Report On NTPC
Report On NTPC
Report On NTPC
SUBMITTED BY:
unknown
CERTIFICATE
Mr.
(Project Guide)
3. Project Report
a. Generation Of Electricity
b. EMD – I
i. Coal Handling Plant
ii. Motors
iii. Switchgear
iv. High Tension Switchgear
v. Direct On Line Starter
c. EMD – II
i. Generator
ii. Protection
iii. Transformer
The total installed capacity of the company is 31,704 MW (including JVs) with
15 coal based and 7 gas based stations, located across the country. In addition
under JVs, 3 stations are coal based & another station uses naphtha/LNG as
fuel. By 2017, the power generation portfolio is expected to have a diversified
fuel mix with coal based capacity of around 53000 MW, 10000 MW through
gas, 9000 MW through Hydro generation, about 2000 MW from nuclear
sources and around 1000 MW from Renewable Energy Sources (RES). NTPC
has adopted a multi-pronged growth strategy which includes capacity addition
through green field projects, expansion of existing stations, joint ventures,
subsidiaries and takeover of stations.
NTPC has been operating its plants at high efficiency levels. Although the
company has 18.10% of the total national capacity it contributes 28.60% of total
power generation due to its focus on high efficiency.
In October 2004, NTPC launched its Initial Public Offering (IPO) consisting of
5.25% as fresh issue and 5.25% as offer for sale by Government of India. NTPC
thus became a listed company in November 2004 with the government holding
89.5% of the equity share capital. The rest is held by Institutional Investors and
the Public. The issue was a resounding success.
NTPC is among the largest five companies in India in terms of market
capitalization.
VISION
A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth with increasing
global presence.
Develop and provide reliable power related products and services at competitive
prices, integrating multiple energy resources with innovative & Eco-friendly
technologies and contribution to the society
View of a well flourished power plant
Core Values – BCOMIT
Business ethics
Customer Focus
Organizational & Professional Pride
Mutual Respect & Trust
Innovation & Speed
Total Quality for Excellence
At NTPC, People before Plant Load Factor is the mantra that guides all HR
related policies. NTPC has been awarded No.1, Best Workplace in India among
large organizations and the best PSU for the year 2009, by the Great Places to
Work Institute, India Chapter in collaboration with The Economic Times.
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility is deeply ingrained in NTPC's
culture. Through its expansive CSR initiatives, NTPC strives to develop mutual
trust with the communities that surround its power stations
NTPC Limited
Type Public
Founded 1975
Products Electricity
Website www.ntpc.co.in
EVOLUTION OF NTPC
NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the Government
1975 of India. In the last 30 years, NTPC has grown into the largest
power utility in India.
NTPC is the largest power utility in India, accounting for about 20% of India’s installed
capacity. But lately in 2010 Forbes Global 200 for 2010 ranked NTPC 341th in the world
INTRODUCTION TO
THEMAL POWER
PLANT
• Introduction
• Classification
• Functioning
INTRODUCTION
Power Station (also referred to as generating station or power plant) is an
industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power plant is also used
to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles. Some prefer to
use the term energy center because it more accurately describes what the plants
do, which is the conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy,
gravitational potential energy or heat energy into electrical energy.
At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn
the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on what fuels are easily available
and the types of technology that the power company has access to.
By Fuel
By Prime Mover
In a typical larger power stations, the steam turbines are split into
three separate stages, the first being the High Pressure (HP), the
second the Intermediate Pressure (IP) and the third the Low Pressure
(LP) stage, where high, intermediate and low describe the pressure of
the steam.
After the steam has passed through the HP stage, it is returned to the
boiler to be re-heated to its original temperature although the pressure
remains greatly reduced. The reheated steam then passes through the
IP stage and finally to the LP stage of the turbine.
A distinction is made between "impulse" and "reaction" turbine
designs based on the relative pressure drop across the stage. There are
two measures for pressure drop, the pressure ratio and the percent
reaction. Pressure ratio is the pressure at the stage exit divided by the
pressure at the stage entrance. Reaction is the percentage isentropic
enthalpy drop across the rotating blade or bucket compared to the
total stage enthalpy drop. Some manufacturers utilise percent pressure
drop across stage to define reaction.
7. Condensate Pump A condensate pump is a specific type
of pump used to pump the condensate (water) produced in
an HVAC (heating or cooling), refrigeration, condensing boiler furnace
or steam system. They may be used to pump the condensate produced
from latent water vapor in any of the following gas mixtures:
Condensate recovery systems help you reduce three tangible costs of producing
steam:
Fuel/energy costs
• MPS Mill
• Bowl Mill
• Demolition Pulverizer
13. Boiler Steam Drum The water enters the boiler through a
section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the
economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam
drum it goes down the down comers to the lower inlet water wall headers.
From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is
eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the
burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As the water
is turned into steam/vapor in the water walls, the steam/vapor once again
enters the steam drum.
The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam and water separators
and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers
remove the water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water
walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation.
The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and
igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the
furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions
due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided
by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the
coal.
External View of an Industrial Boiler at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi
The steam drum (as well as the super-heater coils and headers) have air
vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has an internal
device that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from
the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the super-
heater coils.
Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring
steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam
is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids. Nuclear plants
also boil water to raise steam, either directly passing the working steam
through the reactor or else using an intermediate heat exchanger.
14. Bottom Ash Hopper At the bottom of every boiler, a hopper has
been provided for collection of the bottom ash from the bottom of the
furnace. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and
clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to
crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash
to a storage site.
At NTPC (Badarpur) the man two paths are the flue gas or air cycle and steam
or condensate paths.
COAL TO STAEM
Its other raw materials are air and water. The coal brought to the station by
trains or by other means, travels handling plant by conveyer belts, travels from
pulverizing mills, which grind it as fine as the face powder of size upto 20
microns. The finely produced coal mixed with preheated air is then blown into
the boiler by a fan called primary air fan where it burns more like a gas than as a
solid, in the conventional domestic or industrial grate, with additional amount of
air, called secondary air supply, by forced draft fan.
As coal is ground so finally the resultant ash is also a fine powder. Some of it
binds together to form pumps, which falls into ash pits at the bottom of the
furnace. The water-quenched ash from the bottom is conveyed to pits for
subsequent disposal or sale. Most of ash, still in fine partical form is carried out
of boilers to the precipitator as dust, where electrodes charged with high voltage
electricity trap it. The dust is then conveyed to water to disposal area or to
bunker for sale while the clean flue gases are passed on through IP fans to be
discharged through chimneys.
The heat released from the coal has been absorbed by the many kilometers
tubing which line the boiler walls. Inside the tubes the boiler feed water, which
is transformed by heat into staemat high temperature and pressure.. The steam
superheated in further tubes (superheaters) passes to turbine where it is
discharged through the nozzle on the turbine blades. Just as the energy of wind
turns the sail of the windmill, the energy of steam striking the blade makes the
turbine rotate.
Coupled to the end of the turbine is the rotor of the generator. The rotor is
housed inside the stator having heavy coils of the bars in which electricity is
produced through the movement of magnetic field created by the rotor.
Electricity passes from stator windings to step-up transformer which increases
its voltage so that it can be transmited efficiently over lines of grid.
The staem which has given up its heat energy is cahnged back into water in a
condenser so that it is ready for re-use. The condenser contains many kilometers
of tubing through which cold water is constantly pumped. The staem passing
around the tubes looses heat.Thus it is rapidly changed back into water.
But, the two lots of water, that is, the boiler feed and cooling water must never
mix. Cooling water is drawn from river- bed, but the boiler feed water must be
absolutely pure, far purer than the water we drink (de-mineralized water),
otherwise it may damage the boiler tubes.
TABLES OF CYCLES
COAL CYCLE
CONDENSATE CYCLE
FEED WATER CYCLE
STEAM CYCLE
EMD – I
• Coal Handling Plant
• Motors
• Switchgear
tons of coal for use when there is no wagon supply. Unloading a unit train takes
about three hours. Modern unloaders use rotary dump devices, which eliminate
problems with coal freezing in bottom dump cars. The unloader includes a train
positioner arm that pulls the entire train to position each car over a coal hopper.
The dumper clamps an individual car against a platform that swivels the car
upside down to dump the coal. Swiveling couplers enable the entire
Shorter trains may use railcars with an "air-dump", which relies on air pressure
from the engine plus a "hot shoe" on each car. This "hot shoe" when it comes
into contact with a "hot rail" at the unloading trestle, shoots an electric charge
through the air dump apparatus and causes the doors on the bottom of the car to
open, dumping the coal through the opening in the trestle. Unloading one of
these trains takes anywhere from an hour to an hour and a half. Older unloaders
may still use manually operated bottom-dump rail cars and a "shaker" attached
to dump the coal. Generating stations adjacent to a mine may receive coal by
conveyor belt or massive diesel-electric-drive trucks.
Layout of Coal Handling Plant at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi
Coal is prepared for use by crushing the rough coal to pieces less than 2 inches
(50 mm) in size. The coal is then transported from the storage yard to in-plant
storage silos by rubberized conveyor belts at rates up to 4,000 tons/hour.
In plants that burn pulverized coal, silos feed coal pulverizers (coal mill) that
take the larger 2 inch pieces grind them into the consistency of face powder,
classify them, and mixes them with primary combustion air which transports the
coal to the furnace and preheats the coal to drive off excess moisture content. In
plants that do not burn pulverized coal, the larger 2 inch pieces may be directly
fed into the silos which then feed the cyclone burners, a specific kind of
combustor that can efficiently burn larger pieces of fuel.
Coal Handling
Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and
conveyed around the CHP facilities. Coal handling is part of the larger field of
bulk material handling, and is a complex and vital part of the CHP.
Stockpiles
Stockpiles provide surge capacity to various parts of the CHP. ROM coal is
delivered with large variations in production rate of tonnes per hour (tph). A
ROM stockpile is used to allow the wash plant to be fed coal at lower, constant
rate.
A simple stockpile is formed by machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from
dump trucks, pushed into heaps with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More
controlled stockpiles are formed using stackers to form piles along the length of
a conveyor, and reclaimers to retrieve the coal when required for product
loading, etc.
Taller and wider stockpiles reduce the land area required to store a set tonnage
of coal. Larger coal stockpiles have a reduced rate of heat lost, leading to a
higher risk of spontaneous combustion.
Stacking
Travelling, lugging boom stackers that straddle a feed conveyor are commonly
used to create coal stockpiles. Stackers are nominally rated in tph (tonnes per
hour) for capacity and normally travel on a rail between stockpiles in the
stockyard. A stacker can usually move in at least two directions typically:
horizontally along the rail and vertically by lugging its boom. Lugging of the
boom minimizes dust by reducing the height that the coal needs to fall to the top
of the stockpile. The boom is lugged upwards as the stockpile height grows.
Reclaiming
Tunnel conveyors can be fed by a continuous slot hopper or bunker
beneath the stockpile to reclaim material. Front-end loaders and
bulldozers can be used to push the coal into feeders. Sometimes front-
end loaders are the only means of reclaiming coal from the stockpile.
This has a low up-front capital cost, but much higher operating costs,
measured in dollars per tonne handled.
Coal Storage Area of the Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi
High-capacity stockpiles are commonly reclaimed using bucket-wheel
reclaimers. These can achieve very high rates.
Coal Sampling
Sampling of coal is an important part of the process control in the CHP. A grab
sample is a one-off sample of the coal at a point in the process stream, and tends
not to be very representative. A routine sample is taken at a set frequency, either
over a period of time or per shipment.
Screening
Screens are used to group process particles into ranges by size. These size
ranges are also called grades. Dewatering screens are used to remove water
from the product. Screens can be static, or mechanically vibrated. Screen decks
can be made from different materials such as high tensile steel, stainless steel,
or polyethelene.
Screening and Separation Unit of Coal Handling Division of a Thermal Power Plant
Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separators shall be used in coal conveying systems to separate tramp
iron (including steel) from the coal. Basically, two types are available. One type
incorporates permanent or electromagnets into the head pulley of a belt
conveyor. The tramp iron clings to the belt as it goes around the pulley drum
and falls off into a collection hopper or trough after the point at which coal is
charged from the belt. The other type consists of permanent or electromagnets
incorporated into a belt conveyor that is suspended above a belt conveyor
carrying coal. The tramp iron is pulled from the moving coal to the face of the
separating conveyor, which in turn holds and carries the tramp iron to a
collection hopper or trough. Magnetic separators shall be used just ahead of the
coal crusher, if any, and/or just prior to coal discharge to the in-plant bunker or
silo fill system.
Coal Crusher
Before the coal is sent to the plant it has to be ensured that the coal is of uniform
size, and so it is passed through coal crushers. Also power plants using
pulverized coal specify a maximum coal size that can be fed into the pulverizer
and so the coal has to be crushed to the specified size using the coal crusher.
Rotary crushers are very commonly used for this purpose as they can provide a
continuous flow of coal to the pulverizer.
Pulverizer
Most commonly used pulverizer is the Bowl Mill. The arrangement consists of
2 stationary rollers and a power driven bowl in which pulverization takes place
as the coal passes through the sides of the rollers and the bowl. A primary air
induced draught fan draws a stream of heated air through the mill carrying the
pulverized coal into a stationary classifier at the top of the pulverizer. The
classifier separates the pulverized coal from the unpulverized coal.
Ash Handling
The ever increasing capacities of boiler units together with their ability to use
low grade high ash content coal have been responsible for the development of
modern day ash handling systems. The widely used ash handling systems are
1. Mechanical Handling System
2. Hydraulic System
3. Pneumatic System
4. Steam Jet System
The Hydraulic Ash handling system is used at the Badarpur Thermal Power
Station.
SWITCHGEAR
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid,
refers to the combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers
used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize
equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream.
The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches,
mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages
rapidly escalated, making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to
use for anything other than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-filled
equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the
early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure
with electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today,
oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6
equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by
automatic equipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and
communications.
Types
A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator switch or it may be
insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of
switchgear is "gas insulated switchgear" (GIS), where the conductors and
contacts are insulated by pressurized (SF6) sulfur hexafluoride gas. Other
common types are oil [or vacuum] insulated switchgear.
Circuit breakers are a special type of switchgear that are able to interrupt fault
currents. Their construction allows them to interrupt fault currents of many
hundreds or thousands of amps. The quenching of the arc when the contacts
open requires careful design, and falls into four types:
Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil
through the arc.
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and
then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc.
Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other
than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small
amount (<2-3 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern
medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts.
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively,
the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the
displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly:
typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction
of the device.
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:
By the current rating:
• By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can safely
interrupt)
• Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents
• Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents
• Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the load current is very
small.
By voltage class:
• Low Tension (less than 440 volts AC)
• High Tension (more than 6.6 kV AC)
By insulating medium:
• Air
• Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
• Oil
• Vacuum
By construction type:
• Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA enclosure type)
• Outdoor
• Industrial
• Utility
• Marine
• Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
• Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
• Live-front
• Dead-front
• Open
• Metal-enclosed
• Metal-clad
• Metal enclose & Metal clad
• Arc-resistant
By IEC degree of internal separation:
• No Separation
• Bus bars separated from functional units
• Terminals for external conductors separated from bus bars
• Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not from each
other
• Functional units separated from each other
• Terminals for external conductors separated from each other
• Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated functional unit
By interrupting device:
• Fuses
• Air Blast Circuit Breaker
• Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
• Oil Circuit Breaker
• Vacuum Circuit Breaker
• Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker
By operating method:
• Manually-operated
• Motor-operated
• Solenoid/stored energy operated
By type of current:
• Alternating current
• Direct current
By application:
• Transmission system
• Distribution.
A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for
example, air-insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually-operated
switches may all exist in the same row of cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a
multitude of standards. In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards
are used, much of the rest of the world uses IEC standards, sometimes with
local national derivatives or variations.
HIGH TENSION SWITCHGEAR
High voltage switchgear is any switchgear and switchgear assembly of rated
voltage higher than 1000 volts.
High voltage switchgear is any switchgear used to connect or to disconnect a
part of a high voltage power system.
These switchgears are essential elements for the protection and for a safety
operating mode without interruption of a high voltage power system. This
type of equipment is really important because it is directly linked to the
quality of the electricity supply.
The high voltage is a voltage above 1000 V for alternating current and above
1500 V for direct current.
Functional Classification
Contactor
Their functions are similar to the high-current switching mechanism, but they
can be used at higher rates. They have a high electrical endurance and a high
mechanical endurance.
Contactors are used to frequently operate device like electric furnaces, high
voltage motors. They cannot be used as a disconnecting switch.
They are used only in the band 30 kV to 100 kV.
Fuses
The fuses can interrupt automatically a circuit with an over current flowing in
it for a fixed time. The current interrupting is got by the fusion of an electrical
conductor which is graded.
They are mainly used to protect against the short-circuits. They limit the peak
value of the fault current.
In three-phase electric power, they only eliminate the phases where the fault
current is flowing, which is a risk for the devices and the people. Against this
trouble, the fuses can be associated with high-current switches or contactors.
They are used only in the band 30 kV to 100 kV.
Circuit Breaker
A high voltage circuit breaker is capable of making, carrying and breaking
currents under the rated voltage (the maximal voltage of the power system
which it is protecting) : Under normal circuit conditions, for example to
connect or disconnect a line in a power system; Under specified abnormal
circuit conditions especially to eliminate a short circuit. From its
characteristics, a circuit breaker is the protection device essential for a high
voltage power system, because it is the only one able to interrupt a short
circuit current and so to avoid the others devices to be damaged by this short
circuit. The international standard IEC 62271-100 defines the demands linked
to the characteristics of a high voltage circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker can be equipped with electronic devices in order to know
at any moment their states (wear, gas pressure...) and possibly to detect faults
from characteristics derivatives and it can permit to plan maintenance
operations and to avoid failures.
To operate on long lines, the circuit breakers are equipped with a closing
resistor to limit the over voltages.
They can be equipped with devices to synchronize the closing and/or the
opening to limit the over voltages and the inrush currents from the lines, the
unloaded transformers, the shunt reactances and the capacitor banks.
Some devices are designed to have the characteristics of the circuit breaker
and the disconnector. But their use is limited.
Major Components
There are four major components of a Direct On Line Starter. They are given
as follows:
1. Switch
2. Fuse
3. Conductor (Electromagnetic)
4. Thermal Overload Relay (Heat & Temperature)
Auxiliary Components
• Protection
• Transformer
GENERATORS
The basic function of the generator is to convert mechanical power, delivered from
the shaft of the turbine, into electrical power. Therefore a generator is actually a
rotating mechanical energy converter. The mechanical energy from the turbine is
converted by means of a rotating magnetic field produced by direct current in the
copper winding of the rotor or field, which generates three-phase alternating
currents and voltages in the copper winding of the stator (armature). The stator
winding is connected to terminals, which are in turn connected to the power system
for delivery of the output power to the system.
STATOR
The stator winding is made up of insulated copper conductor bars that are
distributed around the inside diameter of the stator core, commonly called the
stator bore, in equally spaced slots in the core to ensure symmetrical flux linkage
with the field produced by the rotor. Each slot contains two conductor bars, one on
top of the other. These are generally referred to as top and bottom bars. Top bars
are the ones nearest the slot opening (just under the wedge) and the bottom bars are
the ones at the slot bottom. The core area between slots is generally called a core
tooth.
R OTOR
The rotor winding is installed in the slots machined in the forging main body and is
distributed symmetrically around the rotor between the poles. The winding itself is
made up of many turns of copper to form the entire series connected winding. All
of the turns associated with a single slot are generally called a coil. The coils are
wound into the winding slots in the forging, concentrically in corresponding
positions on opposite sides of a pole. The series connection essentially creates a
single multi-turn coil overall, that develops the total ampere-turns of the rotor
(which is the total current flowing in the rotor winding times the total number of
turns).
There are numerous copper-winding designs employed in generator rotors, but all
rotor windings function basically in the same way. They are configured differently
for different methods of heat removal during operation. In addition almost all large
turbo generators have directly cooled copper windings by air or hydrogen cooling
gas.
BEARINGS
All turbo generators require bearings to rotate freely with minimal friction and
vibration. The main rotor body must be supported by a bearing at each end of the
generator for this purpose. In some cases where the rotor shaft is very long at the
excitation end of the machine to accommodate the slip/collector rings, a "steady"
bearing is installed outboard of the slip-collector rings. This ensures that the
excitation end of the rotor shaft does not create a wobble that transmits through the
shaft and stimulates excessive vibration in the overall generator rotor or the turbo
generator line.
There are generally two common types of bearings employed in large generators,
"journal" and "tilting pad" bearings. Journal bearings are the most common. Both
require lubricating and jacking oil systems, which will be discussed later in the
book, under auxiliary systems.
When installing the bearings, they must be aligned in terms of height and angle to
ensure that the rotor "sits" in the bearing correctly. Such things as shaft "catinery"
must be considered and "pre-loading" or "shimming" of the bearings to account for
the difference when the rotor is at standstill and at speed. Getting any of these
things wrong in the assembly can cause the rotor to vibrate excessively and
damage either the rotor shaft or the bearing itself. Generally, a "wipe" of the
bearing running surface or "babbitt" results.
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
All large generators require auxiliary systems to handle such things as lubricating
oil for the rotor bearings, hydrogen cooling apparatus, hydrogen sealing oil, de-
mineralized water for stator winding cooling, and excitation systems for field-
current application. Not all generators require all these systems and the
requirement depends on the size and nature of the machine. For instance, air cooled
turbo generators do not require hydrogen for cooling and therefore no sealing oil as
well. On the other hand, large generators with high outputs, generally above 400
MVA, have water-cooled stator windings, hydrogen for cooling the stator core and
rotor, seal oil to contain the hydrogen cooling gas under high pressure, lubricating
oil for the bearings, and of course, an excitation system for field current.
There are five major auxiliary systems that may be used in a generator. They are
given as follows:
1. Lubricating Oil System
2. Hydrogen Cooling System
3. Seal Oil System
4. Stator Cooling Water System
5. Excitation System
PROTECTION
The protection system of any modern electric power grid is the most crucial
function in the system. Protection is a system because it comprises discrete devices
(relays, communication means, etc.) and an algorithm that establishes a
coordinated method of operation among the protective devices. This is termed
coordination. Thus, for a protective system to operate correctly, both the settings of
the individual relays and the coordination among them must be right. Wrong
settings might result in no protection to the protected equipment and systems, and
improper coordination might result in unwarranted loss of production. The key
function of any protective system is to minimize the possibility of physical damage
to equipment due to a fault anywhere in the system or from abnormal operation of
the equipment (over speed, under voltage, etc.). However, the most critical
function of any protective scheme is to safeguard those persons who operate the
equipment that produces, transmits, and utilizes electricity.
Protective systems are inherently different from other systems in a power plant (or
for that matter any other place where electric power is present). They are called to
operate seldom, and when they are, it is crucial they do so flawlessly. One problem
that arises from protective systems being activated not often is that they are
sometimes overlooked. This is a recipe for disaster. The most common reason for
catastrophic failure of equipment in power systems is failure to operate or miss-
operation of protective systems.
Purchasing, installing, setting/coordinating, and properly maintaining protective
systems are not an insignificant expense. Therefore the extent any device or
electric circuit is protected depends on the potential cost of not doing so
adequately.
Electric power generators are most often the most critical electrical apparatus in
any power plant. In fact, given the electrical proximity between the generator and
the main step-up transformer (SUT), those two most important apparatuses share
some of the protective functions. Given the prohibited cost of replacing any of
these two, in particular, the generator, significant expense goes in providing the
most comprehensive protection coverage.
Protection is considered by many an art as much as a science. Although the basic
protective components are well known, and the commonly used settings for those
devices are spelled out in a number of standards and other widely available
literature, the particular combination of protective relays, settings, and
coordination schemes are particular to every site. Therefore it is impossible to
describe or prescribe a single protective system for generators. The description we
attempt here is on the most commonly encountered protection arrangements and
functions.
Protection systems can be divided into systems monitoring current, voltage (at the
machine's main terminals and excitation system), windings, and/or cooling media
temperature and pressure, and systems monitoring internal activity, such as partial
discharge, decomposition of organic insulation materials, water content, hydrogen
impurities, and flux probes. Protective functions acting on the current, voltage,
temperature, and pressure parameters are commonly referred to as primary
protection. The others are referred to as secondary protection or monitoring
devices. Secondary functions tend to be monitored real time, or on demand. For
instance, hydrogen purity is monitored on-line real time, while water content (for
water leaks) is not. Temperature detectors (RTDs or thermocouples) on bearings
(and sometimes in on windings) may be monitored on-line real time, or they may
not. Furthermore these functions may more often than not result in an alarm, rather
than directly trip the unit (e.g., core monitors). The discussion of where and when
to use these monitoring devices and how to set them is provided in. To the primary
protective functions monitoring currents, voltages, temperatures and pressures,
there can be added the mechanical protective function of vibration. Typically it
will alarm, but it can also be set to trip the unit. Protections function can also be
divided into short-circuit protection functions. The short-circuit protection
comprises impedance, distance, and current differential protection.
51GNTable:
Time over current
Generator protection;
Protection backup
device for generator
Function Numbers ground faults
51TN Time over current protection; backup for ground faults
51V Voltage-controlled or voltage-restrained time over current protection;
backup for system and generator zone phase faults
59 Overvoltage protection
15Synchronizer21Distance protection; backup for system generator zone phase
faults24Volts/Hertz protection forprotection;
59BG Zero-sequence voltage ground fault protection
the generator25Sync-check for an
protection27Under
ungrounded bus
voltage32Reverse power protection; anti-motoring protection for generator (and
59GN Voltage protection; primary ground fault protection for a generator
associated
60 prime balance
Voltage mover)40Loss-of-field protection46Stator
protection; detection unbalanced
of blown potential current
transformer fuses
protection49Stator thermal protection50BInstantaneous
or otherwise open circuits over current protection used as
61 Time overcurrent
currentdetector
protection; detection of turn-to-turn
in a breaker-failure scheme faults in generator
windings
62B Breaker failure protection
64F Voltage protection; primary protection for rotor ground faults
78 Loss-of-synchronism protection; not commonly used as part of the
generator protection package
81 Over- and under frequency protection
86 Hand-reset lockout auxiliary relay
87B Differential protection. Primary phase-fault protection for the generator
87GN Sensitive ground fault protection for the generator
87T Differential protection for the transformer; may include the generator in
some protective schemes
87U Differential protection for overall unit protection of generator
and transformers
94 Self-reset auxiliary tripping relay
It is beyond the scope and purpose of this report to go into a detailed description of
each protective function and the various schemes that incorporate them into a
generator's protection package. Instead, a basic description of the protective
functions and their application will follow. For the same reason no specific values
are recommended for setting protective relays. These values oftentimes depend in
the particular machine and system to which it is connected. There are numerous
sources for information on the setting of protective relays. The vendors' manuals
are one good place to start. Various methods of Generator Protection are explained
further.
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION
A power transformer is a device that changes (transforms) an alternating voltage
and current from one level to another. Power transformers are used to "step up"
(transform) the voltages that are produced at generation to levels that are suitable
for transmission (higher voltage, lower current). Conversely, a transformer is used
to "step down" (transform) the higher transmission voltages to levels that are
suitable for use at various facilities (lower voltage, higher current). Electric power
can undergo numerous transformations between the source and the final end use
point.
• Voltages must be stepped-up for transmission. Every conductor, no matter how
large, will lose an appreciable amount of power (watts) to its resistance (R)
when a current (T) passes through it. This loss is expressed as a function of the
applied current (P=I2R). Because this loss is dependent on the current, and since
the power to be transmitted is a function of the applied volts (E) times the amps
(P=IE), significant savings can be obtained by stepping the voltage up to a
higher voltage level, with the corresponding reduction of the current value.
Whether 100 amps is to be transmitted at 100 volts (P=IE, 100 amps X 100
volts = 10,000 watts) or 10 amps is to be transmitted at 1,000 volts (P=IE, 10
amps X 1,000 volts = 10,000 watts) the same 10,000 watts will be applied to the
beginning of the transmission line.
• If the transmission distance is long enough to produce 0.1 ohm of resistance
across the transmission cable, P=I2R, (100 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 1,000 watts will
be lost across the transmission line at the 100 volt transmission level. The 1000
volts transmission level will create a loss of P=I2R, (10 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 10
watts. This is where transformers play an important role.
• Although power can be transmitted more efficiently at higher voltage levels,
sometimes as high as 500 or 750 thousand volts (kV), the devices and networks
at the point of utilization are rarely capable of handling voltages above 32,000
volts. Voltage must be "stepped down" to be utilized by the various devices
available. By adjusting the voltages to the levels necessary for the various end
use and distribution levels, electric power can be used both efficiently and
safely.
• All power transformers have three basic parts, a primary winding, secondary
winding, and a core. Even though little more than an air space is necessary to
insulate an "ideal" transformer, when higher voltages and larger amounts of
power are involved, the insulating material becomes an integral part of the
transformer's operation. Because of this, the insulation system is often
considered the fourth basic part of the transformer. It is important to note that,
although the windings and core deteriorate very little with age, the insulation
can be subjected to severe stresses and chemical deterioration. The insulation
deteriorates at a relatively rapid rate, and its condition ultimately determines the
service life of the transformer.
Core
The core, which provides the magnetic path to channel the flux, consists of thin
strips of high-grade steel, called laminations, which are electrically separated by a
thin coating of insulating material. The strips can be stacked or wound, with the
windings either built integrally around the core or built separately and assembled
around the core sections. Core steel can be hot- or cold-rolled, grain-oriented or
non grain oriented, and even laser-scribed for additional performance. Thickness
ranges from 0.23 mm to upwards of 0.36 mm. The core cross section can be
circular or rectangular, with circular cores commonly referred to as cruciform
construction. Rectangular cores are used for smaller ratings and as auxiliary
transformers used within a power transformer. Rectangular cores use a single
width of strip steel, while circular cores use a combination of different strip widths
to approximate a circular cross-section. The type of steel and arrangement depends
on the transformer rating as related to cost factors such as labor and performance.
Just like other components in the transformer, the heat generated by the core must
be adequately dissipated. While the steel and coating may be capable of
withstanding higher temperatures, it will come in contact with insulating materials
with limited temperature capabilities. In larger units, cooling ducts are used inside
the core for additional convective surface area, and sections of laminations may be
split to reduce localized losses.
The core is held together by, but insulated from, mechanical structures and is
grounded to a single point in order to dissipate electrostatic buildup. The core
ground location is usually some readily accessible point inside the tank, but it can
also be brought through a bushing on the tank wall or top for external access. This
grounding point should be removable for testing purposes, such as checking for
unintentional core grounds. Multiple core grounds, such as a case whereby the core
is inadvertently making contact with otherwise grounded internal metallic
mechanical structures, can provide a path for circulating currents induced by the
main flux as well as a leakage flux, thus creating concentrations of losses that can
result in localized heating.
The maximum flux density of the core steel is normally designed as close to the
knee of the saturation curve as practical, accounting for required over excitations
and tolerances that exist due to materials and manufacturing processes. For power
transformers the flux density is typically between 1.3 T and 1.8 T, with the
saturation point for magnetic steel being around 2.03 T to 2.05 T.
There are two basic types of core construction used in power transformers: core
form and shell form.
• In core-form construction, there is a single path for the magnetic circuit. For
single-phase applications, the windings are typically divided on both core legs
as shown. In three-phase applications, the windings of a particular phase are
typically on the same core leg. Windings are constructed separate of the core
and placed on their respective core legs during core assembly.
Windings
The windings consist of the current-carrying conductors wound around the sections
of the core, and these must be properly insulated, supported, and cooled to
withstand operational and test conditions.
Copper and aluminum are the primary materials used as conductors in power-
transformer windings. While aluminum is lighter and generally less expensive than
copper, a larger cross section of aluminum conductor must be used to carry a
current with similar performance as copper. Copper has higher mechanical strength
and is used almost exclusively in all but the smaller size ranges, where aluminum
conductors may be perfectly acceptable. In cases where extreme forces are
encountered, materials such as silver-bearing copper can be used for even greater
strength. The conductors used in power transformers are typically stranded with a
rectangular cross section, although some transformers at the lowest ratings may use
sheet or foil conductors. Multiple strands can be wound in parallel and joined
together at the ends of the winding, in which case it is necessary to transpose the
strands at various points throughout the winding to prevent circulating currents
around the loop(s) created by joining the strands at the ends. Individual strands
may be subjected to differences in the flux field due to their respective positions
within the winding, which create differences in voltages between the strands and
drive circulating currents through the conductor loops. Proper transposition of the
strands cancels out these voltage differences and eliminates or greatly reduces the
circulating currents. A variation of this technique, involving many rectangular
conductor strands combined into a cable, is called continuously transposed cable
(CTC).
In core-form transformers, the windings are usually arranged concentrically around
the core leg, which shows a winding being lowered over another winding already
on the core leg of a three-phase transformer. Shell-form transformers use a similar
concentric arrangement or an interleaved arrangement.
With an interleaved arrangement, individual coils are stacked, separated by
insulating barriers and cooling ducts. The coils are typically connected with the
inside of one coil connected to the inside of an adjacent coil and, similarly, the
outside of one coil connected to the outside of an adjacent coil. Sets of coils are
assembled into groups, which then form the primary or secondary winding.
When considering concentric windings, it is generally understood that circular
windings have inherently higher mechanical strength than rectangular windings,
whereas rectangular coils can have lower associated material and labor costs.
Rectangular windings permit a more efficient use of space, but their use is limited
to small power transformers and the lower range of medium-power transformers,
where the internal forces are not extremely high. As the rating increases, the forces
significantly increase, and there is need for added strength in the windings, so
circular coils, or shell-form construction, is used.
In some special cases, elliptically shaped windings are used. Concentric coils are
typically wound over cylinders with spacers attached so as to form a duct between
the conductors and the cylinder. As previously mentioned, the flow of liquid
through the windings can be based solely on natural convection, or the flow can be
somewhat controlled through the use of strategically placed barriers within the
winding. This concept is sometimes referred to as guided liquid flow.
A variety of different types of windings have been used in power transformers
through the years. Coils can be wound in an upright, vertical orientation, as is
necessary with larger, heavier coils; or they can be wound horizontally and placed
upright upon completion. As mentioned previously, the type of winding depends
on the transformer rating as well as the core construction. Several of the more
common winding types are discussed further.
1. Pancake Windings
Several types of windings are commonly referred to as "pancake" windings due to
the arrangement of conductors into discs. However, the term most often refers to a
coil type that is used almost exclusively in shell-form transformers. The conductors
are wound around a rectangular form, with the widest face of the conductor
oriented either horizontally or vertically. This type of winding lends itself to the
interleaved arrangement previously discussed.
2. Disc Windings
A disc winding can involve a single strand or several strands of insulated conductors
wound in a series of parallel discs of horizontal orientation, with the discs connected at
either the inside or outside as a crossover point. Each disc comprises multiple turns
wound over other turns, with the crossovers alternating between inside and outside. Most
windings of 25-kV class and above used in core form transformers are disc type. Given
the high voltages involved in test and operation, particular attention is required to avoid
high stresses between discs and turns near the end of the winding when subjected to
transient voltage surges. Numerous techniques have been developed to ensure an
acceptable voltage distribution along the winding under these conditions.
3. Helical Windings
Helical windings are also referred to as screw or spiral windings, with each term
accurately characterizing the coil's construction. A helical winding consists of a few to
more than 100 insulated strands wound in parallel continuously along the length of the
cylinder, with spacers inserted between adjacent turns or discs and suitable transpositions
included to minimize circulating currents between parallel strands. The manner of
construction is such that the coil resembles a corkscrew. Helical windings are used for the
higher-current applications frequently encountered in the lower-voltage classes.
This department is the brain of the plant because from the relays to transmitters
followed by the electronic computation chipsets and recorders and lastly the
controlling circuitry, all fall under this.
1. Manometry lab
2. Protection and interlocks lab
3. Automation lab
4. Electronics lab
5. Water treatment plant
6. Furnaces Safety Supervisory System Lab
1. Manometry lab
• Transmitters- Transmitter is used for pressure measurements of gases and liquids,
its working principle is that the input pressure is converted into electrostatic
capacitance and from there it is conditioned and amplified. It gives an output of 4-
20 ma DC. It can be mounted on a pipe or a wall. For liquid or steam measurement
transmitters is mounted below main process piping and for gas measurement
transmitter is placed above pipe.
• Manometer- It’s a tube which is bent, in U shape. It is filled with a liquid. This
device corresponds to a difference in pressure across the two limbs.
• Bourden Pressure Gauge- It’s an oval section tube. Its one end is fixed. It is
provided with a pointer to indicate the pressure on a calibrated scale. It is of two
types : (a) Spiral type : for low pressure measurement and (b) Helical type : for
high pressure measurement
3. Automation Lab
This lab deals in automating the existing equipment and feeding routes. Earlier,
the old technology dealt with only (DAS) Data Acquisition System and came to be
known as primary systems. The modern technology or the secondary systems are
coupled with (MIS) Management Information System. But this lab universally
applies the pressure measuring instruments as the controlling force. However, the
relays are also provided but they are used only for protection and interlocks.
4. Pyrometry Lab
This lab undertakes the calibration and testing of various cards. It houses various
types of analytical instruments like oscilloscopes, integrated circuits, cards auto
analyzers etc.Various processes undertaken in this lab are: 1. Transmitter converts
mV to mA. 2. Auto analyzer purifies the sample before it is sent to electrodes. It
extracts the magnetic portion.
CONTROL AND MONITORING
MECHANISMS
Metallurgical
Mechanical
Mechanical Problemcan be related to Turbines that is the max speed permissible
for a turbine is 3000 rpm , so speed should be monitored and maintained at that
level. Metallurgical Problem can be view as the max Inlet Temperature for Turbile
is 1060 oC so temperature should be below the limit.Monitoring of all the
parameters is necessary for the safety of both:
Employees
Machines
So the Parameters to be monitored are :
Speed
Temperature
Current
Voltage
Pressure
Eccentricity
Flow of Gases
Vaccum Pressure
Valves
Level
Vibration
PRESSURE MONITORING
Switches
Gauges
Transmitter type
For gauges we use Bourden tubes : The Bourdon Tube is a non liquid pressure
measurement device. It is widely used in applications where inexpensive static
pressure measurements are needed.
A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure
input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other
end, as shown schematically below.
ACCURACY : + - 0.1 %
Programmable Logic Circuits ( PLCs) are used in the process as they are the heardt
of Instrumentation .
Pressure
Electricity
Start HL switch Level low
Pressure in line LevelAN
High
D
High level
LL switch
pump Electricity
Stop
OR
Pressure
Electricity
We can use Thernocouples or RTDs for temperature monitoring. Normally RTDs are
used for low temperatures.
Temperature Range
Accuracy Required
Normally used Thermocouple is K Type Thermocouple:
This is the most commonly used general purpose thermocouple. It is inexpensive and,
owing to its popularity, available in a wide variety of probes. They are available in the
−200 °C to +1200 °C range. Sensitivity is approximately 41 µV/°C.RTDs are also used
but not in protection systems due to vibrational errors.
We pass a constant curre t through the RTD. So that if R changes then the Voltage also
changes
Pt1000 : 0 0C - 1000Ω
For Analog medium thermocouples are used. And for Digital medium Switches are used
which are basically mercury switches.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow measurement does not signify much and is measured just for metering
purposes and for monitoring the processes
ROTAMETERS:
A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed
tube. It is occasionally misspelled as 'rotometer'.
It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate
by allowing the cross sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some
measurable effect.
A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside
that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more
area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the
float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical
ellipses being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the
fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it
is not.
Flowmeters
Venurimeters / Orifice meters
Turbines
Massflow meters ( oil level )
Ultrasonic Flow meters
Magnetic Flowmeter ( water level )
Selection of flow meter depends upon the purpose , accuracy and liquid to be
measured so different types of meters used.
Turbine type are the simplest of all.They work on the principle that on each
rotation of the turbine a pulse is generated and that pulse is counted to get the flow
rate.
CONTROL VALVES
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of substances (either gases, fluidized solids,
slurries, or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.
Valves are technically pipe fittings, but usually are discussed separately.
Some valves are driven by pressure only, they are mainly used for safety purposes in
steam engines and domestic heating or cooking appliances. Others are used in a
controlled way, like in Otto cycle engines driven by a camshaft, where they play a major
role in engine cycle control.
Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the valve stem. If the
handle is turned a quarter of a full turn (90°) between operating positions, the valve is
called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly valves, ball valves, and plug valves are often
quarter-turn valves. Valves can also be controlled by devices called actuators attached to
the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid,
pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which
are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water.
So there are basically three types of valves that are used in power industries besides the
handle valves. They are :
• Pneumatic Valves – they are air or gas controlled which is compressed to turn
or move them
• Hydraulic valves – they utilize oil in place of Air as oil has better compression
• Motorised valves – these valves are controlled by electric motors
Automatic Control System Lab
This lab deals in automating the equpiment and feeding routes. The automatic
control system provides safe operation under all plant disturbance and component
failure.
This lab universally applies the pressure measuring instrument as the controlling
force. Once the measured quantity is common like pressure, the control circuit can
easily be designed with single chip having multiple applications. In the plant all
control instruments are excited by 24 V DC supply (4.20 mA).
The systems installed here in btps are Old Russian systems, these are ACS
(Automated Controlled System), which are slowly being replaced by DCS (Digital
Controlled System). In the present ACS systems Most of the decision mking hs to
be done manually like opening or closing of any pressure valve etc.
Card Functions