams 48, 49, 150, 150
The Netherlands 26, 27, 29 287 sunlight 149, 1624, 162, 163, 163, 164,
networks 834, 83, 85 renewable energy 17, 29, 39, 67, 2656, 227
night ventilation 176, 180, 181, 181, 182, 266, 2667, 272 sunspaces 56, 189, 191, 191, 195, 197,
183 integrating 5960, 72, 27580, 27680 236, 240
noise 48, 49 renewable materials 66, 70 sustainability 46, 635, 64
reducing 578, 111, 113, 214, 222 retrofitting 6970 initiatives 257, 26
traffic 89, 17, 113 reuse, building materials 66 sustainability appraisal see SA
non-discount techniques 3003, 3013, roof configuration 241, 241 sustainable cities 2, 35, 45
303 sustainable construction processes 702
non-renewable energy 39, 64, 67, 2667, SA (sustainability appraisal) 18, 18 sustainable construction techniques
267 SBS (sick building syndrome) 66, 689, 6570, 678
non-renewable materials 701 2467 sustainable design 39, 712
NS or NB (net savings or net benefits) School of Engineering, De Montfort
method 297, 297 University (Leicester, UK) 21619, temperatures 534, 106, 114
nuclear energy 266 21618 urban 48, 95100, 96100
shading devices 567, 56, 58, 161, 162, see also heat island effect
occupant behaviour 53, 223, 242 163, 182, 221, 221 thermal balance 1356, 135
operating energy 64, 64 blinds 57, 161, 163, 179, 182, 202, thermal bridges 42, 227, 2289, 272
orientation of buildings 15, 51, 56, 228, 204, 205, 205, 206, 207, 221 thermal comfort 534, 152, 1867
234 external 161, 163, 179, 195, 197, 240 thermal energy savings 18995, 18995
322 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF URBAN BUILDINGS

thermal insulation 15, 54, 227, 228, 233, temperatures 48, 95100, 96100 mechanical 206, 208, 209, 209
239, 271 wind field 1003, 1012 natural see natural ventilation
night-time shutters 192 urban design 19 night 176, 180, 181, 181, 182, 183
and thermal bridges 423, 226, 272 climate and 1016, 1216 rates 66, 248
thermal mass 54, 57, 59, 59, 192, 216, energy-efficient 1619, 1718 strategies 56, 589, 21618, 217, 259
218 urban heat islands see heat island effect see also ventilation stacks; windows
thermal storage 120, 136 urban morphology 17, 1924, 204 ventilation stacks 57, 57, 59, 128
thermophysical properties of building urban planning 2931 case studies 216, 217, 218, 220, 220,
materials 1367 environmental 249, 26 222
traffic noise 89, 17 vernacular 26, 36 ventilation systems 247, 248, 250, 251
transport 79 urban renaissance 1819 vernacular architecture 38, 66
transport energy 710, 7, 911, 1617, urban spatial structure, and energy vernacular urban planning 26, 36
17, 26970, 270, 272 consumption 719, 7, 918 visual comfort 15562, 15662, 229
demolition products 6970 Urban Task Force (UTF) 1819 VO-KA building 868, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91
embodied energy 54, 65 urban temperatures 48, 95100, 96100 VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
private transport 270, 271 see also heat island effect; urban 689, 69, 246, 247, 2523, 268
and urban morphology 1921, 21, 50 canyons
trees see vegetation urban wind field 1003, 1012 wall openings 2379, 238, 239
trombe walls 39, 189, 191, 192, 236, 240 URR (unadjusted rate of return) method waste 2834, 284
3023, 303 treatment 2848, 2848
U-values 54 user behaviour 53, 223, 242 water
UK (United Kingdom) UTF (Urban Task Force) 1819 consumption 281, 281, 282, 282
energy use 7, 7 management 2812
sustainability projects 27 vegetation resources 2801, 281
unadjusted rate of return method see heat load reduction by 237, 240 waste treatment 2823, 283
URR method noise reduction by 8, 113 wind energy 279, 280
uniform illumination 1589, 159, 161 shading by 230, 235 wind field 1003, 1012
urban areas 12, 95, 226, 2645, 265 and urban climate 48, 48, 11113, 112, wind towers 238, 240
sustainability 2, 35, 4, 5 114, 227 windows 58, 235, 2379
urban canyons 1114, 12, 15, 10311, ventilation 54, 1278, 136, 210, 271, 311 positioning 55, 1589, 159
10410, 114 atria 523, 213, 214, 214 ventilation by 42, 48, 53, 589
and daylight 157, 158 cross-ventilation 5960, 220, 2201, see also daylight; visual comfort
traffic noise 8 222 winds 1113, 12, 15, 48, 114
urban climate 95, 11314, 227 and IAQ (indoor air quality) 245, 246, speeds 111, 113, 114, 227
improving 11113, 112, 114 247, 248, 250, 251