REFRIGERATION (& HEAT PUMPS)

Refrigeration is the 'artificial' extraction of heat from a

substance in order to lower its temperature to below
that of its surroundings. Primarily, heat is extracted from
fluids such as air and many liquids, but ultimately from
any substance.

In order to extract heat a region of 'cold' has to be

created. A number of effects can be used:-

1 the Peltier effect (reverse of thermocouples);

1 endothermic chemical reactions;

1 induced vaporisation of a liquid.

In thermodynamic terms a refrigerator is a reversed
heat engine. ie heat may transferred from a cold
reservoir to a hot reservoir by expending work.

Thot Thot
. .
Qin

Qout

. .
W out W in
. .
Qout

Qin

Tcold Tcold

HEAT ENGINE REVERSED HEAT ENGINE

(REFRIGERATOR)

A Heat Pump is no different in principle from a

refrigerator apart from its pupose:
A heat pump is used to provide 'heat' whereas a
refrigerator is used to obtain 'cold'.
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION 2

The above is somewhat of a misnomer, it would be

more accurately described as 'vapour suction
refrigeration'.
( Vapour compression is used to reclaim the refrigerant
and is more aptly applied to Heat Pumps.)
Vapour compression refrigeration exploits the fact that
the boiling temperature of a liquid is intimately tied to its
pressure.
Generally, when the pressure on a liquid is raised its
boiling (and condensing) temperature rises, and
vice-versa.
This is known as the saturation pressure-temperature
relationship. For H2O, we investigated it using a Marcet
boiler (for pressures above atmospheric).
We could repeat it for other substances, and at sub-
atmospheric pressures:
Refrigerant properties 3

Ideally, a refrigerant will :

* be non-toxic - for health and safety reasons

*be non-flammable - to avoid risks of fire or explosion

* operate at modest positive pressures - to minimise

pipe and component weights (for strength) and avoid
air leakage into the system

* have a high vapour density - keeps the compressor

capacity to a minimum and pipe diameters relatively
small

* be easily transportable - because refrigerants are

normally gases at SSL conditions they are stored in
pressurised containers

* be environmentally friendly - non-polluting & non-

detrimental to the atmosphere, water or ground

* be easily re-cycleable

* relatively inexpensive to produce

* compatible with the materials of the refrigeration

system - non-corrosive, miscible with oil, chemically
benign.

In practice the choice of a refrigerant is a compromise.

e.g. Ammonia is good but toxic and flammable;

R12 very good but detrimental to the Ozone layer

Refrigeration:- 4

Suction pump

s
ps

liquid @ Tsat(s)
Tamb (> Tsat)

.
Q

The pressure (ps) is a function of how rapidly we

remove the vapour (how hard we suck) and how quickly
the vapour is formed.
At equilibrium the
. rate at which vapour is formed
(determined by Q) equals the rate at which it is
removed. .
Therefore both the heat transfer rate into the liquid (Q)
and the vapour removal rate (suction pump capacity)
determines the pressure and hence Tsat(s).
. .
Q = m hfg
. .
m = g V
. .
Q = g V hfg

. .
or Q = V hfg
vg

Note that both hfg and vg depend on the saturation

temperature (or pressure).
 5

Obviously, the above system would eventually run out

of liquid and the refrigerating effect would cease.
Heat pumps:- 6

Compressor

s
ps pc

vapour @ Tsat(s)

liquid @ Tsat(c)

. .
Qin Qout
Tamb > Tsat(s) Tamb < Tsat(c)

The RHS of the above system is the 'converse' of the

LHS, and constitutes a Heat Pump.
Heat is 'pumped' from the LHS to the RHS.
The main difference is that the vapour, after
compression, will almost certainly be superheated and
must cool to Tsat(c) before condensing will occur.

The same reasoning (in converse) applies to the RHS

as previously applied to LHS.

Note:
pc = Condenser or 'high side' pressure
ps = Evaporator, 'low side', or suction pressure.

Obviously, with the above system, all the refrigerant

would eventually end up on the RHS, and the heat
pumping (& refrigeration) effect would cease.
Clearly, to ensure that the system can operate 7
continuously liquid refrigerant needs to be fed from the
RHS back to the LHS.
This can be achieved by simply allowing it to flow back
under its natural pressure difference.

Compressor

t
ps pc

Evaporator Condenser
liquid @ Tsat(s) liquid @ Tsat(c)

. .
tt

Qin Qout
Expansion valve

In this way a continuous closed circuit refrigeration

(or heat pump) system is obtained.

Note:
Control of the liquid flow rate is needed to ensure that it
equals the vapour formation rate, and an appropriate
balance of liquid quantities in the evaporator and
condenser is maintained;
When the liquid passes through the expansion valve it
experiences a sudden drop in pressure which causes
instantaneous boiling (known as flashing). Vapour is
formed using the liquid's sensible heat which causes
the liquid to drop in temperature to Tsat(s). A saturated
liquid/vapour mixture will enter the evaporator.
Simplified refrigeration system diagram: 8

Qout
Condenser
3 2
Expansion s .
valve s Compressor s W in

4 Evaporator 1
.
Qin is the refrigeration effect.

We may analyse the whole system or individual

components:

System performance:
. . .
Qout - Qin = Win

For operation as a refrigerator, a measure of system

performance is the amount of heat absorbed per unit
work supplied to drive the system.
This is known as the Coefficient of Performance (ref.)
.
COPref = Q. in
W in

For operation as a heat pump, a measure of system

performance is the amount of heat delivered per unit
work supplied to drive the system.
This is known as the Coefficient of Performance (hp.)
.
COPhp = Q. out
W in
It follows that (for the same system) 9

COPhp = COPref + 1

The SFEE may be applied to each of the components:-

We shall assume that KE & PE effects are negligible, ie

the SSFEE is applicable; viz
. . .
Q + W = m h

Compressor:
.
Compression assumed adiabatic: Q = 0
. .
W 12 = m (h2 -h1)
. .
or W in = m (h2 -h1)

Condenser: .
W 23 = 0
. .
Qout = m (h2 - h3)

Expansion valve:
. .
W 34 = 0 & Q34 = 0

h3 = h4

Evaporator: .
W 41 = 0
. . refrigeration
Qin = m (h1 - h4)
effect
It follows that : 10

h1 - h3
COPref = h2 - h1

h2 - h3
COPhp = h2 - h1

In order to determine the above we need to know the

specific enthalpy values. Because refrigerants work in
the liquid/vapour phases we must use appropriate
property charts or tables.

Refrigerant properties (Charts and Tables)

Because refrigeration systems basically work between

two pressures, and specific enthalpy is one of the most
useful properties we need, refrigerant thermodynamic
properties are normally presented in the form of a
pressure - specific enthalpy (or p-h) chart.

This is done for convenience, and is simply an

alternative way of presenting property data.
Instead of (eg) p-V, or T-s, or h-s.

Other useful properties are also shown on the chart,

viz: specific entropy, specific volume, temperature and
quality. Regard these properties as contours.
Note:
The pressure axis (y-axis) is typically logarithmic.
THE IDEAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE 11

. isentropic compression (1 2)
. constant pressure cooling/condensation (2 3)
. throttling (3 4)
. constant pressure vaporisation/heating (4 1)

The ideal refrigeration cycle plotted on the p-h chart:

t
ns
f

co
g
3 s=
p 2

4
1

h
REAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 12

line
2

our
vap
ted
Evaporator superheat:

ura
g1

sat

1
given in K
above Tsat(s)
g

Isentropic Compressor
Efficiency: 2'
2

isen = h2' - h1
t
ns

h2 - h1
co
s=

NB: s1 = s2'

1
h1 h2' h2
ine
id l
liqu
ted

Condenser sub-cooling:
ura

f3
sat

3
given in K
below Tsat(c)
f

4
Pressure drops in evaporator and condenser: 13

2
pcond
3

4

pevap

1

(Shown exaggerated !)

Clearly, any or all of the above effects can be present,

but the pressure drops are often small enough to be
neglected.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 14
IMPROVEMENT
Liquid-Suction heat exchanger:
.
Qout

Condenser
3b 3a 2
.
W in

t s
s
4 1b
Evaporator
.
Qin 1a Liquid-Suction HX

Assuming no losses : h1b h1a = h3a h3 b

t
ns
co
s=

p 3b 2
3a

4 1a 1b

h
 15
Multiple compression using flash chamber(s):
.
Qout

Condenser
3 2
2nd stage .
t
s compressor
s W in(2b2)
3a 2b
flash vapour(g)
Flash 2a
chamber liq(f) .
1st stage s

W in(12a)
compressor
t
s
1
Evaporator
4 .
Qin

3
p 2
2b
3(f)
3a 3(g) 2a

1
4

h
 16
At point 3a we have a mixture of vapour and liquid
which is separated in the flash chamber.

The proportion of the total mass flow which is liquid

(and proceeds to the evaporator) is given by:

h3 ( g ) h3
xf =
h3 ( g ) h3 ( f )
The remaining vapour mixes with the discharge from
the first stage compressor to give different inlet
conditions to the second stage.

Assuming adiabatic mixing:

x f h2 a + (1 x f ) h3( g ) = 1 h2 b

A similar equation can be used to find s2b

Finally the COP is given by:

x f ( h1 h4 )
COP =
x f ( h2 a h1 ) + ( h2 h2 b )