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Vectors
Version 1.9: May 9, 2007 10:14 am GMT-5

Sunil Kumar Singh

This work is produced by The Connexions Project and licensed under the

Creative Commons Attribution License

Abstract
Vector is the language of directional quantities.

Vectors
A number of key fundamental physical concepts relate to quantities, which display direc-
tional property. Scalar algebra is not suited to deal with such quantities. The mathematical
construct called vector is designed to represent quantities with directional property. A
vector, as we shall see, encapsulates the idea of direction together with magnitude.
In order to elucidate directional aspect of a vector, let us consider a simple example of the
motion of a person from point A to point B and from point B to point C, covering a distance
of 4 and 3 meters respectively as shown in the Figure (Figure 1) . Evidently, AC represents
the linear distance between the initial and the nal positions. This linear distance, however,
is not equal to the sum of the linear distances of individual motion represented by segments
AB and BC ( 4 + 3 = 7 m) i.e.

AC 6= AB + BC
However, we need to express the end result of the movement appropriately as the sum
of two individual movements. The inequality of the scalar equation as above is basically
due to the fact that the motion represented by these two segments also possess directional
attributes; the rst segment is directed along the positive x  axis, where as the second
segment of motion is directed along the positive y axis. Combining their magnitudes is not
sucient as the two motions are perpendicular to each other. We require a mechanism to
combine directions as well.
The solution of the problem lies in treating individual distance with a new term "dis-
placement"  a vector quantity, which is equal to linear distance plus direction. Such a
conceptualization of a directional quantity allows us to express the nal displacement as the
sum of two individual displacements in vector form :

AC = AB + BC
The magnitude of displacement is obtained by applying Pythagoras theorem :

2
AB2 + BC2 =


AC 4 + 32 = 5m

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Displacement

Figure 1: Scalar inequality

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It is clear from the example above that vector construct is actually devised in a manner
so that physical reality having directional property is appropriately described. This "t
to requirement" aspect of vector construct for physical phenomena having direction is core
consideration in dening vectors and laying down rules for vector operation.
A classical example, illustrating the t to requirement aspect of vector, is the product
of two vectors. A product, in general, should evaluate in one manner to yield one value.
However, there are natural quantities, which are product of two vectors, but evaluate to
either scalar (example : work) or vector (example : torque) quantities. Thus, we need to
dene the product of vectors in two ways : one that yields scalar value and the other that
yields vector value. For this reason product of two vectors is either dened as dot product
to give a scalar value or dened as cross product to give vector value. This scheme enables
us to appropriately handle the situations as the case may be.

W = F.r . . . . . . . . . Scalar dot product

= rxF . . . . . . . . . Vector cross product

Mathematical concept of vector is basically secular in nature and general in application.

This means that mathematical treatment of vectors is without reference to any specic
physical quantity or phenomena. In other words, we can employ vector and its methods
to all quantities, which possess directional attribute, in a uniform and consistent manner.
For example two vectors would be added in accordance with vector addition rule irrespec-
tive of whether vectors involved represent displacement, force, torque or some other vector
quantities.
The moot point of discussion here is that vector has been devised to suit the requirement
of natural process and not the other way around that natural process suits vector construct
as dened in vector mathematics.

1 What is a vector?
Denition 1: Vector
Vector is a physical quantity, which has both magnitude and direction.

A vector is represented graphically by an arrow drawn on a scale as shown Figure i

(Figure 2). In order to process vectors using graphical methods, we need to draw all vectors
on the same scale. The arrow head point in the direction of the vector.
A vector is notionally represented in a characteristic style. It is denoted as bold face

type like  a  as shown Figure (i) (Figure 2) or with a small arrow over the symbol like  a

 or with a small bar as in  a . The magnitude of a vector quantity is referred by simple
identier like a or as the absolute value of the vector as  |a|  .
Two vectors of equal magnitude and direction are equal vectors ( Figure (ii) (Figure 2)).
As such, a vector can be laterally shifted as long as its direction remains same ( Figure (ii)
(Figure 2)). Also, vectors can be shifted along its line of application represented by dotted
line ( Figure (iii) (Figure 2)). The exibility by virtue of shifting vector allows a great deal
of ease in determining vector's interaction with other scalar or vector quantities.
It should be noted that graphical representation of vector is independent of the origin
or axes of coordinate system except for few vectors like position vector (called localized
vector), which is tied to the origin or a reference point by denition. With the exception
of localized vector, a change in origin or orientation of axes or both does not aect vectors
and vector operations like addition or multiplication (see gure below).
The vector is not aected, when the coordinate is rotated or displaced as shown in the
gure above. Both the orientation and positioning of origin i.e reference point do not alter
the vector representation. It remains what it is. This feature of vector operation is an

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Vectors

Figure 2:

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Vectors

Figure 3:

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Vector representation with unit vector

Figure 4:

added value as the study of physics in terms of vectors is simplied, being independent of
the choice of coordinate system in a given reference.

2 Vector algebra
Graphical method is slightly meticulous and error prone as it involves drawing of vectors on
scale and measurement of angles. In addition, it does not allow algebraic manipulation that
otherwise would give a simple solution as in the case of scalar algebra. We can, however,
extend algebraic techniques to vectors, provided vectors are represented on a rectangular
coordinate system. The representation of a vector on a coordinate system uses the concept
of unit vectors and scalar magnitudes.

2.1 Unit vector

Unit vector has a magnitude of one and is directed in a particular direction. It does not
have dimension or unit like most other physical quantities. Thus, multiplying a scalar by
unit vector converts the scalar quantity into a vector without changing its magnitude, but
assigning it a direction ( Figure (Figure 4)).

a = aa
This is an important relation as it allows determination of unit vector in the direction
of any vector " a as :

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a
a =
|a|
Conventionally, unit vectors along the rectangular axes is represented with bold type
face symbols like : i, jandk, or with a cap heads like i, jandk . The unit vector along the
axis denotes the direction of individual axis.
Using the concept of unit vector, we can denote an axial vector by multiplying the
magnitude of the vector with unit vector in its direction.

a = aa
Following this technique, we can represent a vector along any axis in terms of scalar
magnitude and axial unit vector like (for x-direction) :

a = ai

3 Other important vector terms

3.1 Axial vector
Motion has two basic types : translational and rotational motions. The vector and scalar
quantities, describing them are inherently dierent. Accordingly, there are two types of
vectors to deal with quantities having direction. The system of vectors that we have referred
so far is suitable for describing translational motion and such vectors are called polar
vectors.
A dierent type of vector called axial vector is used to describe rotational motion. Its
graphical representation is same as the traditional (axial) vector, but its interpretation is
dierent. What it means that the axial vector is represented by a straight line with an arrow
head as in the case of polar vector; but the physical interpretation of axial vector diers. An
axial vector, say , is interpreted to act along the positive direction of the axis of rotation,
while rotating anti clockwise. A negative axial vector like, , is interpreted to act along
the negative direction of axis of rotation, while rotating clockwise.
The gure above (Figure 5) captures the concept of axial vector. It should be noted
that the direction of the axial vector is essentially tied with the sense of rotation (clockwise
or anti-clockwise). This linking of directions is stated with "Right hand (screw) rule".
According to this rule ( see gure below (Figure 6)), if the stretched thumb of right hand
points in the direction of axial vector, then the curl of the st gives the direction of rotation.
Its inverse is also true i.e if the curl of the right hand st is placed in a manner to follow
the direction of rotation, then the stretched thumb points in the direction of axial vector.

3.2 Negative vector

Denition 2: Negative vector
A negative vector of a given vector is dened as the vector having same magnitude,
but applied in the opposite direction to that of the given vector.

It follows that if b is the negative of vector a , then

a = b
a+b=0
and |a| = |b|

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Axial vector

Figure 5:

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Righ hand rule

Figure 6:

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There is a subtle point to be made about negative scalar and vector quantities. A
negative scalar quantity, sometimes, conveys the meaning of lesser value. For example, the
temperature -5 K is a smaller temperature than any positive value. Also, a greater negative
like  100 K is less than the smaller negative like -50 K. However, a scalar like charge conveys
dierent meaning. A negative charge of -10 C is a bigger negative charge than  5 C.
The interpretation of negative scalar is, thus, situational.
On the other hand, negative vector always indicates the sense of opposite direction.
Also like charge, a greater negative vector is larger than smaller negative vector or a smaller
positive vector. The magnitude of force -10 i N, for example is greater than 5 i N, but
directed in the opposite direction to that of the unit vector i. In any case, negative vector
does not convey the meaning of lesser or greater magnitude like the meaning of a scalar
quantity in some cases.

3.3 Co-planar vectors

A pair of vectors determines an unique plane. The pair of vectors dening the plane and
other vectors in that plane are called coplanar vectors.

4 Why should we study vectors?

The basic concepts in physics  particularly the branch of mechanics - have a direct and
inherently characterizing relationship with the concept of vector. The reason lies in the
directional attribute of quantities, which is used to describe dynamical aspect of natural
phenomena. Many of the physical terms and concepts are simply vectors like position
vector, displacement vector etc. They are as a matter of fact dened directly in terms of
vector like it is a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The basic concept of cause and eect in mechanics (comprising of kinematics and dy-
namics), is predominantly based on the interpretation of direction in addition to magnitude.
Thus, there is no way that we could accurately express these quantities and their relation-
ship without vectors. There is, however, a general tendency (particular in the treatment
designed for junior classes) to try to evade vectors and look around ways to deal with these
inherently vector based concepts without using vectors! As expected this approach is a
poor reection of the natural process, where basic concepts are simply ingrained with the
requirement of handling direction along with magnitude.
It is, therefore, imperative that we switch over from work around approach to vector
approach to study physics as quickly as possible. Many a times, this scalar work around
inculcates incorrect perception and understanding that may persist for long, unless corrected
with an appropriate vector description.
The best approach, therefore, is to study vector in the backdrop of physical phenomena
and use it with clarity and advantage in studying nature. For this reasons, our treatment of
vector physics  so to say - in this course will strive to correlate vectors with appropriate
physical quantities and concepts.
The most fundamental reason to study nature in terms of vectors, wherever direction is
involved, is that vector representation is concise, explicit and accurate.
To score this point, let us consider an example of the magnetic force experienced by
a charge, q, moving with a velocity v in a magnetic eld,  B . The magnetic force, F ,
experienced by moving particle, is perpendicular to the plane, P, formed by the the velocity
and the magnetic eld vectors as shown in the gure (Figure 7).
The force is given in the vector form as :

F = q (vxB)

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Magnetic force as cross product of vectors

Figure 7:

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This equation does not only dene the magnetic force but also outlines the intricacies
about the roles of the each of the constituent vectors. As per vector rule, we can infer from
the vector equation that :

The magnetic force ( F) is perpendicular to the plane dened by vectors v and B.

The direction of magnetic force i.e. which side of plane.

The magnitude of magnetic force is "qvB sin", where is the smaller angle enclosed
between the vectors v and B.
This example illustrates the compactness of vector form and completeness of the in-
formation it conveys. On the other hand, the equivalent scalar strategy to describe this
phenomenon would involve establishing an empirical frame work like Fleming's left hand
rule to determine direction. It would be required to visualize vectors along three mutually
perpendicular directions represented by three ngers in a particular order and then apply
Fleming rule to nd the direction of the force. The magnitude of the product, on the other
hand, would be given by qvB sin as before.
The dierence in two approaches is quite remarkable. The vector method provides a
paragraph of information about the physical process, whereas a paragraph is to be followed
to apply scalar method ! Further, the vector rules are uniform and consistent across vector
operations, ensuring correctness of the description of physical process. On the other hand,
there are dierent set of rules like Fleming left and Fleming right rules for two dierent
physical processes.
The last word is that we must master the vectors rather than avoid them - particularly
when the fundamentals of vectors to be studied are limited in extent.

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