Flow measurement

Flow measurement is the quantication of bulk uid Gas mass ow rate can be directly measured, indepen-
movement. Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. dent of pressure and temperature eects, with thermal
Positive-displacement ow meters accumulate a xed vol- mass ow meters, Coriolis mass ow meters, or mass ow
ume of uid and then count the number of times the vol- controllers.
ume is lled to measure ow. Other ow measurement
methods rely on forces produced by the owing stream as
it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate 1.2 Liquid
ow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity
of uid over a known area. For liquids, various units are used depending upon the
application and industry, but might include gallons (U.S.
liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels
per minute or, when describing river ows, cumecs (cubic
1 Units of measurement metres per second) or acre-feet per day. In oceanography
a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of
Both gas and liquid ow can be measured in volumetric water transported by a current for example) is a sverdrup
6 3
or mass ow rates, such as liters per second or kilograms (Sv) equivalent to 10 m /s.
per second, respectively. These measurements are related
by the materials density. The density of a liquid is almost
independent of conditions. This is not the case for gasses, 2 Mechanical ow meters
the densities of which depend greatly upon pressure, tem-
perature and to a lesser extent, composition. A positive displacement meter may be compared to a
When gases or liquids are transferred for their energy bucket and a stopwatch. The stopwatch is started when
content, as in the sale of natural gas, the ow rate may the ow starts, and stopped when the bucket reaches its
also be expressed in terms of energy ow, such as GJ/hour limit. The volume divided by the time gives the ow
or BTU/day. The energy ow rate is the volumetric ow rate. For continuous measurements, we need a system
rate multiplied by the energy content per unit volume or of continually lling and emptying buckets to divide the
mass ow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit ow without letting it out of the pipe. These continu-
mass. Energy ow rate is usually derived from mass or ously forming and collapsing volumetric displacements
volumetric ow rate by the use of a ow computer. may take the form of pistons reciprocating in cylinders,
gear teeth mating against the internal wall of a meter or
In engineering contexts, the volumetric ow rate is usually
through a progressive cavity created by rotating oval gears
given the symbol Q , and the mass ow rate, the symbol
or a helical screw.
m .
For a uid having density , mass and volumetric ow
rates may be related by m = Q . 2.1 Piston meter/rotary piston
Because they are used for domestic water measurement,
1.1 Gas piston meters, also known as rotary piston or semi-
positive displacement meters, are the most common ow
Gases are compressible and change volume when placed measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost
under pressure, are heated or are cooled. A volume of all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm (1 1 2 in). The
gas under one set of pressure and temperature condi- piston meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating
tions is not equivalent to the same gas under dierent within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation,
conditions. References will be made to actual ow an amount of water passes through the piston chamber.
rate through a meter and standard or base ow rate Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a magnetic
through a meter with units such as acm/h (actual cubic drive, a needle dial and odometer type display are ad-
meters per hour), sm3 /sec (standard cubic meters per sec- vanced.
ond), kscm/h (thousand standard cubic meters per hour),
LFM (linear feet per minute), or MMSCFD (million stan- 2.2 Gear meter
dard cubic feet per day).

1
2 2 MECHANICAL FLOW METERS

2.2.1 Oval gear meter viscous and pressure forces on the oat cause it to rise
until it becomes stationary at a location in the tube that is
An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that wide enough for the forces to balance. Floats are made
uses two or more oblong gears congured to rotate at right in many dierent shapes, with spheres and spherical el-
angles to one another, forming a T shape. Such a me- lipses being the most common. Some are designed to spin
ter has two sides, which can be called A and B. No uid visibly in the uid stream to aid the user in determining
passes through the center of the meter, where the teeth of whether the oat is stuck or not. Rotameters are available
the two gears always mesh. On one side of the meter (A), for a wide range of liquids but are most commonly used
the teeth of the gears close o the uid ow because the with water or air. They can be made to reliably measure
elongated gear on side A is protruding into the measure- ow down to 1% accuracy.
ment chamber, while on the other side of the meter (B),
a cavity holds a xed volume of uid in a measurement
chamber. As the uid pushes the gears, it rotates them, al-
lowing the uid in the measurement chamber on side B to
be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, uid entering
the inlet port will be driven into the measurement cham- 2.4 Turbine ow meter
ber of side A, which is now open. The teeth on side B will
now close o the uid from entering side B. This cycle The turbine ow meter (better described as an axial tur-
continues as the gears rotate and uid is metered through bine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotat-
alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets ing in the liquid ow around an axis into a user-readable
in the rotating gears can transmit a signal to an electric rate of ow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have
reed switch or current transducer for ow measurement. all the ow traveling around it.
Though claims for high performance are made, they are
generally not as precise as the sliding vane design.[1] The turbine wheel is set in the path of a uid stream. The
owing uid impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a
force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion.
2.2.2 Helical gear When a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed
is proportional to uid velocity.
Helical gear ow meters get their name from the shape Turbine ow meters are used for the measurement of nat-
of their gears or rotors. These rotors resemble the shape ural gas and liquid ow.[3] Turbine meters are less accu-
of a helix, which is a spiral-shaped structure. As the uid rate than displacement and jet meters at low ow rates,
ows through the meter, it enters the compartments in the but the measuring element does not occupy or severely
rotors, causing the rotors to rotate. Flowrate is calculated restrict the entire path of ow. The ow direction is gen-
from the speed of rotation. erally straight through the meter, allowing for higher ow
rates and less pressure loss than displacement-type me-
ters. They are the meter of choice for large commercial
2.2.3 Nutating disk meter
users, re protection, and as master meters for the water
distribution system. Strainers are generally required to
This is the most commonly used measurement system for
be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring
measuring water supply in houses. The uid, most com-
element from gravel or other debris that could enter the
monly water, enters in one side of the meter and strikes
water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally
the nutating disk, which is eccentrically mounted. The
available for 4 to 30 cm (1 1 2 12 in) or higher pipe sizes.
disk must then wobble or nutate about the vertical axis,
Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast
since the bottom and the top of the disk remain in con-
Iron, or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can be
tact with the mounting chamber. A partition separates the
plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate
inlet and outlet chambers. As the disk nutates, it gives di-
in normal working conditions but are greatly aected by
rect indication of the volume of the liquid that has passed
the ow prole and uid conditions.
through the meter as volumetric ow is indicated by a
gearing and register arrangement, which is connected to Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter with
the disk. It is reliable for ow measurements within 1 approvals for the high ow rates required in re protec-
percent.[2] tion systems. They are often approved by Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM) or similar au-
thorities for use in re protection. Portable turbine me-
2.3 Variable area meter ters may be temporarily installed to measure water used
from a re hydrant. The meters are normally made of
The variable area (VA) meter, also commonly called a aluminum to be lightweight, and are usually 7.5 cm (3 in)
rotameter, consists of a tapered tube, typically made of capacity. Water utilities often require them for measure-
glass, with a oat inside that is pushed up by uid ow and ment of water used in construction, pool lling, or where
pulled down by gravity. As ow rate increases, greater a permanent meter is not yet installed.
 3

2.5 Woltman meter

The Woltman meter (invented by Reinhard Woltman in
the 19th century) comprises a rotor with helical blades
inserted axially in the ow, much like a ducted fan; it can
be considered a type of turbine ow meter.[4] They are
commonly referred to as helix meters, and are popular at
larger sizes.

2.6 Single jet meter

A single jet meter consists of a simple impeller with radial
vanes, impinged upon by a single jet. They are increasing A propeller-type current meter as used for hydroelectric turbine
in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are common- testing.
place in the EU.
ing the ow velocity over the entire area. Propeller-type
2.7 Paddle wheel meter current meters (similar to the purely mechanical Ekman
current meter, but now with electronic data acquisition)
This is similar to the single jet meter, except that the can be traversed over the area of the penstock and ve-
impeller is small with respect to the width of the pipe, locities averaged to calculate total ow. This may be on
and projects only partially into the ow, like the paddle the order of hundreds of cubic meters per second. The
wheel on a Mississippi riverboat. ow must be kept steady during the traverse of the cur-
rent meters. Methods for testing hydroelectric turbines
are given in IEC standard 41. Such ow measurements
2.8 Multiple jet meter are often commercially important when testing the e-
ciency of large turbines.
A multiple jet or multijet meter is a velocity type meter
which has an impeller which rotates horizontally on a ver-
tical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which 3 Pressure-based meters
multiple inlet ports direct the uid ow at the impeller
causing it to rotate in a specic direction in proportion to
the ow velocity. This meter works mechanically much There are several types of ow meter that rely on
like a single jet meter except that the ports direct the ow Bernoullis principle, either by measuring the dierential
at the impeller equally from several points around the cir- pressure within a constriction, or by measuring static and
cumference of the element, not just one point; this mini- stagnation pressures to derive the dynamic pressure.
mizes uneven wear on the impeller and its shaft.
3.1 Venturi meter
2.9 Pelton wheel
A Venturi meter constricts the ow in some fashion, and
The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial pressure sensors measure the dierential pressure before
turbine) translates the mechanical action of the Pelton and within the constriction. This method is widely used
wheel rotating in the liquid ow around an axis into a to measure ow rate in the transmission of gas through
user-readable rate of ow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times.
wheel tends to have all the ow traveling around it with The coecient of discharge of Venturi meter ranges from
the inlet ow focused on the blades by a jet. The origi- 0.93 to 0.97. The rst large-scale Venturi meters to
nal Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power measure liquid ows were developed by Clemens Her-
and consisted of a radial ow turbine with reaction cups schel who used them to measure small and large ows of
which not only move with the force of the water on the water and wastewater beginning at the end of the 19th
face but return the ow in opposite direction using this century.[5]
change of uid direction to further increase the eciency
of the turbine.
3.2 Orice plate

2.10 Current meter An orice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in
the ow; it constricts the ow, and measuring the pressure
Flow through a large penstock such as used at a dierential across the constriction gives the ow rate. It is
hydroelectric power plant can be measured by averag- basically a crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher
4 4 OPTICAL FLOW METERS

Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes

to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Intro-
duction of more holes, e.g. ve holes arranged in a plus
formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional
velocity vector.

3.6 Cone meters

ISO 5167 Orice Plate

energy losses. There are three type of orice: concentric,

eccentric, and segmental.[6][7]

3.3 Dall tube

The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi me- 8inch (200mm) V-Cone Flowmeter shown with ANSI 300#
ter, with a lower pressure drop than an orice plate. As raised face weld neck anges
with these ow meters the ow rate in a Dall tube is
determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by Cone meters are a newer dierential pressure metering
restriction in the conduit. The pressure dierential is device rst launched in 1985 by McCrometer in Hemet,
typically measured using diaphragm pressure transducers CA. While working with the same basic principles as
with digital readout. Since these meters have signicantly Venturi and Orice type DP meters, cone meters dont
lower permanent pressure losses than orice meters, Dall require the same upstream and downstream piping. The
tubes are widely used for measuring the ow rate of large cone acts as a conditioning device as well as a dieren-
pipeworks. Dierential pressure produced by a dall tube tial pressure producer. Upstream requirements are be-
higher than venturi tube and nozzle, all of them having tween 0-5 diameters compared to up to 44 diameters for
same throat diameters. an orice plate or 22 diameters for a Venturi. Because
cone meters are generally of welded construction, it is
recommended they are always calibrated prior to service.
3.4 Pitot-static tube Inevitably heat eects of welding cause distortions and
other eects that prevent tabular data on discharge co-
A Pitot-static tube is a pressure measuring instrument ecients with respect to line size, beta ratio and oper-
used to measure uid ow velocity by determining the ating Reynolds Numbers from being collected and pub-
stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoullis equa- lished. Calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty up to
tion used to calculate the dynamic pressure and hence +/0.5%. Un-calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty
uid velocity. Also see Air ow meter. of +/5.0%.

3.5 Multi-hole pressure probe

4 Optical ow meters
See also: Annubar
For other uses, see Optical ow#Sensor.
Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes)
extend the theory of pitot tube to more than one dimen- Optical ow meters use light to determine ow rate.
sion. A typical impact probe consists of three or more Small particles which accompany natural and industrial
holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring gases pass through two laser beams focused a short dis-
tip arranged in a specic pattern. More holes allow the in- tance apart in the ow path. in a pipe by illuminating
strument to measure the direction of the ow velocity in optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the
addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). rst beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on
5.2 Area/velocity 5

a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. As over time into volumetric ow. Level to ow devices are
the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting commonly used to measure the ow of surface waters
optics collect scattered light on a second photodetector, (springs, stream, and rivers), industrial discharges, and
which converts the incoming light into a second electri- sewage. Of these, weirs are used on ow streams with low
cal pulse. By measuring the time interval between these solids (typically surface waters), while umes are used on
pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as V = D/t where ows containing low or high solids contents.[9]
D is the distance between the laser beams and t is the
time interval.
Laser-based optical ow meters measure the actual speed
5.2 Area/velocity
of particles, a property which is not dependent on ther-
The cross-sectional area of the ow is calculated from a
mal conductivity of gases, variations in gas ow or com-
depth measurement and the average velocity of the ow
position of gases. The operating principle enables opti-
is measured directly (Doppler and propeller methods are
cal laser technology to deliver highly accurate ow data,
common). Velocity times the cross-sectional area yields
even in challenging environments which may include high
a ow rate which can be integrated into volumetric ow.
temperature, low ow rates, high pressure, high humidity,
There are two types of area velocity ow meter: (1) wet-
pipe vibration and acoustic noise.
ted; and (2) non contact. Wetted area velocity sensors
Optical ow meters are very stable with no moving parts have to be typically mounted on the bottom of a chan-
and deliver a highly repeatable measurement over the life nel or river and use doppler to measure the velocity of
of the product. Because distance between the two laser the entrained particles. With depth and a programmed
sheets does not change, optical ow meters do not re- cross-section this can then provide discharge ow mea-
quire periodic calibration after their initial commission- surement. Non contact devices that use laser or radar
ing. Optical ow meters require only one installation are mounted above the channel and measure the veloc-
point, instead of the two installation points typically re- ity from above and then use ultrasound to measure the
quired by other types of meters. A single installation depth of the water from above. Radar devices can only
point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less measure surface velocites whereas laser based devices can
prone to errors. measure velocities sub-surface.[10]
Commercially available optical ow meters are capable
of measuring ow from 0.1 m/s to faster than 100 m/s
(1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated 5.3 Dye testing
to be eective for the measurement of are gases from
oil wells and reneries, a contributor to atmospheric A known amount of dye (or salt) per unit time is added to
pollution.[8] a ow stream. After complete mixing, the concentration
is measured. The dilution rate equals the ow rates.

5 Open-channel ow measurement 5.4 Acoustic Doppler velocimetry

Open channel ow describes cases where owing liquid Acoustic Doppler velocimetry (ADV) is designed to
has a top surface open to the air; the cross-section of the record instantaneous velocity components at a single
ow is only determined by the shape of the channel on point with a relatively high frequency. Measurements
the lower side, and is variable depending on the depth of are performed by measuring the velocity of particles in
liquid in the channel. Techniques appropriate for a xed a remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift
cross-section of ow in a pipe are not useful in open chan- eect.[11]
nels.

5.1 Level to ow 6 Thermal mass ow meters

The level of the water is measured at a designated point Thermal mass ow meters generally use combinations
behind weir or in ume a hydraulic structure using var- of heated elements and temperature sensors to measure
ious secondary devices (bubblers, ultrasonic, oat, and the dierence between static and owing heat transfer
dierential pressure are common methods). This depth to a uid and infer its ow with a knowledge of the
is converted to a ow rate according to a theoretical for- uids specic heat and density. The uid temperature
mula of the form Q = KH X where Q is the ow rate, is also measured and compensated for. If the density and
K is a constant, H is the water level, and X is an ex- specic heat characteristics of the uid are constant, the
ponent which varies with the device used; or it is con- meter can provide a direct mass ow readout, and does
verted according to empirically derived level/ow data not need any additional pressure temperature compensa-
points (a ow curve). The ow rate can then integrated tion over their specied range.
6 8 ELECTROMAGNETIC, ULTRASONIC AND CORIOLIS FLOW METERS

ternate sides is essentially proportional to the ow rate

Temperature sensors of the uid. Inside, atop, or downstream of the shedder
Heating element bar is a sensor for measuring the frequency of the vor-
tex shedding. This sensor is often a piezoelectric crystal,
which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse ev-
Gas ery time a vortex is created. Since the frequency of such
a voltage pulse is also proportional to the uid velocity, a
volumetric ow rate is calculated using the cross sectional
area of the ow meter. The frequency is measured and the
ow rate is calculated by the owmeter electronics using
Temperature at the sensors varies depending upon the mass ow the equation f = SV /L where f is the frequency of the
vortices, L the characteristic length of the blu body, V
Technological progress has allowed the manufacture of is the velocity of the ow over the blu body, and S is
thermal mass ow meters on a microscopic scale as the Strouhal number, which is essentially a constant for a
MEMS sensors; these ow devices can be used to mea- given body shape within its operating limits.
sure ow rates in the range of nanolitres or microlitres per
minute.
Thermal mass ow meter (also called thermal dispersion
8 Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and
owmeter) technology is used for compressed air, nitro- coriolis ow meters
gen, helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas. In fact, most
gases can be measured as long as they are fairly clean and
non-corrosive. For more aggressive gases, the meter may
be made out of special alloys (e.g. Hastelloy), and pre-
drying the gas also helps to minimize corrosion.
Today, thermal mass ow meters are used to measure the
ow of gases in a growing range of applications, such as
chemical reactions or thermal transfer applications that
are dicult for other ow metering technologies. This is
because thermal mass ow meters monitor variations in
one or more of the thermal characteristics (temperature,
thermal conductivity, and/or specic heat) of gaseous
media to dene the mass ow rate.

6.1 The MAF sensor

A magnetic ow meter at the Tetleys Brewery in Leeds, West
Yorkshire.
In many late model automobiles, a mass airow sensor
(MAF sensor) is used to accurately determine the mass
owrate of intake air used in the internal combustion en- Modern innovations in the measurement of ow rate in-
gine. Many such mass ow sensors use a heated element corporate electronic devices that can correct for varying
and a downstream temperature sensor to indicate the air pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-
owrate. Other sensors use a spring-loaded vane. In ei- linearities, and for the characteristics of the uid.
ther case, the vehicles electronic control unit interprets
the sensor signals as a real time indication of an engines
fuel requirement.
8.1 Magnetic ow meters
Magnetic ow meters, often called mag meter"s or
electromag"s, use a magnetic eld applied to the me-
7 Vortex ow meters tering tube, which results in a potential dierence pro-
portional to the ow velocity perpendicular to the ux
Another method of ow measurement involves placing a lines. The potential dierence is sensed by electrodes
blu body (called a shedder bar) in the path of the uid. aligned perpendicular to the ow and the applied mag-
As the uid passes this bar, disturbances in the ow called netic eld. The physical principle at work is Faradays
vortices are created. The vortices trail behind the cylin- law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic ow me-
der, alternatively from each side of the blu body. This ter requires a conducting uid and a nonconducting pipe
vortex trail is called the Von Krmn vortex street af- liner. The electrodes must not corrode in contact with the
ter von Krmns 1912 mathematical description of the process uid; some magnetic owmeters have auxiliary
phenomenon. The frequency at which these vortices al- transducers installed to clean the electrodes in place. The
8.4 Coriolis ow meters 7

applied magnetic eld is pulsed, which allows the owme- Ultrasonic Doppler ow meters measure the Doppler
ter to cancel out the eect of stray voltage in the piping shift resulting from reecting an ultrasonic beam o the
system. particulates in owing uid. The frequency of the trans-
mitted beam is aected by the movement of the particles;
this frequency shift can be used to calculate the uid ve-
8.2 Non-contact electromagnetic ow me- locity. For the Doppler principle to work there must be a
ters high enough density of sonically reective materials such
as solid particles or air bubbles suspended in the uid.
A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz This is in direct contrast to an ultrasonic transit time ow
force owmeter (LFF). A LFF measures the integrated or meter, where bubbles and solid particles reduce the ac-
bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between curacy of the measurement. Due to the dependency on
a liquid metal in motion and an applied magnetic eld. In these particles there are limited applications for Doppler
this case the characteristic length of the magnetic eld is ow meters. This technology is also known as acoustic
of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the Doppler velocimetry.
channel. It must be addressed that in the case where lo-
One advantage of ultrasonic ow meters is that they can
calized magnetic elds are used, it is possible to perform
eectively measure the ow rates for a wide variety of
local velocity measurements and thus the term Lorentz
uids, as long as the speed of sound through that uid is
force velocimeter is used.
known. For example, ultrasonic ow meters are used for
the measurement of such diverse uids a liquid natural gas
[13]
8.3 Ultrasonic ow meters (Doppler, tran- (LNG) and blood. One can also calculate the expected
sit time) speed of sound for a given uid; this can be compared to
the speed of sound empirically measured by an ultrasonic
There are two main types of Ultrasonic ow meters: ow meter for the purposes of monitoring the quality of
Doppler and transit time. While they both utilize ultra- the ow meters measurements. A drop in quality (change
sound to make measurements and can be non-invasive in the measured speed of sound) is an indication that the
(measure ow from outside the tube, pipe or vessel), they meter needs servicing.
measure ow by very dierent methods.
8.4 Coriolis ow meters
Using the Coriolis eect that causes a laterally vibrating
tube to distort, a direct measurement of mass ow can be
obtained in a coriolis ow meter. Furthermore, a direct
measure of the density of the uid is obtained. Coriolis
measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type
of gas or liquid that is measured; the same measurement
tube can be used for hydrogen gas and bitumen without
recalibration.
Coriolis ow meters can be used for the measurement of
Schematic view of a ow sensor. natural gas ow.[14]
Ultrasonic transit time ow meters measure the dier-
ence of the transit time of ultrasonic pulses propagating
in and against the direction of ow. This time dierence 9 Laser Doppler ow measurement
is a measure for the average velocity of the uid along the
path of the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit A beam of laser light impinging on a moving particle will
times both the averaged uid velocity and the speed of be partially scattered with a change in wavelength propor-
sound can be calculated. Using the two transit times tup tional to the particles speed (the Doppler eect). A laser
and tdown and the distance between receiving and trans- Doppler velocimeter (LDV), also called a laser Doppler
mitting transducers L and the inclination angle one can anemometer (LDA), focuses a laser beam into a small
write the equations: volume in a owing uid containing small particles (natu-
L tup tdown L tup +tdown rally occurring or induced). The particles scatter the light
v = 2 sin() tup tdown and c = 2 tup tdown
with a Doppler shift. Analysis of this shifted wavelength
where v is the average velocity of the uid along the sound can be used to directly, and with great precision, deter-
path and c is the speed of sound. mine the speed of the particle and thus a close approxi-
With wide-beam illumination transit time ultrasound can mation of the uid velocity.
also be used to measure volume ow independent of the A number of dierent techniques and device congu-
cross-sectional area of the vessel or tube.[12] rations are available for determining the Doppler shift.
8 12 REFERENCES

All use a photodetector (typically an avalanche photodi- The procedure is standardised (ISO 9555-1 and ISO
ode) to convert the light into an electrical waveform for 9555-2 for liquid ow in open channels). The best ac-
analysis. In most devices, the original laser light is di- credited measurement uncertainty is 1%.[18]
vided into two beams. In one general LDV class, the two
beams are made to intersect at their focal points where Tracer dilution animation
they interfere and generate a set of straight fringes. The
sensor is then aligned to the ow such that the fringes
are perpendicular to the ow direction. As particles pass
through the fringes, the Doppler-shifted light is collected
11 See also
into the photodetector. In another general LDV class,
one beam is used as a reference and the other is Doppler- Automatic meter reading
scattered. Both beams are then collected onto the pho- Flow meter error
todetector where optical heterodyne detection is used to
extract the Doppler signal.[15] Ford viscosity cup
Gas meter

10 Calibration Laser Doppler velocimetry

Primary ow element
Even though ideally the owmeter should be unaected
Stream gauge
by its environment, in practice this is unlikely to be
the case. Often measurement errors originate from Thorpe tube owmeter
incorrect installation or other environment dependent
factors.[16][17] In situ methods are used when ow meter Volumetric ow rate
is calibrated in the correct ow conditions.
Water meter

10.1 Transit time method

12 References
For pipe ows a so-called transit time method is applied
[1] Furness, Richard A. (1989). Fluid ow measurement.
where a radiotracer is injected as a pulse into the mea-
Harlow: Longman in association with the Institute of
sured ow. The transit time is dened with the help of Measurement and Control. p. 21. ISBN 0582031656.
radiation detectors placed on the outside of the pipe. The
volume ow is obtained by multiplying the measured av- [2] Holman, J. Alan (2001). Experimental methods for engi-
erage uid ow velocity by the inner pipe cross section. neers. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-366055-4.
This reference ow value is compared with the simulta-
[3] American Gas Association Report Number 7
neous ow value given by the ow measurement to be
calibrated. [4] Arregui, Cabrera, Cobacho, Integrated Water Meter Man-
agement, p. 33
The procedure is standardised (ISO 2975/VII for liquids
and BS 5857-2.4 for gases). The best accredited mea- [5] Herschel, Clemens. (1898). Measuring Water. Provi-
surement uncertainty for liquids and gases is 0.5%.[18] dence, RI:Builders Iron Foundry.

[6] Liptk, Flow Measurement, p. 85

Transit time animation
[7] American Gas Association Report Number 3

[8] Flare Metering with Optics

10.2 Tracer dilution method
[9] Hydraulic structures
The radiotracer dilution method is used to calibrate open [10] Severn, Richard. Environment Agency Field Test Report
channel ow measurements. A solution with a known TIENet 360 LaserFlow (PDF). RS Hydro. RS Hydro-
tracer concentration is injected at a constant known ve- Environment Agency. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
locity into the channel ow. Downstream the tracer so-
[11] Chanson, Hubert (2008). Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry
lution is thoroughly mixed over the ow cross section, a
(ADV) in the Field and in Laboratory: Practical Experi-
continuous sample is taken and its tracer concentration in ences. in Frdrique Larrarte and Hubert Chanson, Ex-
relation to that of the injected solution is determined. The periences and Challenges in Sewers: Measurements and
ow reference value is determined by using the tracer bal- Hydrodynamics. International Meeting on Measurements
ance condition between the injected tracer ow and the and Hydraulics of Sewers IMMHS'08, Summer School
diluting ow.. GEMCEA/LCPC, Bouguenais, France, 1921 August
 9

2008, Hydraulic Model Report No. CH70/08, Div. of

Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Bris-
bane, Australia, Dec., pp. 4966. ISBN 978-1-86499-
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[12] Drost, CJ (1978). Vessel Diameter-Independent Volume

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[13] American Gas Association Report Number 9

[14] American Gas Association Report Number 11

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[18] Finnish Accreditation Service

10 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
Flow measurement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_measurement?oldid=681545638 Contributors: Heron, Stw, Wmmorrow,
Moondyne, Ruakh, Niel Malan, DavidCary, Chowbok, Dougalc, Rich Farmbrough, LindsayH, El C, Atlant, Caesura, Wtshymanski, Ver-
sageek, Gene Nygaard, Redvers, Joriki, Graham87, NebY, Josh Parris, Vegaswikian, Ian Pitchford, Caseman, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp,
Fabricationary, Gaius Cornelius, Kdcarver, StephenWeber, Nephron, Kkmurray, Mortensn siemens, Bondegezou, DoriSmith, Smack-
Bot, C.Fred, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the speller, SeanWillard, RayAYang, Tsca.bot, Miuler, Daniel.Cardenas, Finejon, Mbey-
chok, Sasabune, Fvasconcellos, CmdrObot, JohnCD, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, [email protected], Asenine, Incrediblehelp, Marek69,
Davidmack, Uruiamme, Dawnseeker2000, Res1103, Pro crast in a tor, JAnDbot, Davewho2, MER-C, Utilitysupplies, Nthep, Z22, Ma-
gioladitis, Mikelantis, User A1, JaGa, Edward321, WLU, Mmoneypenny, Glrx, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Shan d, Trusilver, Hackmac,
Videomixfan, Tannkremen, Jmajeremy, Mikael Hggstrm, M-le-mot-dit, Cometstyles, Technopat, Guillaume2303, Kelowe, Broadbot,
Viharm, Andy Dingley, In8sworld, Moraviaspy, Barkeep, Yintan, Interchange88, Matthewolin, Editore99, Chansonh, Mtaylor848, Denis-
arona, MenoBot, ClueBot, CharlesWemyss, Foxj, Falkonry, Hysocc, Mild Bill Hiccup, CounterVandalismBot, Auntof6, Paulow, Pelesl,
PixelBot, Deke77, Djhnsn, Zomno, SchreiberBike, Scf1984, NeillDR, Shenitech, Spitre, Rchabatsane, Skarebo, Addbot, Some jerk on the
Internet, Fgnievinski, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Numbo3-bot, Ricvelozo, Angrysockhop, Luckas-bot, Yobot, LeandroHerrera, Bykgardner,
AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Thomagt, Ozone71, Capricorn42, Crookesmoor, IMBlackMath, R.denbesten,
J04n, Abigor, Omnipaedista, Fpunktz, Shadowjams, Quod erat demonstrandum 3.14159, FrescoBot, Deirdre163, jlfr, Pinethicket,
Eyrryds, Jmillar123, FlowLineOptions, WBenjamin, Akmaludin, Insttindia, Doublebackslash, DixonDBot, Nashem, Indmeas, Raymond
C. Watson, Jr., MagnInd, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, GoingBatty, ZroBot, F, Lateg, AvicAWB, L Kensington, ClueBot NG, Satellizer,
Wikilenox, Tomvreomfodj, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Acbrands, CitationCleanerBot, Pendelluft, Rebekahpedia, Klilidiplomus, Mrjake-
walter, Aignatian, ChrisGualtieri, Flow Expert, Drinkingwaterdoc, Webclient101, SFK2, Omkar Walambe, Bosvoss, I am One of Many,
AJOnline, Redhorse819, Wellbaum.jd, Alliakhue, Comp.arch, AussieMueller, Glaisher, Tbrandt20, Suren.vasilyan, MSquaredPR, Joe
Vitale 5, Goldwannern, Anky24, Sairp, JD at Photon Control, Adhunk1989, Smiler1997 and Anonymous: 261

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