Experiment 1: To study various electronics component

Date:___/___/______

1. Introduction
An electronic circuit is composed of various types of components. Some of these components
are termed as active components because they take part in the transformation of the energy while other components,
which only dissipate or store energy, are called as passive elements. The vacuum tubes, rectifier, transistors are some
of-the common active while the resistances, which dissipate the power and energy storing elements such as
capacitances and inductances are known as passive elements. The transformers may be regarded as a matching
device. The success of any electronic circuit depends not only on proper selection of the active elements but on the
passive and matching elements too. The proper function, of an active device is decided by the proper values of these
passive elements. Hence the selection of these elements such as resistances, inductances, capacitance, and
transformers not only require the proper attention, but also decide the proper function of the active devices as well as
the circuit as a whole. Here we shall discuss about some important electronic components and their characteristics.

2. Various Electronics component

Electronics component mainly divided in two parts Active Component and Passive Component.
Passive: Capable of operating without an external power source.
Typical passive components are resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes (although the latter are a special case).
Active: Requiring a source of power to operate.
Includes transistors (all types), integrated circuits (all types), TRIACs, SCRs, LEDs, etc.

3. Resistor

A resistor is a component that resists the flow of electricity. This flow of electricity is called current. Each resistor has a value
that tells how strongly it resists current flow. This resistance value is called the ohm, and the sign for the ohm is the Greek letter
omega: . (Later on you will see the symbol k, meaning kilo-ohm, which is one thousand ohms.)

This resistor has two wires (called leads and pronounced leeds), one coming out of each end. The ceramic case between the two
leads is the part that resists current flow. Most circuit diagrams use the jagged line symbol with a number label to indicate a
resistor of a certain value, a 470 resistor in this case. This is called a schematic symbol. The part drawing on the right is used
in some beginner-level texts to help you identify the resistors in your kit, and where to place them when you build circuits

In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may
be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances
that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements
(such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law: V=I*R

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the
resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.
The resistors have colored stripes that indicate what their resistance values are. There is a different color combination for each
resistance value. For example, the color code for the 470 resistor is yellow-violet-brown.

There may be a fourth stripe that indicates the resistors tolerance. Tolerance is measured in percent, and it tells how far off the
parts true resistance might be from the labeled resistance. The fourth stripe could be gold (5%), silver (10%) or no stripe (20%).
For the activities in this book, a resistors tolerance does not matter, but its value does.

The first and second band represent the numerical value of the resistor, and the color of the third band specify the power-of-ten
multiplier. The color bands are always read from left to right starting with the side that has a band closer to the edge.
EXAMPLE:
If the 1st band is ORANGE and the 2nd band is GREEN and the 3rdband is RED and the 4th band is GOLD then: ORANGE 1st
band=3, GREEN 2nd band=5, RED 3rd band=100, GOLD 4th band=5% so: 35X100=3500 RESISTOR VALUE IS 3500 OHMS
WITH A TOLERANCE OF 5%

All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups;

Carbon Composition Resistor Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values
Film or Cermet Resistor Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values
Wire-wound Resistor Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings
Semiconductor Resistor High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

4. Capacitor
Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a simple passive device that is used to store
electricity.

The capacitor is a component which has the ability or capacity to store energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a
potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.

A capacitor is essentially two conductive plates, separated by an insulator (the dielectric). To conserve space, the assembly is
commonly rolled up, or consists of many small plates in parallel for each terminal, each separated from the other by a thin plastic
film. See below for more detailed information on the different constructional methods. A capacitor also exists whenever there is
more than zero components in a circuit - any two pieces of wire will have some degree of capacitance between them, as will tracks
on a PCB, and adjacent components. Capacitance also exists in semiconductors (diodes, transistors), and is an inescapable part of
electronics.

Capacitors are used for all these purposes, and more. In this chapter you're going to start learning about this important electrical
component. Remember capacitors do the following and more.

Store energy
Change their behavior with frequency
Come about naturally in circuits and can change a circuit's behaviour

If the top plate contains positive charge, and the bottom plate contains negative charge, then there is a tendency for the charge to
be bound on the capacitor plates since the positive charge attracts the negative charge (and thereby keeps the negative charge from
flowing out of the capacitor) and in turn, the negative charge tends to hold the positive charge in place. Once charge gets on the
plates of a capacitor, it will tend to stay there, never moving unless there is a conductive path that it can take to flow from one
plate to the other.

There is also a standard circuit symbol for a capacitor. The figure below shows a sketch of a physical capacitor, the corresponding
circuit symbol, and the relationship between Q and V. Notice how the symbol for a capacitor captures the essence of the two
plates and the insulating dielectric between the plates.
Now, consider a capacitor that starts out with no charge on either plate. If the capacitor is connected to a circuit, then th
the same
charge will flow into one plate as flows out from the other. The net result will be that the same amount of charge, but of opposite
sign, will be on each plate of the capacitor. That is the usual situation, and we usually assume that if an amount of charge, Q, is on
the positive plate then -Q is the amountt of charge on the negative plate.

The essence of a capacitor is that it stores charge. Because they store charge they have the properties mentioned earlier - they
store energy and they have frequency dependent behavior. When we examine charge storage in a capacitor we can understand
other aspects of the behavior of capacitors.

In a capacitor charge can accumulate on the two plates. Normally charge of opposite polarity accumulates on the two plates,
positive on one plate and negative on the other. It is possible for that charge to stay there. The positive charge on one plate attracts
and holds the negative charge on the other plate. In that situation the charge can stay there for a long time.

Capacitors are rated in Farads, and the standard symbol is 'C' or 'F', depending upon the context. A Farad is so big that capacitors
are most commonly rated in micro-Farads
Farads (uF). The Greek letter (lower case) Mu () is the proper symbol, but 'u' is available on
keyboards, and is far more common. Because of the nature of capacitors, they are also rated in very much smaller units than the
micro-Farad - the units used are ...

mF: Milli-Farad, 1x10-3 Farad (1,000th of a Farad) -

uF: Micro-Farad, 1x10-6 Farad (1,000,000th of a Farad)
nF: Nano-Farad, 1x10-9 Farad (1,000,000,000th of a Farad) -
pF: Pico-Farad, 1x10-12 Farad (1,000,000,000,000th of a Farad)

There is a relationship between the charge on a capacitor and the voltage across the capacitor. The relationship is simple. For
most dielectric/insulating materials, charge and voltage are linearly related.

Q=CV
where: V is the voltage across the plates.

Accordingly, the physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely, but most contain at least two electrical
conductors often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium.. The conductors may be foils, thin
films, or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's ch charge
capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica,, and oxide layers. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor,
resistor an ideal capacitor does not
dissipate energy.

Capacitor can be polarized means have positive and negative terminal to can be non polarized means like resistor , any lead of two
lead can be connected to either positive terminal or negative terminal of battery.
 When capacitor is put in parallel the overall capacitance C is C = C1+ C2+ C3+ ------ and in series
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + .

The capacitor on the left is of a ceramic disc type capacitor that has the code 473J printed
st nd
onto its body. Then the 4 = 1 digit, the 7 = 2 digit,the 3 is the multiplier in pico-Farads, pF
and the letter J is the tolerance and this translates to:

47pF * 1,000 (3 zero's) = 47,000 pF , 47nF or 0.047 uF

the J indicates a tolerance of +/- 5%

Then by just using numbers and letters as codes on the body of the capacitor we can easily determine the value of its
capacitance either in Pico-farad's, Nano-farads or Micro-farads and a list of these "international" codes is given in the
following table along with their equivalent capacitances.
Capacitor Letter Codes Table
Picofarad Nanofarad Microfarad Picofarad Nanofarad Microfarad
Code Code
(pF) (nF) (uF) (pF) (nF) (uF)
10 0.01 0.00001 100 4700 4.7 0.0047 472
15 0.015 0.000015 150 5000 5.0 0.005 502
22 0.022 0.000022 220 5600 5.6 0.0056 562
33 0.033 0.000033 330 6800 6.8 0.0068 682
47 0.047 0.000047 470 10000 10 0.01 103
100 0.1 0.0001 101 15000 15 0.015 153
120 0.12 0.00012 121 22000 22 0.022 223
130 0.13 0.00013 131 33000 33 0.033 333
150 0.15 0.00015 151 47000 47 0.047 473
180 0.18 0.00018 181 68000 68 0.068 683
220 0.22 0.00022 221 100000 100 0.1 104
330 0.33 0.00033 331 150000 150 0.15 154
470 0.47 0.00047 471 200000 200 0.2 254
560 0.56 0.00056 561 220000 220 0.22 224
680 0.68 0.00068 681 330000 330 0.33 334
750 0.75 0.00075 751 470000 470 0.47 474
820 0.82 0.00082 821 680000 680 0.68 684
1000 1.0 0.001 102 1000000 1000 1.0 105
1500 1.5 0.0015 152 1500000 1500 1.5 155
2000 2.0 0.002 202 2000000 2000 2.0 205
2200 2.2 0.0022 222 2200000 2200 2.2 225
3300 3.3 0.0033 332 3300000 3300 3.3 335
4. Inductor

These are the last of the purely passive components. An inductor is most commonly a coil, but in reality, even a straight piece of
wire has inductance. Winding it into a coil simply concentrates the magnetic field, and increases the inductance considerably for
a given length of wire. Although there are some very common inductive components (such as transformers, which are a special
case), they are not often used in audio. Small inductors are sometimes used in the output of power amplifiers to prevent
instability with capacitive loads.

Note: Transformers are a special case of inductive components, and are covered separately.

Inductors are components that are simple in their construction, consisting of coils of insulated copper wire wound around a former
that will have some type of core at its centre. This core might be a metal such as iron that can be easily magnetised; or in high
frequency inductors, it will more likely to be just air.

Inductors depend for their action on the magnetic field that is present around any conductor when it is carrying a current. If the
wire coil is wound around a core made of a material that is easily magnetised, such as iron, then the magnetic field around the coil
is concentrated within the core; this greatly increases the efficiency of the inductor.

An inductor is a component that can resist changes in AC current, and store energy in a magnetic field from a current that passes
through it. A changing current (AC) causes a changing magnetic field which induces a voltage that opposes the current produced
by the magnetic field. This is known as the inductance. One could think of an inductor as an AC resistor.

An inductor opposes an abrupt change in the current through it (the voltage across an inductor can change abruptly)

The ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from the circuit when storing energy and delivers power to the circuit

Inductors are closely related to capacitors; the rate of current change in an inductor depends on the voltage applied across it,
whereas the rate of voltage change in a capacitor depends on the current through it. The symbol and defining equation for an
inductor is

Inductors in AC Circuits. Inductors are extensively used in alternating current (AC) applications such as radio, TV and
communications equipment, and in these systems, how inductors react to AC signals of different frequencies is very useful.

Chokes. Another name used for an inductor is a "Choke". Inductors, being just coils of copper wire, will allow DC to pass
easily, but when AC is applied, inductors create an opposition to current flow that increases, as the frequency of the alternating
current increases. Therefore AC is prevented from flowing or is "Choked off" while DC is allowed to pass. This effect is used in
power supply circuits where the public AC mains (line) supply has to be converted to a DC supply suitable for powering
electronic circuits.
Energy Storage. The magnetic field around
und an inductor is a store of energy (from the current that caused the field). When the
current is turned off, the energy stored in the magnetic field is returned to the inductor, causing a current to flow in the opposite
direction. This can produce a pulsee of high voltage across the coil. The pulse of energy can be a problem in some electronic
circuits and can easily destroy other components if not properly controlled, but it can also be extremely useful; such high vvoltage
pulses produced by an inductor aree used to create the spark that ignites the petrol in automobile engines.

5. Diode

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease than in the other. The
most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below.. The term diode is customarily reserved for
small signal devices, I 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.

Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current flow.

When placed in a simple battery-lamp

lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through the lamp, depending on the
polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below
below)

Diode operation: (a) Current flow

ow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed
biased.

When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-
biased. Conversely, when the battery is backward and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode
may be thought of as like a switch: closed when forward
forward-biased and open when reverse-biased.
biased.

Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbols arrowhead points against the direction of electron flow. This is because the
diode symbol was invented by engineers, who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current
as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of tthe voltage source to the negative (-).
). This convention holds true for all
semiconductor symbols possessing arrowheads: the arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the
permitted direction of electron flow.
Like check valves, diodes are essentially pressure- operated (voltage-operated) devices. The essential difference between
forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Lets take a closer look at the simple battery-
diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops across the various components in Figure below.

Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse biased.

A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving most of the battery voltage dropped across
the lamp. If the batterys polarity is reversed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the batterys voltage leaving
none for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-
bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting
than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts versus tens of millivolts).

This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion region formed by the P-N junction
under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists
around the region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure below (a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of
available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator:

Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such that the anode (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type
semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the
cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.

If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region expands, further resisting any current through
it. (Figure below)

Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Conversely, if a forward-biasing
biasing voltage is applied across the P
P-N
N junction, the depletion region collapses becoming thinner. The
diode becomes less resistive to current through it. In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion
region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward
voltage as illustrated in Figure below.

Inceasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.

For silicon diodes, the typical forward

orward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts.
The chemical constituency of the P-N N junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why
silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant for a
wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch
switch. For
most simplified circuit analysis,
ysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered constant at the nominal figure and
not related to the amount of current.

6. Transistor

Transistors make our electronics world go round. Theyre critical as a control source in just about every modern circuit.
Sometimes you see them, but more-often-than
than-not theyre hidden deep within the die of an integrated circuit.
circuit In this tutorial well
introduce you to the basics of the most common transistor around: the bi
bi-polar
polar junction transistor (BJT).

Transistors are fundamentally three-terminal

rminal devices. On a bi
bi-polar
polar junction transistor (BJT), those pins are labeled collector (C),
base (B), and emitter (E). The circuit symbols for both the NPN and PNP BJT are below:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power.
power It is composed of
semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to
one pairr of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power
can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
7. LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are
increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light,
but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of
the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually
small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection.LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive
and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting
are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting (particularly
indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed,
while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.
8.Transformer

The transformer is a static device (means that has no moving parts) that consists of one, two or more windings which are
magnetically coupled and electrically separated with or without a magnetic core. It transfers the electrical energy from one circuit
to the other by electromagnetic induction principle. The winding connected to the AC main supply is called primary winding and
the winding connected to the load or from which energy is drawn out is called as secondary winding. These two windings with
proper insulation are wound on a laminated core which provides a magnetic path between windings.

Transformers are classified into two types based on the conversion of voltage level. These are step-up and
step-down transformers.

Step-up Transformers

In step-up transformer, the secondary voltage is more than the primary voltage. This is due to the lesser
number of coils in the primary compared to the secondary. This type of transformer is used to raise the
voltage to a higher level. These are used in transmission systems and are rated at higher power levels.
Step-down Transformers

In step-down transformer, secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage due to the less number of turns
in the secondary winding. Hence, this type of transformer is used to reduce the voltage to specified levels of
the circuit. Most of the power supplies use the step-down transformer to keep the circuit operating range to a
specified safer voltage limit. These types of transformers are used in distribution systems (power
transformers) and in electronic circuits (electronic transformers).

It is to be noted that the transformer is a reversible device, so it can be used as both step-up and step-down
transformer. For example, if the circuit needs a high voltage we will connect the HV terminals to the load
whereas the load or circuit needs a low voltage, we will connect the LV terminals to the load.

The ratio of the voltage of a transformer is determined by the turns ratio. With the use of larger number of
turns in the winding, higher will be the voltage produced in it. Hence, a step down transformer has lesser
number of turns on secondary to produce a low voltage and has more turns on primary to withstand high
voltage levels of the AC supply.

Turns Ratio = Primary Voltage/ Secondary Voltage = Primary Turns/ Secondary turns

The turns ratio is, VP /VS = NP /NS

1 Diodes
2 Piezo Buzzer
3 Transistor
4 Transformer
5 Relay
6 Inductors
7 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
8 Capacitors
9 Crystal
10 Resistors