Effective Strategies for Low Volume Vehicle Programs

by
Kristin Elisabeth Toth
Bachelor of Science in Industrial and Operations Engineering,
University of Michigan (1998)
Master of Science in Industrial and Operations Engineering,
University of Michigan (1998)

Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the Sloan School of
Management in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degrees of
Master of Science in Civil and Environmental Engineering and
Master of Science in Management
In Conjunction with the Leaders for Manufacturing Program at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
June 2003

@2003 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. All rights reserved.

Signature of Author
Dea rtment of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Sloan School of Management
MWy 2003

Certified by
Thomas RoemrThesis Supervisor
Assistant Professor of Management

Certified by
Daniel Whitney,-Thsis Supervisor
Senior Research Scientist, Center for Technology, Policy, and Industrial Development

Certified by
Cynthia Barnh'art, Thesis Reader
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
and Engineering Systems

Accepted by
Margaret Andrews, Executive Director of Masters Program
Sloan School of Management

Accepted b_
(Wa1 Buyukozturk, Chairman, Graduate Committee
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY

AUG 0 4 206 BARKER

LIBRARIES
 Effective Strategies for Low Volume Vehicle Programs

By
Kristin Elisabeth Toth

Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

and the Sloan School of Management on May 9, 2003
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degrees of Master of Science in Civil
and Environmental Engineering and Master of Science in Management

Abstract

In 2002 there were 1,314 specific vehicle models on the U.S. market, an increase of 42%
in the last five years (Cobb, 2002). This trend reflects the auto industry's reaction to
increased customer demand for variety among vehicle lines. In response to these
demands, automakers are producing more distinct models, each in lower volumes than
traditional vehicle programs. This thesis examines key strategies both in use and in
development at General Motors intended to lower vehicle time to market, create exciting
vehicles with lower investment needs, and produce these vehicles efficiently and cost
effectively.

The use of observation techniques, interviews, and academic frameworks provided

insight into the strategic and systemic issues GM is experiencing as the company
executes more low volume vehicle programs. The recommendations focus on three key
operational dimensions. These areas are: strategically-sound outsourcing decisions, lean
manufacturing implementation, and the adaptation of GM's lean manufacturing system to
the low volume vehicle program and manufacturing environments. This thesis also
presents tactical r ecommendations in each o ft hese areas in order to e nsure successful
implementation of the high-level operational recommendations.

Thesis Supervisor: Thomas Roemer

Title: Assistant Professor of Management, MIT Sloan School of Management

Thesis Supervisor: Daniel E. Whitney

Title: Senior Research Scientist, Center for Technology, Policy, and Industrial
Development, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 : Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9

Section 1.1 : Thesis Background and Structure .............................................................. 9
Section 1.1.1 : Problem Statem ent................................................................................. 9
Section 1.1.2 : Thesis Structure .................................................................................. 9
Section 1.2: The Recent Evolution of the Automotive Industry.................................. 10
Section 1.2.1 : Operational Efficiency......................................................................... 11
Section 1.2.2: Low Volume Vehicle Programs .......................................................... 11
Section 1.3 : General Motors Corporation: Corporate Position and Operational Trends 14
Section 1.4: GM's Low Volume Vehicle Programs, an Overview.............................. 16
Section 1.5 : Manufacturing Implications of Low Volume Vehicle Programs at General
M otors............................................................................................................................ 17
Section 1.6 : The Chevrolet SSR .................................................................................. 18
Chapter 2 : Core Competencies and Collaboration.......................................................... 21
Section 2.1 : Outsourcing Introduction......................................................................... 21
Section 2.2 : Industry Analysis and Core Competencies.............................................. 22
Section 2.3 : Outsourcing Decisions: A Strategic Perspective .................................... 25
Section 2.4: General Motors: Competitive Analysis and Core Competencies ........... 28
Section 2.5 : Outsourcing and Low Volume Vehicle Programs.................................. 29
Section 2.5.1 : What Can Be Outsourced: Outsourcing Elements............................ 30
Section 2.5.2 : The Next Outsourcing Decision: To Whom..................................... 32
Section 2.5.3 : Once the Decision is Made: How to Manage Outsourcing ............. 32
Section 2.6 : The Strategic Impact of Outsourcing at General Motors........................ 34
Section 2.7 : The Tactical Considerations of Outsourcing Low Volume Program
E lem ents.........................................................................................................................36
Section 2.7.1 : Outsourcing Elements: Opportunities for GM's Low Volume Programs
.................................................................................................................................. 36
Section 2.7.2 : Management Concerns for GM's Low Volume Outsourcing .......... 37
Section 2.8 : Chapter Summary .................................................................................. 38
Chapter 3 : Lean M anufacturing ....................................................................................... 39
Section 3.1 : Lean Manufacturing: An Introduction..................................................... 39
Section 3.2 : The General Motors Global Manufacturing System................... 41
Section 3.3 : The Implications of Standards ................................................................ 43
Section 3.4: Some Comments on GMS ...................................................................... 45
Section 3.5 GMS Implementation................................................................................ 46
Section 3.5.1 : Corporate Culture: A Brief Description............................................ 46
Section 3.5.2 : Implementation Model..................................... 47
Section 3.5.3 : Keys To GMS Implementation Success .................... 55
Section 3.6 : Chapter Sum mary .................................................................................... 56
Chapter 4 : Lean Manufacturing In Low Volume Vehicle Environments....................... 59
Section 4.1 : Elements of Low Volume Vehicle Programs Relevant to Manufacturing. 59
Section 4.2 : The "Lean in Low Volume" Problem.............................. 60
Section 4.3 : Low Volume Implications .......................................................................... 62
Section 4.3.1 : Low Investment Implications and Considerations............................ 62

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 Section 4.3.2 : Manufacturing Strategy hnplications ............................................... 64
Section 4.3.3: GMS Elements That Differ In Low Volume Environments............ 65
Section 4.4: Chapter Summary.................................................................................... 67
Chapter 5 : Conclusions.................................................................................................... 69
Section 5.1 : Summary of Low Volume Vehicle Programs ........................................ 69
Section 5.2 : Outsourcing and Partnering Recommendations ..................................... 70
Section 5.3 : Lean Manufacturing Recommendations................................................. 72
Section 5.4 : Final Conclusions ................................................................................... 73
Appendix A: Low Volume Market Size: A Five Year Historically-Based Revenue
C alculation ........................................................................................................................ 75
R eferences............................................................................................................................77

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 Table of Figures

Figure 1. Low Volume (<15,000 units per year) Vehicle Revenue 1998-2002 ............ 12
Figure 2. The Chevrolet SSR Concept Vehicle ............................................................. 18
Figure 3. Michael Porter's Five Forces Model for Competitive Industry Analysis ......... 22
Figure 4. Analysis Tiers for Strategic Outsourcing Decisions (Fine et al., 2002)........ 26
Figure 5. Current Automotive Industry Five Forces Analysis...................................... 28
Figure 6. Shifts in Five Forces Model with Outsourcing............................................. 34
Figure 7. GM S Implementation M odel......................................................................... 48
Figure 8. System Dynamics Model for Consistency in GMS Implementation ....... 52
Figure 9. Operational Differences Between Traditional Manufacturing Environments and
Halo Vehicle Manufacturing Environments ........................................................ 61
Figure 10. Low Volume Vehicle Market 1998-2002.................................................... 75

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page 8
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Section 1.1: Thesis Background and Structure
This thesis is the result of research conducted during a six-and-one-half month period
during 2002 and early 2003. This time was spent onsite at various General Motors and
relevant supplier locations, most notably the Lansing Craft Centre (LCC) in Lansing,
Michigan. The author used a variety of observation techniques and conducted numerous
interviews to gain insight into the low volume vehicle strategy at General Motors
Corporation (GM) and the success of its implementation through 2002. As a case for
study, the thesis focuses on the Chevrolet SSR program and its development process and
status as it transitioned to the manufacturing execution stage at the LCC. Observation
techniques included membership on a team tasked with implementing lean manufacturing
at the facility, attendance at program management meetings for the Chevrolet SSR, and
tours of various GM and supplier plants in various stages of lean manufacturing
implementation and retooling projects.

Section 1.1.1: Problem Statement

As the auto industry shifts more resources toward lower volume vehicle programs,
individual companies are experimenting with different organizational structures and
program management designs, looking for the most effective among the various options.
Because this is a relatively new strategy and one of extreme importance to future
competitiveness, automotive companies need to quickly identify the keys to success in
the low volume vehicle market.
The goal of this thesis is to outline two elements critical to the full success GM seeks
in the low volume vehicle market: lean, efficient operations, and efficient use of
partnership and outsourcing during the vehicle development process.

Section 1.1.2: Thesis Structure

The remainder of this chapter outlines relevant background information on the auto
industry and several trends that affect how automakers are evolving in order to become
more competitive in the changing market. Specifically, the author presents a market
sizing analysis for low volume vehicles over the next five years, which underscores the

page 9
importance of effectively executing these programs. The end of the chapter introduces
General Motors's competitive position and low volume vehicle programs.
Chapter 2 is dedicated to the decision to create an "extended enterprise" of distinct
but closely tied companies that work together to execute large, complex projects. The
outsourcing decision and its strategic implications are first generically analyzed, and then
the specifics to General Motors's opportunities are explored. The chapter ends with an
analysis of the tactical considerations for ultimate partnering success at GM.
The third chapter discusses lean manufacturing in the auto industry and then as it is
being implemented at General Motors. An implementation model for the GM culture,
based on GM's successes and struggles in the past, follows a critical look at GM's lean
manufacturing system, GMS. Chapter 3 finishes with some specific keys to success that
make implementing the model presented even easier.
Chapter 4 builds on the previous chapter by examining the analyzing the lean
manufacturing system and determining how its implementation must differ in low
volume programs. The specifics of GMS that need some additional thought for efficient
implementation in a low volume environment are outlined and presented with some
creative suggestions.
The final chapter recaps the major points of the thesis and outlines specific
recommendations for future low volume vehicle programs at GM.

Section 1.2: The Recent Evolution of the Automotive Industry

In the past two decades, U.S. automakers have seen drastic changes in the competitive
landscape from their early years. Most recently, globalization has increased competition
from global players who have expanded from their own domestic markets into the
American marketplace. W ith these new competitors c ome new m arkets for American
automakers and completely new challenges. These challenges include more stringent
ecological and environmental concerns, new governmental regulatory concerns, and even
more price pressure as customers have more vehicles from which to choose.
In response to these new competitors, the auto industry has created numerous new
structures. Now more than ever, global automakers are acquiring competitors, merging
with new companies, and entering into joint ventures. The resulting dynamics have

page 10
created an rapidly changing competitive environment in which some very well-
established organizations are forced to adapt often and quickly in order to survive.
Fine introduces the concept of "clockspeed" to describe the pace at which an industry
moves in relation to product development, manufacturing and supply chain process
design, and overall business environment changes (1998). While some industries, such
as information/entertainment and electronics, generally operate in a faster clockspeed
environment, others, such as the automotive industry, have traditionally operated at a
slower clockspeed. Changes in clockspeed, although rare, are difficult for companies due
the fact that the implications of this business cadence reach far into a company's
organizational structure, metrics, culture, and processes. It is precisely this clockspeed
acceleration challenge to which automotive manufacturers are now responding.

Section 1.2.1: Operational Efficiency

In addition to already-prevalent competition on value and price, automotive
companies are organizationally and competitively striving to respond faster to trends,
causing many internal and external processes to move more quickly, all the while
continuing to improve efficiency and cost. While these may seem like opposing goals, in
today's competitive environment, they have become complimentary. Many operationally
focused trends already in progress in the early 1990's have become critical success
factors for today's environment, especially that of the Toyota-developed lean
manufacturing (discussed in Chapter 3). Without the right cars and trucks to compete
with the many vehicles in the marketplace, efficient manufacturing does little good.
Therefore fast, efficient, and creative product development must accompany world-class
manufacturing processes. In essence, in order to be both competitive on price and time to
market, automakers must be able to perfect both product development and manufacturing
processes.

Section 1.2.2: Low Volume Vehicle Programs

In order to compete with the growing number of competitors in the market, product
portfolios have started to contain highly stylized cars and trucks that are not meant to
appeal to the mass market. Instead, traditional market segments have ceased to be of sole
importance, and automakers have focused on more fragmented, niche-sized consumer

page 11
groups for new products. Increasingly, therefore, automakers are beginning vehicle
programs with plans of only producing vehicles in limited annual volumes (5,000 -
15,000 vehicles per year, as opposed to the sometimes 100,000 vehicles per year planned
volume of traditional programs).

$9

$8

$7

$5

4$4

$3

$2

$1

$0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Figure 1. Low Volume (<15,000 units per year) Vehicle Revenue 1998-2002

This low-volume market, although much discussed in the automotive press, has not
been definitively quantified for potential revenues. Instead of a well-defined competitive
opportunity, automakers believe the low volume market to be one critical to their future
competitiveness. Figure 1 shows the history of the market for vehicles produced and sold
in volumes of fewer than 15,000 per year. In 2002, industry data indicates that the
market is nearly $8 billion in revenue'. This is remarkable because although many
companies have begun to execute a low volume strategy, most of the vehicles are still in
the development pipeline, and are not included in the annual revenue figures yet.

This is a figure created by the author from industry data provided by the Automotive News data center for
the year 2002.

page 12
 Due to the strength of the momentum of the low volume program strategy, the market
potential is important in addition to the actual revenues of the past five years. Specialty
vehicles, such as these low volume products, will need to compete with the existing
specialty vehicle, customization, and restoration markets that account for $25 billion per
year (Cobb, 2002). Although low volume vehicles at large manufacturers may not fully
eclipse the restoration market, the aim of these programs is largely the same as the
specialty vehicle market - to give customers an exciting car that very few other people
own. The advantage for traditional manufacturers will present itself (if done correctly) to
consumers in the form o f lower prices, higher quality, and more reliable resolution of
warranty issues than can be expected today in small custom vehicle shops.
Knowing that most of the automakers' strategies for low volume vehicle programs
have been in the development and engineering stages until mid-2003, it is easy to project
that within the next two years, the low volume vehicle market will top $12 billion. In the
next five years, this market should grow to a similar size as the customization market -
over $20 billion, just in the United States, as automakers start to produce the many low
volume vehicles in their development pipelines. Needless to say, this market will be a
critical competitive instrument for any vehicle manufacturer hoping to sustain significant
market share in the American market over the next decade2 .
Although producing limited numbers of certain vehicles is not a completely new
concept, the current market and the increasing competition within it will d emand new
characteristics from these low volume vehicle programs. Traditionally, fixed costs would
be spread over the large volume life of a vehicle program. Lower volume means fewer
vehicles over which to spread the investments for the program. This extra cost has been
passed onto the customer in the past. However, as these smaller segments attract more
players and customers' price elasticity decreases, profits will no longer be made by
increasing prices but by controlling costs (German, 1998).
Therefore, the characteristics of successful low volume vehicle programs are as
follows:

2 This figure does not take into account the revenues that will be driven by overall brand image
improvements caused by these exciting vehicles' presence in the marketplace.

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 " Designs will be more fashion-driven and address smaller fragments of traditional
market segments.
" Capital expenditures unique to the specific program will be low. Lower volume
leaves fewer vehicles over which to spread fixed costs. Any equipment bought
will need to have a life of more than one program and be flexible enough to
produce different low volume vehicles.
* For reasons similar to those above, development costs must be kept to an absolute
minimum.
* Vehicles will need to move quickly from concept to showroom floor. Because
designs will be more stylish, the window of opportunity in the marketplace will be
shorter than traditional vehicles.
* Vehicles must be produced in an efficient and cost effective manner. Many low
volume vehicles will not be priced in the highest bracket, so any inefficiency in
manufacturing will squeeze already tight margins on these programs.
Manufacturing waste will also cause delays getting vehicles to dealerships for
anxious customers. This will damage brand image and diminish the capability to
attract customers in the future, not to mention lead to lost sales on the program in
question.
For automakers, time is of the essence. Already, the number of models on the market
in the U.S. is skyrocketing. A New York Times article reported that the 2002 model year
contained over 1,300 different models in the United States, an increase of more than 40%
over the previous five years (Cobb, 2002).

Section 1.3: General Motors Corporation: Corporate Position and Operational Trends
Despite challenging macroeconomic times in 2002, GM set records in revenue,
market share gain, and cost efficiency increases (General Motors Annual Report, 2002).
Even as the competition improved, GM continued its customer-perceived quality
increases, as measured by the JD Powers Initial Quality Survey by raising their ranking in
"problems per 100 vehicles" (PP100) to better than the industry average on the whole 3

3GM was ranked third among multi-divisional companies in the survey. Other high points for GM in this
survey included the achievement of Best-In-Segment awards for vehicles in four segments and gaining on
Toyota's Best-In-Class PP 100 by 26% of the previous year's gap.

page 14
and narrowing the lead between GM and Toyota, the Best-In-Class producer.
Additionally, GM received JD Powers accolades for their North American plant
performance, earning the "gold" award for their Oshawa, Ontario plant, the "silver"
award for their Bowling Green, Kentucky plant, and two "bronze" awards for a Lansing,
Michigan plant and the New United Motor Manufacturing Initiative (NUMMI) plant in
Fremont, California.
In addition to the quality improvements that the industry applauded, GM earned high
marks in efficiency. The Harbour Report is a productivity survey that is conducted
annually and serves as the definitive measure of efficiency at the manufacturing level in
the auto industry. This year's study was cause for celebration at GM unlike past years
when GM officials dreaded the announcement of the results. Manufacturing productivity
sharply increased in 2002 for the Detroit-based automaker, and the numbers were
improvement enough to top North American manufacturers. As Ron Harbour indicated
in an August 2002 speech to the Institute of Industrial Engineers in Warren, Michigan, if
companies are spending money in hours per vehicle, they are not able to spend it
elsewhere, such as in product development innovation.
Both of these externally-measured accomplishments reflect a long-developed and
patiently implemented manufacturing strategy put in motion by the former CEO and
Chairman of the Board, Jack Smith. The specific focus on becoming a more lean
operation that works as one global company has driven productivity progress, redundancy
reductions, and quality improvements. As a result of these improvements, GM has been
able to put a great deal of pressure on its competitors in the challenging global
macroeconomic environment. In a drastically depressed consumer market, GM could
offer widespread incentives profitably and achieve considerable market share gains. For
the first time in many years, top management (specifically, Bob Lutz and Gary Cowger)
kicked off the end-of-year holiday vacation with an internal communication that
encouraged everyone to "celebrate (GM's success) on the run." In other words, although
the fruits of much of the company's work had begun to show and were cause for
celebration, there was much work to do in the coming months and years.

page 15
Section 1.4: GM's Low Volume Vehicle Programs, an Overview
In the auto industry, designers and engineers showcase their talents in the form of
concept cars that are displayed at auto shows around the world. GM has a long history of
producing exciting displays of cutting-edge technology on the auto show circuit. For the
most part, the concept show cars serve only as marketing tools and very few make it to
the showroom floor in any identifiable fashion. This is often because the cars are not
designed for manufacturing, and to mass-produce these vehicles would be difficult and
expensive, if not infeasible.
However, in 2000 a particular retro-inspired truck called the Chevrolet SSR inspired
so much excitement when unveiled to the automotive world that GM decided to
capitalize on the enthusiasm in the press and with would-be customers. That spring, the
company announced publicly that they would release the SSR as a production vehicle in
late 2002. This began the expansion of what is internally known as the "halo" program,
which seeks to create a brand image for each division of GM's product lines by designing
and selling an exciting, super-styled product to represent the spirit of the brand. The
SSR would be the "halo" for Chevy trucks, as the Corvette had served as the "halo" for
Chevrolet cars for decades. The SSR became "GM's icon for product innovation
leadership, the company's sense of urgency and renewed commitment to exciting
vehicles" (Chevrolet Communications, 2000).
The low volume vehicle strategy is not a new one at General Motors. However, there
have been few examples of successful niche programs to date. For example, GM recently
finished phasing out production of the EV-1, the electric vehicle produced in limited
amounts primarily for the California auto market. Though some may argue that past
failures are largely due to the product design of these niche vehicles, it is also true that
the company's product realization process is optimized for high volume programs.
Manufacturing plants contain large capital investments, large workforces, and inflexible
tooling, and product development cycles are longer than fashion cycles that influence
highly styled vehicles. These characteristics are not w ell suited for the lower volume
halo programs.
However, General Motors is evolving. Product- and organization-wise, GM is well
positioned to compete in the low volume vehicle market with its halo vehicles. There are

page 16
several exciting products in the pipeline that have received accolades on the auto show
circuit. Innovative designs keep coming, as Bob Lutz, the highly renowned "car guy" in
the American auto industry, proliferates his product strategy and process at GM.
Already, consumers can buy a Hummer H2 or a Cadillac XLR, other vehicles positioned
in the "halo" position for GM trucks and Cadillac cars, respectively.

Section 1.5: Manufacturing Implications of Low Volume Vehicle Programs at General

Motors
GM has experimented with various manufacturing strategies in order to determine
how to be efficient enough in the execution of low volume programs to pursue them
profitably. In order to respond to the low volume program constraints outlined in Section
1.2.2, GM has had to adjust its manufacturing processes and create new strategies within
operations. However, the definition of what a manufacturing strategy entails is hazy in
many employees' minds. Through interviews, the author created a list of the elements of
manufacturing strategy that are relevant when considering low volume vehicle programs.
These factors are listed below:
* Goals for the program that affect manufacturing, for instance part commonality and
architecture similarity to other vehicles
" Percentage of GM content, or the amount that is manufactured (or assembled, in the
case of complex modules of vehicles, such as instrument panels) in-house versus
outsourced
* Irregular plant layouts, such as separate body shops for different vehicle architectures
or no-paint-shop-layouts that can take advantage of new technologies to save capital
outlay
* Whether these programs go into existing or new plants, and how they are integrated
with existing products
General Motors has been researching and experimenting with different structures for
each of these elements and combining them in different ways to understand the factors
for successful choices in manufacturing strategy. As low volume programs become more
prevalent, GM will need to find the determinants of manufacturing strategy so that
optimal choices are made for each program.

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 Section 1.6: The Chevrolet SSR
The Chevrolet SSR is GM's first low volume vehicle program to be executed as a
halo vehicle from the concept phase through the manufacturing phase. For inspiration,
GM designers looked to the heritage of the Chevy truck and combined the spirit of the
Chevy heritage with modem technology. Design of the concept vehicle that launched the
SSR program was very quick for auto industry standards. What would normally take a
full year was brought to life in just several months.
The production vehicle retains the overall spirit of the original show car, with only
two minor style-based deviations. The exterior is largely reminiscent of late 1940's and
early 1950's Chevrolet pickup truck families, with updated, sleeker overall styling. The
showpiece feature of the vehicle is a four-piece automatic retractable hard top that folds
into a covered cavern behind the seats. Automotive critics also expressed delight that the
differently sized front and rear wheels (19" and 20" respectively) have been passed along
from show concept to production vehicle.

Figure 2. The Chevrolet SSR Concept Vehicle

To limit complexity, the 2003 model year SSR offers very few options to its
customers. The first version of the SSR features a small block Vortec V-8 engine and
comes only in rear wheel drive. Additionally, a four-speed automatic transmission is the
only transmission available for the 2003 model year. The color choices are limited to
four, and leather seats will be installed in every SSR. Only two real "options" will be
offered, mainly allowing enhancement in the pickup bed liner. In addition, seven
different accessories will be offered, including a towing package and custom floor mats.

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 In January of 2001, GM announced the location for the production of the SSR: the
Lansing Craft Centre (LCC) in Lansing Township, MI. The choice of production facility
matched the Craft Centre's excellence in limited volume, high complexity, high quality
manufacturing with a product strategy for a limited production, highly styled vehicle.
Production began during the late part of the fourth quarter of 2002, after regulatory
concerns were resolved (The Business Journal Online, 2001) and a complete re-tooling
effort necessary to transform the plant from an older manufacturing facility dedicated to
making the Cadillac El Dorado to a flexible manufacturing facility for low volume
vehicles.

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Chapter 2: Core Competencies and Collaboration
This chapter outlines two interconnected concepts that have major strategic
importance to General Motors as it makes changes in the way it conducts vehicle
programs - industry analysis and core competencies. These academic concepts can
provide strategic decision makers at GM with a framework in which to structure the
problem of potential partnership with outside firms. Only with the contextual
understanding of the company's position can the management at GM make the best
possible decsion with respect to collaboration and outsourcing.
After presenting the framework, the chapter walks through GM's current competitive
position in the industry. With this established, this chapter identifies different parts of the
vehicle development process that could be outsourced and discusses the strategic and
practical impacts of such decisions. The chapter ends with a guide of keys to success in
the e vent o f an o utsourcing o r c ollaborative d ecision, b ased on historical r elationships
within the auto industry and academic research.

Section 2.1: Outsourcing Introduction

As companies adapt to changing market conditions, they develop into more
specialized producers and service providers. Because the focus on one activity often
leads to a competency in this specialty over other firms, vertically integrated firms often
decide to entrust pieces of their operations or products to suppliers. Often, with several
expert firms involved in the manufacture and design of a product, quality is improved
over the single-sourced scenario.
For this reason, the outsourcing decision has become a central part of the strategy of
any firm. Cisco Systems gained great admiration for its use of contract manufacturers
and its consequent low capital expenditures. Dell Computer Corporation's supply chain
involves many suppliers for parts and services that allow its world-class operation.
Outsourcing can pool risk across companies, improve efficiency, and provide flexibility
in assets and resources.
However, making a good collaboration decision is not easy. The following sections
discuss the strategic and tactical considerations that are necessary to make a well-
informed outsourcing or partnering decisions. Long-term success depends on using more

page 21
than economic analysis. Good decisions are so complex that some suggest that
outsourcing decisions themselves may be a differentiating competitive strength for some
companies (Fine and Whitney, 1996).

Section 2.2: Industry Analysis and Core Competencies

Porter, widely acknowledged as the foremost researcher in the area of modem
corporate strategy, has proposed a model that provides a framework for analysis of an
industry's competitive environment (Porter, 1979). This standard structure for analysis
provides strategic decision makers with a set of industry competition factors to consider
when making choices that can affect the long-term strategic position of the company. It
should be noted that the model does not include a couple of factors that may have
important impacts on such decisions, such as governmental regulation and the effects of
cross-industry synergy, such as that found in the Microsoft Windows and Intel
microprocessor co-design and operation. Figure 3 below shows the basic structure of
Porter's framework, commonly known as the "Five Forces" model.
Potential
Entrants

Threat of
New Entrants
Industry
Bargaining Power Competitors Bargaining Power
of Suppliers of Buyers
Suppliers a ues
Rivalry among
existing firms

Threat of
Substitute Products
or Service
Substitutes

Figure 3. Michael Porter's Five Forces Model for Competitive Industry Analysis

The model provides a context for a firm's strategy by looking at the following factors:
e Industry Competitors/Rivalry - This one of the Five Forces represents the internal
dynamics of the current industry players and the power struggle among the

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 companies that compete for customers. Relevant issues include the relative sizes
of the companies in the current market, the number of competitors in the industry,
the growth rate of the industry, and the "exit barriers" of the industry,
considerations that must be made if a company decides to stop doing business in
the industry.
Buyers - In any industry analysis, one must understand the relative power of the
industry's customers because they may have an impact on the profitability of the
product or service, by demanding lower prices, more service, or higher quality.
Buyers are the people or firms that buy the products and services produced within
this industry, and any pressure they can exert on those players within the value
chain will have a profound impact on the competitors. Buyers will have more
power when the industry under analysis is fragmented because they will have
more choices of firms from which to buy than when the industry players are more
concentrated. Likewise, if the customers are concentrated, the buyers can exert
more pressure on the industry. Another factor in buyer power is the relative
amount of "switching cost," or the trouble that a customer would experience if it
decided to look for a new supplier of a product or service. The strength and
growth of the buyers' industries are also important, because if there is little profit
in the end customer's pockets, there will be less leeway for profit margins on the
part of the industry under study.
* Suppliers - Suppliers of goods and services to the industry's competitors may be
able to exert power on the players within that industry as well. As with the
customers of the goods or services of the industry, concentration of suppliers also
provides power. This power allows suppliers more control in terms of pricing and
timing of the services and goods they provide and may allow them to guide the
industry in terms of products, technology, or availability. Switching costs also
come into play with the industry's suppliers. If it is easy to switch from supplier
to supplier, each supplier will have relatively low power over the industry.
* Substitutes - If there are suitable substitutes to the goods or services within the
industry under study, this will also exert pressure on the firms within that
industry. Potential customers may choose to use other goods or services to fulfill

page 23
 the needs that the industry players are vying to satisfy, and this will increase
competitive pressures.
* Potential Entrants - Additional competition within the industry will weaken the
players that are already in the marketplace. Potential entrants may be attracted to
an industry if there is a great deal of profit to be made from the goods or services
and if there are low requirements in terms of intellectual, tangible, or intangible
capital. Entrants are limited when these so-called "barriers to entry" are high.
In his book, Clockspeed, Fine proposes that the sourcing decision is a key strategic
opportunity in every project (Fine, 1998). In order to analyze this opportunity, it is
necessary to understand "core competencies" of the organization in question. The core
competency concept, a foundation of corporate strategy determination, says that
companies are strategically successful when they understand the abilities in their
organizations that differentiate themselves from their competition. These core
competencies are the heart of the current and future competitiveness of any firm. Barney
(2001) suggests using the following checklist of characteristics to determine if a
particular capability is core:
" Value - In essence, a core competency must be something that adds value to the
firm as a whole as it navigates the competitive landscape. This can either occur
by providing a saleable asset to customers or by improving the effectiveness of
the company.
* Inimitability - Core competencies are necessarily difficult to imitate, or the ability
would quickly be copied by the competition and no longer be available as a
differentiator to the firm who developed the skill.
* Rareness - An ability that can be classified as a core competency will be
something that does not permeate the current or possible competition.
* Organization - If a rare and valuable skill exists within a firm, it will not provide
realizable advantage unless the organization is s et up to support and propagate
that skill. For example, metrics, organizational structure, and reward systems
must support following the process that provides the value to the firm.
Organizations must be careful however, not to let their core competencies become
stagnant and limit their competitiveness. That is, once a company organizes itself to

page 24
support its core competencies, it might be unable to adjust to changing market conditions
(shifts in the power or structure as outlined in Porter's F ive F orces model) quickly or
effectively. In essence, the abilities that allowed success may become "core rigidities"
that hinder competitiveness down the road. Therefore, as companies build competencies
and follow strategies that exploit these, it is important that they keep a keen eye on the
market and its dynamics to be sure that these competencies are truly beneficial. Constant
reexamination of the alignment between competencies and competitive position will
avoid the core rigidity problem.

Section 2.3: Outsourcing Decisions: A Strategic Perspective

As companies develop different core competencies and organize themselves around
them, they develop into entities that specialize in different things, and may even move
into different parts of the Five Forces model. For instance, if one firm develops its
manufacturing capabilities and a competitor develops its design and engineering
capabilities, they might become customer and supplier, instead of direct competitors.
Rigorous industry analysis and core competency identification are especially relevant
as outsourcing decisions are made. On one hand, it is important to balance the dynamic
competitive requirements that surround the project (such as increasing clockspeed and
cost pressure) that drive more short-term decisions with the longer term competitive
consequences of such decisions (such as core competency preservation). In essence, it is
important as outsourcing decisions are made to "avoid the Intel Inside" phenomenon that
IBM experienced in the 1980's (Fine 1998). IBM created an ann's-length outsourcing
relationship for its operating system and microprocessor design and manufacturing in its
PC products, which later became driving technologies and customer-identifiable traits for
personal computers. These decisions, as IBM found, can compromise the value chain
power a firm may have in the future.
So, then, how should a company make the decision to outsource parts of their process
or product? Fine et al. (2002) suggest that there are several tiers of criteria that are
important in making outsourcing-based decisions. Figure 4 shows the tiers of decisions
that must be made by a company in order to fully analyze the strategic impact of
outsourcing decisions.

page 25
 Essentially, this framework asks the strategic decision maker to think carefully about
the particular part or process step that they are considering for outsourcing in a systematic
fashion. Several aspects of this "outsourcing element" (Fine et al., 2002) and the
competitive environment are critical factors in making the sourcing decision.

Figure 4. Analysis Tiers for Strategic Outsourcing Decisions (Fine et al., 2002)

The first levels of consideration are highly strategic in nature and require that
someone in a high-level and cross-functional position be involved in decision-making.
The initial level relates to the potentially outsourced element's importance to the
customer. If it is a customer-critical part or process, outsourcing control of this element
may pose a risk to the company's ability to satisfy their customers. Outsourcing may not
be the wrong strategic decision in all cases, even for very important elements, but it will
be necessary to implement extra control mechanisms and management for the
outsourcing process.
Technology clockspeed refers to the pace at which the underlying technology of the
part, process, or product evolves. In a faster clockspeed environment, competitive
advantage may be gained and lost very quickly, causing even a short-term decision to

page 26
have long-term effects. On the other hand, if the industry moves at a slower velocity, the
outsourcing decision on any one element for any one period may have less potential
lasting strategic impact. Overall, it is important for strategic decision-makers to
understand the clockspeed and criticality that frames the outsourcing decision before
more practical factors are allowed to play into the selection of outsourcing strategy.
The next level of consideration in the sourcing decision examines the competitive
position that the company currently maintains with respect to the outsourcing element.
While this may not be as important as the aforementioned strategic considerations, the
company's ability to produce or execute the element relative to the rest of the competitors
in the market space may serve as a tiebreaker in the outsourcing decision. In essence, if a
company is concerned about the strategic or competitive nature of the element but the
internal capability to produce or execute that element is either on par with or less than
that of the suppliers available or its competitors, the company may decide to outsource
the element4 .
If the element is something that the company would consider outsourcing, it then
must inquire about the capabilities of the possible suppliers for the product or process. If
there are no outside firms that will be able to adequately provide the element, there is
clearly a high barrier to the success of outsourcing. However, if there are many suppliers
for this element, this might be an indicator that it is a heavily outsourced element in the
industry and therefore may not be considered a core strategic advantage for many of the
company's competitors. This does not dictate that the element should necessarily be
outsourced, but it can give a competitive context in which to make the decision.
Finally, it will be important to look at the architecture of the product or process. If
the final product is largely one system with many integral parts that work together, it will
be more difficult to successfully o utsource the elements of that system because of the
complexity of the coordination and understanding necessary to be part of the system. If a
product or process is designed in a more modular fashion, where commodity-type parts or
services are designed with common interface and are subsequently pieced together to

4 Although many American companies decide to outsource what they are not comparatively good at, there
is an alternate philosophy, often found in Japanese companies. This philosophy dictates that the company
should insource those things that may be construed as strategic advantages as away to build these
capabilities inside the company (Fine and Whitney, 1996).

page 27
create the whole, outsourcing will require fewer complex interactions and will have less
risk of quality and integration functionality issues.
After these considerations, the type of outsourcing relationship should be examined.
Even if there is some strategic risk in outsourcing a part or process to an outside firm,
there are ways to reap the benefits of increased resources or external skill sets that outside
collaboration can provide. To do this, the company should establish a formal relationship
that will allow them to achieve their outsourcing goals without fully compromising their
strategic advantages in their industry or giving up their competitive position.
Relationships like these include joint ventures, equity partnerships, and acquisitions.
Where much of the academic research stops is how to manage the relationships put
into place for these very delicate and important decisions. This topic will be covered
later in this chapter, with a practical focus on GM's options.

Section 2.4: General Motors: Competitive Analysis and Core Competencies

A F ive F orces analysis of t he auto industry as it h as e volved o ver t he last s everal
years can be found in Figure 5.
Potential Entrants
High barriers of entry
include intellectual and
physical capital necessary
and governmental
regulations in safety and
environment

Suppliers Industry Competitors Buyers

Fairly low power due to Relatively high internal competition due Increasingly more
high level of to increasing globalization and new power as more
competition; largely competitors; more environmental and copor a mor
execute to OEM safety regulations adding cost and product compettors allow for
specifications design pressure

*
Substitutes
Low true substitutes although
public transportation, bicycles,
walking, and motorcycles provide
limited substitutes

Figure 5. Current Automotive Industry Five Forces Analysis

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 At a high level, General Motors's competitive success depends on its ability to
efficiently but completely manage the complex product development, manufacturing, and
distribution systems that its vehicle programs demand5 . This process requires a
tremendous amount of intellectual and physical capital infrastructure. The ingrained
knowledge and monetary requirements currently in place create very high barriers to
entry in the automotive business. Suppliers have some input into these processes, but the
main strength in the value chain lies with the automaker. Customers' strength has been
increasing, but given that the customers are not concentrated, their relative power in the
chain is fairly low. The only power they can exert is individual, as a customer can switch
between brands of vehicles on each purchase.
GM is currently trying to find the balance between the short-term dynamics that place
cost and time pressure on vehicle programs and future competitiveness. In the case of
low volume vehicle programs (which tend to have shorter lifecycles and more fashion-
oriented designs), the time and cost pressure is even more intense. The strategy to create
more vehicle models also increases the workload for the engineering-related staff. With
the increased pressure on vehicle programs with more competition for internal resources,
dependence on suppliers has increased (Fujimoto, 1999). Consequently, the outsourcing
options become even more central to program design.

Section 2.5: Outsourcing and Low Volume Vehicle Programs

This section walks through the different levels of decisions to be made by a company
when it has decided to outsource some or all of a vehicle program. These considerations
will only be important if the company has already considered the strategic impact of the
outsourcing decision, as outlined in Section 2.2. The three levels of decisions to be made
in the event that partnering or outsourcing is the correct strategy are: what to outsource
(partially driven by the strategic implications mentioned above), to whom to outsource,
and how to manage that relationship.

5
T his i s, o f c ourse, o nly p art o f the t otal formula for success. G M must also d esign e xciting c ars that
customers want, but the management of the program process in a cost-effective and timely manner is
absolutely critical to the fruition of these designs.

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Section 2.5.1: What Can Be Outsourced: Outsourcing Elements
With such an accelerated design and engineering schedule for the halo vehicles GM is
facing an incredible opportunity for the company to partner with suppliers of several
products and services. This section will outline several elements that are theoretical
targets for outsourcing (based on the research and understanding of the product
development process of 1 ow volume vehicles of the author, not on actual situations or
models in use at General Motors).
In the case of halo vehicles, the process essentially begins with the concept vehicles
that are shown to the public and press at the auto shows. At this point, many automakers
utilize the design talents of outside design firms. These firms may provide concept
drawings, vehicle mock-ups (three-dimensional models), and/or specific parts or whole
systems for the show vehicle. Essentially, a partner company may be involved in every
aspect of the concept stage of the vehicle.
Although the s how c ars are functional, they are far from b eing fully d esigned and
engineered. Safety and reliability are essentially ignored in the concept phase but
become important for vehicles that will be put out onto the roads. The ability to produce
the vehicles in volume is also de-emphasized for show vehicles. For instance, engineers
must determine how to make parts that have the same stylish appearance as the show cars
but can be produced in materials that provide consumer-desired durability. Many
concept cars have deeply curved styling, but they are usually made out of composite
material or aluminum, which are both difficult to form in mass production or are cost-
prohibitive for the production version. Steel, the main metal component of mass-
produced auto body panels, has physical limits with respect to the amount of depth it can
handle in curve-styled parts. Therefore, the engineering and design phase has many
complex materials and structural issues to solve. During the engineering and design
phase, styling is refined, systems and modules are engineered in detail, and parts from
other vehicles are integrated where possible. This complex design refining and
engineering has great potential for partial outsourcing or partnership.
Another p iece o f t he p re-production p rocess c oncerns t he s ourcing for the e ach o f
parts of the vehicle. The coordination and resource need for this process is immense.
Coordination between the developing designs, many different suppliers' technology

page 30
roadmaps, and program specifications, such as the volume of the parts needed and their
delivery specifications, is an extremely complex task. Many of the sub-processes in this
sourcing portion of the program iterate many times as vehicle designs evolve. The
potential supplier base is large and diverse, and coordinating several iterations of supplier
quotes, specifications, and purchase orders is a large task. Outsourcing the coordination
of sourcing and the running the purchasing functions to support the manufacturing
process is another opportunity to increase effectiveness of low volume vehicle programs.
Part of the design process includes the decision of how to manufacture parts or
assemble the vehicles when they go into production. Assembly or forming technologies
are applied to find the most efficient method of producing the vehicles in low volume
programs. During the execution phase (manufacturing), there are several options for
outsourcing, including the procurement activities mentioned above, full outsourced
manufacturing, or sub-system or module manufacturing, in which a major supplier acts as
an integrator of other parts and then ships sequenced kits (to coincide with the production
schedule) or whole vehicle sub-systems (such as an integrated instrument panel, or
dashboard) to the OEM's manufacturing facility. All of these models exist today, some
even in larger volume production, but successful leverage of the right models in low
volume programs will be another key to success.
Different programs will have certain elements that lend themselves to outsourcing. In
a program where time is especially sensitive, more elements may be outsourced or take
on partners. If creativity or "out of the box" thinking is required, design ideas may come
from an outside firm. If many new parts are required, the sourcing and procurement
functions are opportunities for outsourcing.
At GM and other automakers, all of the elements outlined in this section have either
been partially or fully outsourced or have involved partners in their completion. As new
low volume programs progress through the vehicle development process, these
companies are looking to outside firms for more value-added services and larger parts of
their vehicles. Consequently, more suppliers are offering an expanded selection of
services.

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Section 2.5.2: The Next Outsourcing Decision: To Whom
The auto industry extends beyond the limits of the OEM automakers to product and
service providers. Marketing, legal services, designers, contract manufacturers, and
multi-tier suppliers can all be contracted for hire by OEMs during different phases of a
vehicle program. Each o f the previous outsourcing elements is readily available from
outside suppliers.
In deciding to whom different elements should be outsourced, the relative skill sets of
the available suppliers are key considerations. Many of the outsourcing elements for
vehicle programs have proficient suppliers outside of the OEMs. For instance, there are
many design firms that have been working with automakers for concept cars and show
vehicles for a long time. Additionally, suppliers of automotive parts have been migrating
toward positions as module suppliers or parts integrators of larger auto systems. Again,
the availability of external skills should be balanced with the strategic considerations of
Section 2.2.

Section 2.5.3: Once the Decision is Made: How to Manage Outsourcing

As low volume vehicle programs become more prevalent and outsourcing more
common, management becomes paramount in importance. In a sense, the lines between
firms become blurred, essentially creating "extended enterprises" to bring vehicle
programs to fruition. Once partners are selected and elements for outsourcing are chosen,
the hardest part of the outsourcing decision becomes the focus - how to manage the
relationship. There are two major types of management decisions that are critical: what
type of relationship should be set up and how to manage the interactions of the multiple
firms that fulfill the program's requirements.
In the strategic portion of the outsourcing decision, the final level of consideration
was the type of relationship that is appropriate for the element or program (see Section
2.2). Although the set of options available is something to consider in the strategic
portion, after the decision is made it becomes of practical and tactical importance. The
type of relationship also dictates many of the considerations necessary in the management
of the extended enterprise. History has shown the impact of the type or relationship in an
outsourcing or partnership arrangement. Many companies have gained or lost value
chain power by outsourcing components or services and creating a non-optimal

page 32
relationship with suppliers. The "Intel Inside" dilemma mentioned previously illustrates
this point. Had IBM chosen to retain their equity share in Microsoft and Intel, as they
had early in their relationships (Fine, 1998), the success in these supplied parts would
have had a neutral impact on IBM. Because they instead chose to manage it as an arm's
length relationship, all of the benefits of these technologies' successes have gone to
Microsoft and Intel.
Many different options are available to a firm as it creates its extended enterprise.
Choosing the right one for the situation is tricky but critical. Several factors help to
dictate the best choice for the relationship. Strategic importance of the outsourced
element and the level of commitment needed long-term are the major considerations. For
instance, joint ventures can be structured to distribute benefit equally among firms,
encouraging each partner to engage fully and long term. Arm's length structures make
more sense when the products or services are more commodity-like. Exchanges of equity
can mitigate strategic risks when important pieces of the process are outsourced.
Another consideration in the decision for the relationship structure is the amount of
interaction that the automaker wants to or can afford to have. This may be constrained by
resources, causing the outsourcing to be chosen to speed up the timeline or avoid adding
permanent resources for the program. However, there may be some benefit to having a
great deal of interaction in the relationship. Having a new perspective on a process or
exposure to new technologies may create organizational learning in the automaker's
organization if it is an active part of the process. In other words, choosing a structure that
is cooperative and inclusive is an opportunity for both firms to learn from each other and
may lead to enough learning on the part of the automaker that it will not need to
outsource the element in the future.
Once the type of relationship is chosen, management structure and processes must be
created to maintain the relationship and drive the project effectively. Coordination
requirements increase in the extended enterprise. In the case of outsourcing elements of
an automotive program, the OEM must act as the integrator of the internally and
externally executed parts of the program. Therefore, the OEM has a large stake in the
program's management, even if the bulk of the program is outsourced. The implications

page 33
of this vital role are important to the OEM, and it should not overlook the resources that
will be necessary to fill this role.

Section 2.6: The Strategic Impact of Outsourcing at General Motors

General Motors needs to consider the same strategic issues as have been outlined in
the previous sections. First, the high level management of the company needs to
understand the objectives of the program and how they fit with the overall goals of the
company and then balance the constraints of the program with the strategic outsourcing
considerations.
Clearly, outsourcing places more importance on the relationship between GM and its
suppliers. Relationships can no longer be easily created and severed based solely on low
prices or short-term service performance. The increased complexity of the services and
parts provided by the supplier base moves away from a commodity-driven supplier
relationship that allows easy replacement of suppliers. Instead, there is a "lock-in" effect
created in the relationship between supplier and customer.
Outsourcing and partnering also shifts the power in the value chain a bit toward the
suppliers. Figure 6 shows the power shifts in the value chain that are occurring as a result
of low volume vehicle programs in which outsourcing is used. This figure shows values
in relation to the "current state" Five Forces model in Figure 5.
Potential Entrants
Steady or slightly increasing due to
the increasing need to have strong
supplier relationships and strong
design abilities

Suuuliers
Higher power as Industry Competitors Buyers
suppliers become more Increasing competition among increasing 4- Increasing power due
integral to the design numbers of vehicle models and global to larger selection
and execution of competitors
vehicle programs

Substitutes
Steady

Figure 6. Shifts in Five Forces Model with Outsourcing

page 34
 What is evident in this figure is that using outsourcing or partnering for low volume
programs changes the power balance in the auto industry. Buyers start to have more
power not because they are more concentrated and demand more attention individually,
but because there are a growing number of products from which they may choose. These
vehicles are coming from increased competitive forces within the industry as global
competitors move into new markets. Therefore, there is more internal competition. The
outsourcing decisions are shifting more power to the suppliers as they provide more
complex pieces of the design process and automobile. There is some amount of lock-in
as GM entrusts more value-added elements to outside firms. This lock-in creates more
interdependence and therefore more power in the relationship on the side of suppliers.
One other strategic, long-term consideration for GM is the degree to which the
company wants to learn the process or understand the parts that it is outsourcing. If the
element is common to many low volume programs and the strategic direction continues
toward more low volume programs, it might make sense to keep the element inside the
company or at least make sure that the relationship structure chosen for outsourcing that
element is one of inclusion. As mentioned before, this will require resource expenditures.
If this is a constraint for the particular program and those in the future, outsourcing makes
sense. However, the dependence on the suppliers will be stronger and longer term, as the
extended enterprise becomes more important to GM.
In essence, the initial strategic decisions about outsourcing in low volume programs
at General Motors must be made by a high level of management in the organization. The
decision must balance the constraints of the particular program in question with the long-
term strategic direction of the company. While sharing risk and minimizing investment
in the short-term, the arrangement must take into account the future strategic costs and
potential learning that might be lost. Finally, coordination costs cannot be ignored when
the decision to outsource is made. Outsourcing does not completely relieve GM of an
obligation to be a part of whatever elements it uses external sources for, so these
coordination costs must be a part of the decision as well.

page 35
Section 2.7: The Tactical Considerations of Outsourcing Low Volume Program
Elements
This section outlines the opportunities for outsourcing e lements in the low volume
vehicle programs at General Motors, based on the observations throughout the Chevrolet
SSR program. Because there are many suppliers in the marketplace and GM has a better
understanding of their abilities than the author was able to discern over the short time at
the company, there is not much in-depth discussion on the specifics of the decision as to
whom the elements should be outsourced. Instead, the section includes specific
management and coordination suggestions based on the limited exposure the author had
to current suppliers to General Motors.

Section 2.7.1: Outsourcing Elements: Opportunities for GM's Low Volume

Programs
All of the elements outlined in Section 2.4.1 are opportunities at GM for outsourcing
or partnering in low volume vehicle programs. Concept creation, design, engineering,
parts manufacturing, and sourcing and procurement functions can all be outsourced or
executed with strategic partners. However, in the time-pressure, low cost environment of
the low volume program, many of these functions must be done in parallel - and very
efficiently.
Concept cars often utilize partner design firms. In the case of low volume programs,
the concept phase is an opportunity to start thinking through the subsequent processes
that will occur if the concept is successful. As the concept is introduced to the auto
world, preliminary feasibility studies for production should be underway. In this study,
production options and sourcing options are important to understand before making a
commitment t o p roduction s chedules and p rogram budgets. P artnering for t hese e arly
phases will accelerate the timelines further into the program.
The specifics of the program will dictate the best opportunities to take advantage of
outsourcing and partnering options. For most programs, however, time will be limited in
order to take advantage of the current fashion trends. Therefore, without an additional
expenditure on full-time engineers and designers, most programs will require some
arrangements with outside firms.

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Section 2.7.2: Management Concerns for GM's Low Volume Outsourcing
In order to achieve most of the goals of low volume programs, partnering or
outsourcing will be key. Although the decision of what to outsource and to whom is
important, the execution of the program with the newly created extended enterprise will
command a great deal more time and attention. Based on supplier interactions observed
by the author, the following points are essentials for successful coordination of the
extended enterprise in time-pressured, resource constrained low volume programs.
First and foremost, GM needs to exploit its core competency and ensure that this
strength of complex program management is taken advantage of, even when partners are
executing the tasks of the program. Although there is some value to having an outside
perspective on the program management technique to expose inefficiencies or ways to
improve or move more quickly, to cast aside the main strength of the company is a grave
mistake. To this end, the first point of this section is that it is imperative that a common
project management doctrine be adopted by all of the members of the extended
enterprise. This doctrine needs to include timing for deliverables and the creation of a
common set of expectations, even if the deliverables are not necessary inputs to cross-
company processes. For example, if GM expects a supplier company to have done
enough due diligence in its process by a certain date, creating a deliverable that GM
would normally have, that must be a part of the project plan. In essence, all expected
deliverables must be in this plan, regardless of whether they are expectations for use in
other processes internal to or external to producing organization.
Related to the deliverables, the next management imperative is a clear scope of
responsibility for each of the organizations in the extended enterprise. Vague
descriptions, such as a contract to perform the procurement and sourcing functions, will
cause rework, duplication of activities, and inefficient hassles in the program. In the case
of outsourcing the procurement activities, many more detailed guidelines are necessary.
For instance, which parts will the supplier be responsible for during the program (all of
them, the ones that are not common to any other GM vehicles, or the parts that will be
delivered to GM's facility (as opposed to those going to suppliers' facilities)) must be
clearly defined. These details must be decided from the outset, so that the proper
resources and time can be allocated by the appropriate organizations. It will also serve to

page 37
nurture the relationship of the companies in the extended enterprise rather than allow for
conflicts due to misunderstanding.
As with any project, the proper metrics must accompany the project plan. This is
especially important in the cross-company situation created by complex outsourcing
relationships. Quality expectations for deliverables should be part of the original plan.
Success metrics for the program must be decided at a project level, and each company
involved must make sure that their internal metrics are in-line with the program-level
metrics and goals.
Finally, in order to create a seamless flow throughout the project, teams from all
aspects of the partnership should be involved from the beginning of the program. Most
notably, any manufacturing organizations must be involved in the design and engineering
portions of the project, at least to be able to offer manufacturing perspective to design.
Additionally, first-hand involvement upstream will allow for realistic preparations for the
downstream processes.

Section 2.8: Chapter Summary

This chapter outlines the full scope of considerations in outsourcing and partnering
decisions in low volume vehicle programs. The strategic considerations first dictate that
GM must understand its core competencies so that they are incorporated into the
extended enterprise. Next, high-level management must make some preliminary
decisions from an integrative, cross-functional perspective to understand what elements
of the program might be outsourced and under what relationship structures. At this
strategic level, management must understand how outsourcing and partnering decisions
balance the shorter-term constraints and goals of the specific program as well as the long-
term corporate strategy implications of involving others in the program management
process. Then GM can consider the tactical aspects, from what to outsource, to whom,
and then finally, how to manage the outsourcing relationship.
Outsourcing and partnering will be a critical part of success in the low volume vehicle
programs of the future. However, to realize the benefit of the extended enterprise
approach, the right strategy and management must accompany the arrangement.

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Chapter 3: Lean Manufacturing
Outsourcing is only one skill that General Motors will need to perfect as it introduces
more low volume programs. Not only must the program get vehicles to the marketplace
quickly, but they must also be produced in a cost effective fashion. As in the program
development, there will be little room for error or waste in the production process
because of the lower number of vehicles per annum over which costs will be spread.
This chapter focuses on the production system known as "lean manufacturing," the
accepted standard for best practice operations worldwide. Following this introduction,
the chapter describes GM's Global Manufacturing System (GMS), the company's
internal s tandard intended t o c apture the e ssence o f lean m anufacturing for w orldwide
implementation. Finally, the chapter discusses the implementation of GMS in brownfield
environments, with special emphasis on the lessons learned throughout the world as GMS
has permeated manufacturing facilities.

Section 3.1: Lean Manufacturing: An Introduction

In most manufacturing-based industries, "lean" has been a buzzword synonymous
with world-class competitive operations for over two decades. While there are many
interpretations of the word and even more ways that the lean mindset has been
implemented in these companies, there is one over-arching concept that is the focus of
lean: the continual seeking out and elimination of waste in the system. This waste may
surface in several forms and in all areas of a process or organization. The goal of lean
thinking is to expose the wasteful situation and drive the waste out of the system. Most
companies' lean manufacturing systems focus on the implementation of Just-in-Time
(JIT) manufacturing and materials systems, kanban materials management tools, and
quality control procedures, all of which are countermeasures to waste in manufacturing
environments.
The Toyota Production System (TPS) has been the basis for the movement toward
lean manufacturing and lean thinking. This widely admired system for operational
excellence not only encompasses shop floor manufacturing techniques but also sets
parameters for product design and supplier relationships. Because of Toyota's
competitive success throughout the 1970's and 1980's, times that were particularly

page 39
challenging for American automakers, TPS has been widely studied and copied.
However, Toyota's system still provides the company with a competitive advantage
(Fujimoto, 1999).
In order to explain how, even after years of TPS benchmarking, Toyota's advantage
remains, Fujimoto suggests that there are three levels of manufacturing capability
(Fujimoto, 1999). These levels are the following:
" Routinized manufacturing capability. Capabilities such as production control
procedures and material replenishment policies represent this level. These are the
static and routine processes that a company uses to run the operations of the
facility. These processes are optimized for a stable environment and are most
easily learned and copied by other facilities or companies that do extensive
benchmarking.
" Routinized learning capability. Commonly recognized examples of this type of
organizational capability include continuous improvement processes and problem
solving methodologies. This level of the capability structure is more dynamic
because it has to react to different learning opportunities but is still highly routine.
* Evolutionary learning capability. This capability has developed in some
companies' cultures to be dynamic and make decisions in unforeseen or
completely new circumstances. It is inherently non-routine and reflects a culture
that has developed insight and the ability to adapt.
The first two levels of Toyota's manufacturing capability have been highly studied
and documented. From these studies have come specific TPS-based manufacturing
systems for most manufacturing companies, including Kodak's Kodak Operating System,
Ford's Ford Production System, and General Motors's Global Manufacturing System.
Each of these systems is a set of philosophies, tools, standards, and values based on the
first two levels of manufacturing capability displayed at Toyota in the 1980's and
captured in the book The Machine That Changed The World (Womack, Jones, and Roos,
1991).
What has not been adequately captured and implemented in most documented cases is
the deepest level of learning - evolutionary learning capability. This is the heart of the
culture at Toyota that creates a "company of scientists" (Spear and Bowen, 1999) and has

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sustained Toyota's success. This culture is one that is focused on the continuous
elimination of waste, and every employee is an empowered and creative asset in that
mission. While the tools documented are part of this mindset and provide glimpses into
the methods that Toyota uses to counteract waste, these are not the real key to the long-
term success.
Creation of this kid of culture is very difficult for organizations, but crucial. The next
sections will discuss the specific lean manufacturing system that is standard at General
Motors and a model for implementing this model and creating the culture of continuous
waste elimination.

Section 3.2: The General Motors Global Manufacturing System

GM's Global Manufacturing System (GMS) has evolved into the standard for how
General Motors manufactures vehicles worldwide. The system has developed over the
last decade as GM tried to implement lean manufacturing concepts throughout its plants
and as the company learned from its joint venture with Toyota at the New United Motor
Manufacturing Initiative (NUMMI). After many unsuccessful attempts at implementing
pieces of the TPS toolset within its many manufacturing facilities, top manufacturing
leadership gathered to discuss best practices throughout their worldwide manufacturing
network. The outcome of this gathering was what would become known as GMS.
GMS consists of a single, worldwide vision and a set of cultural and business-based
priorities. These priorities are well-linked to the vision of the company, "to be the world
leader in transportation products and related services. We will earn our customer's
enthusiasm through continuous improvement driven by the integrity, teamwork, and
innovation of GM people." Supporting this corporate vision are GM's Core Values:
" Integrity
* Customer Enthusiasm (internal and external)
o Internal customers are enthusiastic when they are involved, empowered,
and given opportunities to develop both personally and professionally.
o External customers must have a good buying experience (sales, marketing,
distribution + availability/lead time) and a good ownership (durability,
reliability) experience.

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 " Continuous Improvement
* Teamwork
* Innovation
" Individual Respect and Responsibility
Respecting this vision and the core values of the corporation, GMS lays out common
goals and principles for its worldwide operations. The goals and principles of GMS do
not supercede or conflict with the corporate directions, but provide a manufacturing-
based level of detail. In fact, the core values relate directly to the corporation's metric
system that has been created to ensure that the company adheres to the core values and
vision. The GMS principles are the foundation on which the next several layers of the
system are based. They are: People Involvement, Standardization, Built-In Quality,
Continuous Improvement, and Short Lead Time. Each principle is interrelated with the
others and is part of a total system. In essence, no one principle is a stand-alone solution
to waste. However, GMS's focus is the operator-level employee on the manufacturing
line. All others in the plant are to support the operator as he or she builds quality
vehicles. This is a shift away from the top-down management style of traditional
automotive plants, where operators were treated as manual labor as opposed to
intellectual parts of the system.
Within each of these principles are several "elements," or tools that guide those
implementing and running under GMS to achieve the goals in each of these areas. One
would find easily recognizable TPS tools such as standardized work, kanban (material
management technique) and andon (signaling mechanisms for line workers to
communicate they need assistance) systems, and management by takt time (controlling
the speed of the manufacturing line based on customer demand) at the element level.
Although the elements are interrelated, like the principles, a practical GMS
implementation often prioritizes a few above the rest depending on the program and
manufacturing facility that is going through the change.
Additionally, GMS implementation at GM is aided by a formalized training program
that occurs in one of two ways for each manufacturing facility. In order to understand
this, some background on the organizational structure around GMS is necessary. After
the creation of GMS, a centralized engineering organization now called the GMS

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Implementation Center formed to act as a depot for GMS information - from training
materials and standards to best practices and lessons learned from GMS implementations.
Many of the people in this organization have spent time at NUMMI and been involved in
greenfield lean startup operations in Europe. In essence, the GMS Implementation
Center is the group of lean manufacturing experts.
The GMS Implementation Center owns the training materials for the system.
Overview classes as well as detailed training sessions occur throughout the world and are
executed by GM's training organization, known as GMU (or General Motors University).
In fact, for most GM employees, some level of GMS training is required each y ear in
their individual development plan. While this is the more common method for training, it
is not the only model.
When a plant, such as the Lansing Craft Centre (LCC), wants to undertake a large-
scale GMS implementation, it can utilize more than just the training information from the
GMS Implementation Center. In such a case, a small team of lean experts temporarily
move to the plant's location and act as guides through the change process. At LCC, the
former industrial engineering group at the plant, who ran the project management and
engaged the top plant leadership, owned the lean implementation. The on-site GMS
Implementation Center team helped guide the process, ensuring that the plant's team
covered all of the necessary steps, engaging outside resources when beneficial, and
"training the trainers" in GMS.
As an additional aid to propagate and help implement the GMS principles and
elements around the world, GM has created what they call core requirements, which act
as the basis of an auditing tool as plants are assessed for GMS compliance. These
requirements are numerous, and provide auditors a checklist with which to evaluate every
General Motors manufacturing facility around the world.

Section 3.3: The Implications of Standards

The compliance measures and core requirements are meant to be the standard by
which GM measures a successful GMS implementation. However, standards can be a
double-edged sword in many organizations.
Standards can undoubtedly be beneficial. In fact, standardization is a key element to
GMS and all other lean manufacturing systems. "Getting common," as GM calls the

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process, c an h elp in t wo m ajor w ays: quick p roliferation o f c urrent b est p ractices and
more effective maintenance of equipment and processes. The former aids most in rapid
growth or highly competitive periods, as velocity of benefit realization due to
improvement by utilization of best practices can make the difference in competitive
position in the market. The latter benefit is relevant in sustaining machine uptime and
operational efficiency.
After identifying best practices in an organization, quick and effective proliferation of
these ideas throughout a large, geographically diverse organization is possible only after
these processes and/or equipment are documented. These standards become the basis for
equipment purchasing, training, and process standardization in the different locations.
This concept was popularized by Intel's "Copy Exactly" philosophy that allowed the
company to expand their capacity rapidly during its g rowth period in such a w ay that
allowed ingrained organizational knowledge to permeate its operations, regardless of
geographical location.
Especially in the case of equipment, such as conveyors or assembly robots,
companies with more than one manufacturing location benefit by standardization in terms
of their abilities of centralized engineering functions (or other plants' engineering
organizations) to aid in resolution of issues. Common equipment creates a larger base of
knowledge, as more plants implement the standard machines and learn about their
operation and maintenance. Complex problem resolution is also more easily achieved
with a larger experience base.
Despite these benefits, standardization may also have some adverse effects, even
when used effectively to achieve the results mentioned above. These include the lessened
ability to make autonomous and quick improvements at a plant level and the loss of
customization ability at a product or geographical level. Not all products and processes
lend themselves to the same constraints or efficiencies. Take, for example, the low
volume vehicle programs, where capital investment must be kept to an absolute
minimum. Following the established standards for machine equipment, while it might
make maintenance easier, may also cause overspending for the manufacturing facility and
result in unprofitable programs. Although complications such as these will be outlined in
Chapter 4, the subject warrants mention here.

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Section 3.4: Some Comments on GMS
GM's GMS is a comprehensive, systematic lean toolset for manufacturing at a large
company like GM. It is an excellent aid for unifying operations across geographies and
taking advantage of the ingrained knowledge of the diverse and experienced organization.
GMS implementation has also been a large part of the recent success in the Harbour
Report and JD Powers Initial Quality Survey, and there are many more benefits to come
as m anufacturing o perations a dopt more and more o f t he G MS e lements and b egin t o
build a culture of lean thinking.
Support for GMS is evident on all levels of the organization. High-level managers
are trained in the basics, and they understand the extent to which GMS has been a part of
the company's recent successes. Middle management with experience at NUMMI or
other showcase facilities are true believers in the power of lean manufacturing. Lower
level engineers and supervisors with exposure to GMS are excited about its proliferation
throughout the company. Even at the operator level, where it counts the most, the general
reaction is delight with the support given to those who do the work on the manufacturing
floor. The picture is not all rosy, however. Those without first-hand exposure to lean
manufacturing still lack much of the understanding of how instrumental and radical this
change is for GM. These people exist throughout the manufacturing organization, as well
as in functions that support manufacturing. Although these employees without direct
knowledge of lean are not wholly resisting GMS implementation, they will not have full
faith in the system until they have the chance to work in the lean environment and
understand its benefits.
One criticism of the system is that it focuses on teaching and measuring the routinized
capabilities of TPS, and does not, to a large extent, try to capture the evolutionary aspects
of lean. Instead of standardizing how to change the culture, GMS standardizes the
vocabulary and t oolset that i s used in e ach m anufacturing facility. T his i s a c ommon
approach when implementing lean manufacturing: drive the culture with the tools.
However, that critical evolution where the tools create the culture is difficult. The next
section will talk about the implementation period for GMS, a prime opportunity to create
the lean culture and achieve true long-term success.

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Section 3.5 GMS Implementation
This s ection c ontains a model for successful G MS implementations. T he g oals in
such processes are two-fold. The first is to implement GMS in such a way that it
becomes an indispensable part of the culture and therefore lasts through changes in
management, model year, and technology. Goal number two is that the culture evolves to
one focused on eliminating waste, not only implementing the tools to look good on the
scorecard. By accomplishing these two goals, the plant - and the company - will realize
the full benefits of GMS implementation.
This section is structured in a way that first presents the model for successful
implementation and then outlines some keys to success that will enhance the model's
effectiveness. The model and suggestions were created specifically for brownfield
operations. However, it is applicable in most situations6 . A key difference between
brownfield and greenfield sites is that the implementation process in greenfield sites
creates a culture where one has not existed. Contrasted to this, brownfield
implementation has the somewhat more challenging task of changing the existing culture
to one of lean thinking.
The problem of implementation of lean manufacturing processes is rarely due in large
part to an inability to understand lean tools. Rather, companies struggle as they try to
change their culture. T he following s ection quickly outlines the c oncept o f culture in
order to put the implementation model in context. Following this description, the
implementation model based on and understanding of GM's culture and how culture
change takes place.

Section 3.5.1: Corporate Culture: A Brief Description

The culture of a particular organization is a set of assumptions and norms that it has
developed over time. It is essentially what the organization has internalized and
therefore, takes for granted as it conducts its business. According to Schein (1992), this
culture is a result of an organization's attempts to cope with problems it has encountered
both internally and externally.

6The model was presented to plant engineers and management in GM greenfield organizations as well as
outside organizations that had to make large-scale changes. It was anecdotally deemed applicable in other
organizations and in various situations.

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 Generally, strong cultural elements in an organization lead to a more consistent and
high-performing business (Sorensen, 2002). The unity that a strong culture provides a
firm leads to an ability to act within a set of norms that is acceptable to all members, thus
providing evenness and self-correcting organizations. However, this strong culture also
adamantly resists change. When environmental factors change and require a new set of
operating rules, the ingrained norms create strong barriers to any significant changes in
how the firm operates.
Therefore, change in the culture is very difficult to achieve, especially for large
organizations and those with strong cultures. Research suggests that in order for a culture
to last, it must be institutionalized (Sorensen, 2002). Institutionalization methods
include:
" Selection of the organization's members to fit with the culture desired
* Creation of an organizational structure and other management structures, such as
incentive structures, that encourage cultural elements desired
" Visual symbolic gestures throughout the transition period that signify the
importance of the cultural change
" Demolition of symbolic cultural artifacts left from the "old" culture
As many of the formal structures are reflections of the culture, much of the
institutionalization process is tied to the symbols of the culture. Therefore, as one
attempts to create or change a culture, the symbols he uses during the process are as
important as, if not more important than, the mechanics of the change.

Section 3.5.2: Implementation Model

The author created the following model by interviewing managers and engineers who
have overseen implementations of GMS at greenfield operations and observation of
several brownfield facilities in the midst of the implementation process. The LCC GMS
implementation project provided an excellent basis for this model.
Lansing Craft Centre based their implementation on the benchmarked lean conversion
in Belgium at an Opel plant (Mothersell et al., 2001). The key learning from this
benchmarking study for the leaders at LCC was that to be successful in a brownfield lean
implementation, a plant must systematically change to a lean model instead of trying to

page 47
implement lean tools in a piecemeal fashion 7. Additionally, Opel used what was referred
to as a "guided" implementation, as opposed to one that is directed from headquarters and
undertaken primarily by plant personnel. LCC's interpretation of a guided
implementation was a structure including GMS Implementation Center experts. In
essence, the engineering staff owned the lean conversion and acted as the leaders in the
process. However, they had experts from the GMS Implementation Center to make sure
that the project progressed and covered all of the necessary elements. These experts also
helped to train the engineers and managers that eventually trained the union membership.
Figure 7 shows the model for GMS implementation based on the author's research.

Figure 7. GMS Implementation Model

Partner
To interpret the model, one should start at the bottom layer, or the foundation for the
entire project - creating the right team with a complete set of stakeholders. At a

7 Many American companies, including GM, have tried implementing lean tools individually. This style of
implementation failed to produce the results that a lean manufacturing system offers, and often led to
discrediting of the entirety of lean manufacturing practices.

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manufacturing facility, the obvious and critical members of this partnership are the plant
manager and his staff, the local union representation's top officials, any major suppliers
(especially if partners are involved impacting the program elements in the execution
portion o f the program), and GMS experts. T hisp artnership needs to be explicit and
involve p eople that will s erve as representatives o ft heir c onstituencies throughout the
change process. Whether one has created a team of the "right" members depends on two
major criteria. First, the person must be in a recognized leadership position in his or her
constituent group and must have the respect of those he or she is leading. Therefore, their
outspoken endorsement of GMS will be a significant symbol to those he or she leads.
Second, the partner must truly believe in the GMS vision. This will be the most difficult
requirement to fill in constructing these teams.
Finding the right people for the partnership team is so critical that time must be
allocated early on in the project for this effort. The process is a bit of a catch-22, in that
most people do not fully understand and believe in lean manufacturing until they have
seen it and worked within the system. However, the team will usually have very few
options to involve people who have lean experience (with the exception of the GMS
experts who will be involved). In order to build the true confidence in the vision of lean
operations, there are several creative methods that the program leaders can use. Each of
these falls into the next layer of the model, which is education. Note that the partners
should go through several rounds of education before the rest of the team gets involved in
the lean conversion.
Educate
Education is how one can begin to build the culture that is necessary to run a lean
facility. There are many types of education; classroom activities are only one available
method to educate. The first iteration of education should be with the core partnership
group. Before going into the details behind this level of the model, there are some
absolutes that must surround each education experience in order to be truly successful.
First, education must be an escape from the normal routine. This means that it must be a
time sacrifice for both the employer and the employee, as this sacrifice demonstrates the
importance of the training. Whether for management or floor-level operators, the
educational experience must allow for true reflection and absorption of the lean concepts.

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This is a sacrifice to the plant and the company in the short term. However, the payoff is
an environment where the learning is taken seriously, the concepts are truly understood,
and which fosters an open dialogue about the changes lean manufacturing will bring.
This removal from daily responsibility is also a strong symbolic gesture to the trainee.
When the company is willing to have their employees spend this sort of isolated time
away from their daily duties, it emphasizes the importance of the subject matter.
Removing workers from their normal jobs is a sacrifice, and the ability to do so is the
most commonly cited practical difference in greenfield and brownfield lean start-ups
when talking to plant managers and manufacturing engineers at General Motors. Plant
management often expresses frustration that they are held to production targets during the
lean changeover. Therefore, lean conversions at brownfield sites often try to squeeze in
bits of educational activities without taking operators and managers away from their
normal daily operations. Creative solutions to the problem exist. For instance, there are
downtimes for model changeover and allocated training periods that can serve as training
immersion opportunities. The addition of another shift to the operation is another training
opportunity. New personnel can be brought into training early so that when they start,
they use GMS principles. After this training period is over, the new employees should
take over one of the existing shift's operations, allowing that group of employees to take
the time for training. While it costs slightly more in personnel, this avoids any potential
lost production and results in a successful education phase of GMS implementation.
Education will normally start in the classroom with education about the vision and
benefits of the lean environment and some particulars on the different ways to achieve the
vision. Included in this discussion will be the TPS toolset and information about what
makes a lean organization work. Experiential learning opportunities must be interspersed
with this classroom activity.
General Motors has developed several levels of 1 earning environments that help to
demonstrate concepts learned in the classroom. Simulated manufacturing environments
allow employees that never get to work on the line to experience the line's daily
pressures and difficulties. These training sites also allow a direct comparison of the
differences in traditional GM manufacturing and that under GMS.

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 Other resources that are important in this experiential education are the plants that are
running full lean operations. These facilities are useful models for observation and
represent an important learning opportunity for managers and operators. The personnel
in the GMS facilities understand what it is like in the lean environment and can serve as
mentors for the employees involved in the transition. Opportunities to shadow operators
and managers in the same job or in related positions are also invaluable learning
experiences.
Be Consistent!
Day-to-day consistency will determine the success or failure of the implementation.
The most common resistance in GMS implementation will be that the system is the
"flavor of the month," supported by management only temporarily until the next
management fad gains favor. Consistency throughout the process and after the formal
education process is the only way to avert this skepticism. Most of the burden for this
part of the model rests with the management, and to achieve consistency, these
employees will need to change how they conduct business every day. At the first sign of
the old system's mindset, employees will discount the entire GMS effort. Therefore, this
consistency is absolutely critical.
An Illustrative Example of the Importance of Consistency
The author created Figure 8 during one of the first on-site GMS training sessions she
attended at the Lansing Craft Centre. This structure is called a "causal loop diagram,"
and represents the feedback structure in the system (Sterman, 2000). The arrows between
the different concepts represent relationships and influences between the different
variables. Each arrow also contains a positive (+) or negative (-) sign that indicates the
"polarity" of the relationships between the variables it connects. A positive relationship
corresponds to the event that an increase in the first variable leads to an increase in the
other (or likewise, a decrease in the first causes a decrease in the second). A negative
relationship results when a change in the origin of the arrow leads to the opposite effect
in the terminus of the arrow.

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 Understanding o
+ G+ Customer
.. requirements
Time since launch

Training level of + i
emploees +Belief in GMS
employees+

Committment to
Success with R following GMS + +
GMS - Corporate required
+ . .volume
Discipline and +volum
adherance to pla

anA-1) -owntim~e+
+ f+ -Gap

Efficiency and
improvemen

Realized capacity an
+ quality output

Figure 8. System Dynamics Model for Consistency in GMS Implementation

The feedback loops are represented by a "B" (denoting a Balancing loop) or "R"
(denoting a Reinforcing loop) with a circle indicating the direction the loop is depicted in
the diagram. The lines perpendicular to the base of the arrow denote delays in the effects
between the origin and destination variables.
This particular causal loop diagram is intended to demonstrate the dynamics of the
implementation of GMS in the context of the corporate pressures on any vehicle program.
It was created during a discussion in a GMS training class about how the managers, who
were the students in the class, should talk about GMS to their reports. The contention
was that certain GMS elements, in this case, the andon system, should not be emphasized
as absolutes, because as the expected production volume of the factory increased, there
may be times when employees will be encouraged not to pull the andon cord every time

page 52
they encounter a d efect. T his d ecision m ay b e m ade in a ccordance w ith the b usiness
restrictions at the time, but the employees will see it as a breakdown in the whole system
of GMS and therefore discount its merit in general.
The discussion troubled the author a great deal, for if managers were already backing
off from the GMS elements while it was easy to focus on implementation, there would be
little motivation to be disciplined when the pressures mounted (which they most
definitely soon would). In essence, the best time to be rigorously following the changed
process is the first part of the manufacturing launch. Expectations for volume will
always increase, and although there may be a delay in the effects of lean manufacturing
implementation, 1 ong t erm success will c ome m ore e asily i f m anagement s ticks t o the
lean manufacturing implementation plan consistently through the early stages of
production. This may cause short-term losses in production, but eventually, it is the only
way that the project will be successful.
The causal loop diagram illustrates this by showing the positive, or reinforcing loop,
which occurs as more employees are trained in and get experience with GMS. This
slowly leads to a commitment to follow the principles and procedures associated with the
system. As this becomes standard practice, the plant will start to see increased efficiency
and improved quality output, which will allow manufacturing to more easily achieve their
production targets on a daily basis. However, this loop takes time to impact the system,
and this time may allow a balancing, or negative, loop to take control.
Company-driven pressure creates this negative loop as a plant ramps up a new
vehicle. This pressure increases the gap between the realized capacity and the expected
or required capacity for production of the vehicle. This shakes production management's
resolve to follow any procedures that result in short-term production losses. For
example, supervisors may encourage their employees to refrain from stopping the line for
quality defects, trying to fix any problems while the line is still moving. Deviating from
the GMS principles without a GMS-consistent decision process and adequate explanation
to the production workers will cause general distrust of GMS as a whole, weakening
overall commitment to the system. In turn, the production efficiencies and quality
improvements that could be gained via lean principles will never be realized.

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 What this diagram illustrates is the importance of consistency. The early stages of
GMS implementation will require patience while the positive effects of lean have a
chance to take hold. Management must recognize this need as well as anticipate the
pressures they will experience from the organization. Only through this recognition and
the subsequent reaction will leadership be able to create the culture that supports GMS.
How To Be Tactically Consistent
Daily consistency means that management must act according to the principles of
GMS. This will mean that communication will be an essential part of daily operations.
Any decisions made by management must be accompanied by an explanation. Some
decisions may appear to be inconsistent with GMS principles, but may be made only after
GMS countermeasures are in place, the situation is understood, and the business
environment dictates a course of action. Under normal circumstances, employees would
only recognize the action and not the reasoning behind it. Management must ensure that
this is not the case in the GMS environment. In fact, the environment must be inclusive
enough that employees on the lines are an integral part of the decisions that run the plant.
The Organization Must Also Support The Effort
Organizational consistency is important as well. Metrics by which the plant is
measured and rewards are decided must support the GMS mission and the company's
culture. General Motors has created an excellent balanced scorecard by which it
measures its plants' performances quarterly. Annual GMS audits also measure the
specific adherence to lean manufacturing principles, and are prioritized equally with the
quarterly reports by top management of the company. Because culture and people are
difficult areas in which to measure success with scorecard-like metrics, these are the
areas that are least developed. Although training hours per employee and numbers of
suggestions are pieces of the culture, these metrics can indicate success without the real
objective being met. Do these metrics really measure if employees are empowered?
There is no easy way to measure employee empowerment without creating goals that can
be achieved without actually achieving meaningful employee participation and
empowerment. The point is that in order to avoid sub-optimization, qualitative measures
are important in addition to quantitative metrics. Successful management will need to be
in-touch with its organization and culture, which is not something that is always

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rewarded. However, overall, the approach at General Motors is very comprehensive in
this respect.
This model represents the overall process that leads to the most efficient and effective
lean manufacturing conversion in General Motors plants. Although simplistic, following
the few steps outlined above will create the potential for long-term success of GMS at
General Motors. The model's content has also been validated by leaders outside of
General Motors, as outlined in a speech that Mike Duffy, Vice President of Value Chain
at Gillette, gave to an MIT class on April 7, 2003. His keys for success in organizational
change were very similar to the model outlined above and provide an additional
validation of the model beyond General Motors.

Section 3.5.3: Keys To GMS Implementation Success

The model described is a methodology to guide the process of implementation of lean
manufacturing in terms of the steps necessary to achieve success over a long period of
time. In addition to these steps, there are some other tips that can aid in GMS
implementation in the General Motors culture.
It takes a great deal of time and patience to change a culture. As mentioned before,
academic research on cultural change outlines several guidelines, such as the use of
symbolic gestures that act as visible signs that things are changing for good. These
symbols back up talk of change to solidify the need to move with the uncomfortable
changes.
In the large, diverse GM environment, symbols will assist as GMS changes the
culture of manufacturing and its support functions. One such symbol that has been
effective in prior GMS implementations is the association of the GMS changes with a
change in the manufacturing facility itself, whether because of a new model year, updated
technology, new work structure, or other large-scale change. Another symbol was
mentioned in the implementation model above. The removal of personnel from their
daily activities in order to attend training activities not only signifies the importance that
the management places on GMS but also creates a focused and open environment in
which effective learning can take place.
Involvement of the right people and the right organizations is also critical. This key
success factor was mentioned in the partnering portion of the implementation model but

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is crucial throughout the process. The right people must fit in terms of both their position
in the company and organization as well as in their mindset toward lean manufacturing.
Additionally, as GMS permeates the organization, it will be important that functions
outside of manufacturing understand lean principles as well. Engineering, Design, and
Procurement staffs all make decisions that are integral to the operations of the
manufacturing facility. Without understanding the vision and principles of GMS, many
decisions made upstream from the manufacturing execution portion of the program may
hinder lean manufacturing practice in the plant. While these decisions may serve
organizational goals, such as piece part cost reduction, they may be in direct conflict with
the manufacturing's ability to execute efficiency. GM management seems to understand
this a bit, as at the end of the six-and-one-half month period at the company, there was a
proposal to change the name of GMS so that it does not contain the word
"manufacturing." Although some resisted this, it demonstrates the recognition that this
system must transcend the organizational boundaries beyond manufacturing to be truly
successful. Finally, top management must also be a part of the cultural change. For this
reason, GM must continue its education of its executives in GMS principles because its
concepts must permeate the entire company.
Taking the time to achieve the cultural change and accepting that it will not come
easily or quickly will be difficult for management as plants implement lean principles.
However, committing to the change and the transition period will result in great rewards
in the long term.

Section 3.6: Chapter Summary

Lean manufacturing has become the standard for efficient operations. However, the
true benefits come from building a culture that is committed to the elimination of waste
in every process. While lean manufacturing tools are ways to counteract waste, the true
benefit of lean is not in the tools themselves, but in the mindset and culture. In order to
document the lean principles, GM created their Global Manufacturing System, or GMS.
Although the focus of GMS is the tools, successful implementation may serve to change
the culture enough to create the right mindset for operational excellence.
The model for GMS implementation is not complex, but successful execution is
definitely not easy. Following a simple model and creating visible symbols that signify

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that the change is important. Partnering the correct groups (including GMS experts, plant
owners, plant management, union leadership, and key suppliers to the program) and
creating a core team of the major stakeholders to guide the process is the first step. These
people must then be educated so that they buy into the GMS mindset and will be effective
ambassadors as the rest of the manufacturing facility transitions to lean. Next, the overall
employees must be educated in an environment that removes them from their daily
responsibilities and the "old" way of doing things. Finally, GM must practice diligent
daily consistency with the GMS principles and reward and measurement systems that
support the keys of lean manufacturing excellence. To build momentum behind the
change process, symbolic gestures that are consistent with GMS as well as the GM
culture are important.

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Chapter 4: Lean Manufacturing In Low Volume Vehicle Environments
This chapter deals with the implications of the low volume manufacturing
environment on G MS implementation. Additionally, it e xposes areas w here the G MS
implementation process and philosophy may need to evolve in order to fully achieve
GMS's goals, especially in low volume environments.
Before this discussion, it warrants a reminder that the essence of lean manufacturing
is not in the tools by which many companies define it, but rather in the philosophy and
effectiveness of continually eliminating waste in all areas of the organization. Rigorous
focus on this aspect may call into question the standard toolset at times when the
implementation situation is different from the norm. With this mindset, one can perform
a constructively critical analysis of the best way to implement GMS in a halo vehicle
program.

Section 4.1: Elements of Low Volume Vehicle Programs Relevant to Manufacturing

As stated earlier, manufacturing strategies in low volume programs often differ from
their higher volume counterparts. In order to profitably pursue low volume programs,
GM needs to get products to market quickly while minimizing product development
overhead and capital investment. These products must be well designed and
manufactured through efficient operations if the company is to realize benefit from the
strategy.
These constraints that help the program achieve financial success also have
implications on manufacturing strategy and in turn, the manufacturing facilities that
produce the vehicles. Low volume programs' manufacturing strategies differ in how
plants are structured (e.g. how many lines in paint shops, body shops, assembly centers -
if any), how much of the product is manufactured and assembled in-house (versus
outsourced), the number, size and product mix of manufacturing facilities, and the
amount of the overlap that the product has with other products' designs. These strategic
considerations affect the manufacturing facility in structure, process, and management.
Low volume vehicles are manufactured in environments with different characteristics
from their large, efficiency-driven, economies-of-scale counterparts for high volume
programs. Plants running lower volumes generally have longer cycle times per assembly

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station due to the lower demand and resulting longer takt time. This results in higher
work content per assembly worker and more individual responsibility for the final quality
of each vehicle produced. Another c onsequence of low volume manufacturing on the
plant floor is a work station footprint that is compressed relative to the amount of work
done in each assembly station. This leaves little room for all the raw materials needed for
these expanded jobs. Production scheduling may also be impacted, based on the
manufacturing strategy for product mix at a particular plant. Depending on the variety of
vehicle architectures present in the product mix at a plant, different scheduling techniques
may be necessary than in higher volume vehicle plants. Small batching in product runs
may be less wasteful than high-complexity changeovers between each vehicle on the line
(Veeravagu, 2001).
Because of all of these differences in low volume production environments,
implementing lean manufacturing necessarily presents different challenges for these
programs than for operating high volume plants.

Section 4.2: The "Lean in Low Volume" Problem

Although lean manufacturing has its roots in smaller manufacturing environments of
Toyota's early production (Fujimoto, 1999), the organized operating systems companies
have created to standardize lean in their own organizations are generally optimized for
high volume settings. In order to take advantage of the benefits of lean manufacturing's
waste reduction philosophy, there has been a trend of lean research for industries that are
inherently low volume, such as the aerospace industry. Results of this effort include the
Lean Aerospace Initiative at MIT, which has sought to create standards for lean
manufacturing in the industry environment where demand for any one product may be
even less than five per year.
Low volume vehicle manufacturing has its own set of constraints and characteristics
that set it apart from many other industries that are struggling with how to implement
lean in their production environments. Operations differentiators between high volume
and low volume are summarized in Figure 9.

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 Traditional High Volume Vehicles Low Volume Halo Vehicles
Many vehicles per day (year) Relatively few vehicles per day (year)
High volume of production over which fixed Few production vehicles to absorb fixed costs
costs can be spread for capital equipment and development
Longer cycle times (by at least five times, as
determined by current low volume standards
at GM) at each station, leading to more work
content per operator
Potential for highly-differentiated vehicles
Generally limited mix of vehicle architectureswihdfentbsariecusad
inewith
on ay oe prducion different base architectures and
manufacturing requirements on one line
Standard footprint, but more work content to
statnr ffit inside this footprint, resulting in a relatively
compressed workspace
Even higher customer expectations in terms of
Quality and reliability expected by customers style, quality, performance, delivery to the
market
Each vehicle represents a more significant
portion of daily production and therefore is
Quality targets can be achieved even with a essential to meeting quality targets.
few errors Therefore, line workers have an increased
responsibility for making sure the work is
done correctly.

Figure 9. Operational Differences Between Traditional Manufacturing Environments and Halo

Vehicle Manufacturing Environments

Despite these differences, GMS is a key enabler to the long-term success of the halo
programs. As discussed in Chapter 1, the competitive nature of the low volume vehicle
market forbids passing the costs of inefficiencies in manufacturing and less-than-scale-
economies in capital and developmental investment on to the customer. Therefore, the
waste elimination mindset and ability that comes with GMS implementation is critical if
the economics of these programs are to succeed. Another driver for this criticality is the
necessity to bring vehicle designs quickly to market in order to take advantage of style
trends. GMS's implementation provides an efficient and standardized process for starting
up new vehicle programs from a manufacturing perspective. This further enables success
in these low volume vehicle programs.

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 For General Motors, then, it follows that the company cannot be truly successful in
their low volume strategy without manufacturing efficiency and flexibility allowed by
lean manufacturing. Unfortunately, there is little research that applies to GM's situation
and will assist them in understanding how to implement their lean manufacturing system
appropriately in low volume vehicle programs.

Section 4.3: Low Volume Implications

As a result of the differences in low volume manufacturing environments, some of the
implementation details of GMS will need to vary from higher volume manufacturing
implementations. These differences are grouped into categories and discussed in this
section.

Section 4.3.1: Low Investment Implications and Considerations

Investment in capital and development costs must be limited to allow the vehicles in
low volume programs. However, some investment is necessary. What must change in a
low volume environment is the proportion of the total investment dollars that are
dedicated to different parts of the program. For instance, the proportion of the total
investment that is spent on new capital equipment will most likely be smaller for a low
volume program than for a higher volume vehicle. Some specific differences in GMS-
related investments follow. These are not meant to form a complete list, but they were all
issues that arose during the author's observations of the SSR program.
GMS Tools
First, the standard GMS tools and equipment have been developed over years of
experience with high volume lean implementations and robust operations within these
environments. While these tools will undoubtedly function well within low volume
environments, they might be too costly to put into a halo vehicle program. As an
example, the andon systems that have been developed are comprehensive and well-suited
for large, sprawling manufacturing facilities. However, in low volume environments,
where investment dollars are necessarily limited and the square footage of manufacturing
floor space is smaller, these extensive systems are impractical and excessive.
Additionally, they cannot be justified because the cost of such technology-intensive
systems is too large to be profitably spread across low volumes of vehicles.

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 In these situations, the key to solving the dilemma is to remember the essence of lean
manufacturing is the elimination of waste. With this mindset, it is clear that not
following this standard creates less waste than investment in such a complex solution to
an easy problem. In this example, one must remember that andon simply means
"lantern," or a signal that will allow a line worker to signal that there is an issue with
which he or she needs assistance. Low investment solutions abound, such as simple
lights that can be illuminated by operators that are visible within the zone where they,
their supervisor, and their team leader work. This may or may not be connected with
audible tones that will accommodate visually impaired workers and assist in signaling
help. This low-tech option achieves the overall intent of the large andon systems without
a large, potentially crippling investment
In short, there are many creative solutions that are possible when the low volume of a
vehicle program demands a less investment-intensive alternative. This may appear to
violate GMS principles, but upon further consideration and with the spirit of lean
thinking in mind, it is obvious that this is no breach. Instead, it is an application of the
concept of waste elimination to the need to allow operators to signal for help while they
are working on the vehicles on the line. While it is true that it may create the need for an
additional process for maintaining the equipment, in reality, these solutions will be so
simplistic that the addition will not be burdensome for the engineering organization.
Other Standards
In contrast, there may be examples where investment may be the best option in low
volume vehicle programs, even if higher volume programs would not need such
investment. Take for example the issue of standard raw materials containers. These
containers are standardized and reused in all vehicle programs, but the use of these same
containers for low volume programs creates a tremendous amount of waste in the system.
A particular container may save on shipping and storage in a high volume environment.
However, it might also create floor space problems and shipping problems because the
number of units per container is a significantly higher percentage of the total daily
volume in a low volume facility. Redesigning these containers may be somewhat costly,
but without a smaller form factor, they might become physically constraining in a low
volume environment. With an intelligent design, the investment may b e applicable to

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other programs or parts as well. Although these programs need to minimize investment,
strategically sound investment that promotes waste reduction without over-investment is
prudent.

Section 4.3.2: Manufacturing Strategy Implications

Previous sections have outlined which elements of manufacturing strategy may
change between low and high volume vehicle programs. Some of these are controlled by
the manufacturing organization, and these are the topic of this section.
Specifically, the production control organization may need to adjust their application
of lean principles depending on the mix of vehicles in production at the plant. Lean
principles dictate that a plant should run without batch production. It is true that phasing
out the large batches that were characteristic of previous mass manufacturing systems
eliminates a tremendous amount of waste in a manufacturing facility. However, there
may be times when small batches are less wasteful than a process that would require
tremendous changeovers for each vehicle. For instance, in a case where several radically
different halo vehicles are produced at the same manufacturing facility, the amount of
lost production necessary to change the line over between each vehicle and the cost
necessary t o build in m assive flexibility m ay overshadow t he w aste t hat i s c reated b y
producing each model in small batches.
While study has shown that this is the most efficient way to run the facility in these
circumstances (Veeravagu, 2001), the notion that batches are inherently "bad" permeates
the GMS implementation organization at GM. Although any batch production violates
the strict GMS requirements, this special case warrants consideration. This is one
example where the standards limit the flexibility that is needed to truly run with the least
amount of waste in the system. Because the tools themselves have become the focus of
GMS instead of the mindset that evaluates each situation with its unique set of
circumstances for the best way to eliminate waste, this is a difficult conversation with
GMS personnel and with those trying to learn the system. I t is precisely this type of
situation that best demonstrates the need to build the culture and understand the
evolutionary learning c apabilities (see Chapter 1) that are the b ackbone of the Toyota
Production System.

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 In situations such as these, where different factors affect the overall situation and call
into question whether a lean tool should be used, there is a conflict. To resolve this
conflict, the analysis should consist of a close examination of the waste that use of the
tool causes versus the waste that the tool is meant to save. In some situations such as the
production scheduling example above, the relative amount of waste that the tool saves is
miniscule when compared to how much waste is built into the alternative plan. This sort
of waste cost-benefit analysis, if done thoroughly, will lead closer to a truly lean
manufacturing strategy.

Section 4.3.3: GMS Elements That Differ In Low Volume Environments

Because t he lean m anufacturing m indset o f c ontinually eliminating w aste p rovided
the base for the tools that are identified with the system, most of the GMS elements are
completely applicable to the low volume vehicle strategy. Instead of outlining
differences in individual elements, this section discusses a specific group of closely
related concepts that requires modification for low volume facilities.
Visual Controls
Visual controls include andon systems and other plant-wide complex technology
systems, which have been discussed previously. However, there are more complications
to c onsider in t he area o f v isual c ontrols. F or instance, G MS dictates t hat e ach w ork
station should have standardized work instructions for the operators there. This ensures
that the job is done consistently and completely every time, no matter who the operator is
at the moment. However, in a low volume plant, each operator will have work content
that takes multiple minutes, instead of the minute-or-less cycle times for operators in
normal plants. When trying to detail such a long and complex operation, the operator
will discover that the documentation is also long and complex, resulting in a standard
operating procedure that is all but unusable in the production environment. These job
instructions will be too unwieldy for on-the-job use. Finding a solution becomes even
more important in a higher mix environment, where the documentation will be referenced
more, as highly differentiated products flow through the line. Rotation through jobs in a
low volume environment only emphasizes the need for an elegant solution even more.
Without a good solution to this visual control issue, quality and productivity will suffer.

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 Innovations in this area are critical, because achieving standardization on the line is a
key step in achieving success with lean manufacturing. Perhaps different formats for
documentation are required. For instance, a summary record that highlights the key steps
and can act as a reminder for a new employee would be a more useful format for higher
content operations. If investment money is available, video format instructions can assist
operators in performing standardized operations. Creativity balanced with careful
understanding of the actual constraints and operator needs will alleviate the issues around
standardized work documentation.
Relationships That Change Between Elements
Other GMS elements are easily applicable in both low and high volume facilities. In
fact, some are even more important in a halo program because of the fact that they reduce
waste and lead to more efficient production, which is central to success at low volume.
These include a robust quality system, continuous improvement discipline, and a highly
developed and supported workforce. However, in one particular case, the relationships
between the concepts change from a high volume application to one in low volume.
This relationship is between an element of the People Involvement principle and that
of Built-In Quality. Specifically, one of the ways that GMS proposes that a plant develop
its workforce is to rotate operators through workstations on the manufacturing floor. By
learning multiple operations, employees can recognize defects in the process more readily
and assist in their quick resolution. This in turn leads to higher built-in quality overall.
By contrast, in the lower volume assembly environment job rotation may lead to more
quality defects because it takes much longer to become an expert on a complex job such
as one found on a low volume line. While the quality impact may turn out to be positive
over the long-term, it will take quite awhile for the negative effect of the learning curve
on job rotation to turn into the positive quality improvements this element is trying to
achieve.
Solving the visual controls issue discussed above is a major step toward enabling the
benefits of job rotation without the setbacks in quality that are probable in a low volume
manufacturing facility. With powerful instructions that help the operators learn the job
quickly, success is possible. However, in order to maintain the quality standard to which

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GM operates, management must b e sure to understand the implications that following
GMS's guidelines may have on the overall system.
While the LCC may not struggle with balancing the work content versus quality
issue, its success will hinge on the skills it has developed over the years as a low volume
manufacturing facility. Consequently, the workers are craftsmen rather than pure
operators that would be found in most GM facilities. Although the quality and cost focus
that has been successful at LCC suggest that GM can develop these environments and
skilled workers, developing these skills will take time, and this will have an impact on the
expansion of the low volume strategy. Therefore, GM will need to solve the visual
control and training issues presented in this section if it chooses to continue on its low
volume vehicle strategy path.

Section 4.4: Chapter Summary

GMS is a key enabler to any low volume vehicle program because of its positive
impact on the bottom line. However, the application of lean principles differs in a lower
volume production environment from those that run at higher volumes. A major
difference for implementation of GMS is the cycle time and level of work content found
in a lower volume facility. This complexity in each operator's work leads to difficulties
in creating useful standardized work instructions and achieving benefit from job rotation.
In response, GM will need to further assess creative options that result in solutions that
are useful to workers in a low volume environment.
The rule to remember in lean manufacturing is to focus on the key tenet: continual
elimination of waste. This is sometimes in direct conflict with the tools that GMS may
require in implementation, such as mixed lot production. When in doubt, one must truly
examine the potential waste created by the tool as well as the waste that the tool is meant
to counteract. With this sort of waste cost-benefit analysis, it is possible to make truly
lean decisions.

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Chapter 5: Conclusions
This chapter summarizes the key goals and strategies discussed in earlier chapters and
presents some additional recommendations for General Motors as it continues in its low
volume vehicle strategy.

Section 5.1: Summary ofLow Volume Vehicle Programs

In addition to changing market conditions and resulting changes in consumer
preferences, automakers are responding to a potential market that will easily reach $20
billion over the next five years - low volume vehicle programs. Providing potential
customers with highly styled vehicles that do not necessarily appeal to a mass market is a
challenge for automakers, which are accustomed to spreading overhead costs over a large
volume of vehicles.
In order to be successful in this endeavor, low volume programs must operate within
different constraints than those that will result in higher volume, mass market vehicles.
The major differences are as follows:
* Investment in development costs and capital equipment must be kept to an absolute
minimum. This is necessary to keep the overhead low and allow the vehicles to be
both affordable for customers and profitable for automakers.
* Product development must be efficient in timing as well as cost. Because the designs
are more stylish and dependent on trends that come and go more quickly than a
normal vehicle program's lifecycle, the ability to sell the vehicles developed under
this strategy depends on getting from concept to showroom floor quickly.
* Operations during the execution phase must be run efficiently. Any waste in the
system will further challenge the profitability of the program. Additionally, the
programs will most likely require quick movement through the learning phase, as
vehicles will change more often than the mass production models.
These changes in the program requirements for low volume vehicles drive the need to
develop internal skills in several areas. This thesis addresses two: lean manufacturing
and outsourcing/partnering. The partnering skill will help to achieve the quick and
efficient product development as well as offer some efficiency during the execution phase
of the project that will help operational efficiency. Lean manufacturing and the lean

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mindset address both developmental and execution efficiency as well. However, in order
to be successful, GM will need to develop these skills to the point where they will offer
the benefits that will allow low volume programs to be profitable.

Section 5.2: Outsourcing and Partnering Recommendations

GM needs to carefully consider the partnering and outsourcing decisions in the
context of its corporate strategy. In particular, the long-term strategic consequences of
any outsourcing decision need to be considered up front. GM needs to understand its
core competencies that differentiate the company from its competitors and potential
competitors. From this strategic position, a well-informed overall outsourcing strategy
will develop.
Even once the strategic context is established, the high-level strategic work is far
from over. At early points in the partnering decision, someone from a cross-functional
and high strategic level must be involved. Each individual element that could be
outsourced will play into the strategic framework differently, and a decision maker with
authority and systematic motivations must be the one resolving the strategic tradeoffs.
Because each element that may be outsourced will be of different importance to the
customer, will have a different supplier base, and will be more or less available within the
company, each element must be given individual consideration. Many of these
considerations will require someone at a high level to be involved in looking at the
strategic and systematic implications of any sourcing decision.
Once a decision is made, GM needs to choose the right partners and then manage the
partnership. This management portion involves many key success factors, including:
* Leverage each partner's core competencies - The main reason to enter into any
partnering relationship is to take advantage of the different core competencies that the
partner has developed. However, GM needs to be cognizant of what it can bring to
the program from the perspective of its own strengths. In essence, if partnering is
used in a vehicle development program, GM needs to leverage its strength in complex
program management to its advantage, even if other companies are involved. In
essence, the strengths from the different partner companies need to be pooled to
create an "extended enterprise" that can function at a higher level than any of its
individual parts. This might influence the role that each player may take on in the

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 program. GM may need to act as the program manager, even if it takes on many
partners for the program development and execution. Other partners will have other
competencies they can leverage. For instance, one may be able to leverage their size
and contacts with suppliers for buying power. In the end, the increased synergy as a
result of this competency leverage will benefit the whole program as well as the
partners.
* Build the right team early - Partners that are involved in a program need to be an
active part of the team early on, even if their main focus is in the execution or
downstream processes of the program. It is especially important to have
manufacturing involved in the design, engineering, and procurement portions of the
program, e ven t hough t hese p artners will not b e focusing on t hese activities. T he
insight they can provide and the planning they can do with up-front involvement will
increase the success of the entire program.
* Establish clear boundaries - GM needs to avoid any program ambiguity caused by
unclear expectations of duties among the partners. This has happened in the past
when high-level instructions have left a tremendous amount of gray area in each
firm's responsibilities. This kind of inefficiency and potential for error is a certain
way to fail in low volume programs. The resulting delays in schedule or quality
degradation will mean that the vehicles are difficult to sell and consequently
unprofitable. Therefore, documentation detailing the owners of each activity and the
respective boundaries of the activity must be clearly communicated to the partners in
the extended enterprise.
* Communicate! - Like establishing clear boundaries for the responsibilities of the
program, GM and its partners will need to establish a common language and a
communication process that allows for efficient dialogue and collaboration among the
team members. This process must include a detailed program plan that includes
agreed-upon internal and external deliverables. Even if the deliverable is not
necessary for another partner, if it is important that it is done, it must be on this plan.
This helps to establish trust and an expectation set among the partners in the extended
enterprise. Finally, establishing a vocabulary of terms and documents will contribute

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 to the efficiency and effectiveness of the communications process, thus enhancing the
success of the project.
Finally, GM needs to keep in mind that the decision to outsource also has internal
long-term implications. For instance, if the company decides to contract a partner to
perform a certain process in a low volume program, it will not develop the ability to
perform this process in the future. This is especially relevant in low volume programs,
which are new to GM. Although resources may be scarce in the short-term, the long-
term effects of outsourcing may have far-reaching strategic implications. Therefore,
from a strategic perspective, if important elements are outsourced, the partnership should
be structured in such a way that creates a collaborative and educational pairing between
GM and supplier personnel. The best way to learn something, however, is to actually do
it. This consideration must be a part of the partnering decision at a strategic level if the
element will be critical and part of the long-term strategy.

Section 5.3: Lean Manufacturing Recommendations

GMS is a critical enabler of success at GM, especially in low volume vehicle
programs. Not only do lean practices enable efficient operations and cost-effective
vehicle production, but they also can be enablers to achieving efficiencies in changing
conditions. Lean thinking allows a context in which decision makers and individual
contributors can develop the ability to understand the relevant constraints in the system,
identify inefficiencies, and make waste trade-off decisions.
The key take away for GM in the area of lean manufacturing is to remember that the
benefit of GMS is in the mindset that motivates everyone to focus on the continual
elimination of waste, not the tools that make up the set of elements and core
requirements. (These are essentially countermeasures to the waste found in mass
production systems.) Following this logic, GMS auditors will need to adopt an intelligent
and systematic view of each program and manufacturing facility, especially as more low
volume programs become part of GM's product portfolio. Each program will have waste
inherent in different places and in different proportions, calling for different applications
of lean thinking. Leadership in the plant must be able to create a culture that enhances its
employees' abilities to identify and eliminate waste, not just train the workforce on GMS
tools. Further, organizations outside of manufacturing need to become lean experts as

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well. In addition to the benefits that they will realize with the adoption of lean thinking,
these organizations impact manufacturing in the decisions that they make and enhance or
detract from the overall waste in the system.
As an organization goes through the process of learning and implementing GMS, it
should follow the simple model of "Partner - Educate - Be Consistent" presented in
Chapter 3. Partnership before the process begins ensures that the stakeholders are
involved in the entire process and are present as leaders for their respective
constituencies. Education comes in different forms and will occur on an iterative basis.
GM needs to leverage its current creative education techniques that allow for teaching
beyond the classroom environment and continue to develop ways for employees to
experience lean manufacturing. Consistency with the GMS philosophy and principles on
a daily basis is most important part of implementation. This goes beyond using the tools
all the way to the manner in which the business is run. Communication will need to be
more frequent and thorough, and decision-making will need to leverage plant-floor-level
employees as part of this consistency. Establishing consistent metrics and supporting
incentives will help promote constructive behaviors.
Decision-making under a truly lean mindset will involve empowering employees
across organizations and at all levels to look at issues systematically. True success does
not involve applying tools but rather looking at the large problem, its context, and the
tradeoffs each potential solution creates. Through this method, lean manufacturing
implementation will easily evolve to accommodate low volume environments because the
whole problem will be examined systematically and creative solutions determined.

Section 5.4: Final Conclusions

GM is well positioned to take advantage of the huge potential market in low volume
vehicles. However, GM must be wary that the same standards that have allowed quick
and abundant success may end up limiting the company's accomplishment in the end.
True success hinges on its ability to further evolve the culture of the company to make
systematic decisions instead of applying tools blindly.

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 Appendix A: Low Volume Market Size: A Five Year Historically-Based
Revenue Calculation

Ward's U.S. Vehicle Sales of Selected Low-Volume Vehicles (Calendar Years 1998-2002)
Source: Ward's AutoinfoBank
Brand Series '1998 sold 19sod1299920sld sold
2001 sold 22002 sold
2002 sold approx. 202 rice
Mitsubishi MITSUBISHI 3000 4164 3419 117 1 1 $22,000 est
Nissan NISSAN 124 15 3 3 3 $55,000 est
Nissan ALRA EV 0 30 50 38 72 $25,000 est
Plymouth E_1594 2365 2631 1053 166 $45,000,
Suzuki !WrFT 2254 2290 3379 2547 177 $9,300
Acura ACURA 303 238 221 182 233 $89,000
BMW BMW Z8 0! 0: 317 970 524 $131,5001
lsuzu VEHICROS 0G2 1271 1223 978 681 $25,000 est
Hummer HUMMER 0 01 875 768 720 $105,000
Chrysler FPRONLE 2 1 0 70 1134 1328 $45,000
Chrysler/Plymout PROLE 15941 2365 2631 2187 1494 $45,000
Dodge VIPE 1248: 131 1470 1388 1511 $73,000
Audi ARUDI A8 2172 2481 2362 2300 1515 $63,000s
Lexus ILEXUS GS ___99261 68941 6158 4813 1815 $36,000!
Honda INSIGH 0 17: 3788 4726 2216 $20,000
Mercedes Benz MERCEDES G 0 0 0 674 3114 $73,000
InfinitiR INFINITI 8244 6271 4178 5726 3717 $49,000
Jaguar JAGAR XK8 5861 6154 6729 5137 3935 $70,000
Mercedes Benz MERCEDES5 0 367 2204 3748 3938 $80,000
Toyt TOYOTA MR2 0: 0 7233 6254 4705 $22,000:
Audi ALLROAD ___0 0! 1033 _____6357 6007 $39,000 ,est
Volkswagen JEUROVA 406: 3395: 2714 5600 6673 $25,0001
Mercedes Benz MERCEDES 10620; 10600; 12930 11268 7784 $44,000, ..

Land Rover ~RANGE _____ ___7070: 7449: 6287 5771 8549 $70,000,:
Isuzu AXIOM 0 0: 0 5851 899$700
Audi AUDI 0; 51391 12027 12523 9513 $32,000;
Honda HONDA 0 3400: 6797 9682 9684 $31,000;
Porsche ~ BOXS9TE 9696: 12681; 13312 12278 9875 $42,000:
Porsche ___PORSCHE -7547: 81942 9098 10763 11443 $11000:
Mercedes Benz ME9RCEDES SL 7809: 7853: 5409 4217 13717 $85,000:_______
Lexus ILEXUS SC 3009: 2557: 631F 1433 14464 $62,000:
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low volume market In 2002 prices:

Figure 10. Low Volume Vehicle Market 1998-2002

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