Women's Space in Byzantine Monasteries

Author(s): Alice-Mary Talbot

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 52 (1998), pp. 113-127
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 Women's Space in Byzantine Monasteries
ALICE-MARY TALBOT

hroughout the Byzantine era, adoption of the monastic habit entailed vows of chas-
tity, poverty, and obedience and necessitated renunciation of worldly ties, including
those of property and family. The architecture of monasteries encouraged this separation
from the outside world and the segregation of the sexes by enclosing the precincts with
a massive wall and strictly limiting the number of entrances.' Such a plan facilitated
enforcement of two basic monastic rules that attempted to maintain a distinct and sepa-
rate space for those who took the habit: the rule of abaton designed to keep unwelcome
visitors outside, and the rule of enclosure intended to keep monks and nuns inside. The
purpose of these rules, of course, was to protect monastics from worldly distraction and
sexual temptation. The peril involved in disregarding them was vividly expressed by the
father of St. Mary, who advised her when she was about to enter a monastery disguised
as the monk Marinos, "Child, take heed how you conduct yourself, for you are about to
enter into the midst of fire, for a woman in no way enters a <male> monastery."2 The
sources preserve several notorious cases where women sneaked into monasteries specifi-
cally for purposes of sexual encounters, thus demonstrating that the fears of monastic
founders were not totally groundless.3
The rule of abaton, literally meaning "untrodden" or "inaccessible," and describing

My thanks to Sharon Gerstel, Alexander Kazhdan(t), Henry Maguire, Svetlana Popovid, and Patrick Vis-
cuso, who read and commented on earlier versions of this paper. I am also grateful to the two anonymous
reviewers who suggested a number of improvements.
'Cf. Nov. 133, chap. 1, of Justinian (CIC, Nov 668), and the typikonof Neilos Damilas, ed. S. P6tridis, "Le
typikon de Nil Damilas pour le monastire de femmes de Baeonia en Crate (1400)," IRAIK 15 (1911), 107-8.
For a survey of monastic gateways, see A. Orlandos, MovaoTrnptaw-T 17-26, and
S. Mojsilovi&-Popovic, "Monastery Entrances around the Year 1200," 6pXtTeovtu-i(Athens, 1958),
in Studenicaet l'art byzantinautour de
l'annie 1200, ed. V. KoraC(Belgrade, 1988), 153-69.
2Cf. vita of St. Mary/Marinos, chap. 4, ed. M. Richard, "La Vie Ancienne de Sainte Marie surnomm6e
Marinos," in CoronaGratiarum:Miscellaneapatristica,historicaet liturgicaEligio DekkersO.S.B. XII Lustracomplenti
oblata, I (Brugge, 1975), 88.29-31. For further examples of similar sentiments, see D. Abrahamse, "Women's
Monasticism in the Middle Byzantine Period: Problems and Prospects," ByzF 9 (1985), 44-45.
3E.g., two instances at the Hodegoi monastery ca. 1355, cited in the same synodal document: a woman
called Moschonou was accused of visiting the monk loasaph in his cell, and Ananias, the nephew of the
metropolitan of Tyre, was caught with a prostitute in his cell; cf. J. Darrouzes, Les regestesdesactesdu Patriarcat
de Constantinople,I: Les actesdespatriarches,IV-VI (Paris, 1932-79), V, no. 2385 (hereafter, RegPatr), and MM
1:187, 442-43.
114 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

the principle that a male monastery was off-limits to women and vice versa,4 was codified
in both civil and canon law in Byzantium. Thus Novel 133 of Justinian, of the year 539,
forbade entrance to a monastery by members of the opposite sex, even of corpses for
burial. The only explicit exception was that gravediggers were permitted to enter a nun-
nery in order to prepare a grave in the cemetery and perform the actual burial. Justinian
also forbade men to visit a female convent or women to visit a male monastery for com-
memorative services.5 Canon law reiterated this prohibition: canon 47 of the Council in
Trullo (691/2), for example, prohibited a woman from spending the night in a male mon-
astery and vice versa, while canon 18 of Nicaea II in 787 prescribed stricter rules, that
women were not allowed to visit monasteries under any circumstances.6
As we shall see, however, these civil and ecclesiastical regulations represented an ideal
that was difficult to achieve in the case of male institutions and impossible for female
religious houses. In this paper I review the evidence on the observance of rules of abaton
and enclosure in Byzantium over a period of approximately six hundred years, ca. 800
to 1400. I have chosen these six centuries because they are particularly rich in sources
on monasticism, especially saints' lives, typika(monastic foundation documents), and syn-
odal acts.

ABATONAT MALE MONASTERIES

The typika of male monastic houses normally prescribed that the doors were to be
barred to women, with some necessary exceptions. Thus the eleventh-century rule for
the Evergetis monastery in Constantinople, which served as the model for numerous
subsequent typika,stated that the founder would have preferred to exclude women totally
from the monastic precincts, but felt obligated to permit certain wellborn women to visit
for spiritual purposes.7 At St. Mamas, aristocratic women were vouchsafed permission to
attend the burial or memorial rites of relatives of the founder; they were admitted only
to the church and had to leave as soon as the ceremony concluded.8 At the Pantokrator
monastery in Constantinople, a Comnenian foundation of the twelfth century, three con-
tiguous church buildings still survive to complement and help interpret the evidence of
the typikon.9The rule of John II Komnenos absolutely forbade women to enter the mo-

40On the principle of abaton, see J. L. van Dieten in RB 1 (1969), 49-84, and P de Meester, De monachico
statu iuxta disciplinambyzantinam(Vatican City, 1942), 163-66.
5Novel 133, chap. 3, CIC, Nov 669-71.
6G. A. Rhalles and M. Potles, -6vtaygtat&v 6efc alitiep&v Kav6vcw, II (Athens, 1852), 628-30; I. M.
Konidares, NolatKlOEpiPornTrv LovaT3ljptaicbZv t~run6v (Athens, 1984), 120.
7P. Gautier, "Le typikon de la Theotokos Evergetis," REB 40 (1982), chap. 39.
8S. Eustratiades, "Twntrcovfi;gev Kvotavtvounrd6Lt tro5ayfoi gsyakogadptrpo;Magavtog,"Hellenika
ogovi
1 (1928), 282-83. The vita of Symeon the Theologian describes the vain efforts of the mother of his disciple
Arsenios to visit her son at the St. Mamas monastery. Although the porter yielded to her importunate suppli-
cations and announced her arrival to Arsenios, the young monk steadfastly refused to see his mother, even
though she spent three days outside the gate; cf. I. Hausherr, Viede Symeonle Nouveau Thdologien(949-1022)
par Nicetas Stdthatos(Rome, 1928), chap. 46.
90n the complex of the Pantokrator monastery, see A. H. S. Megaw, "Notes on Recent Work of the Byzan-
tine Institute in Istanbul," DOP 17 (1963), 335-64; G. Majeska, Russian Travelersto Constantinoplein the Four-
teenthand FifteenthCenturies(Washington, D.C., 1984), 289-95; R. Janin, La geographie de l'Empire
eccldsiastique
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 115

nastic precincts, declaring that the monastery was abatos. He did, however, make provi-
sion for noblewomen to attend funeral and memorial services by entering through the
door of the northern Eleousa church rather than through the main gate of the complex.'
In addition, women were admitted to this church every Friday night when a procession
was held and elderly women attendants helped distribute water from the phiale.1 The
Eleousa, described by the typikonas being "near" or "next to" the monastery,'2 was thus
apparently considered to be separate from the monastic complex, and hence female wor-
shipers would not contravene the provisions of the typikon. From the Eleousa, visitors
could proceed directly into the adjoining middle church of St. Michael, which served as
a mausoleum for both male and female members of the imperial family;'3 it was also
considered to lie outside the monastery precincts,'4 which began with the attached south
church of the Pantokrator that served as the katholikon.Also outside the precincts was
a fifty-bed hospital attached to the monastery, which was intended for the care of
lay people and included a ward with twelve beds for women.'5 As I interpret the typikon
text, the Pantokrator churches must have been situated at the very edge of the monastic
precinct, so that there could be free public access to the Eleousa church. The disposition
of the three churches at Pantokrator thus provided a means whereby women could
be admitted to a church associated with the monastery, but not enter the precincts
themselves.
At the contemporary Kosmosoteira, a male monastery at Pherrai in Thrace, women
were permitted to enter the church for worship only three times a year, on the Marian
feast days of the Annunciation (March 25), the Birth of the Virgin (September 8), and
her Dormition (August 15). This was a concession of the founder, Isaac Komnenos, who
wanted in principle to limit women's worship at the katholikon,so as not to detract from
its "good appearance" (e 5tpbeta), but at the same time felt he should occasionally per-
mit women to make their devotions to the Virgin and to pray for his "wretched soul."
Isaac specified that the female worshipers were to avoid any contact with the monks, by
entering through the east gate of the monastery complex and waiting until the monks
had left the church after the conclusion of the liturgy. On these three days, women visi-
tors were, however, permitted to meet with their male relatives in the monastery court-
yard under the watchful supervision of the abbot. During the rest of the year, women

byzantin, I: Le siege de Constantinopleet le patriarcat oecuminique,3, Les iglises et les monasteres,2nd ed. (Paris,
1969), 515-23, 564-66 (hereafter, Janin, Eglises CP). For plans of the monastery, see T. E Mathews, The
Byzantine Churchesof Istanbul:A PhotographicSurvey (University Park, Pa., 1976), 74, and W. Miller-Wiener,
Bildlexikonzur TopographieIstanbuls(Tfibingen, 1977), 210.
'OP.Gautier, "Le typikon du Christ Sauveur Pantocrator,"REB 32 (1974), 61.530-34: o 6-6irb a foI; rdlrl;
Z? kV a, 'rof)
vaoo3 r?;
EioT~E,)(oow0at,
"?tov?;
There were four ofd,t,' tb lq
rtn;orl; 'Eke-0,ooril.
these female attendants called graptai; two served at a time during alternate weeks.
These women also helped to keep the church clean; cf. Gautier, "Pantocrator,"77.785-94.
'2Gautier, "Pantocrator,"73.728-33: zTigzotaomggiovifg.
'3For the burial of John II and his.nrloiov
wife Irene at the church, see Gautier, "Pantocrator," 47.289-90,
73.728-32; cf. E. and M. Jeffreys, "Immortality in the Pantokrator?"JOB 44 (1994), 193-201. Manuel I and
his wife Irene were also interred in the mausoleum of St. Michael.
'4Gautier, "Pantocrator,"73.730-32: teaSc'oio otol'rto- vao Tf gIoviJ; i~epov E)Kptov ... iET'
ovo-
io?3... MtPari". icKa.
.tcaut
'5Gautier, "Pantocrator,"83-109.
116 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

were refused entrance and had to be content with venerating a mosaic icon of the Virgin
hanging on the gate leading into the monastery courtyard.16
The typika of some male monasteries were so strict with regard to contact between
the monks and any women that they even forbade charitable distributions at the monas-
tery gate to individual female beggars. In the words of the typikonfor the Evergetis mon-
astery: "It is our wish that no one should go away from our gate empty-handed unless it
should be a woman. For no <individual> distribution should be made to these <women>,
not because we despise their kindred <nature>, by no means, but we must be on guard
against the harm ensuing therefrom, lest out of habit they begin to frequent the gate
more often <and> become a cause of evil rather than good for those who dole out <the
alms>." The Evergetine typikondid, however, permit women to receive food at the time
of general distributions on major feast days, "for this happens rarely and does not cause
us any harm."17
Despite all the restrictions on female access, there were legitimate reasons for grant-
ing women occasional and brief admittance to a male monastery: to attend funeral or
commemorative services (a privilege normally limited to relatives of aristocratic found-
ers), to attend services on the monastery's feast day,'8 or for pilgrimage to a holy shrine
within the monastic precincts. At some men's monasteries, access to healing tombs was
readily available to male and female pilgrims alike. At Hosios Loukas, for example, as at
most monasteries, the katholikonwas in the middle of the monastery, and pilgrims would
have to pass through a courtyard to reach the shrine.'9 At the Kosmidion shrine in Con-
stantinople the pilgrims established themselves under shaded porticoes. They brought
their own bedding with them; curtains were sometimes used to partition off private
space, but often men and women pilgrims lay right next to each other.20 Some male
houses, for instance, the monasteries of Tarasios and Ignatios, whose rules forbade access
by women, in effect also prevented them from making pilgrimage to seek a miraculous
cure at the saint's reliquary housed in the katholikon.In such cases women might get
around this prohibition by sending male servants or relatives to obtain for them some

'6L. Petit, "Typikon du monastere de la Kosmosoteira prbs d'Aenos (1152)," IRAIK 13 (1908),
chap. 84,
pp. 60-61. The Acta of the brothers David, Symeon, and George, on the other hand, present a much less
rigorous picture of interaction between the monks and their female relatives. Thus, when David's mother
came to visit him at his monastery, he sent a monk to escort her from the seashore and greeted her with a
warm embrace; cf. I. van den Gheyn, "Acta graeca ss. Davidis, Symeonis et Georgii Mitylenae in insula
Lesbo," AB 18 (1899), 217-18.
'7Gautier, "Everg6tis,"chap. 38, p. 83.1184-91. Very similar prohibitions are found in Petit, "Kosmoso-
teira," chap. 56, p. 47.21-27, and in the Phoberou typikon,ed. A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, NoctesPetropolita-
nae (St. Petersburg, 1913), chap. 55, p. 74.
'8As we have seen at Kosmosoteira; see also P. Gautier, "Le typikon du s6baste Gr6goire Pakourianos,"
REB 42 (1984), chap. 23, p. 105.1413-15, which states that women are permitted in the church of the
Pakourianos monastery only on its feast day.
I91tis not clear from the vita of St. Luke of Steiris whether his healing shrine was located (as C. Connor
assumes) in the crypt, which has a separate entrance, or in the church above it. For a plan of Hosios Loukas,
see C. Connor, Art and Miracles in Medieval Byzantium:The Cryptat Hosios Loukasand Its Frescoes(Princeton,
N.J., 1991), fig. 1. For similar disposition of the katholikonat the Boeotian monasteries of Sagmatas and
Hosios Meletios, see Orlandos, Ki figs. 8-9.
SainteMovaornptarc
saints apXtTtovtij,
Comeet saints Cyr et Jean (extraits),saint Georges(Paris,
20See A.-J. Festugibre, Thecle, Damien,
1971), 89.
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 117

sort of eulogia (usually an ampulla of holy oil or water)."' Other women were so desperate
to touch a saint's tomb that they resorted to disguise as a man or as a eunuch.22 Some-
times, as a concession, the holy relics were carried to the entrance of the katholikonchurch
so they could be revered by women visiting the monastery.23Yet another solution to the
problem of visitation by female pilgrims may have been to locate the katholikonat the
edge of a monastic complex with an exterior public entrance, as at Pantokrator. Parallels
for this siting of the katholikoncan be found in at least two other Constantinopolitan
monasteries, Kalenderhane Cami and the Pammakaristos.24Finally, I should mention the
healing shrine of St. Peter of Atroa in Bithynia as another paradigm of accommodation
of pilgrims. First of all, during Peter's lifetime a chapel of the Virgin was built outside the
monastery enclosure where Peter could meet female pilgrims. After his death his relics
were moved to a grotto-chapel near but outside the monastery, again to facilitate access
by female pilgrims.25
The principle of abaton at male religious houses came to be extended from single
monasteries to entire complexes of monasteries on holy mountains, as on Mount Athos.26
The same rule of exclusion of women held true for Meteora, where the fourteenth-
century typikonof St. Athanasios ordered that women were not to enter the precincts of
the holy mountain, nor to be given any food to eat, even if they were dying of hunger.27
The total absence of nunneries from Mount Latros leads us to conclude that this was
another holy mountain that prohibited the presence of women. On other holy mountains
of western Asia Minor, Galesion, Auxentios, and Olympos, for example, attempts were
made to control the presence of women by permitting the establishment of a single fe-
male convent, designed primarily to house the relatives of monks residing on those holy
mountains.28 At Auxentios the nunnery was located on the lower slopes of the mountain,
while the male monastery was near the summit.29 An effort was even made to exclude

21Thus, in the vita Ignatii, one woman dispatched servants to bring her some of the saint's hair in apomyr-
isma (probably myron,the sweet-smelling exudation from the saint's remains), while another woman sent her
husband to fetch her some of the holy oil (PG 105:561C-D).
22Thus a demoniac woman was disguised as a man by her uncle so she could spend the night next to the
tomb of Elias Spelaiotes (AASS, Sept. 3: chap. 82), and two other women suffering from an issue of blood
dressed as eunuchs in order to gain entrance to the tomb of Tarasios (I. A. Heikel, Ignatii Diaconi VitaTarasii
archiepiscopiConstantinopolitani[Helsingfors, 1891], 421.29-37).
23Cf.C. Bouras, Nea Moni on Chios:Historyand Architecture(Athens, 1982), 167 and n. 2.
24Forplans of Kalenderhane Cami and Pammakaristos, see Miiller-Wiener, Bildlexikon, 154 and 132; see
also H. Hallensleben, "Untersuchungen zur Baugeschichte der ehemaligen Pammakaristoskirche, der heuti-
gen Fethiye camii in Istanbul," IstMitt 13-14 (1963-64), 128-93, esp. figs. 3, 4, and 15.
25The rule of Peter's monastery absolutely forbade entrance to women; cf. V. Laurent, La Vie merveilleuse
de saint Pierred'Atroa(Brussels, 1956), 54 and 169.18-22. For the translation of Peter's relics, see V. Laurent,
La Vitaretractataet les miraclesposthumesde saint Pierred'Atroa(Brussels, 1958), chap. 97.
260n abaton at Athos, see S. Papadatos, To6np6phrlyka ro- &pazo zo-6'Ayfou 'Opog (Thessalonike, 1969),
and A.-M. Talbot, "Women and Mt. Athos," in Mount Athos and Byzantine Monasticism, ed. A. Bryer and
M. Cunningham (Aldershot, Hampshire, 1996), 67-79.
27N. Bees, "Dt4poXilei;gtliv iotopiav z&v gov&v t&v Byzantis 1 (1909), 251, article 7; cf. also
Me~tFpcov,"
p. 259: &tazr ~parov lvat yivat~i ztrKi~hop zoi MrFozspov.Here we can see the extension of the misogynistic
provision in the Evergetine typikon(see note 17 above) to the entire Meteora complex.
28For further details, see A.-M. Talbot, "AComparison of the Monastic
Experience of Byzantine Men and
Women," GOTR 30 (1985), 2-3.
29Cf. R. Janin, Les egliseset les monasteresdesgrands centresbyzantins(Paris, 1975), 46.
118 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

women from the entirety of Patmos, as we learn from a chrysobull of Emperor Alexios I
forbidding women to live on the hallowed island where Christodoulos was establishing
the monastery of St. John the Theologian; but Christodoulos was forced to change the
rule when he could not find unmarried construction workers to come to the island, espe-
cially when he realized that he needed not only builders on a temporary basis but long-
term laborers. He compromised by requiring the workmen's families, especially the
women, to remain confined to one corner of the island.30
The rule of abaton on holy mountains was obviously intended to preserve the special
purity of the monks inhabiting these isolated monastic complexes. I would also argue
that the masculine character of holy mountains was enhanced by the tendency in Byzan-
tium for female convents to be built in urban locations that were deemed safer than the
countryside for the weaker sex. Moreover, since nuns of the middle and late Byzantine
centuries almost always resided in cenobitic institutions, they were not as attracted to the
wild mountainous regions of Greece and Anatolia as were the holy men who readily
moved back and forth between the cenobitic life and the solitary existence of hermits.31

DOUBLE MONASTERIES

Double monasteries, that is, male and female monasteries built either contiguous to
or closely associated with each other, under the rule of a single superior,32were frowned
upon by both civil and religious authorities in Byzantium. Justinian attempted to prohibit
such institutions in his Novel 123 of the year 546,33 but they continue to be attested into
the eighth century, as at Mantineion.34 Around the year 800, however, these complexes
seem to have been effectively suppressed: canon 20 of the seventh ecumenical council,
Nicaea II (787), prohibited any future double foundations, and ca. 810 Patriarch Nikeph-
oros I totally closed all such institutions.35 For three centuries thereafter (800-1100) no
double monasteries are mentioned in the sources. Double monasteries reappear in the
twelfth century, for example, the male monastery of Christ Philanthropos and the con-
vent of the Kecharitomene jointly founded by Irene Doukaina,36 and are known in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries as well, on Mount Ganos and in Constantinople.37
Since there are no physical remains of these complexes, our knowledge of them must be

30E. L. Vranouse, Bu-avwtvx yypa4a Tfig tovi;g Hr6itov, I (Athens, 1980), no. 6, p. 60, lines Xy'-Xe', 1-8;
typikonof Christodoulos, MM 6:66-68.
31Formore on this, see Talbot, "Comparison," 2-4.
32On double monasteries, see S. Hilpisch, Die Doppelkloster:Entstehungund Organisation(Miinster, 1928),
5-24; J. Pargoire, "Les monasteres doubles chez les byzantins," EO 9 (1906), 21-25; ODB 11:1392; Talbot,
"Comparison," 5-7.
33CIC,Nov 123.36.
34Synaxarium 849-50.
35For canon CP,
20 of Nicaea II, see Rhalles and Potles, 6vrTayla,II, 637-38. The action of Nikephoros
is described in his vita, ed. C. de Boor, NicephoriarchiepiscopiConstantinopolitaniopusculahistorica (Leipzig,
1880), 159-60.
36Cf.Janin, Eglises 188-91, 525-27; P Gautier, "Le typikon de la Th6otokos K6charit6mene," REB 43
(1985), 139. It shouldCP,
be noted that each part of the monastery had its own superior.
37Complexes on Mount Ganos and at Xerolophos in the capital were associated with Athanasios I, patri-
arch of Constantinople (1289-93, 1303-9). For bibliography, see Talbot, "Comparison," nn. 23-25. On the
monastery of Christ the Savior, see R. H. Trone, "AConstantinopolitan Double Monastery of the Fourteenth
Century: The Philanthropic Savior,"ByzSt 10 (1983), 81-87.
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 119

based on scanty textual references that provide virtually no indication of the physical
layout of these institutions. The Kecharitomene typikoninforms us that convent and male
monastery were divided by a wall and that the two institutions had separate water chan-
nels.38 The homilies of Theoleptos of Philadelphia address the monks and nuns of Phi-
lanthropos Soter separately, thus implying that they attended the daily offices in different
churches.39 A passage in one of his Easter homilies has been taken by one scholar to
suggest that the monks and nuns ate together in the monastery, but should surely be
interpreted metaphorically.40 The vita of St. Philotheos of Athos does seem to imply, on
the other hand, that monks and nuns at a double monastery at Neapolis attended the
liturgy together;41 they may have been separated by a wall or screen. It seems most likely
that double monasteries had separate areas for monks and nuns, divided by a wall, but
in some cases may have shared the use of the katholikon.It is surely significant that in his
decree of 1383 dividing the double monastery of Athanasios on Xerolophos, Patriarch
Neilos Kerameus carefully detailed the division of properties previously owned in com-
mon, but made no division of buildings, thus suggesting that each part of the monastery
had its own church, refectory, kitchens, and so on.42

ABATONAND ENCLOSUREIN FEMALECONVENTS

I now turn to nunneries and review their rules of enclosure and abaton and the vis-
iting privileges of men who sought entrance.43 In principle, nuns were cloistered for life
and could go out of their convent only in extraordinary circumstances, for instance, if a
parent was sick or dying.44 In such cases, the twelfth-century Kecharitomene typikonper-
mitted a nun to leave the cloister for the day, accompanied by two aged nuns, to visit her
parents' house. The late-thirteenth-century rule for the Lips convent was somewhat more
liberal, stating that a nun need be accompanied on such a visit only if she were of unreli-
able reputation. In fact, however, nuns did leave their convents for a number of other

38Gautier,"Kecharit6mene," 115.1677-90, 139.2115-16.

39R. E. Sinkewicz, Theoleptosof Philadelphia:TheMonasticDiscourses(Toronto, 1992), 19.
40In homily 17 (p. 302), referring to the death of the monk Leo Monomachos, Theoleptos says to the
nuns: "You know, my sisters, you saw him with your own eyes and had him as a guest at table and as a fellow
traveller on the way (ouve~otdopa Ka uOvoSotrc6pov e'tiXes c6ab6v);together you plied the sea of this life"
(trans. Sinkewicz). R. Janin (followed by Sinkewicz) suggests that Leo may have been a priest or confessor in
the women's convent; cf. his "Les monastebresdu Christ Philanthrope 'a Constantinople," REB 4 (1946), 153.
R. Trone ("Double Monastery," 86) has interpreted this passage as meaning that "the men and women of
the monastery associated at table, had a common diet, and did some ordinary work together, but did not
worship together." Another passage in homily 9 (p. 220) that might imply a common refectory iX
K .. OO Tv
T 6 cab6. tij; oon (acijt1 dpt;
to3Kotvo) pio . ne.pto1it gov v gfia. 06oIKoT&Av iEPCOv 6gyvmOv ?i Tpda'RcEa i
'aU'i)
;1
could well be a general description of cenobitic life, rather than a specific allusion to Philanthropos Soter;
cf. Sinkewicz, Theoleptos,19.
41B. Papoulia, "Die Vita des Heiligen Philotheos vom Athos," SiidostF 22 (1963), 274-76.
42MM 2:80-83.
43 For a convenient
survey of the regulations of typikafor Byzantine convents, see C. Galatariotou, "Byzan-
tine Women's Monastic Communities: The Evidence of the Typika,"JOB 38 (1988), 262-90. See also Abra-
hamse, "Women'sMonasticism," 35-58, esp. 40-47, and A. E. Laiou, "Observations on the Life and Ideology
of Byzantine Women," ByzF 9 (1985), 59-102.
44Cf.,e.g., Gautier, "K6charitim6ne," 61.761-67; Lips typikon,chap. 15, and Bebaia Elpis typikon,chap. 77,
in H. Delehaye, Deux typicabyzantinsde l'dpoquedes Paldologues(Brussels, 1921), 114.18-115.6 and 63.12-64.5
(hereafter Lips and Bebaia Elpis).
120 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

reasons, as we learn from the typikathemselves as well as from the texts of saints' lives
and synodal acts. Thus upon the occasion of the installation of a newly elected abbess, a
group of nuns might escort their superior to the imperial palace or patriarchate where
the emperor or patriarch would entrust the abbess with the staff of office.45 Some nuns
had duties that took them outside the cloister; thus Theodora of Thessalonike is de-
scribed as going to the market to buy firewood,46 and a female oikonomos(steward) might
have to visit properties owned by her convent.47 Nuns also went out for other business
purposes, for instance, to request rental payments for a garden they had leased out,48 to
petition the synod, or to appear as witnesses or defendants in lawsuits.49On occasion a
nun might leave to visit her spiritual father or to attend the wake of a relative.50 Finally,
there are numerous references to nuns going on pilgrimage to a shrine or seeking heal-
ing at a saint's tomb.51
Despite the sweeping declarations of the typikaof female convents that their precincts
were forbidden to men,52 the very same documents outlined numerous exceptions to this
rule. The major difficulty with the concept of abaton at a nunnery was of course that a
female religious house could not function without the entrance into its precincts of mem-
bers of the male sex, because certain positions necessary for the everyday operations of
a convent were held only by men. Thus male priests were indispensable, as were father
confessors, physicians, workmen, gravediggers, and sometimes male stewards, gardeners,
and singers. The founders of convents dealt with this problem in several ways: by limiting
most such appointments to elderly or married men or to eunuchs; by limiting the fre-
quency of their access to the convent; and by limiting the areas within the convent they
could visit.
Priests were the most frequent male visitors to the convent because of the need for

45Cf. Lips, chap. 7, and Bebaia Elpis, chap. 26.

t
Paschalides, 'O Pfo; ;ig otoCpop~z&tSo
?eo8;o6paQ ,ijg iv Oeooa_ ov`Kn (Thessalonike, 1991), chap.
46S.
23 (hereafter V. Theod.Thess.).
47Cf. Bebaia Elpis, chap. 54.
48MM 2:501-2 (RegPatrVI, no. 3212).
49Numerous examples are to be found in the acts of the synod of Constantinople; see, for instance, RegPatr
VI, nos. 3215 and 3216 (MM 2:506-9 and 2:509-10). To summarize two such cases, in 1348 a nun appealed
to the synod with regard to the dowry of her deceased sister which her brother-in-law had
appropriated
(RegPatr V, no. 2304; MM 1:283-84), while in 1397 the nun Hypomone filed a complaint against her son-
in-law in an attempt to recover the property willed to her by her daughter (RegPatr VI, no. 3061; MM
2:347-48). These lawsuits indicate, by the way, that not all nuns had renounced interest in their family
property. For other instances, see RegPatr V, nos. 2064, 2156, 2157.
50The 15th-century nun Eulogia-Eugenia was given permission to visit her confessor, the metropolitan of
Chalcedon; cf. V. Laurent, "La direction spirituelle des grandes dames a Byzance: La correspondance in6dite
d'un m6tropolite de Chalc6doine," REB 8 (1951), 67, 71, 73, 76. The princess
Irene-Eulogia Choumnaina
was allowed by her spiritual confessor to attend the wake of her aunt; cf. A. C. Hero, A Woman's
Questfor
SpiritualGuidance:The Correspondence of PrincessIreneEulogia ChoumnainaPalaiologina (Brookline, Mass., 1986),
ep. 22.1-2.
5' E.g., pilgrimage of a group of nuns from the convent of the Theotokos tou Maroule to the Pege shrine
(MM 1:223); the abbess of the convent of Kachlakine in Arkadioupolis, accompanied by two nuns, journeyed
to Bizye to the tomb of Mary the Younger (AASS, Nov. 4:698EF); a demoniac nun
sought a cure at the tomb
of St. Thomais at the convent of Ta Mikra Rhomaiou (AASS, Nov. 4:240AB); another demoniac nun traveled
from Bulgaria to Bizye to seek healing at the tomb of St. Mary the Younger (AASS, Nov. 4:698c).
52E.g., Gautier, "K6charit6mene," 39.324, 329; 61.743-44, 758-59; 63.773-74; 145.2269-70.
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 121

them to celebrate the liturgy and certain monastic offices.53The twelfth-century Kechari-
tomene typikonspecified that they should be eunuchs (preferably monks),54as did a proc-
lamation of Patriarch Arsenios in the mid-thirteenth century, which added that the eu-
nuchs should be elderly.55 The rules of two Palaiologan nunneries stipulated that the
liturgy be celebrated by married secular priests, ideally of mature years.56
Another man who regularly frequented the convent was the spiritual father of the
nuns. He might be a solitary or cenobitic monk, or even a bishop;57 Irene Doukaina,
foundress of the Kecharitomene convent, required this individual to be a eunuch, just
like the priests.58 The primary function of the spiritual father was to hear individual
confessions from the nuns and to deliver homilies of exhortation. He normally heard
confession in the narthex of the church or "inside the convent" (presumably in a heated
building) if the weather was too cold. His frequency of visitation varied from convent to
convent, daily at Bebaia Elpis, three days per month at Lips.59 In the latter case the
spiritual father would spend the night in "the small rooms assigned for this purpose in
the hospice (xenon),"which was "attached to" but considered separate from the convent
proper.60
The oikonomos,or steward, of a convent might be either male or female,61 depending
on the rule of a given institution; when the appointment of a man was specified, a eunuch
was preferred.62 Since the steward needed to visit all parts of the complex for inspection
of the upkeep of the buildings, he had to be a man of impeccable reputation. Neverthe-
less, some limits were imposed on his freedom of movement; at Lips, for example, he
had to meet with the abbess in the presence of the chief nunnery officials and to take
his midday meal in one of the rooms of the hospice rather than in the refectory.63At
Kecharitomene the physician also had to be a eunuch or very elderly.64

53The basic article on this subjectis by E. Papagianne,"OtKXrlpt-KO?rowV

y)lavwtvov
Yvvat'Ce0yV KQat
gov0v
to 3paTo," 6 (1986), 77-93.
B?avwta-6
54Gautier, "K6charit6m6ne," chap. 15, p. 59.708. It should be noted that canon 22 of the Holy Apostles
forbade the ordination only of eunuchs who had castrated themselves; those castrated by others could be-
come bishops (canon 21); cf. Rhalles and Potles, u6vtayCa,II, 29-30.
55RegPatrIV, no. 1374, par. 16; PG 119:1144D-1145A. This preference for eunuch priests provides con-
firmation of K. Ringrose's thesis of the Byzantine eunuch as a mediator, in this case between the convent
and the outside world; cf. K. Ringrose, "Eunuchs as Cultural Mediators in Byzantium," BSCAbstr21 (New
York, 1995), 57.
56Bebaia Elpis, chap. 79, p. 65.7-9; P6trides, "Damilas," 107.
57Solitary or cenobitic monk: Lips, chap. 11, p. 112.28. The spiritual directors of Irene-Eulogia Choum-
naina in the 14th century and of the nun Eulogia in the 15th were both metropolitans; cf. Hero, Choumnaina,
19, and Laurent, "Direction spirituelle," 68.
58Gautier,"Kecharit6m6ne," chap. 16, p. 59.722-23.
590n the spiritual father, see Gautier, "K6charitim6ne," chap. 16, p. 59; Lips, chap. 11; Bebaia Elpis,
chaps. 105-11; P6trides, "Damilas," 103.
60Lips, chap. 11, p. 113.2-3; chap. 50, p. 134.10.
61Female stewards were appointed at the convents of Bebaia Elpis and Damilas; cf. Bebaia Elpis, chaps.
54-55, and P6trides, "Damilas," 108-9.
62Gautier,"K6charitim6nk," 55.646-57.654 (a eunuch, preferably one of the convent priests); Lips, chap.
25, pp. 119.23-120.22 ("a man or eunuch"); typikonof nunnery of Kosmas and Damian, chap. 59, ed. Dele-
haye, Deux typica, 139.6-7 ("a eunuch or otherwise respectable man").
63Lips, chap. 26.
64Gautier,"K6charitim6ne," chap. 57, p. 107.1572.
 122 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

Irene Doukaina, whose rules for the Kecharitomene tend to be more strict than those
of later convent founders, was adamant about refusing entrance to male singers or psaltai,
even on special feast days or days of commemoration.65 At the Lips convent, Theodora
Palaiologina also normally prohibited the admission of the singers of psalms called kalli-
phonoi, but she was willing to make an exception on the birthday of the Theotokos, when
her son, Emperor Andronikos II, came to the convent for services.66
Other men admitted on official business might be workmen, gravediggers, or a lay
administrator of the convent. If a garden or vineyard was situated within the convent
walls, then male gardeners or vinedressers might also have to enter the monastery pre-
cincts.67
Men like priests and physicians had an official role to play at the convent and of
necessity had access to specified parts of the convent complex in order to carry out their
duties. The typikaplaced much greater restrictions on men who came for personalreasons,
to see their female relatives or for worship, and on certain laymen who came on business.
A man wishing to talk to a female relative in the nunnery was not permitted to enter the
monastic precincts, but had to meet her outside the gatehouse in the company of re-
spected nuns,68 or else to sit in the area "between the two gates," evidently a reference to
the space in the gatehouse between the outer and inner gates, where there might be
benches.69 Significantly it was specified that the nun should "return to the convent" after
her meeting; thus the convent proper was considered to begin at the inner
gate.70 Not
even the serious illness of a nun would provide the excuse for a male relative to come
inside the nunnery; in such a case the ailing nun was to be carried on a stretcher to the
gate.7 The gatehouse was also the location where the abbess might meet with estate man-
agers.72
The typika also made provision for men to visit the convent church, especially if it
housed the tombs of relatives.7" Irene Doukaina, however, placed limitations on these
visitors, even if they were her sons, sons-in-law, or grandsons, for they were restricted to
the exonarthex of the church while the nuns were singing the office; after the choir
sisters had returned to their dormitory, the relatives of the foundress could enter the

65Ibid., chap. 75.

66Lips, chap. 39. As an anonymous reader has observed, these objections to the entrance of male singers
may not have been based solely on their gender, but also on the belief that professional hymn singing was
an embellishment more appropriate for public celebration and lay congregations than for monastic commu-
nities, for similar restrictions were enjoined in the typikaof male monasteries; cf. typikonof Blemmydes, chap.
13, ed. A. Heisenberg, NicephoriBlemmydaecurriculumvitae et carmina (Leipzig, 1896), 98, and H. Delehaye,
"Constantini Acropolitae hagiographi byzantini epistularum manipulus," AB 51 (1933),
chap. 7, p. 283.
67For further discussion of monastic horticulture and gardeners, see my forthcoming article,
"Byzantine
Horticulture and the Monastic Landscape."
68Gautier,"K6charit6m6ne," chap. 17, p. 61.748-49; Lips, chap. 15, p. 114.28-29.
69Bebaia Elpis, chap. 76, p. 63.1-2. For an example of such a gatehouse at the
Holy Apostles in Thessalo-
nike, see G. Velenis, "'Onuvcvag Tq; govfi ,rtcv'Ay. do6oorvXow t
O(eooaovilcrl," 'AtnpopLat i tavoi
= t1cvilvtrl
IseX-lcavi8rl Makedonika, suppl. 5 (Thessalonike, 1983), 23-36. A woodcut of the zr
Pammakaristos shows a
bench in the gatehouse; cf. Hallensleben, "Pammakaristoskirche" (as in note 24 above),
fig. 3.
70Bebaia Elpis, chap. 76, p. 63.9-11.
71Gautier,"K6charit6m6ne," chap. 17, p. 61.749-54.
72Ibid., chap. 17, p. 63.768-74.
73E.g., Lips, chap. 16: Theodora Palaiologina's relatives are permitted to visit the churches and tombs.
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 123

church proper and converse with the abbess, who was to be escorted by two or three
aged nuns.74
The evidence of saints' lives and other sources supplements that of the typika, sug-
gesting that male visitors to convents were in fact not uncommon, especially if they had
business with the abbess or with a nun who had the reputation of a holy woman. Thus
Irene of Chrysobalanton received at her convent a sea captain, imperial emissaries, and
her adviser Christopher, and shared a meal with a kinsman recently released from
prison.75 Theodora of Thessalonike was visited by emissaries from the archimandrite of
Thessalonike, while her daughter Theopiste had frequent contact with a man named
Theodotos who was a patron of the monastery and even seems to have lived there for a
while, presumably in the hospice.76 Michael Psellos was not only permitted to visit his
mother at her convent but even to spend the night there." The abbess Irene-Eulogia
Choumnaina enjoyed visits from intellectuals with whom she could hold literary and
theological discussions.78
The funerals and memorial rites of saintly nuns attracted vast throngs of both men
and women to convents; thus at the death of Irene of Chrysobalanton, we are told that
all the citizens of Constantinople, male and female, flocked to the convent; they thronged
the forecourt of the church in the desire to touch her body as it was laid out for burial.79
In a similar vein, "an enormous crowd of monastics and laymen sat in attendance" when
the abbess Anna of the convent of St. Stephen was on her deathbed, and monks and
priests came for the funeral of Theodora of Thessalonike.80 If the corpses of these women
were laid out for burial in the narthex of the church, it is not so surprising that they were
accessible to lay people from outside. But what are we to think of Anna on her deathbed?
Were male mourners admitted to her cell?

GENDERED SPACE IN THE CONVENT

The Dumbarton Oaks colloquium on women's space has encouraged us to think of

women's activities in terms of the space they occupied, and not just in terms of their
status and functions. I find this a helpful prism through which to view the Byzantine
convent and conclude this discussion with a review of which parts of the complex were
accessible only to nuns and in which areas they might interact with male visitors. No
Byzantine convent still stands today so that we can visualize its plan, with the exception
of Areia near Nauplion, founded in the twelfth century as a convent for thirty-six nuns,

74Gautier,"K6charit6mo6n," chap. 80, pp. 145.2271-147.2281.

75 .Iren. Chrysobalant.80-82, 94, 100-102.
76V Theod.Thess.,chap. 36; Translationand Miracles, chaps. 2-3, 13.
77K. N. Sathas, Mesatcc vtKi V
BtphtoOiKq, (Paris, 1876), 37.26-28.
78A. C. Hero, "Irene-Eulogia Choumnaina Palaiologina, Abbess of the Convent of Philanthropos Soter in
Constantinople," ByzF 9 (1985), 136 and n. 49. See also Nikephoros Choumnos, ep. 163, ed. J. E Boissonade,
AnecdotaNova (Paris, 1844), 181-82; D. Reinsch, Die Briefe des Matthaiosvon Ephesosim Codex Vindobonensis
Theol. Gr.174 (Berlin, 1974), ep. B32.
79 Iren. Chrysobalant.,
V. chap. 23.
80V Theod.Thess.,
chaps. 38, 43.
124 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

but soon converted to the use of monks;8' hence for our knowledge of the layout of
nunneries we must rely primarily on the plans of male monasteries and the evidence of
texts. Analysis of the ground plan of contemporary Greek Orthodox nunneries may also
prove useful, if it is valid to argue that they have retained a traditional division of space
that reflects Byzantine practice. At Ormylia, for example, in the Chalkidike peninsula of
northern Greece, the new convent of the Annunciation maintains a distinct separation
between areas to the west accessible to lay visitors and those to the east, the "sanctum"
(including the cell wing and abbess's quarters), restricted to the nuns.82 This division of
the complex into areas with varying degrees of privacy characterizes male monasteries
as well.
The chief areas restricted to nuns seem to have been the dormitories, workrooms,
refectory, and bathhouse. Cenobitic nuns slept either in communal dormitories or in
individual cells;83at Kecharitomene, certain intercalary offices (e.g., the mesoriaof none)
were sung in the dormitory and hence were an exclusively female service.84At the same
convent a private space surrounded by a wall was provided behind the dormitory where
the nuns could take recreation, that is, walk or sit on benches.85 As one might expect, the
dormitory was considered the most sacrosanct refuge of the nuns, and any penetration
by a man would be a great scandal.86The workrooms, where the nuns did their handwork
such as spinning and weaving, also seem to have been off-limits to men who would have
no cause to visit. I would further argue that the refectory (and the associated kitchen
and bakery) was restricted to the use of nuns and was a space dominated by the abbess
and the refectorian. It served food for the spirit as well as the body, as one of the nuns
always read aloud from Scripture, saints' lives, or other edifying literature during the
meal.87 A fourteenth-century synodal document tells us that at least one convent refec-

81On Areia, transformed again into a nunnery in the modern era, see G. A. Choras, 'H "'Ayfa Movij"
'Apefa;g v Ti iKXl K tolt ohtrtK iToopiQNauxnhio Kai 'Apyou; (Athens, 1975). A plan of the monas-
tatKX tK
tery is found between pp. 40 and 41. The church is the only original 12th-century structure, but the other
buildings were built on top of older foundations, so the present layout probably reflects the Byzantine plan
of the complex; cf. ibid., p. 40. An outside reader has noted that the monastery of St. John the Forerunner
on Mount Menoikeion near Serres has also now been converted into a nunnery. On these conversions, which
suggest a basic interchangeability of monastic structures for use by men or women, see A.-M. Talbot, "The
Change in Status of Byzantine Monasteries from Male to Female and Vice-Versa," in Byzantium:Identity,
Image,Influence:XIX InternationalCongressof ByzantineStudies,Abstractsof Communications(Copenhagen, 1996),
no. 6214.
82Cf.Ormylia:the Holy Coenobiumof theAnnunciation, ed. S. A. Papadopoulos (Athens, 1992), 184-85.
83A communal dormitory for twenty-four nuns (-Kotvcvio)co;, Cotg~1nnlptov) is specified in the Kecharito-
mene typikon(Gautier, "K6charit6m6ne',"chaps. 6 and 73, p. 127.1907-8), private cells
(-0XXcat, SXefia) at
Lips (chap. 29, p. 122.8) and Bebaia Elpis (chap. 66, p. 55.20-31).
84Gautier, "K6charit6mene," chap. 35.
85Ibid., chap. 73, p. 127.1907-9. See also pp. 81-83.1132-35. The typikon seems to use the word
KotRl4rliTptov for both the dormitory (e.g., p. 127.1907-8) and the nuns' cemetery at the convent
td KFSXap-
acg. I am following Gautier's interpretation that the KotUrltijptovat Kecharitomene is the dormitory.
86See, for example, an anonymous letter of the early 14th century that describes the surreptitious entrance
of a vagabond monk into the Constantinopolitan nunnery of the Kanikleiou, where he was soon discovered;
cf. J. Gouillard, "Apris le schisme arsenite: La correspondance inedite du pseudo-Jean Chilas," Academie
Roumaine.Bulletin de la SectionHistorique25 (1944), 187, 206.80-82, and Janin, Eglises 277. In the vita of
Irene of Chrysobalanton a vinedresser dreams of sneaking into a nun's cell; cf. V Iren. Chrysobalant.,
CP, chap. 15.
87Cf.,e.g., Gautier, "Kecharit6mene," chap. 40, p. 89.1270-71, 1275; Bebaia Elpis, chap. 85, p. 67.14-25;
Lips, chaps. 8, 29.
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 125

tory featured fresco paintings of holy women, which would reinforce the feminine char-
acter of this space.88 Male visitors who stayed for a meal were offered hospitality in the
hospice89 or perhaps in the abbess's suite.
Areas where the nuns interacted with men were the gatehouse, the church, the in-
firmary, and the cemetery. The gatehouse, a transitional space marking the passageway
between the outside secular world and the haven of the convent,90 was obviously a prime
point of contact between nuns and male visitors. Hence the enormous responsibility of
the portress who held the keys to the convent gate and regulated access from the outside
and egress from inside. As noted above, the gatehouse was the area where nuns met with
male relatives and the abbess did business with certain laymen. It was also the place
where bread and leftover food were distributed to beggars on a daily basis and where
donations of bread, wine, and coins were made on special feast days and days of com-
memoration for the convent founder and his or her relatives.91At some nunneries the
portress did not remain on constant duty at the gate but went only when summoned by
the bell; at others a cell was built at the outer gate of the courtyard as a permanent
residence for the gatekeeper.92
The church was another part of the convent where men and women's space over-
lapped: it was the place where priests celebrated the liturgy and presided over the elec-
tion of the abbess,93 where the spiritual father heard the nuns' confession in the nar-
thex,94 where male relatives of the founder might be buried, and where the faithful of
both sexes might come to attend services and memorial rites and to visit holy shrines.
Sometimes, however, the nuns seem to have conducted their own services, and the priest
was relegated to a minor role, as at Kecharitomene where the abbess and ekklesiarchissa
led the seven daily offices. The ekklesiarchissastood in front of the iconostasis, leading the
nuns in kneeling and prayer in unison, while the abbess read a brief catechesis and led
prayers, and the nuns sang hymns or troparia;a priest was also present, however, to recite
prayers.95At the Kecharitomene the abbess also performed the installation ceremonies
of all officials.96 Canon law states that nuns were permitted to enter the sanctuary to
adorn and sweep it and to light candles and lamps;97we can thus assume that the skeuo-

88When the convent of the Theotokos of Maroules in Constantinople was converted to a male monastery,
the images of female saints in the refectory were replaced with those of male saints; cf. RegPatr V, no. 2207;
MM 1:222.
89Chapter 26 of the typikonof Lips states that the steward should eat lunch in the xenon.
90Anoutside reader has suggested that the liminal role of gatehouses may help to explain the architectural
ornament lavished upon them. For bibliography on monastic gateways, see note 1 above.
91
Fordescriptionsof the distribution
of charityat the conventgate,see Gautier,"Kecharit6mene," chaps.
59, 64; Lips,chap.38;typikon of nunneryof Kosmasand Damian,chap.60, ed. Delehaye,Deuxtypica,139;
BebaiaElpis,chap.89, 112.Forgeneraldiscussionof thisfunctionof convents,seeA.-M.Talbot,"Byzantine
Women,Saints'Lives,andSocialWelfare," in Through theEyeofa Needle: RootsofSocialWelfare,
Judeo-Christian
ed. E.A. HanawaltandC. Lindberg(Kirksville, Mo.,1994),117-19.
92Cf.Gautier,"Kecharit6me6ne," chap.29; BebaiaElpis,chap.72; andP&tride's, "Damilas," 108.
93Electionof abbess:cf. Gautier,"Kecharit6mene," chap.11,pp. 49-51.
94Lips, chap. 11,p. 113.1-4; Kosmasand Damian,chap. 59, ed. Delehaye,Deuxtypica,138.33-139.1.
95Gautier, "K6charit6m6ne," chap.32.
96Ibid.,chap.18;the procedurefor the installation of the maleoikonomos
is describedin chap.14.
97Cf.canon15 of PatriarchNikephorosI, ed. Rhallesand Potles,16vzTayLa, IV,428:6st'Tag Lovac~o5ag;
T K tV
ESticvat
1ig Y7tOV U(TtaI(flptov, nttytV rlPOV Ka alt KougEv atOi Unfortu-
Kltno TXlav,
nately, the typikafor nunneries include regulations on this subject. apoibv.
K(ai
126 WOMEN'S SPACE IN BYZANTINE MONASTERIES

phylakissawould have approached the altar to lay out liturgical cloths and vessels. The
typikaof nunneries give no information on where the choir sisters and other nuns stood
during services; we learn, however, from a twelfth-century commentary of Balsamon that
menstruating women, including nuns, were prohibited from entering the church proper,
but sometimes stood in the narthex.98
The infirmary was necessarily another area in which men came into contact with
women. Although women physicians existed in Byzantium, they were rare, and convent
doctors were typically male, preferably a eunuch or elderly individual.99 At Lips the phy-
sician was supposed to make weekly visits to the nunnery except during Lent when the
gates were shut to all outsiders, whether male or female. An exception was made if a nun
fell seriously ill and required urgent medical attention.'00
The cemetery was another space where men were indispensable for the burial rites
of nuns, both as gravediggers to prepare the graves and as priests to conduct the ceremo-
nies. Several texts suggest, however, that only a few nuns attended the actual interment
of their deceased sisters, no doubt to avoid interaction with the gravediggers.'0'
In addition to these buildings and areas that formed part of the monastic complex
and were essential to its functioning, some convents also included annexes governed by
the typikonbut considered to be outside the cloister. For example, the Lips nunnery had
a hospice (xenon) that is described as being "next to the convent" and attached to it. It
was essentially an almshouse for twelve laywomen, served by a priest and a predomi-
nantly male staff.'02 The ambivalent status of the hospice, attached to the convent but
outside the cloister, made it an ideal location to offer hospitality to official male visitors, if
the steward had to stay for lunch or the spiritual confessor needed to spend the night.'03
Nunneries of imperial foundation might also include separate apartments for women of
the royal family who decided to take the monastic habit, but felt unable to endure the
rigors of cenobitic life. At Kecharitomene these women were assigned to cells in a small
tropikebuilt behind the apse of the convent refectory next to the cloister wall.'04 The
empress had a different apartment complex, including an inner and outer courtyard, a
church, and two bathhouses, separated from the convent proper by a wall with a gate
that could be locked from the inside by the abbess and from the outside by the patroness.
The foundress, Irene Doukaina, specified that the buildings were to be elegant, but regu-
lated their height so that none of the residents could look into the convent or the associ-
ated male monastery of Christ Philanthropos.'05
Thus one may conclude that despite the stated ideal of seclusion and segregation for
monastics of both sexes, monks could be sure of avoiding contact with women only by

98Cf. Balsamon, commentary on canon 2 of Dionysios of Alexandria, PG 138:465-68, ed. Rhalles and
Potles, Xuvrayga, IV, 8-9. For full discussion of this passage, see R. E Taft, "Women at Church in Byzantium:
Where, When-and Why?" in this volume.
99Cf. Gautier, "K6charit6monZ,"chap. 57; Bebaia Elpis, chap. 90.
100Lips,chap. 35.
'01Balsamon, commentary on canon 47 of the Council in Trullo, ed. Rhalles and Potles, II,
418-19; Gautier, "Kecharit6mone," p. 117.1717-18. wrvayga,
102Lips, chap. 50; the only female staff member was the laundress.
103Lips, chap. 26 (steward) and chap. 11 (spiritual father).
104Gautier,"K6charit6m6ne," chap. 4.
105Ibid., chap. 79.
 ALICE-MARY TALBOT 127

withdrawing to an isolated and restricted holy mountain,106 while nuns necessarily associ-
ated on a frequent basis with the men essential to their spiritual and physical well-being.
The letters written by the fourteenth-century abbess Irene-Eulogia Choumnaina, plead-
ing with her spiritual director to make more frequent visits to her convent,'07 graphically
demonstrate the emotional dependence some nuns developed with regard to a father
confessor. It is also important to realize, however, that well-disciplined nuns and monks
were able to interact with members of the opposite sex and even with their fellow monas-
tics in a condition of impassivity or apatheiaby avoiding looking at their faces. This ideal
is expressed in a passage of the typikonof the male monastery of Phoberou that sought
to regulate against conditions that might promote homosexuality among the monks. The
founder comments that nuns are also liable to develop passionate attachments to their
monastic sisters and that wise abbesses encourage their charges to avoid looking at each
other directly, but always to keep their eyes downcast while conversing, the so-called
custody of the eyes.'08 On a somewhat different note, the foundress of the Bebaia Elpis
nunnery instructed her nuns to keep their eyes lowered during mealtime: "Each nun
should not only have eyes for herself alone and focus her attention on the food set before
her, but should concentrate to an even greater extent on the sacred readings."109 A telling
passage in the vita of Theodora of Thessalonike describes how this saintly woman greeted
visitors: "In addition to the subjection of her body ... , she also maintained rigorous
control over her eyes (tilv 'v 60aXtgv &xlcpietav). Whenever anyone who was not
known to <Theodora> came to her for a prayer, she would reply to his questions while
looking at the ground, on no account gazing at the face of her visitor. And after his
departure she would inquire who it was and what he looked like."10 Thus a nun's down-
cast gaze was not only an expression of humility, but also served to create a private space
around her that made her immune to temptation from male visitors and other nuns.
Each nun was expected to build an invisible wall around herself, comparable to the physi-
cal wall that shielded the cloister from the outside world.

Dumbarton Oaks
'06It should be noted, however, that even monks on Mount Athos could not always escape interaction with
the female sex; cf. Talbot, "Women and Mt. Athos" (as in note 26 above).
'07Hero, Choumnaina,epp. 7.31-33, 8.39-54, 9.80-81, 15.44-45.
o08Phoberoutypikon,ed. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, NoctesPetropolitanae,81.6-11.
'09Bebaia Elpis, chap. 86.
Theod. Thess., chap. 40. The vita of Elisabeth of Herakleia describes how she kept her eyes directed
1JV.
toward the ground for a full three years as a sign of humility (ed. E Halkin, "Sainte Elisabeth d'H6racl6e,
abbesse 'i Constantinople," AB 91 [1973], 257). Custody of the eyes was a praiseworthy practice for monks
as well; we are told, for example, that the youthful St. Nikon ho Metanoeite "had great control over his
stomach and eyes"; cf. D. E Sullivan, TheLife of St. Nikon (Brookline, Mass., 1987), 34.37. See also the vita of
Lazaros of Galesion, AASS, Nov. 3: 567c, and J. Noret, Vitaeduae antiquaesanctiAthanasiiAthonitae(Turnhout,
1982), vita A, p. 39.20 and vita B, chap. 30.45-47.